Cover 2.

qxp_4/06 Cover 4/7/17 4:18 PM Page C1

MAY 2017
WELDING JOURNAL VOLUME 96 NUMBER 5 MAY 2017

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
select arc.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:25 PM Page C2

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

voestalpine bohler.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:27 PM Page 1

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

camfil.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:21 PM Page 2

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:24 PM Page 3

May 2017 Volume 96 Number 5 CONTENTS

FEATURES 34
34 The Cream of the Crop: Craft Competition Draws
Industrys Brightest Talent
Construction apprentices and trainees tested
their skills during a Florida competition
K. Pacheco

38 The Impact of Laser Shock Peening on Welded Metals

Laser shock peening induces compressive stresses
in materials that increase surface hardness and
fatigue life E. Braun

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY 48

44 Applying Brazing Fundamentals to the Sinter Brazing
Process
A better understanding of this emerging process
can lead to greater success when producing
complex parts K. H. Bear et al.

48 What Does Certified Brazer Really Mean?

The authors explain how brazers can be qualified to
an industry standard R. Henson and W. J. Sperko

THE AMERICAN WELDER 90

90 Introduction to Welding Pipe Downhill
These techniques will help you produce better
downhill pipe welds when using cellulosic
electrodes N. Lott and J. Colton II

96 Preventing Defects when Arc Welding Aluminum

These recommendations can lead to defect-free
aluminum welds C. Tucker

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

143s Observation and Analysis of ThreeDimensional
Weld Pool Oscillation Dynamic Behaviors
A laser dot-matrix sensor was used to observe
weld pool oscillation in three dimensions
K. Zhang et al.
163s Laser VisionBased Detection of Weld
Penetration in GTAW
An inspection method was proposed for
monitoring weld penetration and to help prevent
defects G. Zhang et al.

154s Mechanized Oxyfuel Control with Ion Current
Sensing
Eliminating sensors from the hot zone offered
benefits related to costs and system reliability
C. R. Martin
173s Interface Evolution in Aluminum Alloy/Uncoated
Steel Arc Welds
The influence of welding wire, composition, and
microstructure on the spalling behavior of
intermetallic compounds was explored
S. Niu et al.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:25 PM Page 4

DEPARTMENTS
6 Editorial 60 Coming Events
8 Press Time News 64 Certification Schedule
10 International Update 65 Society News
12 News of the Industry 66 Tech Topics
18 Business Briefs 72 Section News
20 Laser Welding Q&A 87 Guide to AWS Services
22 Stainless Q&A 88 Personnel
24 RWMA Q&A The American Welder
26 Letters to the Editor 102 Learning Track
28 Product & Print Spotlight 106 Fact Sheet
Brazing & Soldering Today 109 Brazing & Thermal Spray Profiles On the cover: Manual oxyfuel
52 Technology News 117 Classifieds brazing of pipe. (Photo courtesy
of Harris Products Group div. of
58 Conferences 118 Advertiser Index The Lincoln Electric Co., Mason,
Ohio.)

OFFICERS WELDING JOURNAL

President John R. Bray
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Vice President Dale Flood
TRI TOOL, Inc.
Vice President Thomas J. Lienert
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Vice President Robert Roth
RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.
Treasurer Carey Chen
Cincinnati Incorporated
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
DIRECTORS
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Welding North America
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Subsea Global Solutions
T. Brosio (Dist. 14), Major Tool & Machine
J. Burgess (Dist. 8), General Electric
D. A. Desrochers (Dist. 1), Old Colony RVTHS
D. L. Doench (At Large), Hobart Bros. Co.
D. K. Eck (At Large), Praxair Distribution, Inc.
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Consultant
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Labortories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
R. L. Holdren (At Large), ARC Specialties
J Jones (Dist. 17), Harris Products Group
M. Krupnicki (Dist. 6), Mahany Welding Supply Co., Inc.
D. J. Landon (Past President), Vermeer Corp.
S. Lindsey (Dist. 21), City of San Diego
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training, Inc.
J. T. Mahoney (Dist. 5), American Arc, Inc.
S. M. McDaniel (Dist. 19), Big Bend Community College
D. L. McQuaid (Past President), D. L. McQuaid and
Associates, Inc.
D. K. Miller (At Large), Lincoln Electric
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Airgas USA, LLC
M. Sebergandio (Dist. 3), CNH Industrial America, LLC
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
M. Sherman (Dist. 10), SW&E, LLC
M. Skiles (Dist. 9), Airgas, Inc.
W. J. Sperko (At Large), Sperko Engineering Services
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), Voestalpine Bohler Welding Group
K. Temme (Dist. 12), Matrix NAC
P. I. Temple (Dist. 11), Energy Wise Consulting, LLC
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
Publisher/Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Editorial
Sr. Editor Cindy Weihl
Features Editor Kristin Campbell
Associate Editor Katie Pacheco
Assistant Editor Roline Pascal
Peer Review Coord. Sonia Aleman
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Assistant Production Manager Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec. Sandra Jorgensen
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec. Annette Delagrange
Manager of Sales Operations Lea Owen
Sr. Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Evelyn Andino
eandino@aws.org
MARKETING ADVISORY COUNCIL (MAC)
D. L. Doench, Chair, Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair, ESAB Welding
& Cutting Prod.
L. Cora, Secretary, American Welding Society
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
C. Coffey, Lincoln Electric
D. DeCorte, RoMan Manufacturing
S. Fyffe, Astaras, Inc.
D. Levin, Airgas
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, WeldAid Products
D. Wilson, Wilson and Associates
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman
Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., American Hydro Corp.
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
www.aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 331666672
(305) 4439353 or (800) 4439353
AWS Promotes Diversity
AWS values diversity, advocates equitable and
inclusive practices, and engages its members
and stakeholders in establishing a culture in the
welding community that welcomes, learns from
and celebrates dierences among people. AWS
recognizes that a commitment to diversity, equi
ty, and inclusion is essential to achieving excel
lence for the Association, its members and em
ployees.
Welding Journal (ISSN 00432296) is published monthly by
the American Welding Society for $120.00 per year in the United
States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and $10.00 per single
issue for nonmembers and $14.00 single issue for international.
Not available for resale in either print or electronic form. Ameri
can Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St., # 130, Miami,
FL 331666672; telephone (305) 4439353. Periodicals postage
paid in Miami, Fla., and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER:
Send address changes to Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 331666672. Canada Post: Publications Mail
Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip
International, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2, Canada.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles for
personal, archival, educational or research purposes, and which
are not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and sources
is made. Starred (*) items excluded from copyright.
Copyright 2017 by American Welding Society in both
printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for
any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data and infor
mation developed by the authors of specific articles are for infor
mational purposes only and are not intended for use without inde
pendent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.

4 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

ridgid.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:25 PM Page 5

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

EDITORIAL MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 9:30 AM Page 6
EDITORIAL
Richard D. Campbell
Chair, AWS D1K
Subcommittee on
Stainless Steel
Do not be afraid
to volunteer. All of
our experiences and
voices matter. Codes
and standards are
only developed with
the input of a bal
anced committee of
welders, welding
technicians, engi
neers, and others
such as you.
6 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Structural Welding Code Stainless Steel
Demonstrates Importance of Volunteering
Thirty years ago, while working at a
manufacturing plant, American Welding
Society (AWS) C5C Chair Ken Hicken
asked me to join that subcommittee be-
cause of the welding education I received
at LeTourneau University. Since then, oth-
er committee activities within AWS and
the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers (ASME) presented themselves,
which have led to many membership and
chairmanship opportunities. To think
that initial request developed into three
decades of technical committee involve-
ment is astounding.
Together with Duane Miller, who asked
me to chair the AWS D1K Subcommittee
on Stainless Steel, we assembled a team of
volunteers to revise and improve AWS
D1.6/D1.6M:2017, Structural Welding
Code Stainless Steel. New volunteers
were brought in and existing members
were encouraged to take responsibility for
various sections. This subcommittee also
took a collaborative effort to work with
other AWS committees. As a result, I be-
came a member of the AWS D1 Commit-
tee on Structural Welding and other D1
subcommittees. Now, Im also an advisor
and/or member of numerous AWS A2 and
B1 subcommittees and the C5 committee.
Since 1995, I have taught AWS Certi-
fied Welding Inspector (CWI), stainless
steel welding, and welding symbols semi-
nars. I encourage all students to get in-
volved with the various technical commit-
tees. As I spend eight hours teaching the
D1.1 Code Clinic to students, who will lat-
er take a two-hour CWI exam on this code,
it never fails to amaze and overwhelm
them how much is involved. I strive to not
just show them what and where the rules
are, but why they are there. During these
discussions, I encourage their involve-
ment in these committees. Within Bech-
tel, where I work as a welding technical
specialist, I also encourage young welding
and materials engineers to get involved.
At aws.org/standards, standards are
identified as existing to satisfy a pressing
need to develop synchronicity within the
industry. This site clarifies that a stan-
dard is developed by a committee of ex-
perts who work within different areas of a
particular industry this ensures that
the standard is well-rounded. During the
standards development process, AWS fol-
lows a strict set of rules and requirements
that serve to govern not only the stan-
dards approval process, but also all of the
technical committees responsible for their
maintenance.
It must be kept in mind that because
AWS codes and standards are American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) ap-
proved documents, they are consensus
documents, not unanimous documents.
Revisions are agreed upon by a majority of
the committee after being balloted and
vetted through rules and procedures es-
tablished by AWS and approved by ANSI.
Volunteers need to keep in mind that
the goal of a code or standard is not per-
fection, for humans can never achieve
that. A good committee will strive for ex-
cellence, but it should never underachieve
or accept mediocrity.
The newly revised AWS D1.6 standard is
a prime example of volunteer efforts. The
2017 edition received ANSI approval in ear-
ly 2017 and is currently being published.
Drafted by the AWS D1K Subcommittee on
Stainless Steel consisting of engineers,
constructors, manufacturers, welders, tech-
nical society employees, and union mem-
bers and leaders and overseen by the
AWS D1 Committee on Structural Welding,
this third edition provides improvements in
new materials, technology, and quality, plus
corrections in errors or misunderstandings
in requirements.
This new revision also represents a
collaborative effort with members of oth-
er AWS technical committees and sub-
committees to ensure consistency be-
tween the revised D1.6 and other stan-
dards. The hard-working standards de-
velopment staff at AWS deserves recog-
nition for bringing together the volun-
teers and publishers to ensure the stan-
dard meets AWS and ANSI procedures.
Should you get involved with AWS
technical committees? The answer is ab-
solutely. Do not be afraid to volunteer. All
of our experiences and voices matter.
Codes and standards are only developed
with the input of a balanced committee of
welders, welding technicians, engineers,
and others such as you. WJ
stanley black and decker.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/6/17 8:19 AM Page 27

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

PTN MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:05 PM Page 1
PRESS TIME NEWS
Ford Allocates $1.2 Billion to Support
Automotive Needs at Three Michigan Facilities
Ford Motor Co., Dear-
born, Mich., is investing
$1.2 billion in three
Michigan manufacturing
facilities.
The automaker is de-
voting $850 million to the
Michigan Assembly Plant.
Employees will begin
building the Ranger truck
at the end of 2018 and
the Bronco SUV in 2020.
In addition, the compa-
ny plans to create or re-
tain 130 jobs and invest
This recent venture awards $850 $150 million to expand
million to Fords Michigan Assem
capacity for engine com-
bly Plant, $150 million to its Romeo
Engine Plant, and $200 million for ponents on several vehi-
the advanced data center in Michi cles at the Romeo Engine
gan. (Photo courtesy of Ford.) Plant in Michigan.
Ford is also investing
$200 million for an advanced data center to support its ex-
pansion to an auto and mobility company. It represents the
second of two new data centers the automaker is building in
Michigan and will be at the Flat Rock Assembly Plant.
At Ford, we are investing aggressively in building on our
strengths today including trucks, vans, commercial vehi-
cles, performance vehicles, and SUVs while at the same
time growing our leadership in electrification, autonomy,
and mobility services, said Joe Hinrichs, Ford president,
the Americas.
2017 Iron Workers/IMPACT Conference Becomes
a Platform for Initiatives on Safety and Diversity
The 2017 Iron Workers (IW)/IMPACT conference held in
San Diego, Calif., from March 17 to 22 not only made histo-
ry with an announcement about the new IW paid maternity
leave benefit, but the event also set a new attendance record
with more than 1200 participants.
IW District Representative of Safety and Diversity and
U.S. Safety Coordinator Vicki OLeary revealed the first paid
maternity leave benefit for female ironworkers in the build-
ing trades. This includes six months of predelivery and six to
eight weeks of postdelivery paid leave.
During the general session, Dennis Randall from Nation-
al Steel City and Chris Buckman from BMWC spoke. They
shared expert insights and experience on how to achieve
zero safety incidents under challenging circumstances.
Keynote speaker James Benham, from JBKnowledge, ex-
plained how new technology can increase efficiency and ele-
vate safety standards on the job site.
The owners panel focused on safety and productivity,
while the panel on ironworker safety directors discussed
what it takes to manage safety programs for contractors.
Educational breakout sessions took place as well.
8 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Majority of Florida Construction Firms Plan
to Hire This Year
This table reflects the ABC Florida contractor confidence index by
region, contractor type, and industry as of March 2017. Readings
above 50 indicate growth; those below 50 are unfavorable.
Eighty-eight percent of Florida construction firms plan
to increase hiring over the next six months, and 84% antici-
pate experiencing more difficulty finding appropriately
skilled labor, according to a report released on April 3 by the
Associated Builders and Contractors (ABC) of Florida.
The inaugural Florida contractor confidence index
showed a statewide confidence reading of 81 for improving
sales, indicating the typical Florida contractor expects to be
much busier in 2017. This diffusion index is intended to
supply stakeholders in the state with information regarding
contractor perceptions of staffing needs, worker availability,
and sales expectations.
Florida has been among the nations most active con-
struction markets in recent quarters, and the staffing level
reading of 78 anticipates contractors will hire more aggres-
sively this year, said ABC Chief Economist Anirban Basu.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Florida
managed to add nearly 13,000 construction workers during
the first two months of 2017 alone. Worker availability will
be most challenging in Miami and Orlando, which are the
two markets that are also leading the state in terms of over-
all employment growth.
PharrSan JuanAlamo Independent School
District Receives Grant for Welding Academy
The Texas Education Agency has awarded Pharr-San
Juan-Alamo Independent School District a $332,567 Texas
Industry Cluster Innovative Academies Grant. This will fund
the new Welding Innovative Academy at Pharr-San Juan-
Alamo Early College High School.
Through the academy, 36 juniors interested in pursuing a
welding career will engage in a one-year dual-enrollment
program. Students will pursue a South Texas College Level I
certification and an associate degree to prepare them for po-
sitions in shielded metal arc, gas metal arc, gas tungsten arc,
and flux cored arc welding. Graduate candidates will also be
eligible to take a welder performance qualification test in ac-
cordance with the American Welding Society. WJ
trumpf.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:26 PM Page 9

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

May International Update_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:02 PM Page 10
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
Uniweld Hosts HVAC/R Brazing Training Seminars
in Mexico
Attendees posed for a picture after completing Uniwelds
HVAC/R brazing technologies training seminar in Mexico.
Uniweld Products, Inc., a manufacturer of heating, venti-
lation, air conditioning, and refrigeration (HVAC/R) tools,
has recently conducted seminars throughout Mexico for
HVAC/R technicians. These were held in Cancun on Febru-
ary 28, Merida on March 1, and Villahermosa on March 2.
To conduct the seminars, the company collaborated with
its distributor for the southeast region of Mexico, Refrimart
de Mexico S.A. de C.V. The training emphasized safety as
well as Uniwelds brazing technologies for HVAC/R systems,
including its nitrogen flow indicator, antiblowback hoses,
and flame tips.
Mario Portillo, the companys international sales execu-
tive for Latin America and the Caribbean, conducted the
training sessions and focused on the features and benefits of
each tool.
Chinese Delegates Visit the NPTC Group of
Colleges in the United Kingdom
The NPTC Group of Colleges, United Kingdom, has wel-
comed Chinese delegates from the Suzhou Wuzhong Senior
Vocational College, Suzhou, China, to its Neath campus. The
visit allowed college representatives to sign a memorandum
of understanding (MOD), strengthen educational compar-
isons, as well as promote vocational education and cultural
exchanges.
The memorandum was signed by Steve Rhodes, NPTC
Group of Colleges international assistant principal, and
Hong Xiao, vice principal of Suzhou Wuzhong Senior Voca-
tional College.
The signing of the MOD is just the beginning, and we
are very much looking forward to developing the relation-
ship with Suzhou College and working together to carry out
international educational projects, said Rhodes.
The agreements will lead to several visits from the NPTC
Group of Collegess educational and management staff to
create a program of high-quality teaching methods geared
toward helping students at the Suzhou Wuzhong Senior Vo-
cational College achieve international qualifications and
other certificates.
10 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Victoria University Reveals Plans for New Skills
Development Center
Peter Dawkins, vice chancellor of Victoria University, announces
plans for the Sunshine Skills Hub in Melbourne, Australia.
Victoria University, Australia, has plans for a skills devel-
opment facility on its Sunshine Campus located in west Mel-
bourne. The new Sunshine Skills Hub aims at tackling un-
employment as well as addressing the local skills shortage in
the area.
The $35 million, three-story facility will be funded by a
$5 million grant from The Ian Potter Foundation and $10
million from the Victorian Governments Department of
Training and Skills. The university will dedicate $20 million
to the endeavor.
The facility will offer future-oriented vocational training
in a region where youth unemployment is more than 18%
higher than state and national averages. It will provide
training in construction technologies; advanced manufac-
turing and health technologies; health and community serv-
ices; as well as language, literacy, and numeracy programs.
It will also house specialized teaching equipment, such as ro-
bots, virtual reality goggles, computerized mannequins, and
simulation equipment to help students learn through real-
life scenarios.
According to Vice Chancellor Peter Dawkins, The Sun-
shine Skills Hub will support the development of industry
partnerships and will increase student numbers, reinvigorat-
ing the local community and industry for Melbournes west.
The facility is expected to be completed near the end of
2018.
United Performance Metals Opens New Facility in
Hungary
On February 13, United Performance Metals, Hamilton,
Ohio, revealed the opening of a 1000-sq-m specialty metals
distribution, sales, and processing facility in Budapest, Hun-
gary. The facility is the companys third location outside of
the United States. Additional international facilities are lo-
cated in northern Ireland and Singapore.
The new facility is certified to ISO: 9001 and AS 9120
REV A. It will provide additional opportunities for United to
service customers in the European Union.
This is a great opportunity to bring our full line of prod-
ucts and processing services to our customers throughout
Europe, explained Dick Santoro, the companys director of
international business. WJ
hypertherm.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:23 PM Page 11

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

NI MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:51 PM Page 12
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
AWS Weld Trials Winner Prepares for
WorldSkills 2017
Chandler Vincent proudly
holds his 1stplace award, after
the AWS Weld Trials, along
side Andrew Cardin, the U.S. Chandler Vincent performs
welder from WorldSkills 2015. shielded metal arc welding on
Vincent will compete as the a pressure vessel during the
U.S. welder at WorldSkills initial round of AWS Weld Tri
2017 in October. als late last year.
Chandler Vincent has earned top honors at the American
Welding Society (AWS) Weld Trials held February 2023 at
Robotics Technology Park, Tanner, Ala. Hes now secured a
spot to represent the United States as its only welder at the
44th WorldSkills Competition from October 14 to 19 in Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
The 19-year-old welder from Vernal, Utah, attends
Uintah Basin Applied Technology College. His instructor,
Mason Winters, is a 2009 AWS Pre-Trials runner-up com-
petitor. During high school, Vincent placed 4th in his junior
year, then 5th in his senior year, at SkillsUSAs 2016 National
Leadership and Skills Conference in Louisville, Ky.
The February competition consisted of eight welded proj-
ects. Module 1 took place over 5 h and involved welding five
carbon steel plate and pipe projects ranging in different
thicknesses, joint configurations, positions to be welded in,
and welding process(es). Module 2 included erecting and
welding the prefabricated vessel. Competitors needed to fit
up, weld, and clean the vessel in 8 h using the four manual
welding processes listed in the blueprint. Once complete,
the final module began with an aluminum and stainless
steel project. Each was allotted 2.5 h for fitup and weld time
with no postcleaning allowed.
Projects underwent a thorough visual assessment fol-
lowed by a fillet weld break test and plate/pipe bend tests in
Module 1, a hydrostatic test of 1000 lb/in.2 for the pressure
vessel in Module 2, and visual inspection in Module 3.
Following his 1st- place finish, Vincent will continue train-
ing and have opportunities to be mentored by U.S. expert
and 1999 WorldSkills gold medalist Ray Connolly in Mis-
souri, as well as WorldSkills 2015 U.S. welder Andrew Cardin
in Ohio.
Blaine Hipp, an 18-year-old welder from Prim, Ark., was
runner up at the AWS Weld Trials. He placed 4th at the high
school level during the 2016 nationals and trained at the
home of his instructor, Randy Carr. Jacob Miller, a 21-year-
12 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
old welder from Greers Ferry, Ark., placed third. He had the
same instructors as Hipp, who attended the same high
school, as well as Arkansas State University while competing
in the pretrials for the 2015 WorldSkills. The group ad-
vanced to this event after competing against three other
contestants at the initial round late last year.
The amount of time and dedication that these young
men had to sacrifice is that of an Olympian, Cardin said.
When I say sacrifice, I mean it in the most serious way. An
average training week is 1012 hours a day, 6 days a week.
You put life on hold anywhere from 6 months to a year de-
pending how far you make it. This can involve only being
able to work a part-time job or having to quit your job en-
tirely, staying at your parents house longer...that is the reali-
ty most of us face when we compete for the sole spot on the
team with one and possibly two shots to ever do it in our
life...they compete because of their love of the trade and the
enjoyment they get from challenging themselves. Kristin
Campbell (kcampbell@aws.org), features editor
Final Beam Placed on Lincoln Electrics
Welding Training Center
Lincoln Electrics new facility will mark 100 years of education ex
perience in the welding industry. The endeavor also tapped local
trades workers for construction efforts.
Construction on Lincoln Electrics $30 million Welding
Technology Center continues to move forward toward a pro-
jected opening this year. Crews placed the final beam on Feb.
8, completing the buildings structural frame on the compa-
nys Euclid, Ohio, campus. The next phase will focus on its
faade, interior, electrical, and plumbing work.
Construction is progressing rapidly structural fram-
ing just wrapped up, allowing us to move on to the next
phase of construction, said John Mueller, director of facility
planning and development, Lincoln Electric.
Before crews hoisted and placed the beam into position,
company representatives and other firms working on the
project participated in a beam-signing ceremony. On hand
were Chris Mapes, George Blankenship, and Doug Lance
from Lincoln Electrics senior management. Members of the
companys facilities team and representatives from Panzica
Construction Co., Structura Architects Ltd., and Ironworker
Local Union No. 17 added signatures as well.
NI MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:51 PM Page 13

We are proud to be using tradesmen from the same

trades organizations we actively help to train at a variety of
sites around the country, said Jason Scales, manager, edu-
cation solutions, Lincoln Electric.
When the new center opens, it will mark the centennial
anniversary of the companys legacy welding school. The
130,000-sq-ft facility will double the companys welding ed-
ucation capacity to 180 welding booths and include high-
tech classroom and seminar spaces.

