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ABSTRACT: After the February 1990 plinian eruption of the Kelud volcano, a new lake rapidly filled its cra-
ter. This young lake offers the opportunity to study the evolution and re-equilibration of a volcanic-
hydrothermal system after a magmatic eruption. Geochemical and thermal changes of the crater lake have
been recorded during the period 1993-2003 in which a decrease in temperature and ionic concentrations of the
lake was observed. The initial lake chemistry (1993-1997) was dominated by Na-K chloride waters. Today,
Ca-Mg sulfate waters are the main component in the lake. The temporal evolution in the chemistry of the lake
waters suggests the presence of two distinct hydrothermal systems feeding the lake: a deep system at high
temperature (250C) with neutral alkali-chloride fluids and a shallow aquifer at lower temperature dominated
by Ca/Mg-sulfate waters.
The evolution of temperature and geochemistry served 3 months before the 1990 eruption (Vande-
during the period 1993-2003 is shown on Figure 1. meulebrouck et al. 2000).
The general trend is toward a decrease in tempera- The temperature increases observed in 1996 and
ture and TDS, the lake becoming more diluted with 2001 were accompanied by rapid changes in lake-
time. The main geochemical change observed is a water composition with a net increase in Na+K chlo-
decrease in Na+K chlorides, sulfates and Ca/Mg re- rides, B and Li. These heating episodes could be the
maining almost constant during this period (Table consequence of the (re)opening of fractures at depth
1). leading to an increase in the contribution from a
deep hydrothermal aquifer. This evolution suggests
that two distinct hydrothermal systems are feeding
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
the crater lake. The first aquifer has neutral alkali
55 chloride waters enriched in B and Li typical of the
deepest part of hydrothermal systems and the second
Temperature C
50
45 shallow system is dominated by Ca-Mg sulfate wa-
40 ters.
35
Cl (mg/kg)
30
25 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
1400
3 1200
Na + K (mg/kg)
1000
-1
TDS (g.kg )
2 Cl/SO4 800
1993
600
1 400
Na/SO4 200
14
12
K/SO4 10
B (mg/kg)
1993
8
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 6
4
Date
2
Figure 1. Temporal evolution of the temperature and chemistry
of the lake during 1993-2003. Arrows represent the start of a 0
heating episode. TDS is the Total Dissolved Solids. 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Cl (mg/kg)
With the exception of the 1993 data, there are Figure 2. Evolution of chloride versus Na+K and boron during
positive correlations between chloride and the alkali 1993-2003.
metals or with B and Li but no correlation exists
with Ca or Mg (Figs. 2 and 3).
During the 10-year monitoring period, two nota- 3 TEMPERATURE ESTIMATION OF THE
ble events were observed in 1996 and 2001 when a DEEP HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEM
sudden increase in lake temperatures and bubbling
occurred. In both events, the lake temperature The presence of a deep alkali chloride system sug-
peaked at 50C. Heating episodes, sometimes cyclic, gests the use of Na-K and K-Mg as geoindicators.
are relatively frequent in some crater lakes and re- Equilibrium temperatures for Na/K and K/Mg and
flect changes in the flow rate or in the enthalpy of based on Giggenbach (1988) are presented in Figure
hot fluids entering the lake. These heating episodes 4.
always represent an alarming situation because an The lake water compositions are far from the
increasing lake temperature can be a precursory sig- equilibrium with a mineral assemblage as expected
nal for the renewal of magmatic activity as was ob- for waters resulting from the mixing between two
Water-Rock interaction (WRI-11) 2004. Wanty & Seal II eds. A.A Balkema Publishers.
100
250
300
350
6 Eq
ui l 250 composition identical to meteoric fluids (spring).
5 ibr
Im ium 200
ma
4 tur
e wa 150 -1
3 ter 8/1996
s -2
2 100
-3
TK-Mg C
1993
1
18O ()
-4 1/2001
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Log Na / K (mg/kg) -5
5/2000
Figure 4. .K-Mg and Na-K equilibrium temperatures. -6
-7
spring
-8
350
250
100
300
200
150
m
ibriu
3.0 il
equ 150 Figure 6. Evolution of the 18O () isotopic composition ver-
ll sus chloride for the lake.
Fu
200
2.5
250
5 THERMAL REGIME
300
2.0 350 Like many other active crater lakes, Kelud acts as a
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
TNa-Li C calorimeter trapping the heat supplied into the lake
by subaqueous fumaroles and hot springs. A heat
Log Na / K (mg/kg) and mass balance model was used to evaluate the
Figure 5. Na-Li and Na-K equilibrium temperatures.
changes in the heat supplied to the lake by the
hydrothermal fluids. The model is derived from Ste-
types of fluids. However, the Na/K remained almost venson (1992) and assumes that the lake is in steady-
constant during the entire period despite a large de- state equilibrium, i. e. that the lake temperature is
crease in their concentrations. This suggests that the constrained by the balance between heat input and
composition of the deep neutral-chloride hydrother- output. Heat is derived from the enthalpy of hydro-
mal system remained stable during this period. The thermal fluids (brine + steam) entering and mixing
deep hydrothermal system most probably existed be- within the lake and from solar and atmospheric ra-
fore the 1990 eruption and its composition was not diation (rad). Heat is lost by evaporation (evap),
significantly affected by the relatively brief (1 hour) conduction (cond), radiation (rad) and by the over-
Water-Rock interaction (WRI-11) 2004. Wanty & Seal II eds. A.A Balkema Publishers.
flow (over) of the hot waters through the drainage canic edifice or are only accessible by well-drilling.
tunnel. The lake surface radiated a thermal power es- For Kelud, the 1990 eruption cleared the vent and
timated at 130 MW for the period 1993-1995 (Fig. permitted the ascent of fluids from the deep neutral-
7), peaked to 250 MW in 1996 and 2001 when the chloride hydrothermal system. Today, this channel
lake surface reached 50C and is today close to 80 opens towards the surface, is progressively clogged
MW. and the contribution from the deep Na/K chloride
fluids to the lake is decreasing.
7 CONCLUSION