Tane 35: 95 - 111 (1995)

STRUCTURAL G E O L O G Y OF T H E GREYWACKES OF TIRITIRI

MATANGI ISLAND

K. B. Sporli and L . M . McAlister

Department of Geology, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland

SUMMARY

Bedding in the Waipapa terrane greywacke basement on Tiritiri Matangi

Island is mainly right way up, strikes NW-SE, dips steeply to the west and has
been affected by three phases of folding: (I) approximately E N E trending
asymmetrical, tight folds; (II) NW-SE trending, open, upright folds and (III)
steeply plunging, dextral folds. Associated small scale structures include pre-
phase I clastic dikes, extensional faults and swarms of parallel quartz-prehnite
veins at low angle to bedding, post-phase I en echelon quartz veins, fibrous
quartz-chlorite veins and striations, and very late gouge faults. Analysis of the
quartz chlorite fibre striations reveals shortening across the dominant phase II
NW-SE trending fold axis, combined with E-W extension by normal faulting
oblique to this fold axis, indicating the presence of a dextral shear system,
probably representing a vector oblique to the continental margin of Gondwana
during Mesozoic subduction.

INTRODUCTION

Tiritiri Matangi Island is one of number of exposures at the western edge of

a belt of uplifted greywacke basement along the eastern side of
Auckland/Northland peninsula (Fig. 1), which include Whitford Quarry (Sporli
and Anderson 1980) and Motutapu Island (Mayer 1968). The edge of the uplifted
greywacke is formed by a fault or a fault zone (Milligan 1977, Anderson 1977
and Fig. IB, this paper). Faults of this type which can be traced offshore west
of the North Island indicate that they were initially formed during separation of
New Zealand from Gondwana in the Cretaceous (80 million years ago).
However, there is evidence for subsequent reactivation (Sporli 1989a).
To the west of the greywacke high lie down-faulted younger rocks, including
the Cretaceous-Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Northland Allochthon and the
Miocene Waitemata Group. At Tiritiri Matangi, no western bounding fault can
be seen directly in outcrop, but such a structure has been postulated under the
channel between Tiritiri and the eastern tip of Whangaparaoa Peninsula to the
west (Gregory 1966). Around Whangaparaoa, locally strongly folded and faulted

95
Fig. 1 A . Location map with exposures of greywacke basement (black) and major basement
terranes of the North Island, modified after Sporli (1978); B. Detailed location map and
greywacke exposures of the Auckland region.

96
Fig. 2. Geological map of Tiritiri Matangi Island. Upper right hand corner: Lower hemisphere
equal area net showing poles (perpendiculars) to bedding planes in the Waipapa terrane
"greywacke". The dots represent piercing points of lines going through the centre of the
hemisphere. Steeply inclined lines are represented by points near the centre of the net, lines with
shallow inclinations by points near the periphery. Note the main NW-SE trend of bedding strike
derived from NE-SW cluster of poles. Partial great circles connect poles of bedding planes
within a fold. Circles near the periphery indicate steeply plunging folds, the circle bisecting the
sphere is a fold with a NW-SE trending horizontal axis.

Waitemata Group turbidites (Gregory 1969, Sporli 1989b) are exposed.

Greywacke basement at Tiritiri is overlain by sandstones and conglomerates
of the Kawau Subgroup (Fig. 2) of the Waitemata Group (Ballance 1976,
Hayward & Brook 1984, Rickettse^ al. 1989) on a rugged, pre-Waitemata-Group