AT&F Wisconsin Upgrades Facility,

Adds CWI to Its Staff
AT&F, a custom and high-volume steel fabricator, has
made upgrades to its Manitowoc, Wis., facility as part of
continuous improvement efforts. The entire 60,000-sq-ft
facility layout underwent a redesign to improve workflow
and reduce costs. Additions include an onsite American
Welding Society Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) to fur-
ther enhance welding quality and provide a resource for
proper procedures and training. The new plasma/oxyfuel
cutting table features a 5-axis beveling head, plasma cuts up

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

to 2 in., oxyfuel cuts up to 8 in., and offers a cutting enve-
lope of 10 33 ft. A large-capacity boring bar was upgraded
as well.

Inspecting Welds on NuclearPowered

Submarines More Cost Effectively
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) re-
searchers are aligning with the U.S. Navy Metalworking Cen-

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 13
NI MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:51 PM Page 14

has to be removed and reinstalled on a Virginia Class sub-

marine during inspections could reduce costs by as much as
$1.2 million per hull per inspection cycle.

San Jos City College, Ironworkers Union

Launch Welding Credit Degree

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory researchers are joining

forces with the U.S. Navy Metalworking Center to review reduc
ing the cost of inspecting welds on nuclearpowered submarines.

ter to study ways to reduce the cost of inspecting welds on

nuclearpowered submarines. The lab has entered into a fea-
sibility study agreement with the Navy to look at developing
a nondestructive technology that can peer through the sub-
marines coating to find defects in the ships welds.
Were investigating a cross-platform technique that al-
lows us to interrogate the welds without doing destructive
work on that treatment, said LLNL Materials and Engineer-
ing Section Leader Karl Fisher, a principal investigator on
the project. Researchers will explore the use of acoustical
structural excitation with ultrawide-band radar technology.
For the first phase, the team will use test samples to try
the technique. Simultaneously, two other institutions will be
investigating terahertz and phased array approaches.
The Navy estimates reducing the amount of coating that
At a beamcutting ceremony, San Jos City College and Ironwork
ers Local 377 celebrated their new welding program that will
help meet demand in the San Francisco Bay Areas construction
industry.
San Jos City College (SJCC), San Jose, Calif., has
launched its collaboration with the International Associa-
tion of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing
Ironworkers Local 377 to offer a credit degree program in
welding. Its intended for apprentices who are on four-year
paths to becoming journeymen. Currently, the union has

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

14 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
NI MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:52 PM Page 15

1000 apprentices eligible to take this coursework.

Instruction began on March 6, 2017, in a welding lab
built for this purpose, said Jorge Escobar, SJCC vice presi-
dent of administrative services. The facility consists of 20
fully equipped welding booths, a state-of-the-art air filtra-
tion and circulation system, an outdoor yard, adjacent class-
rooms, and upgraded electrical and mechanical systems.
The lab also helps to lift a burden off of apprentices living
in Santa Clara County who previously commuted hours to
Benicia in Solano County.
Planning for the credit degree started four years ago as
college officials worked with union leaders to transfer cours-
es from the North Bay to San Jos.

Lake Superior College Students Fabricate Soldier

Sculpture to Fund Therapy Dogs for Veterans
The A Soldiers Love sculpture, featuring a back-lit sil-
houette of a combat vet standing ready, flanked by his faith-
ful dogs, represents a community service project by a team
of Lake Superior College integrated manufacturing students.
It will help veterans by raising funds for assistance dogs.

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

Student Kathleen Crooks took the lead on the effort.
I wanted to help our veterans who have served our coun-
try, said Crooks. We are using the SkillsUSA club project to
raise money for an assistance dog for a local vet. It costs be-
tween $10,000 and $60,000 to raise and train one assistance
dog. We know how life-changing it can be for a vet who may
suffer from PTSD, a physical injury, or other challenges to
have an assistance dog.
She is working with PetsLoyal2Vets, Burnsville, Minn., a

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 15
NI MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:52 PM Page 16
The Lake Superior College Integrated Manufacturing SkillsUSA
community service project team poses with their soldier sculp
ture. Pictured (from left) are Student Michael Decaprio, Instruc
tor Matt Farchmin, Students Kathleen Crooks and Nicole Okstad,
and Instructor Max Udovich.
nonprofit that connects veterans with therapy companion
dogs at no cost. Crooks also bought and paid for extra mate-
rials to produce 35 limited edition sculptures.
Inspired by a photo of a veteran with his dogs, the sculp-
ture is designed by alumni Spencer Wilenius. The team put
more than 100 h into making the pieces. They started with
plasma cutting, cleaning, welding, and painting the steel,
then finished by installing the backlighting.
The 23- 30-in. sculptures are designed to be wall-
mounted. Available for $125 through Crooks at (218) 565-
8490, funds raised will go to PetsLoyal2Vets.
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
16 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Industry Notes
The Texas Workforce Commission has recently award-
ed Aransas County Independent School District a
$126,315 Jobs and Education for Texans grant. The funds
will help the school district purchase and install equipment
to provide 287 students with training for welding careers.
Dale Wilton, CEO of Central Welding Supply, has re-
cently announced a new Wasilla, Alaska, location. In Janu-
ary, build out was done for this store, warehouse, offices,
and cylinder storage yard. It will support retail sales, serve
as a central point for distribution in the Mat-Su Valley, and
deliver to users in Wasilla, Anchorage, and Palmer.
ACE Production Technologies, Inc., Spokane, Wash.,
has revealed Kimchuk, Inc., a provider to the electronic
manufacturing community, invested in a KISS-103 selec-
tive soldering machine. It has been installed at the compa-
nys facility in Danbury, Conn. In addition, Libra Indus-
tries, a privately held electronics manufacturing services
provider, has upgraded the software on its ACE KISS-102
selective soldering machine. The equipment runs faster,
and theres an improved user interface with dual screens.
Xiris Automation, Burlington, Ontario, Canada, has
signed Calibra Engineering Solutions as its exclusive
distributor of products for both the metal fabrication and
tube and pipe industries in Turkey. The optical equipment
providers postweld inspection system will be distributed. WJ
cm industries.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:21 PM Page 17

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

BB MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:00 PM Page 18
BUSINESS BRIEFS
Thyssenkrupp Sells Brazilian Steel Mill CSA
to Ternium for $1.6 Billion
Thyssenkrupp, Essen, Germany, has reached an agree-
ment with Ternium, a Latin American steel producer, on
selling the CSA Siderrgica do Atlntico steel plant in Brazil.
The purchase price is approximately $1.6 billion.
With the sale of CSA, we are parting fully with Steel
Americas. This is an important milestone in the transforma-
tion of thyssenkrupp into a strong industrial group, said
Heinrich Hiesinger, CEO of thyssenkrupp AG. We now gen-
erate over 75% of our sales with our profitable capital goods
and services businesses.
The parties aim to close the transaction by September 30.
Lockheed Martin CEO Discusses Growth Plans
CEO Marillyn A. Hewson discussed Lockheed Martins strategic
achievements and the corporations focus on innovation, among
many other details, at its annual Media Day.
Lockheed Martin Chairman, President, and Chief Execu-
tive Officer (CEO) Marillyn A. Hewson recently shared an
update on the corporations programs and opportunities for
continued business growth in the United States and abroad
during its annual Media Day. The global security and aero-
space company is headquartered in Bethesda, Md. She also
reviewed the current business environment and the compa-
nys role in strengthening national and economic security.
Elected leaders in government and our men and women
in uniform face a range of unprecedented challenges and
pressures that demand innovative solutions, said Hewson.
We believe that we are well-positioned to help our cus-
tomers meet these challenges, and that our innovative and
integrated solutions will lead to safety, security, and
progress for billions of people.
Her remarks at lockheedmartin.com/us/news/speeches/
0321-hewson-2017-media-day.html include the corporations
strategic achievements and performance in 2016, and how
its innovation focus will continue to power growth.
Additionally, Lockheed Martins full year 2016 results,
compared to 2015, consist of net sales at $47.2 vs. $40.5 bil-
lion, net earnings from continuing operations at $3.8 vs. $3.1
billion, and cash from operations at $5.2 vs. $5.1 billion.
CenterLine Becomes a Gold Standard Winner
CenterLine (Windsor) Limited has recently announced
that as a winner of Canadas Best Managed Companies pro-
18 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
gram in 2013, it has retained its status and earned Gold
Standard winner status in 2017. This national award is
sponsored by Deloitte, CIBC, Canadian Business, Smith
School of Business, and MacKay CEO Forums. Its much
more than just financial performance, said Peter Brown,
partner, Deloitte and coleader, Canadas Best Managed Com-
panies program. The ingredients to success also include
overall business performance and sustained growth. It takes
dedication and commitment from the entire organization.
Eriez Celebrates 75th Anniversary
Eriez, Erie,
Pa., is marking
75 years in busi-
ness. From hum-
ble beginnings in
1942, the compa-
ny has evolved
into a world
provider of sepa-
ration technolo-
gies with manu-
facturing facili-
O. F. Merwin and his son, Robert, started
Eriez in 1942. Since then, the company
ties in Australia,
has grown to serve as a world provider of Brazil, China, In-
separation technologies. dia, Japan, Mexi-
co, South Africa,
and the United
Kingdom as well as its Erie headquarters. There are sales of-
fices across the United States and some 80 international
markets on five continents. Its separation, material han-
dling, and inspection equipment is used throughout process
industries.
To honor this milestone, the company will release From Pio-
neer to World Leader, Volume II, an update of a book published
in 1992 to chronicle the events and people that shaped the
business during its first 50 years. This new edition will cover
the 75-year history and be printed later this year.
New robotic welders, laser cutting tables, high-efficiency
manufacturing cells, proprietary automated assembly sys-
tems, and global lean initiatives across the company have
driven cost out of operations, improved quality, and en-
hanced customer satisfaction, said Tim Shuttleworth, presi-
dent and CEO. By working predominantly in the field, our
team has continued to develop new and refined process so-
lutions, which lead to industry-changing breakthroughs.
Fronius Names LEAF Commercial Capital as
Exclusive Financing Partner
LEAF Commercial Capital, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa., has re-
vealed Fronius USA, LLC, Portage, Ind., chose the company
as its exclusive financing partner. The FinanceNOW plat-
form gives manufacturers, dealers, and their customers fi-
nancing that can be tailored. According to Stefan Mayr, Fro-
nius director of sales, users can select equipment financing
and have an option for managing cash flow while equipping
their facilities with the latest welding technologies. WJ
harris products.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:23 PM Page 19

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

Welding QA.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:01 PM Page 20
LASER WELDING Q&A
Q: We laser weld high volume
commercial products using a
multikilowatt continuous wave
(CW) fiber laser. We are experienc
ing persistent weld defects that re
quire costly inspection and lower
the process yield. Most of these
weld defects are severe underfills
and microcracks at the end of the
welds. The material is low carbon
steel. We typically find no porosity
nor microcracks elsewhere in the
welds.
A: As you have learned and described,
welding with a CW laser is not simple
nor intuitive. I have seen the issues
you described a number of times in
the past and, as it turns out, the two
issues (underfill and microcracks) are
related to each other.
Fig. 1 Metallographic transverse cross
section of the CW laser weld. Note the
recommended labeling of the main fea
tures of the weld nugget. (Courtesy of
readers submittal.)
Material = laser weldable grade of
carbon steel
Aspect ratio (AR) = 1.95; it con-
firms that this is a keyhole weld.
Symmetry of the weld = good.
Width (w) of the weld = 0.075 in.
(1.91 mm).
Underfill (N) = 0.019 in. (0.48
mm); it is 25% of the (w) of the weld.
Porosity = none; indicates the cor-
rect power density and correct loca-
tion of the focus of the laser beam.
Flaring on the top of the cross sec-
tion of the weld nugget is hardly visi-
ble; it indicates correct management
of the shielding gas.
Heat-affected zone (HAZ) is mod-
erate to good; it indicates that the
combination of laser power and weld-
ing speed is correct.
Surface effect. In keyhole weld-
ing, it is critical to control the power
density of the laser beam during the
20 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
welding cycle, so that it matches the
behavior of the metal. The typical
welding schedule has the following se-
quence of power (power density) char-
acteristics. At the start of the weld, the
laser power is ramped up; then the
power is lowered as the weld is com-
pleted. The general tendency is to
ramp up the laser power linearly and
then ramp down the power linearly.
Unfortunately, the cooling of the ma-
terial during the power ramp down
phase, as the welding process transi-
tions from keyhole mode to the con-
ductive mode, is not linear.
If the transition from the keyhole
mode to the conduction mode is not
managed correctly, the weld bead will
show a severe underfill due to the col-
lapse of the keyhole. The severe under-
fill will create excessive surface ten-
sion and the material will crack during
the solidification phase. In the cross
section of the weld in Fig. 1, the un-
derfill is already excessive; hence it is
easy to imagine that at the end of the
weld the underfill would be even
greater. By the way, there are other
reasons for the collapse of the keyhole
that may occur during the welding cy-
cle not only at the end of the weld.
Incorrect power down ramping is only
one of them.
From the Table of Classification of
Material (Welding Journal September
2016 column), the following power
density values are found for the key-
hole welding of Class II metals:
Vaporize the metal for good cou-
Fig. 2 Weld schedule for keyhole welding of Class II metals. (Ref.: HDE Technologies,
Inc.)
BY SIMON L. ENGEL
pling: ~ 5.0E + 07 w/in.2. (0.78E + 07
w/cm2).
Sustain the welding process in the
keyhole mode: ~ 2.0E + 07 w/in.2.
(0.31E+07 w/cm2). This value is suffi-
cient since the metal is already in the
molten state. The focal point of the
beam is to be located inside the mate-
rial to sustain the welding process.
Conduction weld: ~ 2.0 E + 06
w/in.2 (0.31E+06 w/cm2).
Figure 2 provides an example of the
weld schedule for keyhole welding
Class II metals.
At the start of the weld cycle, the
power density is raised to a level that
assures good coupling of the laser
beam and, without delay, the creation
of a keyhole. During the keyhole cycle,
the power density of the laser beam at
the surface may be lowered. When the
weld is completed, the power density
is lowered to allow the welding process
to transition into the conduction
mode. The dwell is time for the transi-
tion of keyhole to conduction mode to
take place. Beyond this point, the pow-
er and power density are lowered until
the AR of the weld is in the range of
1.0 to 0.6. Then the laser power is shut
down. Weld is completed. Using algo-
rithms, the key points of the weld cy-
cle may be computed, tabulated, and
the values entered in the system con-
troller.
Bulk effect. The relationship be-
tween the joint penetration, welding
speed, and laser power are available
from various sources, including the
Welding QA.qxp_Layout 1 4/10/17 9:27 AM Page 21
Fig. 3 One suggested method to de
termine the crack sensitivity rating of
metals. (Ref.: HDE Technologies, Inc.)
manufacturers of lasers and laser sys-
tems. From that information, and
knowing the power densities required
to perform keyhole welding, we can
compute the diameter of the focused
laser beam.
Microcracks. One of the reasons
for microcracks at the end of the weld
is the excessive surface tension during
the solidification cycle of the weld.
Crack sensitivity ratings of metals may
be found in published sources1 or it
may be measured assuming that
you have access to a laser. As shown in
Fig. 3, make a spot weld over the open-
ing in the butt joint geometry using
the same laser parameters that are to
be used for the welding process; in-
crease the opening until the material
in the weld nugget cracks. Then meas-
ure the depth of the underfill and the
radius of the meniscus. These meas-
urements would be the limits that
must be avoided in production. Note
the following:
The crack sensitivity rating of the
metal is not a function of the weld
penetration.
AWS C7.4/C7.4M:2008, Process
Specification and Operator Qualification
for Laser Beam Welding, Annex D, clear-
ly states that no microcracks are al-
lowed in laser welds.
Managing the power density of the
laser during keyhole welds sounds
complicated and may take a little time
to compute the first time. After that,
the computation takes much less time.
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
The reward is that, in most cases, the
improved weld quality becomes evi-
dent often at the completion of
the first weld. No underfill and no
microcracks. WJ
Reference
1. Albright, C. E. 1989. Topics in
CO2 laser spot welding. The Industrial
Laser Annual Handbook, p. 80.
SIMON L. ENGEL is president of HDE Technolo
gies, Inc., Elk Grove, Calif. He serves
as vice chair of the AWS C7C Subcommittee
on Laser Beam Welding and Cutting and is
a member of the US TAG for ISO/TC44/
SC10/WG9 on Hybrid Welding. He is also
a senior member of the Laser Institute of
America and a life member of the Society of
Manufacturing Engineers. He is considered a
specialist in industrial laser applications and
has been in the business for forty years.
Questions may be sent to Simon Engel,
c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., #130,
Miami, FL 33166, or via email at
simon_of_hde@yahoo.com.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 21
MayStainlessQA.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:34 PM Page 22

STAINLESS Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI

within the steel, so that after the an-

Q: The July 2016 issue of the Welding Journal contained an article titled Se nealing, the steel is largely homoge-
lecting Filler Metals for Stainless Steel. While the article provides useful in nized and there is no ferrite phase in
formation, the section headed Why is my stainless steel welding wire it. After the steel, as coiled rod arrives
magnetic? contains incorrect information in its first two paragraphs. The in at the filler metal producer, the rod is
correct information is stated as follows: cold drawn to reduce the diameter to-
Fully austenitic stainless steel is nonmagnetic. However, welding temper wards the final size. There may be an-
atures create a relatively large grain in the microstructure, which results in other anneal or two between arrival of
the weld being crack sensitive. To mitigate sensitivity to hot cracking, elec the rod coil at the filler metal producer
trode manufacturers add alloying elements, including ferrite Fig. 4. The and shipment of the finished wire to
ferrite phase causes the austenite grains to be much finer, so the weld be the user.
comes more crack resistant. So what causes the magnetic re-
A magnet will not stick to a spool of austenitic stainless filler metal, but a sponse in the finished wire if there is
person holding a magnet might feel a slight pull because of the retained fer no ferrite remaining in the wire?
rite. Unfortunately, this causes some users to think their product has been Martensite. Most, but not all, nomi-
mislabeled or they are using the wrong filler metal (especially if they tore the nally austenitic stainless steel alloys,
label off the wire basket). including ER308L, ER308LSi, ER316L,
and 318LSi, consist of austenite that is
not exactly stable under heavy cold
A: In the first paragraph quoted above, a draft with a gas-shielded arc welding work as in wire drawing. The cold work
it is not correct to state that electrode process (GMAW, GTAW, FCAW) can causes the austenite to transform par-
manufacturers add alloying elements, cause nitrogen to be added from the tially to martensite. This martensite is
including ferrite. Ferrite is not an al- air into the weld metal, thereby reduc- ferromagnetic, just like ferrite. A mag-
loying element. A manufacturer of ing the ferrite content. net cannot be used to tell the differ-
welding wire or electrodes does not Another possible means of affect- ence between ferrite and martensite.
have a container of ferrite that is ing ferrite content occurs in sub- Annealing at temperatures like 1900F
added to the metal because there is no merged arc welding when a flux not (1040C) causes the martensite to re-
such thing. intended for stainless steel is used, vert back to austenite. When the wire
Ferrite is a metallurgical phase that which can result in chromium loss and is annealed, it is therefore not ferro-
results from a balance between alloy- a reduction in ferrite content as com- magnetic because the martensite re-
ing elements that promote austenite pared to what might otherwise be verts back to austenite.
formation during solidification (pri- expected. The wire producer generally does
marily nickel, carbon, and nitrogen) The incorrect information in the not supply such wires in the fully an-
and alloying elements that promote first quoted paragraph creates misun- nealed condition because the wire is
ferrite during solidification (primarily derstanding, but it does not generally soft when annealed and generally does
chromium and molybdenum). The bal- lead to inappropriate action. The not feed well. So the supplier generally
ance between these two groups of al- second quoted paragraph contains a cold reduces (draws) the wire to reduce
loying elements provides the potential more serious, incorrect statement if its diameter to final size after the last
for ferrite formation during solidifica- taken literally by a quality assurance anneal, to harden it, and make it feed
tion. To obtain the desired results, inspector. better. Different wire suppliers per-
filler metal manufacturers use tools A magnetic response from a nomi- form the last anneal at different diam-
like the WRC-1992 diagram to adjust nally austenitic stainless steel wire eters, so that the amount of cold work
the alloy element additions to a stain- such as ER308L, ER308LSi, ER316L, after the last anneal for a given wire
less steel filler metal. or ER316LSi is not due to the ferrite in diameter differs from one manufac-
However, the actual weld metal fer- the wire. In fact, it has nothing to do turer to another. Therefore, the fin-
rite content that can be measured with ferrite. When the steel is first ished wire martensite content also
when the weld metal reaches ambient melted in a steel mill, the as-cast steel varies from one manufacturer to
temperature is also affected by the will likely contain some ferrite, but the another.
cooling rate and any postweld heat steel is subsequently hot worked and Other than for feeding purposes,
treatment that might be performed. annealed before it reaches a diameter the martensite content of such wires
The ferrite content of the weld metal close to that of the finished welding has no effect on the finished weld
is not fixed while the alloy content of wire. There may be several cycles of metal because that martensite disap-
the filler metal is fixed when solidifica- hot working and annealing. The ferrite pears when the wire is heated, even
tion is completed, or even before. phase contains more ferrite-promot- before it melts.
The ferrite content of the weld ing alloy elements, and less austenite- It is easy to demonstrate this with a
metal is also not fixed by the alloy ele- promoting elements, than does the spool of wire that provides a fairly
ments in the filler metal because the austenite phase. strong ferromagnetic response. Feed
welder can change one very important These cycles of hot working and an- about 2 ft of this wire out of a GMAW
alloying element (nitrogen) by incor- nealing cause the ferrite phase to gun, then stop feeding and turn the
rect technique. Drawing a long arc transform to the austenite phase by wire feed speed to zero. Use a C-clamp
with a covered electrode or welding in diffusion of the alloying elements to anchor the far end of the wire to the