97
erosion surface. Best exposures are in the bays at the northeastern tip of the
island (Fig. 2). Kawau Subgroup is overlain by Waitemata Group turbidite
sandstone/mudstone sequences indicating rapid deepening after initial shallow
water sedimentation at the base of the Waitemata Group. No Kawau Subgroup
is exposed on Whangaparaoa Peninsula to the west. It and the underlying
greywacke have been down-faulted an unknown distance below present land
surface.
The basement rocks under the unconformity on Tiritiri are part of the
Waipapa terrane, which was accreted onto the New Zealand sector of the
Gondwana margin by early Cretaceous time, after a long period of subduction
under this margin during the Mesozoic (Sporli 1978). The accretionary processes
have caused the Waipapa terrane to be strongly imbricated, with formation of
repeated thrust slices, each with ocean floor volcanics, cherts and green argillites
at the base, overlain by terrigenous elastics ("greywackes"). The slices dip
predominantly to the west, at moderate to steep angles. In the Auckland region,
the basal sequences within the slices have yielded late Triassic and early Jurassic
radiolaria, while the elastics are of late Jurassic age (Sporli et al. 1989). The
rocks in the Auckland area have been metamorphosed to prehnite-pumpellyite
grade (Black 1989).

LITHOLOGIES

The basement rocks of Tiritiri are dominated by indurated sandstone. On the

west coast, beds up to several tens of metres thick predominate, giving the
outcrops a massive appearance. More thinly bedded intercalations of sandstone
and argillite are present along the northern part of the east coast.
The thick sandstone horizons are either green or grey and vary from very
fine-grained to very coarse, ranging up to conglomerate horizons with pebbles
up to 1cm or so in diameter. Horizons of disrupted black argillite fragments
(chipwacke horizons of Mayer 1968) are common. The fragments can be either
rounded or angular. The coarsest layers contain dominantly angular fragments up
to several tens of cm in diameter. Some of the fragment are contorted.
The thinner sandstone beds are graded, displaying a coarse bottom section
with flame structures and load casts (because of the later deformation, these are
only seen in smooth exposures and never in three dimensions). Laminations,
cross bedding and convolutions mark the top of the beds.
Argillites are either dark grey, black or green. Individual beds range up to
several tens of cm thickness. Bedding-parallel quartz-rich horizons up to 15cm
thick may either be recrystallized chert horizons or part of the vein swarms
described below.

98
 L A R G E SCALE STRUCTURES

Attitude of bedding: Northwesterly strikes and subvertical dips predominate

on Tiritiri, with a small bias towards very steep westerly dips (Fig. 2, equal area
net). The small number of younging determinations from graded bedding and
other sedimentary structures (flame structures, load casts, Bouma sequences) all
indicate younging to the SW. Major swings in strike occur near the wharf on the
west side, and localities A and C on the east side of the island (Fig. 2). An area
with dominantly eastward dips is located at the northernmost point. Overturned
strata in steeply east dipping sequences are present at localities B and C.
Large scale folding: very tight to isoclinal folds are the earliest folds visible
(Fig. 3). Refolding patterns of minor structures indicate that they may be due to
more than one phase of deformation. Fold hinges plunge moderately to very
steeply, indicating that they were formed at a high angle to the axis of the next
phase of folding. In their original orientation, these folds probably had
subhorizontal axes trending approximately E N E and axial planes with relatively
low dips. Asymmetry (vergence) is not known. The next phase (phase II, Fig.
3) consists of subhorizontal open folds with axes trending NW-SE (mode 145)
which determine the overall trend of bedding on the island. Axial planes appear
to be steep. Asymmetry is difficult to detect, but at locality C (Fig. 2), a
vergence to the east is indicated. The persistence of westward-younging across
the island confirms that these folds consist of long west-dipping limbs and short
east-dipping limbs.
The major swings in strike of the beds indicate a third phase of deformation
(phase III Fig. 3), consisting of folds with steeply plunging axes, but of a more
open style than the steeply plunging first phase folds. These folds are still more
or less in their original orientation. A steeply plunging fold refolding horizontal
folds at locality C (Fig. 2) has a dextral vergence.
The existence of westward-younging, steeply overturned beds at locality B
(Fig. 2) may indicate yet another phase of folding, consisting of gentle warps
with subhorizontal fold axes and low angle axial planes. The exact timing of this
event is not certain, but it could be similar to the late "backfolding" present in
the greywackes of the Ruahine Range of the eastern North Island (Sporli & Bell
1976, location see Fig. 1, this paper).
Large scale faulting: An E-W trending fault at the northern end of the island,
and the major NW-trending Eastern Fault Zone (Fig. 2) are the most prominent
structures. The latter is parallel to the fault postulated between Tiritiri Matangi
and Whangaparaoa Peninsula and therefore may represent part of the same
tectonic regime.