22 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MayStainlessQA.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:34 PM Page 23
grounded workpiece on which welding
is intended. Afterward, energize the
contactor on the welding machine
without feeding the wire so that resist-
ance heating of the wire causes the
wire to heat to a bright yellow color.
Then de-energize the contactor on the
welding machine and remove the C-
clamp so that the end of the wire is
freed from electrical contact with the
intended workpiece. After the wire
cools, test the wire with a magnet. It
will be found that the ferromagnetic
response is gone because the resist-
ance heating has annealed the length
of wire extending out of the gun, caus-
ing the martensite to revert to
austenite.
Now consider what could happen if
a quality assurance inspector acts
upon the incorrect information re-
garding magnetic response in the July
article. For example, Manufacturer As
wire could be annealed at a diameter
only a few thousandth of an inch
larger than final size, so that only a lit-
tle martensite is present after final
drawing of the finished wire. Manufac-
turer B purchases rod coil from the
same heat but performs the final an-
neal at a larger diameter than Manu-
facturer A, then draws the wire
through several more dies to reduce
the wire to final diameter after the last
anneal, so that much more martensite
is present in the finished wire.
It is entirely possible that two man-
ufacturers would each obtain part of
the same heat from a steel mill be-
cause a heat of stainless steel rod coil
could easily consist of several hundred
thousand pounds, and that could be
more than an entire years sales of a
given alloy by one manufacturer.
Testing with a magnet, the quality
assurance inspector erroneously may
conclude that Manufacturer As wire
contains less ferrite than Manufac-
turer Bs wire. The quality insurance
inspector may think that more ferrite
is better for crack resistance or that
less ferrite is better for low-tempera-
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
ture toughness, then erroneously
reject one or the other wire. Rejecting
either wire based on the magnetic
response of the wire would be
imprudent.
Incorrect information can lead to
bad decisions, as well as significant
errors in a fabricating facility. That is
why it is important to set the record
straight. WJ
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president, Damian
Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc. He is a
past treasurer of the IIW and a member of
the A5D Subcommittee on Stainless Steel
Filler Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stain
less Steel Structural Welding, and WRC Sub
committee on Welding Stainless Steels and
NickelBase Alloys. He is a past chair of the
A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Allied
Materials, and served as AWS president
(20052006). Questions may be sent to
Damian J. Kotecki c/o Welding Journal,
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166, or
via email at damian@damiankotecki.com.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 23
RWMAQA - Agin.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:12 PM Page 24
RWMA Q&A
Q: My company has been nut and
stud welding for years using alter
nating current (AC) and mid
frequency direct current (MFDC)
welding machines with great suc
cess. We recently ran into some is
sues with a new hotstamped part
that we couldnt projection weld
consistently. What could be caus
ing this?
A: Your question is somewhat compli-
cated, and one question will lead to an-
other and then another. The answers
to each are as follows.
The automotive industry is trend-
ing to make structural components
stronger and lighter, and hot-stamped
steel can accomplish both of those.
The down side: traditional AC and
MFDC welding machines cant projec-
tion weld it consistently. All hot-
stamped parts are not created equally
die to die, run to run, each part
can be different, and therein lies the
challenge.
Q: Okay, so each part is different. My
AC and MFDC welding machines both
have closedloop feedback that allow
the welder to adjust the settings
during welding. Where am I going
wrong?
A: Lets start this one with some theo-
ry. To generate weld heat, the formula
is
Weld Heat = I2 (R)(t) Thermal Loss
where I = current, R = resistance, and
t = time.
In this case, lets establish that t,
time, and thermal loss are constant
numbers and will not change. Going
back to my first answer, each part will
have a different R, resistance. Simply
put, the closed-loop system will always
make sure that the I, current, stays the
same. If the current stays the same
and the time stays the same, the delta
in resistance will result in a change of
heat produced producing inconsis-
tent results.
Q: If I cant use my AC or MFDC weld
ing machines to projection weld hot
stamped parts, what should I do?
A: It has been found capacitor dis-
charge (CD) welding machines can
have great success in welding hot-
24 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
stamped parts. A CD welding machine
combines super-fast rise times, high
currents, high weld forces, short weld
times, and lack of feedback from an
open-loop system.
Q: Ive been told my MFDC welding
machine has the fastest rise time from
any manufacturer. I am still having
issues projection welding the hot
stamped material. Why is that?
A: The fast rise time is just part of the
equation for success. The lack of feed-
back from an open-loop system is also
imperative for a consistent process.
Q: How does what you are saying fit
into the heat generation equation?
And, if you have no feedback from an
openloop system, how do you know
if you have a good weld?
A: Heres where it all ties in. Ohms
Law says that V = IR, where V = volt-
age, I = current and R = resistance.
The secondary voltage is going to
remain consistent from the trans-
former and when the resistance in the
hot-stamped part increases or decreas-
es, the current will vary inversely pro-
portionate. This is what makes the
lack of feedback from the open-loop
system another key to success in CD
welding. Referring back to the heat
generation equation: the current, I,
does not remain a constant value as it
does with an AC or MFDC machine. As
the resistance varies, so can the cur-
rent, allowing for a more consistent
heat generation and consistent weld-
ing results.
As for not having a closed-loop
system within the weld control, we
integrate weld checkers, which we can
program high/low windows around
the current, voltage, resistance, dis-
placement, and weld time into our ma-
chine packages. Any value that is out-
side the window would result in a ma-
chine fault.
Q: Ive heard CD welding machines
are unproven, slow, and expensive. Is
this true?
A: We manufactured our first CD weld-
ing machine for an automotive appli-
cation back in 2007. That welding
machine is still in production today
making great parts. Through the
BY ALLEN AGIN
years, we have had the original equip-
ment manufacturers, Tier 1 and Tier 2
suppliers, bring parts to our welding
lab. We have demonstrated consistent
results to all of them.
The welding process itself is very
fast. A CD weld might take 6 ms to 4 s
to recharge its capacitors 100% de-
pending on the system. It begins
recharging almost immediately after
the weld is complete. In most applica-
tions, the cycle time from weld com-
pletion to weld current starting is
more than 4 s. This cycle time would
include cylinder retraction, part han-
dling, fastener loading, and cylinder
extension.
Expensive is a qualitative term and
needs to be fully reviewed. While true,
the capital expense for a CD welding
machine could be more than for an AC
or MFDC welding machine, there are
many cost-saving benefits of CD weld-
ing. First, our capacitor banks need
only a 30-A, single-phase primary
power feed to charge. Second, the elec-
trode life extends far beyond AC or
MFDC. Some users report changing
electrodes once a week compared to
multiple times a shift with the AC and
MFDC welding machines. Third, the
water cooling needs drop to 12 gal/m
compared to 34 gal/m for an AC press
welding machine or even 812 gal/m
for an MFDC welding machine. Finally,
the greatest cost-saving benefit of CD
welding comes from the consistency
and not having to safety weld your
fasteners. WJ
ALLEN AGIN is the Midwest regional
sales manager for Weld Systems Inte
grators, Inc., Bedford, Ohio, and has
been involved in the welding industry
since 1968. He is currently a published
coauthor of articles and papers on pro
jection fastener welding to highboron
AlSicoated hotstamped materials. He
has been involved in the development
of processes for producing consistent
projection welding of fasteners to hot
stamped parts for the automotive in
dustry and is a member of AWS and
RWMA. Questions and comments can
be sent to Allen Agin c/o Welding
Journal, 8669 NW36 St., #130
Miami, FL, 33166, or via email at
allen@wsiweld.com.
kobelco.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:24 PM Page 25

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

Letters to the Editor May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:07 PM Page 26
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Readers Question Pulsed
GMAW Article
The February 2017 issue of the
Welding Journal contains an article
titled An Introduction to Pulsed
GMAW on pages 7678. The last page
contains the following statement:
Consider stainless steel. This material
cannot handle too much heat or the
welding operator may burn the
chromium and nickel out of the base
material. As a result, the weld metal
and surrounding joint turn into mild
steel, which lacks corrosion resistance
and toughness. This statement is not
correct. There is no way that enough
chromium and nickel could be burned
out so that the weld metal and sur-
rounding joint turn into mild steel.
The heat tint on the weld metal and
heat-affected zone (HAZ) surface does
slightly reduce corrosion resistance as
compared to that of the unaffected
base metal. This corrosion resistance
is easily restored by pickling the sur-
face to remove the heat tint. Light
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
26 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
grinding or a buffing wheel can also
remove the heat tint. These steps are
only necessary for the most severe cor-
rosion situations the base metal is de-
signed to resist. The heat-tinted metal
is still stainless steel.
Damian J. Kotecki
President, Damian Kotecki Welding
Consultants
Chapel Hill, N.C.
AWS Past President 20052006
Ive never encountered/heard of
austenitic stainless steel welded
with the appropriate consumable (or
even an autogenous weld) turning
into mild steel because the excessive
heat during welding burned out the
chromium and nickel.
George Dormer
AWS Life Member, Retired
Fairport, N.Y.
We would like to clarify a statement
made in the article An Introduction to
Pulsed GMAW. We indicated that under
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
specific circumstances stainless steel
could be turned into mild steel. The state-
ment should have read that too much
heat may burn the chromium and nickel
out of the base material, also known as
sugaring. As a result, the weld metal
and surrounding joint lack corrosion re-
sistance. Thank you to the readers for
bringing this to our attention. WJ
Erik Brown
Welding Engineer and AWS CWI
Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
Appleton, Wis.
Dear Readers:
The Welding Journal encourages
an exchange of ideas through
letters to the editor. Please send
your letters to the Welding Journal
Dept., 8669 NW 36th St., #130,
Miami, FL 33166. You can also
reach us by FAX at (305) 443-7404
or by sending an e-mail to Cindy
Weihl at cweihl@aws.org.
education.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/7/17 11:13 AM Page 27

American Welding Society

LEARNING
aws.org

EDUCATTORS:
THE FUUTURE OF WELDING
W IS IN YOUR HAANDS.
WE TAAKE
A THATT REESPONSIBILLITY SERIOUUSLYY..
AWWS Online Leearning supports you, the Educa
E tor, by providing the resources you need to educate and
inspire the nexxt generation of welders.
These industry-recognized
y resources aree tailor-made for todays welding
w educator, offering turnkey
solutions that take
t welder training to thee next level. Below are jusst a few examples of the reesources
available to you:
Online Educaational Library: The AW WS Online Educational Library is a comprehensive
c
collection of AW
AWS online courses delivered through an innovative, easy-too-use Learning
Management System. This versatile e-learnning library complements exissting real-time
training programs, distance learning, blendeed learning, and flipped classsroom models.
Subscribers gaain 24/7 access to the current collection
c of 12 welding coursess, as well as all
new courses added
a to the libraryat no extraa cost.
cost The Library is affordably priced
p to fit the
budgets of acaademic institutions, corporate traaining programs, and apprenticeships.
SENSE: The AW WS SENSE
S Program is a comprehenssive set of minimum Standards anda
Guidelines for Welding Education programs. Schoools can incorporate SENSE into thheir
own curriculum inn order to help attain Perkins fuunding as well as to help insure an
education that iss consistent with other SENSEE schools across the nation. This T
program is fully suupported by the American Weldinng Society (AW
WS). Find out moree at:
aws.orgg/educatioon/sense
Academ mic Access: The AW WS Academic Access is a subscription prroduct created
specifica
ifi ally
ll to
t supportt the
th teaching
t hi done
d e by
b educa
d tional
ti l institutions
i tit ti offe
ff ring
i courses in
i
welding and allied technologies. Thee AW WS Academic Access subsscription offers
read-onlly online access to over 250 puublications from AW
WS, including standards and
codes. To
To learn more at: academicaccesss.aws.orgg
Welding Handbook: The renowned AW WS Weldingg Handbook series is a must haave
reference set for engineers,
e structural designers, technologists, inspectors, weldeers,
welding educatorss, and others who need to undeerstand this dynamic industry. The T
Welding Handboooks chronicle the industry''s continual advancement and a
diversification, deetail its technologies and proceesses, and put safety, quality, and
a
qualification issuees in perspective
perspective. Buy your copy today at pubs.aws.org
pubs aws org
PP MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 12:54 PM Page 28
PRODUCT & PRINT SPOTLIGHT
Solder on Polyester Bonds
SurfaceMount Components
The companys newly-developed
solder encapsulated on a polyester
substrate joins surface-mount technol-
ogy components, including fine-
pitched integrated circuits, using low-
temperature solder. To ensure connec-
tion, the solder joints are protected by
UV-cured encapsulant, enabling them
to withstand vibration and mechanical
shock. Right-angle LED lights can be
attached to enhance backlighting for
user-interface applications. The flexi-
ble substrate is available in clear,
28 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Attention on Brazing and Soldering
translucent, or white. Typical thick-
nesses are 0.13 and 0.18 mm.
Molex
molex.com
(800) 7866539
Multiprocess Welding Machine
Includes GMAW Brazing
The X8 welding machine is a multi-
process system for GMAW, SMAW,
GMAW brazing, cladding, and goug-
ing. It consists of a power source that
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
offers up to 600 A, a wire feeder, er-
gonomic welding guns, a wireless con-
trol pad, and the WeldEye welding
management software. Its software
provides access to digital WPSs, reduc-
ing the need for printed documents.
The machine also offers a control pad
that allows the welder to activate
welding as well as view content on a
5.7-in. display. Designed to meet the
changing needs of the manufacturing
industry, the machine can be upgraded
with software to work on new materi-
als, applications, and welding manage-
ment demands. It is also suitable with
common electrical network voltages.
Kemppi
kemppi.com
+358 3 89911
Report Presents the Soldering
Tin Market Growth Forecast for
20172022
Soldering Tin Market Research Re-
PP MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 12:55 PM Page 29

port, Industry Analysis and Growth Fore-
cast from 2017 to 2022 provides a
study of the current and future state
of the soldering tin industry. The re-
port offers definitions, classifications,
applications, and chain structure of
the soldering tin industry, as well as
an analysis of the international mar-
ket including development history,
competitive landscape analysis, and
major regional development status.
The report also examines the key play-
ers in the soldering tin market
throughout various regions, such as
North America, Europe, China, Japan,
Southeast Asia, and India. Spread
across 125 pages, the report includes
tables, figures, and charts.
Report Analyzes the 2016
Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger
Market
Global Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger
Consumption 2016 Market Research Re-
port describes the current state of this
industry and provides guidance for
companies or individuals interested in
the market. It covers definitions, clas-
sifications, applications, industry
chain structure, policies, plans, manu-
facturing processes, and cost struc-
tures. It also includes the market size
(volume and value), segment markets
by regions, types, applications, and
companies of major regions, such as
the USA, Europe, China, and Japan.
The report features the company pro-
files, product pictures and specifica-
tions, sales, market share, and contact
information of major industry players.
The feasibility of a new investment is

360 Market Updates

360marketupdates.com
(408) 5209750

Solder Paste Enhances Printing

Performance

The Alpha OM-353 and OM-535

deliver lead-free, no-clean solder paste
for increased printing performance.
The OM-353 is an ultra-fine feature
print and air reflow-capable solder
paste, suitable for assemblies sensitive
to component warpage or processes
that require cleaning. It provides a
printing performance down to a 180-
m pad size. The OM-535 is a low-
temperature paste with drop-shock re-
sistance and electrical reliability for
heat-sensitive reflow applications. It
enhances solder joint and flux residue
cosmetics even when using long/high
thermal soaking.

Alpha Assembly SolutionsTM

alphaassembly.com
(908) 7913000
For info, go to aws.org/adindex

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 29

PP MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 12:55 PM Page 30
assessed, and the overall research con-
clusions are offered.
Market Research Reports
marketresearchreports.com
+91 876 274 6600
Masking Agent Protects
Electronics During Soldering
The Dymax Speedmask 9-20479-B-
Rev-A masking agent safeguards print-
ed circuit board connectors and other
components during soldering and con-
formal coating applications. It is suit-
able with manual, semiautomatic, or
fully automated dispensing. It cures
and forms a stable coating in seconds
under UV/visible light, and is removed
by peeling, leaving behind no ionic or
silicone contamination. It is also sol-
vent and silicone free, as well as be-
nign to gold or copper finishes.
Intertronics
intertronics.co.uk
+44 (0)1865 842842
Research Kit Enables Gold Plate
Soldering with Indium Alloys
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
The Soldering to Gold Research Kit
employs indium-based alloys for sol-
dering to gold plating, reducing gold
scavenging damage. These alloys cause
less gold scavenging damage than tin-
based solders. The kit provides three
different alloys in 0.030-in. (0.76-
mm), solid-core wire with melting
30 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
temperatures ranging from 143
310C. Also included are two compati-
ble fluxes TACFlux 007 and 012.
Research kits can be ordered at
buy.solder.com.
Indium Corp.
indium.com
(315) 8534900
Profiling System Monitors
Miniature Wave Soldering
The Datapaq SelectivePaq features a
small thermal profiling system
designed for miniature wave selective
soldering processes. It uses four ther-
mocouples to take measurements
from the electronic assembly as it
passes through the preheating and dip
soldering phases. Sample intervals can
be adjusted up to 20 times/s. The de-
tailed temperature profiles enable elec-
tronics manufacturers to adjust their
operations for optimum efficiency, val-
idate the quality of printed circuit
boards to customers, and prove adher-
ence to both solder and component
temperature constraints.
Fluke Process Instruments
flukeprocessinstruments.com
(831) 4583900
Report Forecasts Braze Alloys
Market Growth through 2025
Braze Alloys Market Globally Expect-
ed to Drive Growth through 2025 indi-
PP MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 12:56 PM Page 31

cates that the braze alloys market is

expected to witness a steady growth
during the forecast period. The report
speculates the growing adoption of
brazing over other processes like weld-
ing and soldering for bonding metal
pieces across a large number of indus-
trial applications, as well as the advan-
tages offered by brazing. However, the
report finds that the changing prices
of base metals is likely to act as an im-
pediment to the markets growth. Also
covered are base metal key market
segments, such as copper, gold, silver,
and aluminum; end-use industries, in-
cluding automotive, electronics and
electrical, and construction; and global
key players.
Constructed with Coating to Leave Minimal Residue
The Brass Knuckle SmartCut BKCR404 offers cut protection, slip
resistance, and no-smudge surface protection. Its coating leaves minimal
residue or marking on glass, polished metal, ceramics, painted surfaces, and
other fine finishes. With a polyethylene fiber thread blend, it provides ANSI
Cut Level 4 protection without bulk. The polyurethane coating over palms and
fingers is pliable, which enhances ergonomics, dry grip, dexterity, and tactile
sensitivity.
Brass Knuckle Safety Products
brassknuckleprotection.com
(770) 6748930

Future Market Insights

futuremarketinsights.com
44 (0) 20 7692 8790

Report Examines the

Silver and GoldBased
Brazing Materials Market
for 20172021
Silver- and Gold-Based Brazing Mate-
rials Market Driving Factors, Market
Analysis, Investment Feasibility and
Trends 20172021 covers the present
scenario and growth prospects of the
silver- and gold-based brazing materi-
als industry for the four-year forecast
period. It also discusses the key ven-
dors and calculates the market size
and revenue gathered from the sales
of the silver- and gold-based brazing
industry. The report spans 69 pages.