99
 PHASE III

Fig. 3. Schematic diagrams, not to scale, showing phases of folding derived from analysis of
orientation of bedding on Tiritiri Matangi. Note that a medium size dextral phase III fold exists
in at least one locality.

MESOSCOPIC STRUCTURES

These need to be analysed in more detail; however some features relevant to

the structural development of the basement rocks are listed below. Structures are

100
described approximately in the order of their formation and are related to the fold
phases recognised above.

Clastic dikes (pre phase I folding): Dikes up to 10cm in width can be observed
in the thick sandstones of the northern part of the west coast. They are steeply
dipping and trend mainly east to northeast, at right angles to a phase of very open
subhorizontal folds.

Early disruption (pre phase I folding): Where bedding is relatively little disturbed
by later structures, systems of faults causing extension in the bedding can be
recognised. The faults consist of thin, sharply defined zones of dark grey to black
argillitic material. There are also some rare shortening faults. In three-
dimensional exposures, the faulting appears to have subdivided the rocks into
irregular polygonal blocks.

Laminated veins (pre phase I folding): Groups of many subparallel quartz-

prehnite veins are common. These swarms can consist of dozens of veins. In
some groups, veinlets are only a few mm thick, and spaced a few mm to a cm
apart; in others 10 to 15cm thick veins have spacings of the same order of
magnitude. The lamination is caused by alternations of prehnite-rich and prehnite-
poor vein portions and by vein-parallel tectonic discontinuities. The vein swarms
are often subparallel or at low angle to bedding, however zones at higher angles
to bedding also exist.

Crenulated veins: Crenulated veins (strongly ptygmatic-like) are often associated

with the laminated veins described above and are always oriented obliquely or
perpendicular to them. The oblique veins often show asymmetrical crenulations
which change vergence with change in attitude of the vein.

Cleavage: Some argillites display a distinct cleavage oblique to bedding. In

addition, the crenulation of the veins described above is due to intersection with
a cleavage. In thin section, the grains of fine sandstones are surrounded by
beard-like anastomosing seams of argillaceous material. This indicates that the
rocks are well on their way to developing a slaty cleavage. We have not
analysed the geometry of these cleavages systematically, but we have found
cleavages both compatible with phase I and phase II folds.

Melanges: Highly disrupted melange or broken formation zones are not as

common as in other areas of Waipapa terrane basement (Sporli 1978, Sporli et
al. 1989). Occasional 10 to 50cm thick layers consisting of lenses of sandstone

101
and vein material embedded in sheared argillite may represent equivalent
structures.

Mesoscopic phase I folds: Highly asymmetrical, almost isoclinal folds affect the
laminated veins and can also be seen along bedding contacts. Some of the folds
form conjugate couples.

Post-laminated vein faulting (postdates phase I): Shortening faults were formed
first and seem to be less common than later steeply dipping extensional faults,
which are often quite closely spaced (10-30cm). In some instances, a progression
from low angle to high angle shortening faults can be seen.

Simple white quartz veins: There are several phases of these veins. Some of them
follow fault planes which disrupt the laminated veins (see above).

En echelon quartz veins (associated with phase II folding?): En echelon veins are
30-40cm long and are often sigmoidal, due to partially ductile deformation. Some
indicate extension at right angles, others extension parallel to the dominant N W -
trending phase II fold axis.

Quartz-chlorite fibre veins and faults: These are analysed further below. Some
of the veins have breccia textures. Opening has taken place by the crack-seal
mechanism (see Sporli & Anderson 1980).

Late faults: These faults display either sharp clean fault planes or contain fault
gouge (crushed rock powder). The major fault zone along the east coast of
Tiritiri belongs to this phase. A few of these faults, mostly extensional in nature
and striking N N W or N-S, postdate deposition of the Waitemata Group.

Jointing in the basement rocks: The great majority of the joints predates
deposition of the basal conglomerates of the Kawau Subgroup, i.e. they record
a pre-Miocene period of uplift.

STRIATION ANALYSIS

Fibre striations on mesoscopic fault surfaces indicate incremental movements

during brittle deformation. On Tiritiri, we have measured a large number of such
striations, which mostly consist of quartz embedded in a chlorite matrix. If
accretionary steps are present in the fault surface, the fibres not only give the
orientation of the slip vector but also the sense of movement (Sporli & Anderson
1980 and Figs. 4, 5, this paper).

102
 A first step in an analysis of striations is construction of an m-axis for each
fault, that is a line at right angle to the striation, in the plane of the fault (Fig.
4). The advantage of these lines is that there is no basic assumption about the
parameters necessary for their construction and that they can be obtained whether
or not a sense of slip on the striation is available. It has been demonstrated that
m-axes, being the pole (perpendicular) of the "movement plane" and also being
representative of an intermediate stress axis, are useful in linking seemingly
complex patterns of striations (Angelier 1984).
The m-axis plot from Tiritiri Island illustrates several interesting points (Fig.
4):

Fig. 4. Upper left: Lower hemisphere plot of 273m-axes to quartz-chlorite fibre striations on
Tiritiri Matangi. Block diagram below the net describes the construction of the m-axis. Note
that the striation and the pole to the fault plane define the movement plane (M-plane) to which
the m-axis is the pole. Right hand part of the figure: same data, contoured. Numbers on
periphery of the net indicate maximum values for densities. Main trend of bedding is after
equal area net in Fig. 1. Note gently west dipping and steeply east dipping great circle patterns.
For further discussion see text.

103
 N O R M A L FAULT TENSION ()THRUST COMPRESSION STRIKE SLIP COMPRESSION

Fig. 5. Results of analysis of quartz-chlorite fibre striations with steps indicating sense of
movement, sorted into the three types of faulting (see diagrams of ideal conjugate fault couples
below lower hemisphere equal area nets). Origin of fibre steps in an extensional jog is
illustrated to the left of the thrust model. Steps are also shown in the models. Note that the 30
angle is assumed after work elsewhere (Sporli & Anderson, 1980). Large arrows with solid
heads show tectonically relevant tension or compression axes (= principal stress axes). Main
tectonic directions are shown with crosses and at the periphery of the equal area nets. N-S trend
is taken from Fig. 4.

1. The dominant mode of movement is dip slip, as most of the m-axes are
inclined (plunge) less than 45, i.e. there are relatively few steep fault planes
with low angle striations (which would correspond to steeply plunging m-
axes).
2. Maximum concentrations of m-axes are oriented roughly north-south (in the
355 to 020 sector). This orientation differs by 30 to 55 from the major
structural N W trend (see F i g . 4).
3. There is, however, a minor northwest plunging concentration of m-axes in the
direction of the major structural NW-trend.
4. The main N-S concentration of m-axes is split into four submaxima, which
may indicate that the deformation is not plane strain but has significant 3-D
components (orthorhombic strain of Krantz 1988).
5. M-axes tend to spread out in two great circle patterns representing a) a
vertical or very steeply east dipping plane and b) a plane gently dipping to the
west.
The second part of the striation analysis involves taking account of the sense

104
of movement on those striated surfaces on which this could be determined. This
allows determination of the "stress axes" (compression = major principal stress,
m-axis = intermediate principal stress, tension = minor principal stress) of the
system of faults.
For the purpose of this paper, we have not performed a full three-dimensional
analysis of the fault population (e.g. Angelier, 1984; Marrett and Almendinger
1990). Instead, we have constructed compression and tension axes assuming an
angle of 30 between compression axis and each striation, based on previous
work at Whitford (Sporli & Anderson 1980).
In Figure 5 we have grouped the resulting axes according to the three major
types of faults (normal, reverse (thrust) and strike slip). For dominantly normal
faults, the tension direction is the tectonically most important axis, for thrust and
strike slip the direction of compression is most important (see diagrams at the
bottom of Fig. 5). A l l of these axes should be near horizontal.