Market Reports World

marketreportsworld.com
(408) 5209750

Soldering System Provides

Alternative to Inline Convection

Designed for surface-mount tech-

nology assemblers, the 4040 vapor
phase soldering system offers an alter-
native to inline convection. The sys-
tem is installable in most workspaces
without the need for complex duct-
work and external venting. Its heat
transfer conditions generate minimal
exhaust that can be managed by any
self-contained fume extraction sys-
tem. Its illuminated processing cham-
ber, which includes a 14-in. viewing
window, is isolated during soldering,
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
continued on next page
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 31
PP MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 12:56 PM Page 32
and a fluid recovery system collects
and filters condensate during cool-
down. Cycle times ranging from 6 to
9 min or less coupled with a 18 16
in. work holder allow batch soldering
of multiple boards for throughput
that supports low-to-medium volume
production requirements.
Mann Corp.
manncorp.com
(858) 4906266
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
32 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Submit a New Products Item
for Consideration
If your company has a new weld-
ing, fabricating, or manufacturing
product readily available, the details
required to be considered for possi-
ble publication in the Welding Jour-
nal are as follows:
Press release with the products
name, important features, and spe-
cific industries its aimed for.
High-resolution jpg or tiff photo
(266 or more dpi).
Please e-mail submissions to
Associate Editor Katie Pacheco at
kpacheco@aws.org.
Looking for a Welding Job?
The American Welding Society
has enhanced its Jobs In Welding
website at jobsinwelding.com.
The redesigned career portal in-
cludes additional capabilities for
companies seeking workers and in-
dividuals looking for jobs.
Through relationships with
many job boards and distributors,
it offers direct access to more than
88% of the welding-related jobs
posted on the Internet.
Users may search various open-
ings for welders, Certified Welding
Inspectors, engineers, technicians,
and managers/supervisors.
In addition, the website contains
the following highlights:
The home page displays featured
welding jobs along with the com-
panies looking to fill them and
city/state locations.
The job seeker section connects
individuals to new career oppor-
tunities by allowing them to post
an anonymous rsum, view jobs,
and make personal job alerts.
This area has rsum tips, certifi-
cation information, and a school
locator.
The employer area enables associ-
ation with qualified applicants.
Rsums, job postings, and prod-
ucts/pricing options may be
viewed here.
Visit the website to create or
access job seeker and employer
accounts.
fabtech usa.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/7/17 11:09 AM Page 33

NORTH AMERICAS LARG

GEST METAAL
FORMING, FA
ABRICATTING
G, WELDING,
AND FINISHING EVENTS

TORONTO

CHICAGO
G

MONTERREY

AT
TTEND EXHIBIT SPO
S N SOR
fab
btechexpo..com
Feature - NCC - May.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 9:23 AM Page 34

The Cream of the Crop:

Craft Competition Draws
Industrys Brightest Talent
BY KATIE PACHECO

Pipe welders competed for top

honors at the 2017 National Craft
Competition in Fort Lauderdale, Fla.

Construction apprentices
A
t the blaring shrill of a blow horn, the Broward Convention
Center grew busy with the banging of hammers, the quicken-
and trainees traveled to ing of feet, and the flash of flying sparks as competitors raced
to gain momentum at the 30th annual National Craft Championships
the National Craft (NCC) in Fort Lauderdale, Fla. The two-day competition took place
March 1 and 2. It called forth 170 construction apprentices and
Championships in Florida trainees from 28 states to compete for top honors in their craft.
to put their skills to the Created by the Associated Builders and Contractors (ABC), this
craft competition is designed to spotlight careers in construction. It
test and jumpstart their also gives craftsmen and their sponsoring companies the opportuni-
ty to see where they stack up with the rest of the country, explained
careers Jeff Leieritz, ABCs senior media relations manager.
The event hosted 15 competitions representing 13 crafts includ-
ing welding, sheet metal, plumbing, pipefitting, millwright/industri-
al maintenance mechanic, and masonry.

34 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Feature - NCC - May.qxp_Layout 1 4/10/17 2:53 PM Page 35

The first day of the competition

commenced with a 2-h, craft-based
written exam based on the Contren
Learning Series Core Curriculum mod-
ules developed by the NCCER.
The second day was comprised of a
6-h, hands-on practical performance
test measuring a range of skills, in-
cluding workmanship, project disas-
sembly, and safety Fig. 1. The writ-
ten portion accounted for 25% of the
total score, whereas the hands-on seg-
ment was worth 75%.

Structural and Pipe

Welding Competitions
The welding portion of the compe-
tition consists of two separate classifi-
cations: structural welding and pipe
welding. To be eligible to participate in
one of these categories, competitors
must not be certified in the welding
process used in the practical perform-
Fig. 1 Pipe welding competitor safely uses a 4 12-in. angle grinder.
ance test longer than six months from
the date of the competition, and they
should have completed the NCCER Companies sponsor the competitors to tor or boss believes in you, or you won
core curriculum modules. These re- represent their organization or region, many competitions, he said. As a re-
quirements help ensure all welders be- explained Leieritz. In this way, the in- sult, the welders seen at NCC repre-
gin on an even footing. dustry is investing in their best and sent the industrys cream-of-the-crop
Additionally, the welders should be brightest. journeymen.
enrolled in the NCC via a sponsor. Getting here means your instruc- Becoming eligible isnt the most dif-

Fig. 2 A structural welding competitor prepares to cut a 38- Fig. 3 A pipe welding competitor joins a 5-in. Schedule 80
in.-thick plate using an oxyfuel torch. pipe in the 2G position.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 35

Feature - NCC - May.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 9:24 AM Page 36

ficult part; its the parameters for the

competition that welders find most
Meet Holley Thomas, challenging. The structural and pipe
welding competitions required weld
a Competitor Turned Judge coupons to be joined with shielded
metal arc welding using E6010 elec-
Seven years ago, Holley Thomas was just like the other competi- trodes for the root pass and E7018
electrodes for the fill and cap passes.
tors vying for gold at this years National Craft Championships Both competitions were judged accord-
(NCC). ing to AWS QC7-93, Standard for AWS
I decided to compete at NCC because Ive always liked the chal- Certified Welders.
lenge, and I felt it was something that would jumpstart my career The individual welding competi-
and put my name out in the industry. tions also had their unique parameters
Thomas, a graduate of Central Alabama Community College, be- and scoring criteria. For instance, the
gan preparing for the competition six months in advance by taking structural welding competition re-
the sample written tests three times a week and rigorously practicing quired a 38-in.-thick plate to be welded
her welding skills. in the 3G, with uphill progression, and
The hard work paid off. In 2010, Thomas won the gold medal for 4G positions. Structural welding com-
the NCC structural welding competition, making her the first female petitors were also tasked with display-
ing the knowledge and skills applicable
to place at the event. When asked what the most challenging aspect to torch setup and breakdown, oxyfuel
of the competition was, Thomas said, Conquering my fears. We prac- cutting, weldment assembly, and print
ticed in a controlled environment, but when you come here to com- reading Fig. 2.
pete, youre in a fishbowl. In contrast, pipe welding competi-
Thomas also expressed pride at being able to overcome those tors were required to weld a 5-in.
nerves by not just competing well, but also winning. Look at what I Schedule 80 pipe in the 5G, with uphill
did. I gave it my all, and I got to do it in front of all these people. progression, and 2G positions
Thomass accomplishments did not stop there. In 2015, she won Fig. 3.
the NCC Craft Professional of the Year award, taking home a Dodge According to Bill Cherry, project
Ram 1500 truck. manager of the NCC pipe welding
Currently, Thomas is a lead quality inspector and welding instruc- competition, the difficulty level and
welding parameters are designed to
tor for KBR, Enid, Okla. She is also a judge for the NCC structural mimic in-field conditions. The degree
welding competition, where she gets to see beginning-level welders of difficulty is a four out of five be-
take the same steps she took years ago. Looking back, she credits the cause theyre using restricted jigs and
NCC for helping her get where she is today. The competition is a welding in a restricted position, he
great thing to put on a rsum, and it helped me progress faster. said.

The Victors in Welding

On March 3, the winners of each of
the 13 NCC competitions were an-
nounced during a breakfast awards
ceremony. First-place winners for the
welding categories were Brandyn
Kendall in pipe welding and Israel Pi-
con Jr. in structural welding. Kendall
represents his employer and training
sponsor, Cianbro, Pittsfield, Maine.
Picon represents his employer, Per-
formance Contractors, Inc., Houston,
Tex., and his training sponsor, the ABC
of Greater Houston Chapter. Both
winners were awarded gold medals
and a cash prize of $750.
Second- and third-place winners in
the welding category received silver
and bronze medals, as well as $500
and $350, respectively. However, no
one left the competition empty hand-
ed. All competitors took home gifts
NCC Judge Holley Thomas proudly stands in front of the 2017 structural welding from NCC sponsors.
competition, where she competed seven years ago.

36 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Feature - NCC - May.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 9:24 AM Page 37
Fig. 4 Gold Medalist Israel Picon Jr. (center) poses with the NCC representatives after winning first place in structural welding.
Opportunity Knocks for Gold
Winner Israel Picon Jr.
Winning an industry-recognized
competition like NCC is worth more
than its weight in gold for Israel Picon
Jr. Fig. 4.
Im excited. I think winning this
competition has opened up a lot of
doors. People know my name, said Pi-
con, a senior at Dr. Kirk Lewis Career
and Technical High School, Houston,
Tex.
Picon also expressed pride at his
ability to compete against and beat
welders nearly double his age.
One of my classmates, Ramiro,
was participating with me. I think we
were the only high schoolers, he ex-
plained. It was great to go against
guys who were the same age as our
dads. We were right up there with
them. I think we proved that being
young doesnt mean you cant do
something.
Picon credits winning to his dedica-
tion to studying and practicing every
day. You get whatever you put in, he
said. Some advice I can give for others
who are considering a career in the
construction industry is to always put
effort into it because you can get a lot
from it.
Building a Workforce
One Competition at a Time
The NCC is designed to highlight
the significance of careers in construc-
tion, foster public interest, and help
fill the looming skills gap by delivering
industry-approved training and en-
hancing the job marketability of com-
petitors. One of the ways it does this is
by informing young people about the
many opportunities available in con-
struction through outreach.
Ruth Tirado, vice president of edu-
cation and training, works with high
schools and colleges to get kids in-
volved in the industry and show them
different career paths and what train-
ing they will need. Tirado visits
schools, sends local contractors to
speak to students one on one, and or-
ganizes class field trips to events such
as the NCC competition.
Present at the 2017 NCC event
were several South Florida educational
institutions, including Plantation High
School, Coral Springs High School, At-
lantic High School, Seagull High
School, and Whiddon-Rodgers Educa-
tion Center.
Tirado also works to eradicate com-
mon misconceptions that discourage
young people from entering the con-
struction industry. The culture needs
to be changed for people to under-
stand that construction is a worth-
while career option, she said.
The NCC also accomplishes its
aim by working to train professionals
and encourage continued education.
Cherry described it as a progression
competition.
The average competitor is at a
stage of advancing their careers, he
said. A lot of competitors start here
and go to the next level next year for
the pipe competition. The next level
after that is gas tungsten arc welding.
According to Cherry, it is common
for people to continue participating at
the different NCC welding competi-
tions as they develop more skills. For
example, Michael Noschese, NCCs
2016 first-place winner in structural
welding, is competing again this year
for pipe welding, a more difficult com-
petition than structural.
Additionally, the competition opens
a sea of opportunities for its competi-
tors. Chris Weber, project manager for
the structural competition, explained
that many competitors move up the
ranks in their present companies after
the competitions. The companies are
watching what theyre doing, he said.
It makes competitors strive more to
get to the next level.
Get Ready for the 2018 NCC
After three years in sunny Florida,
the NCC is heading to the west coast.
The 2018 NCC is slated to take place at
the Long Beach Convention and Enter-
tainment Center in Long Beach, Calif.,
on March 2022. To learn more about
the National Craft Championships,
visit nationalcraftchampionships.org. WJ
KATIE PACHECO (kpacheco@aws.org) is
associate editor of the Welding Journal.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 37
BRAUN FEATURE MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/5/17 6:22 PM Page 38

The Impact of Laser Shock

Peening on Welded Metals
BY ERIK BRAUN
This process influences the mechanical
properties of steels, titanium, and
aluminum

L
aser shock peening (LSP) is a met-
al treatment process that uses
laser beams to induce residual
compressive stresses in the materials
on which it is employed. These stress-
es increase surface hardness and fa-
tigue life.
Figure 1 shows a two-dimensional
stress map for a peened and unpeened
weld. Laser shock peening is used in
multiple fields, but its most prevalent
in aerospace engineering. The process
can be used both on the final product
and in the equipment used to manu-
facture those products. For example,
LSP is used on fan blades for the
McDonnell F101 Voodoo fighter jet
and the General Electric F110 jet en-
gine, metalforming resistance welding
dies, land-based power generation
blades, F-22 wing attachment lugs,
and peen forming wings on Boeings
747 aircraft.
One of the main advantages of LSP
is its ability to induce compressive
stresses in such a way that cracks aris-
ing from cyclic loading can be con-
trolled in their shape and rate of
growth. Postwelded metals are suscep-
tible to cracking, especially in the
heat-affected zone (HAZ). Welds ex-
posed to cyclic loading are often the
subject of costly repairs. If LSP can be
used to induce compressive stresses
and extend the lifetime of welds, it
can have a positive effect in terms
of the cost and longevity of welded
structures.
The purpose of this article is to re-
view the effects of laser shock peening
This photograph shows a gear with overlay water flowing set up in a robot and
on the mechanical properties of stain-
ready for the application of laser peening. (Courtesy of LSP Technologies.)

38 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

BRAUN FEATURE MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/5/17 6:23 PM Page 39

Fig. 2 An illustration of the LSP Tech-

nologies Procudo 200-W laser system is
shown along with a processing cell con-
Fig. 1 This two-dimensional stress map shows a weld before and after peen- taining part-handling robots. (Image cour-
ing. (Image courtesy of Professor Michael Hill.) tesy of LSP Technologies.)

less steel, titanium, aluminum, and
carbon steel, as well as how these ef-
fects differ when the materials are
welded. In general, the benefits of LSP
are maintained, if not improved, for
welded metals as compared with un-
welded metals.
A Historical Perspective
of Laser Shock Peening
In the early 1960s, researchers
started looking at pulsed laser beams
and their ability to generate shock
waves. Gurgen Askaryhan and E. M.
Moroz inspected pressure measure-
ments on material surfaces targeted
by these pulsed lasers; the pressures
they documented were significantly
larger than those that could be made
by a continuous laser beam. Further
studies showed that plasma was creat-
ed at the surface of the material when
this pulsed laser hit it, and it was the
rapid expansion of this plasma that
caused the stress waves.
Following this research on pulsed
laser beams, LSPs development first
began in 1971 when researchers at the
Battelle Memorial Institute started
thinking about using pulsed laser
beams to improve the mechanical
properties of metal. They devised a
method that used a transparent over-
lay, an opaque overlay, and a high-
energy pulsed laser. The transparent
overlay, typically water, kept the plas-
ma from expanding away from the sur-
face. The opaque overlay, such as
paint, protected the metals surface.
Together, these overlays let the shock
waves propagate deeper into the sur-
face and resulted in the creation of the
plastic deformation responsible for
LSPs characteristic residual compres-
sive stresses. This was the first in-
stance of laser shock peening.
Figure 2 shows an illustration of
the LSP setup while Fig. 3 shows the
process.
The technology used to generate
these pulsed lasers was severely limit-
ed at the time Battelle was doing its re-
search, requiring a whole room and
several minutes of downtime for re-
covery between laser pulses. It was not
until the 1980s that the technological
advances necessary to further develop
LSP would arise, when Wagner Cast-
ings Co. (WCC) wanted to use LSP to
increase the strength of cast iron
enough to compete with that of steel.
After discovering better fatigue
strength in the cast iron with LSP,
WCC created a prototype laser de-
signed for this purpose, which was
completed in 1987.
By 1991, the U.S. Air Force had got-
ten involved, combining the work of
Battelle and Wagner to explore the po-
Fig. 3 LSP drawing detailing the laser pulse, opaque and transparent layers, and
plasma cloud. (Image courtesy of Professor Michael Hill.)
tential for using LSP on the fan blades
of General Electric F101 engines,
which were being used in their Rock-
well B-1 Lancer bombers. The fan
blades of these engines were nicked by
collisions with foreign objects in the
air as the bombers flew. A severely
notched fan blade treated with LSP
had the same fatigue life as a brand
new blade.
Figure 4 shows a fan blade that has
been laser peened.
Before the experimentation with
pulsed laser beams, shot peening (SP)
had been the most widely used
method of inducing compressive resid-
ual stresses in metals. This cold work-
ing process shoots round particles
made of metal, glass, or ceramic at the
surface of the material undergoing
treatment. This plastically deforms
the surface by mechanical means and
induces residual compressive stresses
at the surface. However, SP had some
drawbacks, such as only being able to
cause compressive stresses at a shal-
low depth and usually at the expense

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 39

BRAUN FEATURE MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/5/17 6:23 PM Page 40

of severe surface deformation. Now,

LSP is used to induce layers of com-
pressive stresses deeper than standard
shot peening and also leaves a better
surface condition.
Table 1 shows a summary of re-
search results for unwelded (UW) and
welded (W) materials and compares
observations of different mechanical
properties for stainless steel (SS), tita-
nium (Ti), aluminum (Al), and carbon
steel (CS).
Laser shock peening increases the
ability of metal alloys in the as-welded
state to resist cyclic loading and also
slows crack growth. The improvement
of mechanical properties due to LSP
was more pronounced for welded met-
als than unwelded metals. In stainless
steel, pitting and stress corrosion
cracking resistance were improved by
LSP. The effects of LSP on titanium are
listed as well; however, it is not possi-
ble to compare the welded and un-
welded states due to a lack of data.
The effects of LSP on welded alu-
minum samples were nearly the same,
if not better than, the effects on the
unwelded samples. There was an in-
crease in tensile properties, an effect
not seen in the unwelded state. In
steel, the effects of LSP were compara-
ble in both the welded and unwelded
states.

Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is an important and
versatile alloy with a wide range of ap-
plications. Treating 304 austenitic
stainless steel with LSP resulted in
greatly increased compressive stresses
and produced a refined grain structure
in the metal (Ref. 1). It also greatly in-
creased stress-corrosion cracking
(SCC) resistance. When submerged in
a boiling solution of 40% magnesium
chloride, a highly corrosive environ-
ment, the LSP samples went 300 h
without cracking. Samples that had
not been treated only lasted 16 h.
Along with this, the elastic modulus of
four different samples went up by
about 70% and the nano hardness of
those same samples increased by 40%
(Ref. 2). Kong et al. examined welded
304 SS. Untreated specimens had SCC
after just 25 h of being immersed in
boiling magnesium chloride.
The samples that had only 45% of
their surface treated by LSP lasted
300 h, and those that had 80% of their
surface treated by LSP lasted 985 h be-
Fig. 4 Edge peened Ti-6Al-4V fan blades used in General Electric military engines.
(Image courtesy of Professor Michael Hill.)
fore SCC was observed (Ref. 3). This is
more than three times longer than the
results Luo et al. found for unwelded
SS, even without the entire surface be-
ing treated.
Figure 5 shows how LSP changes
the propagation of SCC in a sample of
316 stainless steel after being sub-
merged in 40% magnesium.
Nasilowska et al. examined shot
peened gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) joints and laser beam welded
samples after exposing them to salt
water for up to 1000 h. After SP, the
GTAW joints did not experience corro-
sion until after 1000 h, a 75% in-
crease, and the laser welded joints ex-
perienced no reaction at all to the cor-
rosive environment (Ref. 4). Though
309L is already a highly corrosion-
resistant alloy, this is a clear improve-
ment. The results of SP on stainless
steel groove welds suggest that LSP
stainless steel groove welds may be a
promising area of research.
Goudar et al. examined 304L stain-
less steel groove welds. Laser shock
peening generated a compressive
stress layer 4 mm deep (Ref. 5). Re-
sults to compare against for unwelded
SS were not found.
Titanium
Titanium is a widely used material
in the aerospace industry where LSP
treatment is prevalent. Unfortunately,
there is a lack of published research on
the LSP of titanium welds, making a
true comparison impossible. However,
there is a lot of research on the LSP of
titanium by itself, which might offer
insight into what the laser peening of
titanium welds would do.
Liu and Hill tested Ti-6Al-4V titani-
um coupons in fretting fatigue and
compared the results of SP and LSP.
When comparing surface condition,
residual stress, and lifetime, the depth
of the compressive stresses was much

40 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

BRAUN FEATURE MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/5/17 6:23 PM Page 41

Table 1 Summary Table of Key Results Found in the Cited Research about Eects Due to LSP

Material Depth of Stresses Surface Stress Time to SCC

UW 304 SS 300 h
W 309L SS 1000 h
W 304 SS 4 mm 400500 MPa 985 h
UW Ti-6Al-4V Ti 1.3 mm 230 MPa
UW Ti-2.5 Cu Ti 0.25 mm 390 MPa
UW 7050-T7451 Al
UW 6160 Al 1.4 mm
W 7075-T7351 Al 12 mm
W 2195 Al 24 mm
UW 300M CS
W ASTM A516 CS

Material Corrosion Rate Mech. Prop. Increase Cyclic Load Life Increase

UW 304 SS Elasticity by 70%

hardness by 40%
W 309L SS 75% decrease
W 304 SS
UW Ti-6Al-4V Ti
UW Ti-2.5 Cu Ti
UW 7050-T7451 Al 41% @ 100,000 cycles
UW 6160 Al
W 7075-T7351 Al 60% tensile strength
W 2195 Al 300% tensile strength
UW 300M CS 54% @ 1,000,000 cycles
W ASTM A516 CS 5063%

higher in the LSP specimens than in
the shot peened specimens. The LSP
specimens were found to have a com-
pression depth of 1.3 mm and depth
of maximum tension of 2.8 mm (Ref.
6). These results were dependent on
the geometry of the test conditions,
which needs to be taken into account
when predicting the results of future
testing. In Ti-2.5 Cu samples, LSP in-
creased the layer of compressive
Nonpeened Area:
Cracks are prevalent
stresses, resulting in a 390 MPa sur-
face residual stress at a depth of 0.25
mm (Ref. 7).
SP and LSP significantly improved
the life of the specimens in both stud-
ies. However, the life was lower after
LSP than after SP, especially at lower
applied stresses. The laser peened
samples ability to withstand fatigue
was not as good as standard SP due to
the wavy nature of their surface pro-
Cracks avoid
laser peened area
files, which concentrate stresses at the
peaks of these waves (Ref. 7). The LSP
samples also initiated cracks faster
than the SP samples. This is theorized
to be due to the cavities at the surface,
which help with crack propagation.
Due to these results, one may spec-
ulate for applications that do not re-
quire cyclic loading, LSP will produce
deeper compressive stresses in titani-
um welds than SP.
Furthermore, because titanium
and stainless steel have similar me-
chanical properties, the change in
effects of LSP in the welded and un-
welded conditions of SS might give
clues to the difference for Ti. This is
an area that would also benefit from
further research.