Normal tension axes: These are mainly clustered around a direction at right angle
to the N-S maximum m-axis concentration, with a slight tendency to swing
towards the structural NW-SE trend, but there are no tension axes exactly
parallel or perpendicular to the NW-trend. A few normal tension axes lie along
the N-S direction.

Thrust compression axes: These are spread mainly between the 020 and the
130 directions, i.e. there is distinct thrusting perpendicular (NW trend + 90
in Fig. 5) to the main NW-SE direction. The swing towards the 130 direction
indicates a regime of E-W thrusting, directly conflicting with the E-W tension
axes described under normal faulting above. Since these two regimes are
incompatible with each other, they must represent two different phases of
faulting. There are also a few N-S trending thrust compression axes.

Strike slip compression axes: The two main clusters of compression axes are
oriented N-S and NE-SW, the latter being at right angle to the principal N W
trend. Minor groups of axes occur at right angles to the N-S direction and
parallel to the N W trend. There are therefore two pairs of orthogonal and
incompatible strike slip compression directions, N-S/E-W and NW-SE/NE-SW.

Discussion of striation analysis: It is possible to have normal faults, thrusts and

strike slip faults all acting under one single regime of orthorhombic or 3D strain.
The relations can be symbolised in the Harding diagram (Harding 1974, and Fig.
6, this paper) which follows the principle that thrust and strike slip compressions
must be parallel to each other and that the tension direction of the normal faults
coincide with the tension direction of the strike slip faults. This is also known

105
as the principle of coincidence of the principal horizontal stresses (Lensen 1975),
because the axes of largest stresses in the horizontal plane (compressions of strike
slip and thrust faults and the intermediate stress (m-axis) of the normal faults) all
are in the same direction.
Applying this to the present
C = compression example, it is obvious that the
tension axes trending E-W in
Fig. 5A, and the thrust and
strike slip compression axes
trending N-S in Fig. 5B and C
respectively form a Harding
pattern and therefore are all
compatible (Fig. 7A). An
analogous pattern can be
assembled around the of E-W
compressions (Fig. 5B) and
indicates an interchange of the
compression and tension axes at
some stage (Fig. 7B).
Another group faults
which are compatible with each
other have compressions
(dominantly thrusting) at right
angle (NE-SW) to the main N W
trend (Fig. 5B and C) but there
is no significant normal fault
tension in the NW-SE direction

Fig. 6. Explanation of how a Harding

diagram is constructed. The ideal
conjugate fault couples shown in the
upper three diagrams are all compatible
with one single deformational system
strike because their stress axes all coincide
slip with one of three mutually
fault perpendicular lines and in each case the
largest principal stress in the horizontal
plane (principal horizontal stresses =
PHS) has the same orientation (note
HARDING that C>m>T). The resulting Harding
thrust
fault normal DIAGRAM diagram at the bottom shows the strikes
fault (horizontal map direction) of the faults
involved in the pattern.

106
 normal thrust strike slip fault

Fig. 7. Harding diagrams indicating groupings of fault movements, based on fibre striation data
from Tiritiri Matangi in Fig. 5. Note that the left hand diagrams represent the major
movements, and the right hand diagram minor movements only. The upper pair are aligned
on the N-S trend, the lower pair on the on the NW-SE trend. Converging solid head arrows
represent tectonically significant compression, diverging arrows tectonically significant tension

107
 (Fig. 5A) associated with them. This regime of NE-SW compression (Fig. 7C)
is similar to that seen at Whitford (Sporli & Anderson 1980). A minor regime
of NW-SE compression (Fig. 7D) again indicates an interchange of the
compression and tension axes.
It therefore appears that there were two groupings of faults. One consists of
faults with a horizontal stress axis aligned subparallel to the dominant NW-SE
trend (Fig. 7C and D). In the other, the horizontal stress axes are oblique to the
N W trend (Fig. 7A and B). It is a yet unsolved problem whether these two
groupings are totally independent or are part of one single, but relatively
complex, regime. The coherent pattern of m-axes, consisting of two almost
orthogonal planes intersecting along the N-S direction (Fig. 4, see spread of axes
along the periphery and across the middle of the net) may indicate the latter.