Aluminum
When subjected to cyclic loading,
laser peened aluminum samples lasted
much longer than samples in the as-
Laser Peened Area: machined (AM) state. Hill and Luong
No observable cracks examined the high cycle fatigue per-
formance of 7050-T7451 aluminum
specimens in the AM, SP, and LSP con-
ditions (Ref. 8). The LSP specimens
Fig. 5 The effect of LSP on crack propagation in 316 stainless steel is highlighted. outlasted the AM specimens by nearly
(Image courtesy of Professor Michael Hill.)
a factor of eight at moderate levels of

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 41

BRAUN FEATURE MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/5/17 6:24 PM Page 42
stress, and by a factor of 3.3 at higher
stresses. For 100,000 cycles, LSP pro-
vided a lifetime that was 41% higher
than the AM samples. In laser shock
peening 6160 aluminum, nanoscale
precipitates were able to form, and
these greatly increased the fatigue re-
sistance of the samples. The depth of
stress was about 1.4 mm due to this
treatment (Ref. 9).
Figure 6 shows a difference in cy-
cles to failure in 7049 T73 aluminum.
In laser peening friction stir weld-
ing (FSW), high-strength, 7075-T7351
aluminum alloys, there was an in-
crease in strength of about 60% and a
compressive layer of residual stress
around 12 mm deep (Ref. 10). There
was also a marked increase in tensile
strength, postulated to be caused by a
higher dislocation density at deeper
levels, due to the welding process.
Hatamleh found similar results in
2195 FSW aluminum alloys (Ref. 11).
Crack growth rates were much lower
for LSP weldments than they were for
the original material. These rates were
found to be almost the same as for un-
peened base material, meaning that
the material could almost achieve the
same fatigue resistance it had before
being welded due to LSP. The depth of
near surface compression on these
samples varied from 2 to 4 mm.
DeWald and Hatamleh noted an in-
teresting observation when studying
the residual stresses in FSW joints for
2195 and 7075 aluminum alloys (Ref.
12). Depending upon the number of
times the coupons underwent LSP, the
depth and largest magnitude of com-
pressive stresses fluctuated. These
properties were maximized with six
layers of laser shock peening. High lev-
els of tensile stress were found in the
mid-thickness of the laser peened
welds, similar to what has been found
in other studies. In 7075 aluminum al-
loys, there was a connection found be-
tween tensile strength, compressive
stresses, and the number of LSP layers
(Ref. 13). Single layers of LSP pro-
duced a marked increase in tensile
strength but did not affect surface
hardness, while this was opposite for
many layers of LSP. The highest in-
crease in tensile strength occurred at
three layers of LSP.
The effects of LSP on welded alu-
minum were very similar to those on
the LSP of unwelded material. Fur-
thermore, the tensile strength seemed
to be improved by LSP in the welded
42 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Fig. 6 The difference in cycles to failure in 7049 T73 aluminum for the as-
machined, shot peened, and laser shot peened conditions. (Image courtesy of
Professor Michael Hill.)
state. The depth of surface compres-
sion in both the welded and unwelded
states was comparable, both in the 2
to 4 mm range. Also, there was a rela-
tionship between the number of layers
in welded aluminum and the depth
and magnitude of compressive stress-
es not noted in research done on un-
welded aluminum.
Carbon Steel
For 1 million cycle fatigue loading
under normal conditions, laser peen-
ing increased the life of high-strength
300M steel samples by 54%. In gener-
al, the LSP materials were found to
perform significantly better than the
AM and SP samples (Ref. 14). This is
similar to the results seen in peening
fusion welds.
The use of shot peening treatment
on ASTM A516 grade 70 carbon steel
fusion welded joints resulted in an in-
creased fatigue life of the fusion weld
by 50% on shielded metal arc welding,
63% on GMAW, and 60% on GTAW
samples (Ref. 15). Laser shock peening
may yield better results on the fatigue
life of these welds, upon consideration
of the substantial research done com-
paring the effectiveness of SP and LSP.
However, there is a shortage of re-
search done on LSP of carbon steel.
More studies on this subject would al-
low a real comparison to be made with
its effects on unwelded carbon steel.
Conclusions
Further research on the LSP effects
on different alloys of these reviewed
metals, especially titanium, should be
0.50
1.00
done. This would allow a more com-
prehensive look at its effects on a
wider variety of materials and alloys.
In general, LSP was just as effective
on welded materials as it was on un-
welded materials. Ideally, enough re-
search would be done to be able to tab-
ulate all the combinations, covering a
wide variety of metal alloys, all the
various welding processes, and across
a variety of thicknesses. This would al-
low engineers to quickly assess what
benefits may be gained by LSP. If a less
expensive alloy that has been laser
peened can be substituted for a more
expensive alloy, it could lower cost.
Characterizing the effects of LSP
across a wide variety of materials and
welding processes would open up a
new realm of mechanical and material
design.
Laser shock peening is currently
used in high-cost and high-importance
applications, but the ability to reliably
increase the strength of weldments by
inducing compressive stresses can
benefit the entire welding industry. WJ
Acknowledgments
Professor Michael Hill of the De-
partment of Mechanical and Aero-
space Engineering at the University of
California, Davis, provided images and
valuable advice on the content of this
paper. Dr. David Sokol, director of re-
search at LSP Technologies, provided
images and information about LSP
commercial applications.
References
1. Lu, J. Z. et al. 2012. Effects of
laser peening on stress corrosion
BRAUN FEATURE MAY 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 8:42 AM Page 43

cracking (SCC) of ANSI 304 austenitic
stainless steel. Corrosion Science 60:
145152.
2. Luo, K. Y. et al. 2011. Effects of
laser shock processing on mechanical
properties and microstructure of ANSI
304 austenitic stainless steel. Materi-
als Science and Engineering: A 528.13:
47834788.
3. Kong, D.-J., Zhu, W., and Sun, B.
2009. Effects of laser shock processing
on residual stress of AISI304 TIG
welding joint [J]. Materials Science and
Technology 6: 007.
4. Nasilowska, B., Bogdanowicz, Z.,
and Wojucki, M. 2015. Shot peening
effect on 904L welds corrosion resist-
ance. Journal of Constructional Steel Re-
search 115: 276282.
5. Goudar, D. M. et al. 2011. Meas-
urement of residual stresses in surface
treated stainless steel groove welds.
Materials Science Forum. Vol. 681.
Trans Tech Publications.
6. Liu, K. K., and Hill, M. R. 2009.
The effects of laser peening and shot
peening on fretting fatigue in Ti-6Al-
4V coupons. Tribology International
42.9: 12501262.
7. Maawad, E. et al. 2012. Investi-
gation of laser shock peening effects
on residual stress state and fatigue
performance of titanium alloys. Mate-
rials Science and Engineering: A 536:
8291.
8. Luong, H., and Hill, M. R. 2010.
The effects of laser peening and shot
peening on high cycle fatigue in 7050-
T7451 aluminum alloy. Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering: A 527.3:
699707.
9. Ye, C., Liao, Y., and Cheng, G. J.
2010. Warm laser shock peening driv-
en nanostructures and their effects on
fatigue performance in aluminum al-
loy 6160. Advanced Engineering Materi-
als 12.4: 291297.
10. Hatamleh, O. 2008. The effects
of laser peening and shot peening on
mechanical properties in friction stir
welded 7075-T7351 aluminum. Jour-
nal of Materials Engineering and Per-
formance 17.5: 688694.
11. Hatamleh, O. 2008. Effects of
peening on mechanical properties in
friction stir welded 2195 aluminum al-
loy joints. Materials Science and Engi-
neering: A 492.1: 168176.
12. Hatamleh, O., and DeWald, A.
2009. An investigation of the peening
effects on the residual stresses in fric-
tion stir welded 2195 and 7075 alu-
minum alloy joints. Journal of Materi-
als Processing Technology 209.10:
48224829.
13. Hatamleh, O. et al. 2009. Fa-
tigue crack growth performance of
peened friction stir welded 2195 alu-
minum alloy joints at elevated and
cryogenic temperatures. Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering: A 519.1: 6169.
14. Pistochini, T. E., and Hill, M. R.
2011. Effect of laser peening on fa-
tigue performance in 300M steel. Fa-
tigue & Fracture of Engineering Materi-
als & Structures 34.7: 521533.
15. Lah, N. A. C. et al. 2010. The ef-
fect of controlled shot peening on fu-
sion welded joints. Materials & Design
31.1: 312324.
ERIK BRAUN (elbraun@ucdavis.edu) is
an undergraduate student in mechanical
engineering at the University of California,
Davis, Calif.

American Welding Society

TIM
ME TO RECOGNIZE
FOUNDATTION
aws.org WELDING INNNDUSTTRY CONNTRIBUTORSS
A errican
Ame i Welding it
ldi SSociety
An Association of We
elding Manufa
acturers
FOUNDATTION
Who comes to mind when you think off welding excellence?
Be it an individuall or a comppany, its timee they were recognized
Nominattions for the
2017 Excellence
E e in Welding Awards
are Op
ar Oppen
en No
en Now!
w!
Appreciate those who are dedicated in service to the welding industry in any one of thhe following categories:

Disttributor
Individual
Section n

Edu
ucational Facility
Large Business
Small Business
B

Edu
ucator
Media
Veteran ns
Learn more abouut the categories and nominate youur candidate todday! *Entry deadline is June 30, 2017
awsnow..orgg/indexx.php/foorm
ms/Excellencce-in-WWeelding

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 43

Bear et al. Feature May.qxp_Layout 1 4/5/17 2:48 PM Page 44

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

Applying Brazing Fundamentals

to the Sinter Brazing Process
BY KYLE H. BEAR,
How the success of sinter brazing GLENN RISHEL, BRIAN SMITH,
technology is built on a basic AND STEPHEN L. FELDBAUER

understanding of the process

S
inter brazing is a process that al-
lows producing complex compo-
nents of powder metal by bond-
ing multiple powder metal pieces dur-
ing sintering of the compact to pro-
duce a single part with features that
cannot be made through current
molding technology.
This process is used to produce
many parts with complex shapes, yet
its fundamentals are not widely under-
stood. The result is often marginal
success in the sinter brazing process
and increased costs. In this article, the
fundamentals of brazing are used to
further understand the sinter brazing
process. Issues such as surface cleanli-
ness, sinter brazing atmosphere, and
the impact of good sinter brazing prac-
tices will be reviewed.
Fundamentals of Brazing
Brazing is a widely used process for
bonding materials. It is commonly em-
ployed in the aircraft industry and
heat exchanger production. In each
case, the fundamentals of the process
are the same Fig. 1.
Surface cleanliness is key to the
success of the process. Any contamina-
tion on the surface of the base metals
may cause the filler metal to not wet
the base metal or be pulled into the
joint clearance by capillary effect
Fig. 2.
Contaminants, such as forming oils
or other lubricants, dissociate during
the heating process to form carbon.
The carbon deposits will cause a reduc-
tion in the filler metals ability to wet
the base metal and reduce the capillary
force that must pull the filler metal
through the joint clearance to form
the braze joint.
Prior to melting the filler metal, the
oxides on the surface of the base metal
and the filler metal must be reduced. If
allowed to remain on these surfaces,
the filler metal will not flow into the
joint clearance completely, and defects
may form because the filler metal is
not in complete contact with the base
metals to form the alloy of the braze
joint. Without something present to
reduce or react with the oxides, the
filler metal cannot form the alloy that
becomes the braze joint. This reactant
can be in the form of a flux added to
the surface of the base metals, con-
tained in the filler metal itself, or it

Fig. 2 The photo on the left shows the wetting of 1.5 g of filler metal on a
metal plate. The photo on the right shows the wetting of 1.5 g of filler
Fig. 1 The fundamental steps in the brazing process. metal with a carbon ring around it that stops the wetting.

44 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Bear et al. Feature May.qxp_Layout 1 4/5/17 2:49 PM Page 45

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

Fig. 3 More stable oxides require a lower dew point to allow the reduction of the oxides with hydrogen. The graph on the right shows the
equilibrium dew point as a function of base material and temperature.

can be the atmosphere around the sys-
tem, such as hydrogen. In most sinter
brazing processes, there is hydrogen
present in the sintering atmosphere
that reacts with the oxides on the
surface to prepare the surfaces for
bonding.
The chemistry of the base metal
and the filler metal play an important
role in the atmosphere that is required
to reduce the oxides in the system. As
shown in Fig. 6, lower free energies of
formation of an oxide require a much
lower equilibrium dew point for the
oxide reduction to take place in hydro-
gen. It is important to note that oxides
must be completed prior to the melt-
ing of the filler metal. For this reason,
the dew points of the system must be
much lower than those calculated at
the brazing temperature. For example,
in the case of copper and stainless
steel, the equilibrium dew point at the
brazing temperature of 1120C
(2050F) is 46C (50F); however,
prior to the melting point of the cop-
per at 1086C (1986F), the equilibri-
um dew point is less than 50C
(60F) Fig. 3.
When the filler metal melts, the
force due to capillary action causes
the liquid filler metal to be pulled
through the joint clearance. The prop-
er design of the joint clearance is criti-
cal to the successful formation of the
braze joint. If the joint clearance be-
tween the base metals to be bonded is
too small or large, the capillary force
will be too small to overcome the re-
sistance to flow. The result will be a
joint that is weak due to the insuffi-
cient formation of the alloy bond
Fig. 4.
The joint clearance also determines
the amount of filler metal that is re-
quired to form the joint. Calculated in
the hot state, the joint clearance size
and volume will allow for the determi-
nation of the capillary force and the
volume of filler metal needed. As indi-
cated in Fig. 4, for a system such as
stainless steel base metals and a cop-
per filler metal, the optimal joint clear-
ance is approximately 0.05 mm (0.002
in.) to 0.07 mm (0.003 in.). It is im-
portant to note that this optimal con-
dition is a function of the metal sys-

Fig. 4 The relative relationship between the flow potential Fig. 5 Effect of density on the capillary effect and pulling away of the
vs. the joint clearance volume. filler metal from the joint clearance.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 45

Bear et al. Feature May.qxp_Layout 1 4/5/17 2:49 PM Page 46

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

Fig. 6 Lower density powder metal compacts pull more filler

metal from the joint clearance than the higher density compact of
the same material. This is shown by the deposits on the tops of the Fig. 7 Endothermic gas carborizes the pore surfaces of the pow-
sintered compacts, as well as the volume of filler metal shown in the der metal compact to slow the flow of the filler metal away from the
sectioned and etched samples. joint clearance.

tem. In sinter brazing, this optimal
joint clearance is between 0.10 mm
(0.004 in.) and 0.25 mm (0.010 in.).
Sinter Brazing
Sinter brazing follows all of the fun-
damentals of conventional brazing,
but the sintering process is concur-
rently taking place as well. Hence, hav-
ing a very good sintering process is
crucial for achieving a good sinter
brazing process. Although surface con-
taminants from oils are not as much of
a concern in the powder metal forming
process, the removal of the lubricant
from the powder metal compact is
even more important in the sinter
brazing process. If lubricant is allowed
to overheat and form soot, the filler
metal will not flow and joint quality
will be compromised.
In sinter brazing, there is a compet-
ing process to the capillary force
pulling the filler metal into the joint
clearance. This is the capillary effect
that pulls the filler metal into the
porosity of the part and away from the
joint. This is one of the most common
failure mechanisms in the sinter braz-
ing process Fig. 5.
It is important to note that the
pore size in the compact decreases as
the density increases in the green
compact. From Fig. 6, it can be seen
that as the pore radius decreases, the
capillary force to pull the filler metal
away also increases; however, the total
volume of the filler metal that fills
those pores is less. The result is that
higher density compacts tend to pull
less filler metal away from the joint
clearance Fig. 6.
The addition of sulphur to the pow-
der mix has been an approach to con-
trol flow of the filler metal within the
compact. The sulphur joins with man-
ganese in the filler metal to form man-
ganese sulphide and raise the liquidous
temperature of the filler metal and re-
tard the flow of the filler metal into the
compact; this approach requires sul-
phur, which is not always wanted in

Fig. 8 Effect of the carbon monoxide on the wicking of the filler Fig. 9 Volume of filler metal flow into the powder compact as a
metal away from the surface as a function of density. function of density.

46 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Bear et al. Feature May.qxp_Layout 1 4/5/17 2:50 PM Page 47

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

the base material. A more common so- ing. The ability to sinter and bond References
lution is to process the powder metal multiple components in a single pass
parts in a carbon monoxide-containing through a furnace is key to remaining 1. Machining and other operations.
atmosphere. The result is a controlled competitive. The success of this tech- Hoganas Handbook, Chapter 10.4, pp.
contamination of the pore surface in- nology is based on the need for a fun- 1030 to 1031.
side of the compact, increasing the car- damental understanding of the braz- 2. Malas, A., and Feldbauer, S.
bon in solution at the pore surface that ing process. The fundamentals of braz- 2007. Gassing up to get the right at-
retards the wetting of the filler metal ing are directly applicable to the sinter mosphere. Metal Powder Report, pp.
into the pores. Similar to the carbon brazing process. These principles can 1419.
ring in Fig. 2 that stopped the flow of work hand in hand with good sinter- 3. Brazing Handbook, 5th ed. 2007.
the filler metal, the increased carbon in ing practices. Unfortunately, the sinter Miami, Fla.: American Welding
solution on the pore surfaces reduces brazing process is extremely sensitive Society.
the surface energy between the filler to poor sintering practices. Complete
metal and the pore surface, which re- lubricant removal, clean atmospheres KYLE H. BEAR (khb5086@psu.edu) and
sults in a lower capillary force and is with low dew points, sufficient atmos- GLENN RISHEL (gmr134@psu.edu) are with
seen as a slowing of the filler metal phere flows to flush lubricant vapors Pennsylvania State University, DuBois, Pa.
flow into the compact. This is achieved to the front door, attention to belt BRIAN SMITH (bsmith@abbottfurnace.com)
by the carbon monoxide in the furnace speeds, and part loading all play a key and STEPHEN L. FELDBAUER (sfeldbauer@ab-
bottfurnace.com) are with Abbott Furnace
atmosphere carborizing the material role in the future of expanding the Co., St. Marys, Pa.
at approximately 1010C (1850F) powder metal market. WJ
Fig. 7.
The hydrogen in the atmosphere
still cleans the surfaces of oxides, yet
the presence of the increased carbon
in solution at the surface is just
enough to slow the wicking of the
filler metal into the compact and away
from the joint Fig. 8.
To aid in cleaning the base metal
material, a flux is often added to the
filler metal to help reduce oxides. It is
common in the brazing industry to
only use the hydrogen in the furnace
atmosphere as the oxygen-getting
species for cleaning the surface. For
this reason, two types of filler material
were also evaluated, one with flux and
one without Fig. 9.
The results at the higher densities
in Fig. 9 illustrate the impact of the
flux and carbon monoxide. The clean-
er the surface is, filler metal with the
addition of a flux as well as having hy-
drogen in the atmosphere, the more
metal that is pulled into the compact;
however, the presence of the carbon in
solution retards this flow. The results
at the lower density are scattered be-
cause the overall pore size at these
lower densities has a greater influence
on the ability of the filler metal viscos-
ity to fill the pore and experience the
fullest capillary force possible.

Conclusion
Sinter brazing technology is becom-
ing increasingly necessary for the
growth of the powder metal industry
to compete with machining and cast- For info, go to aws.org/adindex

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 47

Henson/Sperko Feature May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/10/17 1:23 PM Page 48
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
What Does Certified Brazer Really Mean?
The importance of qualifying brazers to
an industry standard is outlined
M
any firms want their brazers
to be certified because it lends
credibility to the brazing de-
partment and provides assurance
about braze quality. While your braz-
ers may be skilled, can they be certi-
fied? The term can mean different
things to different people and, often,
the designation is misapplied.
When a brazer is tested, the testing
48 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
protocol should follow a standard such
as American Welding Society (AWS)
B2.2, Specification for Brazing Procedure
and Performance Qualification, or
American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section IX. After passing a test
prescribed in a standard, the brazer
becomes qualified to that standard.
The manufacturer or the testing
BY ROBERT HENSON AND
WALTER J. SPERKO
Qualification test specimen showing
complete fill of a brazed joint.
agency documents the conditions of
the test on a record. The manufacturer
or agency conducting the tests certi-
fies, by signature, that the tests were
conducted in accordance with the ap-
plicable standard and the test condi-
tions are a true record of what the
brazer did Fig. 1. Through this
process, an organization certifies
that the brazer is qualified.
Henson/Sperko Feature May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/10/17 1:25 PM Page 49

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

When someone asks for a certi-

fied brazer, what the person really
should be asking for is a qualified
brazer because qualification, according
to AWS B2.2, is one who is qualified
to the requirements of this specifica-
tion to perform manual brazing.
Were featuring B2.2 in this article,
but this approach also applies to
ASME Section IX and other qualifica-
tion documents like ISO 13585. While
these standards cover various brazing
processes, this article refers to manual
brazing using an oxyfuel torch.

Brazing Procedure
Specifications
Before an organization can qualify a
brazer, it must first develop a written
Brazing Procedure Specification (BPS).
The BPS includes information about the
parts design and brazing conditions.
Testing appropriate brazed parts is done
to confirm the procedure will produce
brazed joints that meet strength or
other established service requirements.
Once the BPS has been written,
qualified brazers can be tested to en-
sure they can produce brazed joints
that meet the requirements of the ap-
plicable standard.
According to B2.2, Brazer perform-
ance qualification tests determine the
ability of brazers to make sound
brazed joints following a Brazing Pro-
cedure Specification (BPS), and under
conditions that will be encountered in
production assemblies.
Fig. 1 An example of a brazing performance qualification record.
Brazer Performance
Testing
For example, AWS B2.2 groups base other hand, if you were brazing
Brazer performance testing is how metals by similar composition using a C70600 (copper-nickel, 10%) with
brazers become qualified. This qualifi- BM prefix. A change from BM 300 BAg-24 and changed to BCuP-5, you
cation is specific to the joint parame- brass Alloy C23000 to BM 300 brass would need to requalify your brazer.
ters in the BPS. This includes designat- Alloy C26000 does not require requali- That is because youve changed FM
ed filler metal, base metal, joint design, fication. However, a change from one numbers from 110 to 150.
material thickness, part clearance, and of these base metals to BM 310, Alloy Other conditions present during
brazing position. To avoid being too re- C90700 does. the test limit what the brazer may do
strictive, standards acknowledge simi- B2.2 groups filler metals in a simi- in production. For example, qualifica-
larities between groups of base and lar manner using filler metal (FM) tion on plate qualifies pipe, but not
filler metals, and provide some latitude numbers. Each number contains A5.8 vice versa. Increasing the overlap
for part variations from the exact con- product classifications. Most of the length more than 25% from the over-
ditions used during brazer testing. popular BAg silver brazing alloys are lap used on the test coupon requires
If there are changes outside the pa- included in FM group 110. Alloys in requalification, but a decrease does
rameters for which the brazer is quali- the copper/phosphorus family are not because a shorter overlap is easier
fied, the brazer must requalify. B2.2 grouped under FM 150. So, for exam- to braze than a longer one. Increasing
lists qualification variables that dictate ple, a change from BCuP-5 to BCuP-3 the part thickness beyond twice the
when this occurs. doesnt require requalification. On the test coupon thickness requires addi-

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 49

Henson/Sperko Feature May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/5/17 4:25 PM Page 50

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

A 4-in.-diameter copper tube brazing performance qualification

Manual brazing of a pipe using an oxyfuel torch. test specimen.

tional testing of the brazer, as does

certain changes in the flow position.

Testing Requirements
Specific braze joint testing require-
ments are included in B2.2. Test parts
are workmanship or production sam-
ples, either visual tests to section 5.3.2
of the specification, or specimen tests,
(section and macro etch to section
5.3.3 or peel test to section 5.3.4 ).
Its important to point out that fol-
lowing the test standards listed above
does not make the brazer qualified on
every brazed part the company might
produce. It only applies to those parts
that conform to conditions listed in the
performance qualification document.

Who Can Administer

the Test?
Another common question asks
who can administer these tests. Manu-
facturers can qualify their own brazers;
an independent test agency is not re-
quired. The brazer qualification record
that documents the testing should
name the person or persons (the qual-
ifier) who conducted and supervised
the tests. It makes sense that this per-
son should have brazing experience
and thoroughly understand the testing
process and relevant documents. Many
companies prefer a third-party ap-
proach to this as they feel it removes
any possible internal bias. From a mar-
keting standpoint, customers may be-
Manual oxyfuel brazing of a pipe.
lieve third-party testing lends more
credibility to the process.
Summary
Qualification following a recog-
nized industry standard establishes
the organization performed due dili-
gence, which is important in the case
of a part failure in service. Equally im-
portant, experience has shown that
developing a brazer testing program
to an accepted industry standard is
an excellent method for improving
braze quality. WJ
ROBERT HENSON (Bob_Henson@lincolnelec-
tric.com) is technical director, Harris Products
Group div. of The Lincoln Electric Co., Mason,
Ohio. WALTER J. SPERKO, P.E., is president of
Sperko Engineering, Greensboro, N.C.

50 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

general corporate.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/6/17 10:05 AM Page 59
TECH NEWS MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 5:00 PM Page 52
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Active Soldering Ceramic
Ceramic and CeramicMetal
Compounds
A growing interest in the applica-
tion of joined ceramics and ceramic
matrix composite structures, along
with hybrid compounds, can be seen
in the aerospace industry (e.g., satel-
lite structures), but earthbound indus-
trial applications are also conceivable
(e.g., thermal management systems).
Active soldering enables joining metal-
lic and nonmetallic materials whose
surfaces are supposed to be difficult to
wet by metallic solders. Due to the
specific composition and mechanical
activation of the molten solder, those
materials can be joined with a single-
step process in air atmosphere.
A new technology active soldering
for the joining of SiC-based materials
to similar and dissimilar materials, like
Invar alloys, was developed at the
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufactur-
ing Technology and Advanced Materi-
als, Dresden, Germany (Ref. 1). The
active Sn-4 Ag solder was alloyed with
4 wt-% titanium and 1 wt-% rare-earth
metals (mostly cerium). The melting
range of the new solder is 221230C. Properties of Aluminato
The optimal soldering process parame-
ters were determined systematically.
The produced compounds were charac-
terized regarding their joining zone
structure and mechanical properties
by scanning electron microscope
(SEM) and mechanical testing (appar-
ent shear strength).
It was observed that the active sol-
dering process is appropriate for the
production of material compounds of
the mentioned materials. The process
enables producing robust and thermal-
ly conductive joints at joining temper-
atures between 250 and 300C.
The Microstructure of LiTi
Ferrite Joints by Brazing with a
Bismuthate Glass Solder
A Bi2O3-B2O3-SiO2-ZnO-BaO glass
solder was used to join the Li-Ti ferrite
at the Harbin Institute of Technology,
China. The Bi5(Ti3Fe)O15 whiskers were
observed in the joints when the bond-
ing temperature was equal to or higher
than 700C. The Ti concentration gra-
dient and the layer-perovskite struc-
ture of the Bi5(Ti3Fe)O15 phase were
the key factors that determined this
52 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
phase growth into needle-like
whiskers. The whiskers formation
mechanism was that the elements Fe
and Ti from the Li-Ti ferrite reacted
with BiO6 units from the glass solder
and came out as Bi5(Ti3Fe)O15 whiskers
during cooling, when the Ti content in
the joint reached the critical concentra-
tion of crystals. Also, a narrow diffu-
sion layer containing Ti, Fe, Bi, and Si
was observed at the interface (Ref. 2).
The maximum shear strength of 92
MPa was achieved after brazing at
750C for 30 min under 200 Pa of ap-
plied pressure. The dielectric proper-
ties of Li-Ti ferrite were barely affected
by the 700C bonding temperature.
The dielectric constant and dielectric
loss tangent of the ferrite/glass solder
joint brazed at 675C were nearly the
same as that of the heat-treated Li-Ti
ferrite. Formation of Bi5(Ti3Fe)O15
whiskers at the interface made the
dielectric constant and dielectric loss
tangent of ferrite/glass solder joints
brazed above 675C significantly high-
er than that of the Li-Ti ferrite.
Effect of AgCuTi Braze
Preform Thickness on the
plasma-spray coatings: 1) Steel pipes
Alumina Joints
Alumina-to-alumina brazed joints
were formed using 96.0 and 99.7 wt-%
Al2O3 and Ticusil (68.8 Ag-26.7 Cu-
4.5 Ti wt-%) preforms of different
thicknesses, including 0.05, 0.1, and
0.15 mm, at Brunel University, TWI,
Cambridge, UK, and Hysitron, Inc.,
Aachen, Germany (Ref. 3).
Brazing was conducted in a vacuum
of 1 10 -5 mbar at 850C for 10 min.
Joint strengths were evaluated using
four-point bend testing and nanohard-
ness distributions in the microstruc-
tures of joints made with increasing
preform thicknesses evaluated using
nanoindentation. The average reaction
layer thicknesses, brazed thicknesses,
and strengths of both 96.0 and 99.7
wt-% Al2O3 joints were observed to in-
crease with increasing Ticusil pre-
form thickness. Complete diffusion of
Ti to the joint interfaces was observed
in joints made using 50-m-thick
Ticusil preforms. The resulting braze
interlayer consisted of Ag- and Cu-rich
phases with average nanohardness val-
ues of 2.0 and 4.4 GPa, respectively. As
the Ticusil preform thickness was in-
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
creased to 100 m, excess Ti in the
braze interlayer led to the formation
of Cu-Ti phases including Cu4Ti3 with
an average nanohardness value of 10.3
GPa. Application of the thickest
Ticusil foil at 0.15 mm resulted in the
highest joint strength ~ 270 MPa of
alumina D-96 grade, while the
thinnest foil at 0.05 mm provided the
joint strength at only ~ 190 MPa.
Corrosion Protection of
SmallDiameter Steel Pipes
by SolderedClad Layers
A method of corrosion, erosion, and
wear protection of the interior sur-
faces of the high-aspect ratio carbon
steel tubes or pipes was developed and
studied at the Ion Vacuum Technolo-
gies Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.
Two superalloy foils consisting of
50 to 80-microns-thick Inconel-600
and Ni-19 Cr-10 Si (wt-%) were sol-
dered to the interior tube steel surface
by a standard tin-lead or lead-free sol-
der using a new active flux (Ref. 4).
This new soldering technology pro-
vides the following advantages com-
pared with traditional thermal- or
coated by a soldered-clad superalloy
can be bent without delamination or
cracking in the cladding, 2) the solder-
ing process does not depend on the di-
ameter or steel composition of pipes,
3) heating to soldering temperatures
has only a negligible effect on the me-
chanical properties of steels, 4) solder-
ing can be carried out both in shop
and field conditions, and 5) low pro-
duction costs due to the inexpensive
solders and equipment. The soldering
process and corrosion test results of
protected and unprotected steel pipes
were presented and discussed.
Depending on the material of the
soldered-clad layer, this technology is
also suitable for protection against
wear or erosion. The macrostructure of
soldered joints conclusively demon-
strated the absence of corrosion dam-
age both to the protected steel and sur-
face of the corrosion-resistant alloy.
Development of CuAlTi
Filler Metals for Al2O3/SS
Brazed Joints
The Cu-7 Al-(1.5-5.5)Ti wt-% braz-
TECH NEWS MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 5:00 PM Page 53
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
ing filler metals for joining -Al2O3/
stainless steel (SS) 304 dissimilar
joints of Na-S batteries cells were de-
veloped and studied at Pusan Univer-
sity and RIST Research Institute, Pu-
san, South Korea, to prevent thermal
compression bonding (TCB) joints
from unexpected high-temperature
shock (Ref. 5).
Reliably brazing the joints -Al2O3
ceramic and 304 SS were obtained by
using Cu-7 Al binary alloys containing
from 1.5 to 5.5 wt-% titanium. The
authors found that Cu, Al, and Ti ele-
ments exhibited no reaction with
molten sodium in the binary phase di-
agram. After immersing the Cu-Al-Ti
filler into the molten sodium, it had
no reaction with molten sodium even
after 400 h at 500C. A continuous
Fe2Ti4O reaction layer was formed at
the Cu-Al-Ti/Al2O3 interface in the
specimens brazed at 1000C for 30
min, while the eutectic structure and
primary dendritic crystals were pre-
sented in the joint metal. The effect of
Ti content on the mechanical proper-
ties of the brazed joints was investi-
gated. The maximum shear strength
72 MPa was reached in the specimens
brazed at 1000C for 30 min, when the
Cu-7 Al-3.5 Ti filler alloy was applied.
Fracture modes of -Al2O3/304 SS
joints after shear tests at room tem-
perature were characterized by crack
propagated in the -Al2O3 substrate
and braze interface, simultaneously.
Brazing Kovar to Alumina and
LTCC for Integrating Ceramic
Pressure Sensors
Sensors based on ceramic materials
are designed to operate in corrosive
environments and at high tempera-
tures. The well-known applications,
such as circuit boards and housings
based on multilayer low temperature
co-fired ceramics (LTCC), offer a flexi-
ble and temperature stable platform
for developing complex sensor ele-
ments. Commercial LTCC qualities are
usually available with a matching set
of metallization pastes, which allow
the integration of various electrical
functions. For their integration into
standardized steel housings, it is nec-
essary to compensate the mismatching
thermal expansion behavior between
the ceramic and metallic components.
Therefore, balancing elements made of
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Kovar (Fe-29Ni-17Co) and alumina
ceramic (Al2O3) can be used, which
have coefficients of thermal expansion
adjusted to LTCC. However, these ele-
ments have to be joined hermetically
to each other and the LTCC sensors to
avoid a parasitic gas flow or leakage
during operation.
The Fraunhofer Institute for Ce-
ramic Technologies and Systems, Dres-
den, Germany, performed brazing ex-
periments for joining combinations of
Kovar/Al2O3 and Kovar/LTCC with Ag-
Cu-Ti and Ag-Cu-In-Ti based commer-
cial braze filler metals, Cusil-ABA and
Incusil-ABA, respectively.
For both active braze filler metals,
optimized processing parameters were
investigated to realize hermetic Ko-
var/Al2O3 and Kovar/LTCC joints. Her-
metic Kovar/LTCC joints were manu-
factured by brazing with Incusil-ABA
at 755C, while Cusil-ABA provided
hermetic joints by brazing at 810C
and higher (Ref. 6).
Reactive Brazing of
MagnesiumSteel Contact Using
Pure Nickel as the Interlayer
Contact reactive brazing (CRB) of
AZ31B magnesium alloy to 1008 steel
in a vacuum furnace was performed by
using pure nickel coatings as the inter-
layer deposited on the magnesium al-
loy surface by arc spraying. The effects
of brazing temperature and holding
time on the shear strength and mi-
crostructure of brazed joints were in-
vestigated at the Beijing University of
Technology, China.
The maximum shear strength of 43
MPa was reached at 540C and 45 min
holding time. The interface was mainly
composed of -Mg solid solution,
Mg2Ni eutectic phase, Mg-Ni-Al, and
Mg-Al-Ni ternary phase. The fracture
morphology of brazed joints was char-
acterized by a brittle fracture mode
(Ref. 7).
In addition, the penetrating and dif-
fusion behavior of the eutectic liquid in-
terlayer during the CRB process was
also studied. The process can be divided
into four stages: a) solid-phase point
contact diffusion, b) eutectic liquid
phase formation, c) isothermal solidifi-
cation, and d) joint homogenization.
Analysis of the results showed that Mg
atoms diffusion to Ni coating belongs to
the interfacial reaction type in a Mg/Ni
diffusion couple. Meanwhile, the disso-
lution of solid Mg promotes the eutectic
reaction, and the continuously formed
eutectic liquid leads to reactive pene-
trating at the Mg side. The time for the
formation of the eutectic liquid phase
and isothermal solidification during the
CRB process were calculated by mathe-
matical simulation. There was only a lit-
tle deviation between the calculated and
experimental value.
Application of Electrical
Resistance Measurement for
Quality Assurance
Brazing is commonly the final step
within a long process chain, and only
with this technology is it possible to
minimize the costs and enhance the
quality of many products. Hence, a
failure of these brazed joints would
cause heavy economical damage for
the company. A quality assurance with
methods such as ultrasonic testing or
an examination with x-rays is often
very expensive and time consuming.
This is the reason why a 100% quality
assurance is seldom conducted.
A novel method based on the meas-
urement of the electrical resistance
was developed for the quality control
of brazed joints at Dortmund Univer-
sity, Germany. The method was tested,
compared with ultrasound testing,
checked by examining the microstruc-
ture of brazed joints, and recommend-
ed for industrial brazing applications
such as rotary hammer drill bits (Ref.
8). This method can be used with
these specimens due to the electrical
conductivity of materials such as steel,
copper, and cemented carbides.
Due to the fact that the resistance of
these brazed joints had a very low value,
a precise method such as the four wire
technique was necessary to examine the
brazed joints. Defects such as voids and
cracks exert a significant effect on the
measurement. In this regard, the possi-
bilities and limitations of this novel
method were discussed on the basis of
different additional examination meth-
ods such as ultrasonic testing and the
microscopy of cross sections.
Grain Boundary Penetration of
a Pure Copper Brazed Joint
Joining pure copper and dissimilar
metal is an important technology in
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 53
TECH NEWS MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 5:00 PM Page 54
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
todays industry. Brazing technology is
employed as dissimilar metals joining
between pure copper to stainless steel
SUS 304 and SUS 444, and pure cop-
per to brass. These metals are brazed
by BAg-8 at 840C and Cu-20 Ag-6 P
brazing filler metal at 940C, and grain
boundary penetration of pure copper
occurs. The grain boundary penetra-
tion phenomenon influences the
brazed joint properties. Therefore, the
mechanism of grain boundary pene-
tration was investigated at Tokai Uni-
versity, Tokyo, Japan, by observing
brazed joint microstructures and ele-
mental distributions (Ref. 9).
Brazed joint microstructures were
observed by optical microscope, and
elemental distributions were analyzed
by electron probe microanalysis
(EPMA). In the case of pure copper-to-
stainless steel brazing, Ni was dis-
solved in the joint metal from stain-
less steel, the composition of joint
metal was changed, and grain bound-
aries of copper base metal were pene-
trated by reactive melt. In the case of
pure copper-to-brass brazing, Zn was
dissolved in the joint metal from
brass, and the composition of the
brazing filler metal was also changed.
These joint metal composition
changes tend to progress the grain
boundary penetration of pure copper.
Boron and Phosphor Effects in
NickelBased Brazing Alloys on
Different Base Materials
For more than 50 years, it has been
well known that nickel-based brazing
filler metals can degenerate mechani-
cal and corrosion properties of the in-
volved base materials during brazing,
in particular with stainless steel base
metal. Elements like boron, silicon,
and phosphorus often contained in
those nickel-based filler metals form
phases and precipitates during brazing
depending on the heat treatment and
metallurgic impact affecting the per-
formance of materials to be brazed.
On the other hand, those elements are
necessary either to tailor properties,
for example, the melting point, or for
manufacturing reasons.
The investigation made at Vacuum-
schmelze GmbH, Hanau, Germany,
concerns a new type of nickel-based
amorphous brazing foils containing
silicon, phosphorus, and boron sepa-
54 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
rately or together. Local microstruc-
tures and elementary compositions of
various austenite and ferrite stainless
steels such as 304, 316L, 444, and
904L were characterized by electron
microscopy for different brazing con-
ditions and a variation in boron con-
tent of the filler material (Ref. 10).
As long as the boron content of the
filler material stays below 1 wt-%, no
base material degradation by inter-
metallic borides was observed. Fur-
thermore, no degradation of austenitic
stainless steel by phosphor embrittle-
ment was found when the dwell time
was kept short during brazing because
almost no phosphorus diffused into
the stainless steel. On the other hand,
phosphorus embrittlement can be ex-
pected in the 50-microns-thick diffu-
sion zone of the ferritic stainless steel.
Microstructure and Mechanical
Properties of Ti3Al/NiBased
Superalloy Joints
The Ti3Al-based alloy is one of the
most advanced structural materials for
applications in the aerospace industry
due to its low density, high specific
strength, excellent creep behavior, and
good oxidation stability at elevated
temperatures. The dissimilar joining
of the Ti3Al-based alloy (Ti-24 Al-15
Nb-1 Mo wt-%) to the Ni-based super-
alloy GH536 should be very attractive
for engineering applications. The
Ti3Al-based alloy was joined to a Ni-
based superalloy using Au-17.5 Ni
(wt-%) brazing filler metal at the Bei-
jing Institute of Aeronautical Material,
China. The joint microstructures were
examined by using an SEM and an
EPMA as well as an x-ray diffractome-
ter (Ref. 11).
The joint tensile strengths were
tested at room temperature and
650C. The results showed that quality
brazed joints were achieved at the
brazing temperature of 980C for 3~20
min, in which the optimum dwell time
was 5 min, and the corresponding
joints exhibited the maximum tensile
strength of 372 MPa at room tempera-
ture. When the test temperature was
increased to 650C, the joint strength
value was decreased to 259 MPa. The
fracture of the Ti3Al/GH536 joint sub-
jected to the tensile test mainly oc-
curred at the two high-hardness areas:
one is the Ti3Al master alloy dissolved
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
with Ni and Au, and the other is the
NiAu-rich phase dissolved with Nb, Ti,
and Fe.
Evaluation of DCB and VNotch
Fracture Mechanics Test
Methods for HighTemperature
Brazed Joints of Gas Turbines
Failures of brazed joints are typical-
ly brittle in nature due to high tri-axial
stress and brittle intermetallic phases.
As a result, when modelling and de-
signing brazed joints, it is important
to account for the joint fracture behav-
ior. Currently, there are no industry
standards, and limited testing proce-
dures are reported in literature for de-
termining the fracture toughness of
brazed joints. Two methods were eval-
uated by Rolls-Royce Corp., Indianapo-
lis, Ind., and The Ohio State Universi-
ty, Columbus, Ohio, for studying the
fracture behavior of Inconel 718
brazed joints with BNi-2 filler metal
using double cantilever beam (DCB)
and V-notch test specimens (Ref. 12).
Manufacturing and brazing proce-
dures for the two types of samples
were reported with test results of the
calculated critical stress intensity fac-
tor (KIC) for the Inconel 718 brazed
joints. Electrical discharge machining
(EDM) was sufficient for precracking.
However, misalignment between the
EDM notch and brazed joint needs to
be considered. All failures occurred
through brazed joints along two pri-
mary fracture paths. The DCB speci-
mens gave the most repeatable results
with an average KIC of 14.9 ksiin. and
will be used for future fracture me-
chanics testing and multiscale finite
element analysis (FEA) modeling of
brazed joints.
InSitu Synthesis of Difficult
toForm AgCuZn Brazing
Filler Metals
The high Zn content in AgCuZn,
and that the AgCuZnSn filler metals
are Cd free and provide a high
strength of brazed joints, make them
prospectives for application in the
form of foils or strips by green manu-
facture from powders. However, the
poor forming property limits their ap-
plication. A method to in-situ synthe-
sis of high-strength brazing alloys
TECH NEWS MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 5:01 PM Page 55
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
using the sandwich-structured com-
posite sheets was proposed by the
Zhengzhou Research Institute of
Mechanical Engineering, China. Two
outer layers and one inner layer of the
sandwich sheet had different compo-
sitions, e.g., Ag 45 Cu 33 Zn 22 and
Zn 48 Cu 41 Ag 5 Sn 6 wt-% (Ref. 13).
If the ratio of outer-to-inner layers
was 25:50:25 wt-%, the resulting sin-
tered material had the composition
Ag 25 Cu 37 Zn 35 Sn 3 wt-%.
The melting points of the two lay-
ers are close, and their forming prop-
erties are better than the targeted syn-
thesized alloy. Induction brazing of
316LN stainless steel using the com-
posite brazing sheets was studied. It
was found that the two alloys melt at
the same time and fuse comprehen-
sively after holding for a short time at
20 s, forming a high-strength brazing
seam. The strength of the obtained
brazed joint ~ 557 MPa is much higher
than the joints brazed using the com-
mon AgCuZn alloy.
Rapid Solidified AlSiCu and
AlSiGe Brazing Filler Metals
for Joining Aluminum Alloys
Many aluminum alloys have a
solidus temperature below 640C.
Brazing these alloys with the standard
Al-12% Si filler metal is impossible or
difficult due to overlapping their
solidus with the brazing temperature
that is in the range of 600620C. tively improved the solderability of
Low-liquidus Al-Si-Cu and Al-Si-Ge
brazing alloys present an opportunity
to join said base metals. However,
these filler metals are not suitable for
manufacturing by rolling due to low
ductility.
The Moscow University of Steel and
Alloys, Russia, evaluated some low-liq-
uidus compositions of brazing alloys
Al-(13-28) Cu-(6-10) Si wt-%, Al-9 Si-
10 Ge, and Al-7 Si-20 Ge wt-% to
achieve the brazing temperature below
570C (Ref. 14). These filler metals
were manufactured by rapid solidifica-
tion as flexible foil ribbons having a
thickness up to 200 microns (0.08 in.).
Brazing with these foils exhibited
promising results. For example, when
brazing aluminum by the Al-7 Si-22
Cu filler metal, the dissolution of base
material in the melt was so intense
that the joint became practically indis-
cernible from the base metal due to
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
complete diffusion intergrowth,
except a thin eutectic zone in the
middle of the joint metal. Thus, the
application of rapid-solidified, low-
solidus foils as the filler metals made it
possible to reduce a negative effect of
the joint metal brittleness by obtain-
ing a very small width of the brazed
joints.
LowTemperature Soldering
Premetallized Glass to Steel
and Properties of Joints
Glass-metal structures possess a
high sealing property, thermal insula-
tion barrier, and required structural
strength. The method for joining glass
to metal, its structural safety, and reli-
ability are important for further appli-
cations. A new method of glass surface
premetallization + low-temperature
soldering has been developed at the
Beijing University of Technology, Chi-
na, to obtain the metallurgical bond-
ing of glass to steel (Ref. 15).
First, two ceramic coatings Al2O3
and ZrO2 were deposited on a tem-
pered glass substrate separately by us-
ing atmospheric plasma spraying.
Then, Cu or Ni coatings were deposit-
ed on top of the ceramics. Later, sol-
dering metallized glass was carried out
to 45 steel using an Sn-based solder at
270C for 46 min.
The results showed that the
premetallized coating treatment effec-
glass to steel. The ceramic coatings ob-
tained a maximum strength of 20.5
MPa. When the soldering temperature
was 270C, the compressive shear
strength of the soldered glass-steel
joint using premetallized copper coat-
ings reached the maximum average
value to 16.9 MPa. However, for a tem-
pered glass substrate with a high hard-
ness and brittleness, lots of defects,
i.e. cracks, chips, and peel off on the
glass surface (generated by the sand-
blasting pretreatment process), were
responsible for decreasing bonding
strength. In addition, the structural
parts of a car windshield glass pre-
pared by soldering deposited glass to
metal frames, based on optimized pa-
rameters, could resist a wind pressure
higher than 0.08 Pa. It fractured under
11.8 kN mechanical load when the
glass was broken while the soldered
frame preserved.
Economic Processing of
HighVolume Binder Burn Out
in the Vacuum Furnace
High-temperature vacuum brazing
of heat exchangers is an established
joining technology. New designs in
heat exchangers and demand in the
substitution of Cu foil to stainless
steel brazing filler metal increase the
brazing paste load per vacuum brazing
batch. A significant increase in burn
out gas volume requires new furnace
technology for economic reasons and
saves processing the paste binder burn
out process. For decades, Schmetz
high-temperature vacuum furnaces
have worked successfully for water-
water heat exchangers, automotive
heat exchangers, and other industries
like tools and medical. A new burn out
system for new and installed Schmetz
vacuum furnaces was developed by
Schmetz GmbH, Mendedn, Germany,
to provide effective burn out of the
paste binder with simultaneous pro-
tection of brazed products and parts
of the furnace (Ref. 16).
The smart pump station maintains
high productivity independent of the
polymer load. A vacuum pump sucks
the released binder immediately out of
the hot zone and guides it to a cold
trap system. The pump volume is scale
based on an estimated polymer load. A
typical vacuum brazing paste profile
ramps up to 500C awaiting total burn
out of the polymer. The condensation
temperature of all VOC vary from
room temperature up to 360C, while
binder burn out happens between
300 to 450C. WJ
References
Refs. 116 are from the 11th Internation-
al Conference on Brazing and Diffusion
Bonding, LT-2016, published in DVS-
Berichte, June 79, 2016, Aachen, Germany.
1. Schmidt, A., Schubert, Th., Weigr-
ber, Th., Kieback, B., Wilhelmi, C., S, M.,
and Funke, M. 2016. Active soldering of
ceramic-ceramic and ceramic-metal com-
pounds for aerospace applications. Vol.
325: 1721.
2. Lin, P., He, P., Lin, T., and Zhao, M.
2016. A preliminary research of mi-
crostructure and properties of Li-Ti ferrite
joints fabricated by brazing technique with
bismuthate glass solder. Vol. 325: 2631.
3. Kassam, T. A., Nadendla, H. B., Lud-
ford, N., and Hangen, U. 2016. The effect
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 55
TECH NEWS MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 5:01 PM Page 56
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
of Ag-Cu-Ti braze preform thickness on
the nanomechanical properties of alumina-
to-alumina brazed joints. Vol. 325: 3243.
4. Shapiro, A. E., and Fischer, G. 2016.
Corrosion protection of steel pipes by sol-
dered clad layers. Vol. 325: 192196.
5. Heo, H., Jung, K., and Kang, C. 2016.
Development of Cu-Al-Ti filler metals for
Al2O3/SS brazed joints applied for Na-S
batteries cells. Vol. 325: 5054.
6. Schilm, J., Pnicke, A., Goldberg, A.,
Partsch, U., and Michaelis, A. 2016. Braz-
ing of Kovar to alumina and LTCC for inte-
gration of ceramic pressure sensors. Vol.
325: 5561.
7. Li, H., Nie, H., Long, W., Zhong, S.,
and Chen, Z. 2016. Penetrating and diffu-
sion behavior of eutectic liquid during
Mg/Steel contact reactive brazing using
pure nickel as interlayer. Vol. 325:
108112.
8. Tillmann, W., and Sievers, N. 2016.
Application of electrical resistance meas-
urement for quality assurance of brazed
joints. Vol. 325: 118122.
9. Miyazawa, Y., Hirono, A., Wasada, T.,
Andou, Y., and Kanazaki, F. 2016. Grain
boundary penetration at pure copper of
56 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
brazed joint between pure copper with dis-
similar metals. Vol. 325: 220223.
10. Marsilius, M., and Hartmann, T.
2016. Influence of boron and phosphor
containing nickel based brazing alloy on
different base materials. Vol. 325:
227232.
11. Xiong, H. P., Ren, H. S., Chen, B.,
Pang, S. J., and Cheng, Y. Y. 2016. Mi-
crostructures and mechanical properties of
Ti3Al/Ni-based superalloy joints brazed
with AuNi Filler metal. Vol. 325: 245252.
12. Riggs, B., Benatar, A., Alexandrov,
B. T., and Xu, R. 2016. Evaluation of DCB
and V-notch fracture mechanics test meth-
ods for high temperature brazed joints.
Vol. 325: 257261.
13. Long, W. M., Zhang, G. X., Zhang,
Q. K., and Zhao, C. F. 2016. In-situ synthe-
sis of difficult-to-form brazing filler met-
als. Vol. 325: 267271.
14. Pashkov, I. N., Karpova, J., Bazhen-
ov, V., and Bazlova, T. 2016. Development
of brazing alloys based on Al-Si-Cu and Al-
Si-Ge system for brazing of aluminum al-
loys with low solidus temperature. Vol.
325: 296301.
15. Li, H., Zhu, T.-H., Tillmann, W., and
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Li, Z.-X. 2016. Low temperature soldering
of glass to metal and its joint properties.
Vol. 325: 307310.
16. Stein, R., and Stroiczek, M. 2016.
Economic processing of high volume
binder burn out in vacuum furnace. Vol.
325: 316317.
Information provided by ALEXANDER E.
SHAPIRO (ashapiro@titaniumbrazing.com)
and LEO A. SHAPIRO, Titanium Brazing, Inc.,
Columbus, Ohio.
Correction
There was an error in the Brazing
Q&A column of the April 2017
Welding Journal. The answers and
winners of the brazing quiz will run
in the June 2017 Welding Journal,
not the May issue, as previously
stated in the column.
advertising sales.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/7/17 11:09 AM Page 57