DISCUSSION

The structures found in the basement greywackes of Tiritiri Matangi Island

fit in very well with those seen in nearby areas (e.g. Sporli, 1978; Sporli et al.
1989). They are compatible with deformation in the accretionary prism active
along the margin of the Gondwana super-continent in the Mesozoic.
In such a situation, sediments deposited on the ocean floor and transported
towards the trench on the subducting plate would experience initial deformation
as they approach the prism (Fig. 8, right hand part of diagram). If the plate
movement vector is oblique to the margin, any folds formed at this stage may
also be oblique (initial folds in Fig. 8). The sediments are then detached from the
subducting plate and incorporated into the accretionary prism by thrust
imbrication. As new thrust sheets are pushed under from the right, those already
present are tilted to successively steeper dips (Fig. 8, middle part of the
accretionary prism).The prism is thickened by this process, its base experiences
metamorphism and becomes decoupled from the subducting slab. Because of this
decoupling, only the component of the plate movement vector at right angle to
the margin will be transmitted to this region, leading to de-activation of the initial
oblique folds, formation of new folds with horizontal axes parallel to the
continental margin and fault patterns with compression perpendicular to the
margin, as shown in Harding diagram C of Fig. 8. Such a partitioning of the
plate motion leaves residual strike slip motion not accounted for, which is taken
up further back, in the most consolidated part of the accretionary prism. This
leads to formation of steeply plunging folds, which in our case have a dextral
asymmetry. Fault patterns in this region are represented by a Harding diagram
with compression oblique to the margin (A in Fig. 8). After cessation of
subduction, the sediments, now transformed into greywackes, are uplifted and

108
 Frontal Ridge Accretionary prism
Strike Slip Trench - parallel
Phase III Folding (decoupled) Oblique

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram showing tectonic situation of the accretionary prism in which the
greywackes of Tiritiri Matangi were deformed in the Late Mesozoic. Modified after Lewis
(1980). Sediments are transferred from the subducting to the overriding (Gondwana) plate by
offscraping. Initial oblique folding is first replaced by margin-parallel folding (compression
perpendicular to margin) and then by steeply plunging dextral folds (compression oblique to the
margin) towards the back of the accretionary prism. Harding diagrams above the model (for
explanation see Figs. 6 and 7) show associated patterns of faulting which caused the quartz-
chlorite fibre striations. The lettering of the diagrams corresponds to that in Fig. 7.

exposed by erosion.
Both large scale (Fig. 3) and mesoscopic structures seen on Tiritiri Matangi
fit into such a scheme. They range from early soft sediment and weak rock
deformation to folding under conditions of regional metamorphism, followed by
final very brittle faulting at high levels in the crust. Very early formed swarms
of veins at low angle to bedding may record the initial horizontal shortening and
dewatering of the sedimentary pile.
Dips of bedding are steeper than in other areas of Waipapa terrane rocks,
where the average dip is about 50 (Sporli 1978). These steep dips cannot be
related to the proximity of the western edge of the upfaulted greywacke block
(Fig. IB), because at other localities along this boundary (Whitford, Motutapu)
average dips are not as steep. Instead the steep dips may be due to the