American Welding Society

www
w..aws.org

SPREAD
D TH
THE WORD
D
on your compan y around
a the world
d

Promote your full-color photos of your newest and hottest welding products and services to
80 000 A
80,000 AW
W members
WS b andd customers
t s.

Reach by email 55,000 AW WS memberrs in the digitaal version of Welding

e Marketplacee that is
included ono the Weelding Journal annoouncement lettter and also includes active links that send
clients dirrectly to your website.

Downloaddable from the AW

WS website,, with active links that send clients directly to your website.
Website averages 102,000 plus viewss a month.

Ask us hoow you can get your companny photo on the Welding
e Marrketplacee coverr.

Ask us abbout our special sponsorship opportunitiess.

4 Issues to
t get your brand name and product in to the hands of A
AW
WS members and customers.

Contact AW
WS for more
m information at 8000-443-9353
Sandra Jorgensen at Ext. 254, email: sjorgensen@aws.org / Annette Delagran
nge at Ext. 332, email: adelagrange@aws.org
Conferences May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:08 PM Page 58
CONFERENCES
10th Shipbuilding Conference
May 16 and 17
Portland, Oregon
The next AWS conference for shipbuilding will include
sessions on innovative pipe welding technologies, welding
automation, new technology for welding both ferrous and
nonferrous materials, and additive manufacturing. The pre-
sentations will include information on welding technology
implemented in shipyards in the United States and other
international locations.
4th Welding Education, Skills &
Certification Conference
June 1315
Phoenix, Arizona
The impending skills gap in manufacturing continues to
be a hot-button topic. In its fourth year, the Welding Educa-
tion, Skills & Certification Conference aims to address the
welding industry piece of the puzzle. How do we ensure
were doing our part to deliver new, skilled professionals
into this booming sector? Attend this conference to gain
new insights, share best practices, exchange ideas, and be
part of the solution.
Weld Repair Conference
August 8 and 9
Portland, Oregon
Weld repairs occur across nearly all industries and types
of alloys. Whether it is performed immediately after joint
completion, after hydrostatic testing and nondestructive ex-
amination, or after the failure of an in-service component,
successful repair welding should take into account code com-
pliance, quality assurance, fitness for service, and economic
considerations. Each weld pass adds another chapter in the
thermal and mechanical history of the component, affecting
its mechanical and/or corrosion resistance properties. Accu-
rately planning, designing, and executing the repair are criti-
cal to make the component suitable for continued service.
Many guidelines exist within API, ASME, NBIC, and AWS
standards for executing a successful weld repair process.
This conference will provide case studies, discuss the ap-
plication of repair codes/guidelines, and better connect the
welding industry, including fabricators, material suppliers,
and operators, in discussions regarding the importance and
complexity of repair welds.
20th Annual Aluminum Conference
September 12 and 13
Portland, Oregon
Welcome to the twentieth year of the Annual Aluminum
Conference. Learn from experts from leading institutes. Alu-
minum is one of the most versatile and widely used metals in
manufacturing, but its unique chemical and physical proper-
ties can also make it one of the most challenging to weld.
58 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Welding Additive Manufacturing
Conference
October 10 and 11
Buffalo, New York
This will be one of the most important conferences the
American Welding Society has ever sponsored. Additive
metal manufacturing (AMM) is best described as using
existing welding processes to make final products from
scratch. This technology will compete head on with forgings,
castings, and fabricated products. Were talking about a
whole new world for welding technology. Highly engineered
filler metals and powder metal compositions are used for
this purpose. So far, laser welding with powder and electron
beam welding with wire or powder have been making great
gains. Now its time for gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
and even gas metal arc welding (GMAW) to create even
greater interest. Attendees will see it all at this conference.
Rounding up the sponsorship will be EWI, Inc., and Cran-
field University from England. EWI has established a new
additive manufacturing center in Buffalo, N.Y., near Niagara
Falls, which is where the conference will be held. The team
from Cranfield has been chosen to be a cosponsor because
the university has been a world leader in the manufacture of
large AMM parts. WJ
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and
Seminars Business Unit at (800) 4439353, ext. 224, or email
mventura@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference
Department website at aws.org/conferences for upcoming con
ferences and registration information.
AWS, WeldEd Web Site
Promotes Welding Careers
The American Welding Society (AWS) and National
Center for Welding Education & Training (Weld-Ed) web-
site at CareersInWelding.com offers the following details:
people and companies in the welding industry; fun facts;
salary information; industry news; videos; articles; and up-
coming training opportunities, seminars, and events.
Additionally, the site features pages geared directly for
students with scholarship information and a welding
school locator; for welding professionals to build a
rsum, find welding-related jobs, and learn about AWS
certifications; and for educators to discover tips for teach-
ers and guidance counselors, information about curricula,
professional development, and other resources.
This website serves as a valuable tool for students, par-
ents, educators, counselors, and welding professionals. It
also allows visitors to send questions, comments, or ideas
for people profiles.
member network.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/6/17 10:06 AM Page 51
Coming Events - MAY.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:21 PM Page 60
COMING EVENTS
AWS-SPONSORED EVENTS
For more information on AWS conferences:
aws.org/w/a/conferences/index
(800/305) 4439353, ext. 455
National Robotic Arc Welding Conference and Exhibition.
June 6, 7. Milwaukee, Wis. Two-day conference with a
bonus day hosted by Miller Electric features two tours of
companies utilizing robot applications from the simple to
the beyond. The tours take place before the conference, on
June 5. This conference is a joint effort between the AWS
Milwaukee Section, AWS D16 Robotic and Automatic Weld-
ing Committee, and Milwaukee Area Technical College. All
proceeds from the conference go toward the J. F. Hinrichs
scholarship fund. For more information or to register, con-
tact Karen Gilgenbach, (262) 613-3790 or karen.gilgen-
bach@airgas.com. Download more information at
aws.org/milwaukee-NRAWC-2017.
U.S., CANADA, MEXICO EVENTS
GAWDA Spring Management Conference. May 1113. Boca
Raton Resort & Club, Boca Raton, Fla. The associations an-
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
60 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
nual spring convention. Attendees are owners, presidents,
CEOs, and COOs, as well as sales, marketing, and operations
executives at welding and gases distributor and supplier
companies, along with their guests. Conference will feature
several keynote speakers, a business session, and a trade
show. Visit gawda.org.
Great Designs in Steel. May 17. Laurel Manor Conference
Center, Livonia, Mich. Features more than 30 technical pre-
sentations from OEMs, automotive suppliers, steel compa-
nies, and industry affiliates highlighting advanced high-
strength steels, automotive safety, and manufacturing tech-
nologies. Visit autosteel.org.
Additive Manufacturing with Powder Metallurgy. June
1315. Bellagio Hotel, Las Vegas, Nev. Metal additive manu-
facturing conference with more than 70 technical presenta-
tions. Visit mpif.org.
Westec. September 1214. Los Angeles Convention Center,
Los Angeles, Calif. Technology solutions you need with the
most machining, metrology, design, waterjet, software, digi-
tal, 3D printing, and engineering expertise than you can
find. Visit westeconline.com.
The Quality Show. Oct. 2426. Donald E. Stephens Conven-
tion Center, Rosemont, Ill. Trade show will focus exclusively
on quality manufacturing. Engineers and managers respon-
sible for quality in the manufacturing process for automo-
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
Coming Events - MAY.qxp_Layout 1 4/10/17 2:16 PM Page 61

tive, aerospace, consumer products, electronics, medical de-

vices, and machinery will have the chance to tour the show
floor, attend sessions, and network. Visit qualityshow.com.

INTERNATIONAL EVENTS
19th International Conference on Joining Materials. May
710. Konventum LO-Skolen, Helsingr, Denmark. The In-
stitute for the Joining of Materials (JOM) in association
with the International Institute of Welding (IIW) present a
conference dedicated to the advancement of joining and ma-
terial technologies and fabrication techniques in all the key
industries. Contact +45 48355458 or e-mail
jom_aws@post10.tele.dk.

PowerGen India & Central Asia. May 1719. Pragati

Maidan, New Delhi, India. Hear from more than 75 industry
specialists who will exchange knowledge and showcase the
latest power generation technology developments. Visit
power-genindia.com.

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

70th IIW Annual Assembly and International Conference.
June 2530. Shanghai International Convention Center,
Shanghai, China. Two-day international conference will
focus on the theme Green Welding Technologies for Effec-
tive and Reliable Manufacturing. Visit iiw2017.com.

25th Annual Conference on Composites and Nano Engineer

ing. July 1622. Rome, Italy. Hot topics include 3D printing,

Protect Parts

s"ULK
For info, go to aws.org/adindex

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

s!EROSOL
s"IODEGRADABLE

weldaid.com

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 61

Coming Events - MAY.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:22 PM Page 62
electrospinning fibers, nano sensors, cryogenics, and com-
posite manufacturing. Visit icce-nano.org.
Schweissen & Schneiden. Sept. 2429. Dsseldorf, Ger-
many. The meeting places for experts and top decision mak-
ers of the joining, cutting, and surfacing technology
industry. Held every four years, the show offers a range of
machinery, products, processes, and services. Visit
schweissen-schneiden.com/joining-cutting-surfacing/.
China Chongqing Machine Tool Show. Nov. 1316.
Chongqing International Expo Center, Yubei, Chongqing,
China. The Association for Manufacturing Technology and
the China Machine Tool and Tool Builders Association pres-
ent this expo to showcase the latest manufacturing technol-
ogy and bring buyers and sellers together from all over the
world. Visit imts.com.
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
ASME Section IX Seminar. June 1214, Houston, Tex. Visit
asme.org and search PD 190 or contact Marian Hess,
hessm@asme.org; (212) 591-7161.
Business Electronics Soldering Technology. Classes held in
Chicago, Ill.; Detroit, Mich.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Cleveland,
Ohio; and Huntsville, Ala., or can be coordinated onsite at
your facility. Contact BEST at (847) 797-9250 to register.
American Welding Society
STTANDARDS
A
aws.org
THE LA
ATTEST RELEASES
ARE HERE!
The AWS Volunteer Committeess work tirelessly to ensure
AWS Standards remain at the forefront
f of advancements
in welding technology. Each month,
m new or revised
standards are featured on the AWS Bookstore website.
This months featured releases incclude:

A1.1:2016, Metric Practice Guide
G Foor The Weelding Industryy

B1.10M/B1.10:2016, Guide Fo For The Nondestructive
Examination Of Weelds

B2.2/B2.2M:2016, Specification
t Foor Brazing Procedure
And Peerformance Qualificatioon

B4.0:2016, Standard Methodds Foor Mechanical Teesting Of
Weelds

D1.8/D1.8M:2016, Structuraal Weelding Code-Seismic
Supplement
Keep an eye on the latest releaases on the AWS Bookstore
website, under the Pick ofo the Month section
at go..aws.orgg/awwsstandardds
62 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
Brazing Training Seminars. Three-day intensive training
programs in all aspects of brazing, from fundamentals to
advanced concepts. Covers furnace, torch, induction, dip
brazing of aluminum, titanium, super alloys, and ceramics.
Classes held May 1618, Los Angeles, Calif.; October 35,
South Carolina; and November 1416, Simsbury, Conn.
Contact Kay & Associates at dan.kay@kaybrazing.com or call
(860) 651-5595.
Certified Welding Inspector/Educator Prep Courses and
Endorsement Seminars. Allentown, Pa. Six-day prep courses
begin July 31 and Nov. 13. Single-day bolting endorsements
begin July 28. Single day D1.1/D1.5/API endorsements be-
gin Aug. 3 and Nov. 16. CWI/CWE and endorsement exams
given Aug. 6 and Nov. 19. Contact Welder Training and Test-
ing Institute, Tracy Wiswesser, (610) 820-9551, ext. 204;
wtti.com.
ECourses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of
Welds and Other WeldingRelated Topics. Online video
courses taken at ones own pace offer certificates of comple-
tion and continuing education units. Contact Hobart Insti-
tute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448;
welding.org/product-category/online-courses/.
ESAB Welding and Cutting Distributor InstructorLed
Training. Year-round training at Denton, Tex.; West
Lebanon, N.H.; Traverse City, Mich.; Hanover, Pa.; and Salt
Lake City, Utah. Online eLearning training available at
training.victortechnologies.com, e-mail trainingteam@esab.com.
Follow the Welding Leaders
WEMCO is an Assocciation of Welding
Manufacturers and a stannding committee of the
American Welding Societyy dedicated to providing
a common voice to the welding industry.
WEMCO provides senior manaagement of welding
manufacturers a platform to:

Promote plans and proggrams, which benefit their
understanding of weldinng equipment market
trends and needs.