109
"backfolding" mentioned in the description of the large scale folds earlier in this
paper.
The groupings of quartz-chlorite fibre striation faults (Fig. 7) may either
record different regimes intermittently active at the same place or permanent
regimes specific to different zones in the accretionary prism (as suggested in Fig.
8). For each of the regimes, interchange of compression and tension axes has
occurred (Fig. 7).This replacement of compression by tension in the same
direction may be due to a "stick-slip" mechanism involving alternating episodes
of shortening and relaxation of the accretionary prism.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Most of the field work for this paper was done by L M M in the summer of 1982/83 under
supervision of KBS, who did the structural analysis and wrote the paper. We would like to thank
Department of Conservation, Auckland Regional Council and University of Auckland Zoology
Department staff for their logistic help and support with accommodation. Bruce Hayward and an
unnamed referee made very helpful comments on the manuscript. Louise Cotterall is thanked for
draughting of the figures. Rosemary Bunker helped with typing of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Anderson, H.J. 1977: A gravity survey of north-west Manukau City, Auckland. Unpublished BSc
Hons, thesis, University of Auckland. 46pp.
Angelier. J. 1984: Tectonic analysis of fault slip data sets. Journal of Geophysical Research 89:
5835-5848.
Ballance, P.F. 1976: Stratigraphy and bibliography of the Waitemata Group of Auckland, New
Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 19: 897-932.
Black, P. M . 1989: Regional metamorphism in basement Waipapa Group, Northland, New Zealand.
Royal Society of N.Z. Bulletin 26: 15-28.
Gregory, M.R. 1966: Waitemata rocks of Whangaparaoa Peninsula, Northland. Unpublished MSc
thesis, University of Auckland. 233pp.
Gregory, M.R. 1969: Sedimentary features and penecontemporaneous slumping in the Waitemata
Group, Whangaparaoa Peninsula, North Auckland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of
Geology and Geophysics 12: 248-282.
Hayward, B.W. & Brook, F.J. 1984: Lithostratigraphy of the basal Waitemata Group, Kawau
Subgroup (new), Auckland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 27
101-123.
Harding, T.P. 1974: Petroleum traps associated with wrench faults. American Association of
Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 58: 1290-1304.
Krantz, R.W. 1988: Multiple fault sets and three-dimensional strain: theory and application. Journal
of Structural Geology 10(3): 225-237.
Lensen, G.J. 1975: Earth deformation studies in New Zealand. Tectonophysics 29: 541-551.
Lewis, K.B. 1980: Quaternary sedimentation on the Hikurangi oblique-subduction and transform
margin, New Zealand. Special Publication International Association of Sedimentologists 4: 1
189.
Marrett, R. & Allmendinger, R.W. 1990: Kinematic analysis of fault slip data. Journal of Structural
Geology 12: 973-986.

110
Mayer, W. 1968: The stratigraphy and structure of the Waipapa Group on the Islands of Motutapu,
Rakino and the Noisies Group near Auckland, New Zealand. Transactions of the Royal Society
of New Zealand 5: 215-233.
Milligan, J.A. 1977: A geophysical study of Rangitoto volcano. Unpublished MSc thesis, University
of Auckland library. 148pp.
Ricketts, B.D., Ballance, P.F., Hayward, B.W. & Mayer, W. 1989: Basal Waitemata Group
lithofacies: rapid subsidence in an early Miocene interarc basin, New Zealand. Sedimentology 36:
559-580.
Sporli, K.B. 1978: Mesozoic tectonics, North Island, New Zealand. Bulletin of the Geological Society
of America 89: 415-425.
Sporli, K.B. 1989a: Tectonic framework of Northland, New Zealand. Royal Society of N.Z. Bulletin
26: 3-14.
Sporli, K.B. 1989b: Exceptional structural complexity in turbidite deposits of the piggy-back
Waitemata Basin, Miocene, Auckland/Northland, New Zealand. Royal Society of N.Z. Bulletin
26: 183-194.
Sporli, K.B., Aita, Y. & Gibson, G.W. 1989: Juxtaposition of Tethyan and non-Tethyan Mesozoic
radioalarian faunas in melanges, Waipapa terrane, North Island, New Zealand. Geology 17:753-
756.
Sporli, K.B. & Anderson, H.J. 1980: Paleostress axes from mineral striations in faulted Mesozoic
basement, Auckland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 23: 155-
166.
Sporli, K.B. & Bell, A.B. 1976: Torlesse melange and coherent sequences, eastern Ruahine Range,
North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 19(4): 427-447.

Ill
112