Share solutions and besst practices with current
industry, organizations and
a private businesses.
Find out more and joinn the leaders today!
aws.org/w wemco
Coming Events - MAY.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:22 PM Page 63
European Modern Furnace Brazing School. October 1719.
Pontardawe, Wales, UK. Wall Colmonoy presents this three-
day seminar offering knowledge and practical application on
brazing design, metallurgical aspect/brazing operation,
brazing atmosphere and furnace equipment, brazing materi-
al selection and applications, and quality control. Contact
brazingschool@wallcolmonoy.co.uk or +44 (0) 1792 860 622.
GE Industrial Computed Tomography (CT) Operator Course.
Learn to operate the 3D technology that is becoming more
prominent in industrial quality control and metrology.
Lewistown, Pa., (315) 554-2039; geinspectionacademy.com.
Houston Braze School. Two-and-a-half days of classes cover-
ing the essential theoretical aspects of brazing technology
combined with real-life applications and case studies. Visit
lucasmilhaupt.com.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutori-
als, interactive e-learning courses, discussion forums, webi-
nars, and blogs. Visit hypertherm.com; hyperthermcutting
institute.com.
Industrial Laser Training. Technical training and support
offered for users of industrial lasers in manufacturing,
education, and research. Regularly scheduled classes in laser
welding and laser cutting and drilling. HDE Technologies,
Inc.; (916) 714-4944; laserweldtraining.com,
laser-cutting-drilling-training.com.
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica-
tions to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian Nu-
clear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;
(800) 844-6790; cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Indus-
trial Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institu-
tions. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; lia.org.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI
Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers. Orlando, Fla., or customers site.
Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; lia.org.
Laser U Online Education Portal. Offers practical infor-
mation to use on the job. Topics range from 3D printing to
drilling, welding, wireless and optical product requirements,
and many others. Visit Laser Institute of America;
lia.org/laseru.
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly
and on request, include tutorials and practical training. Pre-
sented at Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For
schedule, cost, and availability, e-mail info@servorobot.com.
Laser Welding Technology Classes. Classes begin May
1519, Minneapolis, Minn.; Oct. 913, Phoenix, Ariz. Visit
laserweldtraining.com.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 63
Certification Schedule -MAY.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 12:54 PM Page 64

CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE Certication Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations

Note: The 2017 schedule for all certifications is posted online at 9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
aws.org/w/a/registrations/prices_schedules.html. For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education re-
quirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken
at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
Location Seminar Dates
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
Kansas City, MO June 49
Miami, FL Exam only June 9
Miami, FL July 2328
New Orleans, LA June 49 June 10
San Diego, CA July 30Aug. 4
Kansas City, MO June 49 June 10
Orlando, FL Aug. 2025
Denver, CO June 1116 June 17
Boston, MA Aug. 27Sept. 1
Milwaukee, WI June 1116 June 17
Denver, CO Sept. 1015
Huntsville, AL June 1116 June 17
Dallas, TX Sept. 2429
Newark, NJ June 1116 June 17
Appleton, WI Sept. 2429
Beaumont, TX June 2530 July 1
New Orleans, LA Oct. 2227
Duluth, MN June 2530 July 1
Seattle, WA Nov. 510
Spokane, WA June 2530 July 1
Miami, FL Dec. 38
Waco, TX July 914 July 15
Houston, TX Dec. 38
Sacramento, CA July 914 July 15
Houston, TX July 914 July 15 Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Miami, FL Exam only July 22 Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Louisville, KY July 1621 July 22 Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Atlanta, GA July 1621 July 22 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Philadelphia, PA July 1621 July 22
Phoenix, AZ July 1621 July 22
Cleveland, OH July 1621 July 22 Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
Baton Rouge, LA July 2328 July 29 CWSR exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More
Helena, MT July 2328 July 29 information at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-
Omaha, NE July 2328 July 29 sales-representative.
Seattle, WA July 30Aug. 4 Aug. 5
Chicago, IL July 30Aug. 4 Aug. 5 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
San Diego, CA July 30Aug. 4 Aug. 5 CWS exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More in-
Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 611 Aug. 12 formation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-
Charlotte, NC Aug. 611 Aug. 12 supervisor.
Minneapolis, MN Aug. 1318 Aug. 19
Dallas, TX Aug. 1318 Aug. 19 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
San Diego, CA Aug. 1318 Aug. 19 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Mobile, AL Exam only Aug. 19 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Miami, FL Exam only Aug. 22
Beaumont, TX Aug. 2025 Aug. 26 Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
San Francisco, CA Sept. 1015 Sept. 16 Cleveland, OH June 59 June 10
Houston, TX Sept. 1015 Sept. 16 Dallas, TX July 1721 July 22
Portland, OR Sept. 1015 Sept. 16 Miami, FL Exam only Aug. 4
Nashville, TN Sept. 1015 Sept. 16 Kansas City, MO Aug. 2125 Aug. 26
Kansas City, MO Sept. 2429 Sept. 30 Chicago, IL Sept. 1115 Sept. 16
New Orleans, LA Sept. 2429 Sept. 30 Pittsburgh, PA Oct. 913 Oct. 14
Pittsburgh, PA Sept. 2429 Sept. 30
Long Beach, CA Oct. 16 Oct. 7
Tulsa, OK Oct. 16 Oct. 7
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 391-8421
S. Plainfield, NJ Oct. 813 Oct. 14
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800, ext. 218
Chattanooga, TN Oct. 813 Oct. 14
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Miami, FL Exam only Oct. 20
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Denver, CO Oct. 2227 Oct. 28
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
Des Moines, IA Oct. 2227 Oct. 28
On request at MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 456-5454
Cleveland, OH Oct. 29Nov. 3 Nov. 4
Atlanta, GA Oct. 29Nov. 3 Nov. 4

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status
before making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after
that time will be assessed a $350 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website
aws.org/certication/docs/schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register online, visit
aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 4439353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.

64 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY 2017 S.N..qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:42 PM Page 65
BY KATIE PACHECO kpacheco@aws.org
AWS Offers Two New CWI Endorsements
The American Welding Society
(AWS) Certified Welding Inspector
(CWI) Plus Subcommittee was estab-
lished to develop weld inspection en-
dorsement add-on skills and knowl-
edge credentials for current CWIs and
Senior CWIs (SCWI). Code books, bolt-
ing, and advanced blueprint reading
are among the current endorsements a
SCWI/CWI can earn. AWS is now also
offering two new nondestructive test-
ing (NDT) endorsements: magnetic
particle (MT) and liquid penetrant
(PT) Figs. 1 and 2.
The endorsement examinations are
styled around The American Society
for Nondestructive Testings (ASNTs)
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A:
Personnel Qualification and Certification
in Nondestructive Testing.
The examinations consist of three
individual tests. The first is a 40-
question general knowledge test in
each of the methods. The second is a
20-question specific test on the AWS
MT procedure, as well as the PT proce-
dure, which was developed by the CWI
Plus Subcommittee specifically for the
endorsement examinations.
The procedures follow techniques
prescribed in ASTM E-709, Standard
Guide for Magnetic Particle Testing, for
the visible dry powder yoke technique,
and ASTM E-165, Standard Practice for
Liquid Penetrant Examination for Gener-
al Industry, for the type 2 method C,
visible solvent removed dye.
The two AWS method procedures
can be referenced during the test, thus
demonstrating the candidates ability
to read and understand an NDT
method procedure.
The NDT procedures also contain
the weld acceptance criteria that will
be used in the third test, which is a
practical (hands-on) performance test
of the candidates ability to follow the
method procedure and apply the skills
necessary to examine two welded joint
specimens a groove weld and a fillet
weld. All test specimens have known
weld discontinuities that have been
BOB WISWESSER (bob@wtti.com) is chairman of the AWS CWI Plus NDT Subcommittee and past chair of the Certification Committee, as
well as an ASNT Level III and AWS SCWI at the Welder Training and Testing Institute, Allentown, Pa.
SOCIETY NEWS
BY BOB WISWESSER
specifically mapped out for each speci- tion and certification of NDT
men. They have also been approved personnel.
for use by an AWS Accredited Testing The two new endorsement exami-
Facility (ATF), and meet the NDT nations may be used by the employer
criteria. to meet their companys written prac-
During the third test, the candi- tice requirements. This may save time
dates will follow a 10-point checklist and money by assisting their quality
to examine their specimens. The can- management and/or in-house Level
didates will also be expected to find all III designees from having to develop
relevant unacceptable indications (de-
fects) and evaluate them in accordance
with the weld acceptance criteria in
the respective NDT method procedure.
To pass the practical test, the candi-
dates will have to identify all defects
and map them out on the test report.
To successfully earn the endorse-
ment, each of the three tests require a
minimum passing grade of 70%. Also
required is an 80% composite score av-
eraging the three exams.
As a bonus for the successful candi-
dates, either of the two new endorse-
ments will qualify to meet the alter-
nate requirements for recertification
of their SCWI/CWI nine-year renewal,
in lieu of either taking the Part B prac-
tical exam again or earning 80 profes-
sional development hours of advanced Fig. 1 Inspector performs magnetic
training in topics related to the QC-1 particle testing on a weld specimen.
Body of Knowledge. This additional
value makes the two new endorse-
ments beneficial to the SCWI/CWI
who wants to move onto additional
NDT methods extending beyond visu-
al weld inspection.
How can an employer benefit from
a SCWI/CWI who has these NDT en-
dorsements? Currently, both AWS and
ASME codes accept the qualification
and certification of NDT personnel in
accordance with ASNT SNT-TC-1A.
These two new endorsements may be
used by the employer who has provid-
ed the NDT method training hours ei-
ther in-house or using an outside NDT
training provider.
Afterward, qualified NDT personnel
employed by the company can provide
supervised practical training experi-
ence in accordance with their compa-
Fig. 2 Inspector performs liquid pene
nys written practice for the qualifica-
trant testing on a weld specimen.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 65
MAY 2017 S.N..qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:43 PM Page 66
SOCIETY NEWS
and administer these method
examinations.
ATFs that have been approved to
administer these NDT endorsement
examinations are required to have a
test supervisor who is a current NDT
Level III in each method certified by
ASNT. This will comply with most em-
ployers written practice requirements
Candidates Sought to Receive the MIT Masubuchi Award
The Prof. Koichi Masubuchi award,
with a $5000 honorarium, is present-
ed to one person, 40 or younger, who
has made significant contributions to
the advancement of materials joining
TECH TOPICS
Opportunities to Contribute to
AWS Technical Committees
The following committees welcome
new members. Some committees are
recruiting members with specific inter-
ests in regard to the committees scope,
as marked below: Producers (P), Gener-
al Interest (G), Educators (E), Consult-
ants (C), and Users (U). For more infor-
mation, contact the staff member listed
or visit aws.org/library/doclib/Technical-
Committee-Application.pdf.
S. Borrero, sborrero@aws.org, ext.
334. Definitions and symbols, A2
Committee (E). Titanium and zirconi-
um filler metals, A5K Subcommittee.
Piping and tubing, D10 Committee
(C, E, U). Welding practices and pro-
cedures for austenitic steels, D10C
Subcommittee. Aluminum piping,
D10H Subcommittee. Chromium
molybdenum steel piping, D10I Sub-
committee. Welding of titanium pip-
ing, D10K Subcommittee. Purging
and root pass welding, D10S Subcom-
mittee. Low-carbon steel pipe, D10T
Subcommittee. Orbital pipe welding,
D10U Subcommittee. Duplex pipe
welding, D10Y Subcommittee. Joining
66 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
for a qualified Level III test supervisor.
Beyond this, a SCWI/CWI who has
these endorsements has demonstrated
the knowledge and skill to perform
these two technique-specific NDT
methods for in-house use, which, in
some cases, may be conducted prior to
third-party NDT inspection. The
SCWI/CWI is also better prepared to
through research and development.
Send a list of your candidates experi-
ence, publications, honors, awards,
and at least three letters of recommen-
dation from fellow researchers to Prof.
metals and alloys, G2 Committee (E,
G, U). Reactive alloys, G2D Subcom-
mittee (G).
R. Gupta, gupta@aws.org, ext. 301.
Filler metals and allied materials,
A5 Committee (E). Magnesium alloy
filler metals, A5L Subcommittee.
P. Portela, pportela@aws.org, ext. 311.
High energy beam welding and cut-
ting, C7 Committee (C, E, G). Hybrid
welding, C7D Subcommittee (G). Ro-
botic and automatic welding, D16
Committee (C, E). Welding in sani-
tary applications, D18 Committee (C,
E, G). Additive manufacturing, D20
Committee (C, E, G).
J. Molin, jmolin@aws.org, ext. 304.
Structural welding, D1 Committee
(E). Sheet metal welding, D9 Commit-
tee (C, G).
J. Douglass, jdouglass@aws.org, ext.
306. Methods of weld inspection, B1
Committee (C, E). Brazing and solder-
ing, C3 Committee (C, E, G). Welding
in marine construction, D3 Commit-
tee (C, E, G, U). Welding of machinery
and equipment, D14 Committee (C, E,
G, U).
oversee the accuracy of NDT inspec-
tions performed by outside inspection
agencies.
In summary, these two new en-
dorsements broaden the SCWI/CWI
program into new areas of welding in-
spection to enhance and expand the
value of the SCWI/CWI to the welding
industry. WJ
Todd Palmer, tap103@psu.edu. This
award is sponsored annually by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technolo-
gy, Dept. of Ocean Engineering.
A. Babinski, ababinski@aws.org, ext.
310. Resistance welding, C1 Commit-
tee (C, E, G, U). Friction welding, C6
Committee (C, E). Automotive weld-
ing, D8 Committee (C, E, G, U). Resist-
ance welding equipment, J1 Commit-
tee (C, E, G, U). Welding in the air-
craft and aerospace industry, D17
Subcommittee (C, E, G).
S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org, ext. 305.
Metric practice, A1 Committee (C, E).
Mechanical testing of welds, B4
Committee (E, G, P). Joining of plas-
tics and composites, G1 Committee
(C, E, G). Personal & facilities quali-
fication, PFQC Committee (C, E, G).
Safety and health committee, SHC
Committee (E, G).
J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org, ext. 308.
Procedure and performance qualifi-
cation, B2 Committee (E, G). Thermal
spraying, C2 Committee (C, E, G, U).
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee (C, E, G). Welding iron
castings, D11 (C, E, G, P, U). Railroad
welding, D15 (C, E, G, U).
MAY 2017 S.N..qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:44 PM Page 67
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-
ings are open to the public. Contact
staff members listed below or call
(800/305) 443-9353 for information.
May 24. D17 Committee on Weld-
ing in the Aircraft and Aerospace In-
dustries. Newington, Conn. Contact:
A. Babinski, ababinski@aws.org, ext.
310.
May 3, 4. A2 Committee on Defini-
tions and Symbols. Columbus, Ohio.
Contact: S. Borrero, sborrero@aws.org,
ext. 334.
May 15. C1 Committee on Resist-
ance Welding. Livonia, Mich. Contact:
A. Babinski, ababinski@aws.org, ext.
310.
May 15. J1 Committee on Resist-
ance Welding Equipment. Livonia,
Mich. Contact: A. Babinski, ext. 310,
ababinski@aws.org.
May 16. D8 Committee on Automo-
tive Welding. Livonia, Mich. Contact:
A. Babinski, ababinski@aws.org, ext.
310.
May 25. B2F Subcommittee on
Plastic Welding Qualification. Burr
Ridge, Ill. Contact: S. P. Hedrick, ext.
The D38 Subcommittee on Underwater Welding met on February 23 in New Orleans, La., to discuss the upcoming release of the 2017
D3.6M, Underwater Welding Code.
SOCIETY NEWS
305, steveh@aws.org.
May 25. G1A Subcommittee on Hot
Gas Welding and Extrusion Welding.
Burr Ridge, Ill. Contact: S. P. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org, ext. 305.
June 13. Safety and Health Com-
mittee. Baltimore, Md. Contact: S. P.
Hedrick, steveh@aws.org, ext. 305.
Standards for Public Review
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by
the American National Standards In-
stitute (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as
approved by ANSI, require that all
standards be open to public review for
comment during the approval process.
This column also advises of ANSI ap-
proval of documents.
The following standards are sub-
mitted for public review. A draft copy
may be obtained by contacting the
staff secretary of the committee as
listed below at AWS, Standards Devel-
opment, 8669 NW 36 St., #130, Mia-
mi, FL 33166-6672; (800/305) 443-
9353.
D3.9/D3.9M:20XX, Specification for
Classification of Weld-Through Paint
Primers. Revised Standard. $30.00.
ANSI public review expires 5/1/17.
Contact: J. Douglass, ext. 306,
jdouglass@aws.org.
F1.6:20XX, Guide for Estimating
Welding Emissions for EPA and Ventila-
tion Permit Reporting. Revised Stan-
dard. $28.00. ANSI public review ex-
pires 5/15/17. Contact: S. P. Hedrick,
ext. 305, steveh@aws.org.
ISO Draft Standards for Public
Review
Copies of the following Draft Inter-
national Standards are available for re-
view and comment through your na-
tional standards body, which in the
United States is ANSI, 25 West 43rd
Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY,
10036; telephone (212) 642-4900. Any
comments regarding ISO documents
should be sent to your national
standards body.
In the United States, if you wish to
participate in the development of In-
ternational Standards for welding,
contact Andrew Davis at AWS, 8669
NW 36 St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-
6672; telephone: (305) 443-9353, ext.
466; e-mail: adavis@aws.org. Other-
wise, contact your national standards
body.
ISO/DIS 10042, Welding Arc-
welded joints in aluminium and its alloys
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 67
MAY 2017 S.N..qxp_Layout 1 4/10/17 1:29 PM Page 68

SOCIETY NEWS
Quality levels for imperfections.
ISO/DIS 11666, Non-destructive
testing of welds Ultrasonic testing
Acceptance levels.
ISO/DIS 17607, Steel structures
Execution of structural steelwork.
ISO/DIS 17677-1, Resistance weld-
ing Vocabulary Part 1: Spot, pro-
jection, and seam welding.
New Standard Projects
Development work has begun on
the following new or revised stan-
dards. Affected individuals are invited
to contribute to their development.
Participation on AWS Technical com-
mittees is open to all persons.
B1.10M/B1.10:20XX, Guide for the
Nondestructive Examination of Welds. glass, jdouglass@aws.org, ext. 306.
This guide acquaints the user with the
nondestructive examination methods
commonly used to examine weld- New Standards Approved by
ments. The standard also addresses ANSI
which method best detects various
types of discontinuities. The methods C2.16/C2.16M-2017, Guide for
included are visual, liquid penetrant, Thermal Spray Operator Qualification
magnetic particle, radiographic, ultra- Programs. Approval Date: 3/10/2017.
sonic, electromagnetic (eddy current),
and leak testing. Stakeholders: Weld- D8.2M-2017, Specification for Auto-
ing industry. Revised Standard. Con- motive Weld Quality Resistance Spot
tact: J. Douglass, jdouglass@aws.org, Welding of Aluminum. Approval Date:
ext. 306. 3/9/2017.
B1.11M/B1.11:20XX, Guide for the
Visual Examination of Welds. This guide
Revised Standard Approved by
contains information to assist in the
ANSI
visual examination of welds. Included
are sections on fundamentals, surface
conditions, and equipment. Sketches C4.2/C4.2M-2017, Recommended
and full-color photographs illustrate Practices for Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Torch
weld discontinuities commonly found Operation. Approval Date: 3/2/2017.
in welds. Stakeholders: Welding indus-
try. Revised Standard. Contact: J. Dou-

EPRI Holds Meeting for the AWS D10P Subcommittee

On February 28, members of the of Welds in Grade 91 Material in Piping Bruce Stewart of Quality Control
AWS D10P Subcommittee on Local and Tubing Using Electric Resistance Canada and Lyle Spiegal, a private con-
Heat Treating of Pipework met at the Heating, in preparation for final ballot sultant, attended the meeting
Electric Power Research Institute submission to the D10 Committee on telephonically.
(EPRI) in Charlotte, N.C. Piping and Tubing.
The meeting opened with a presen-
tation by EPRIs Dan Purdy on the
analysis results of extensive testing on
the resistance heating of large bore
piping (3 in. diameter 1 in. wall) per-
formed by the company.
Afterward, John Hainsworth of WR
Metallurgical gave a research presenta-
tion on the effects of increasing the
soak band width that would lead to
tighter through-wall gradient temper-
atures in the heat-affected zone for
creep strength enhanced ferritic steels.
The presentation led to a discussion of
heat and soak band changes to facili-
tate through-wall gradient tempera-
tures.
Following the technical presenta-
tions, the D10P Subcommittee re-
solved the comment review report
from the ballots on D10.10, Recom- The AWS D10P Subcommitee posed with representatives of the Electric Power Research
mended Practices for Local Heating of Institute, Charlotte, N.C. From left are Ray Knobbs; Dan Ciarlariello, D10 vice chair and
Welds in Piping and Tubing, and D10P chair; Craig Bowman; Gary Lewis; John Siefert, EPRI; John Hainsworth; Dan Purdy,
D10.22, Specification for Local Heating EPRI; Walt Sperko; and Bill Newell, D10 chair.

68 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY 2017 S.N..qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:45 PM Page 69

SOCIETY NEWS
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
New AWS Supporters Aviation Institute of Maintenance Pyramid Enterprises, LLC
2025 Satellite Pointe 3321 N. Reseda Circle
Sustaining Members Duluth, GA 30096 Suite 50 and 61
Meza, AZ 85207
Cleveland Integrity Services, Inc. Bill R. Johnson CTE Center
366200 E. 5150 Rd. 1033 McCart Ave. Silver Ships, Inc.
Cleveland, OK 74020 Crowley, TX 76036 9243 Bellingrath Rd.
clevelandintegrity.com Theodore, AL 36590
Bossier Parish Community College
JEA 6220 E. Texas
4377 Heckscher Dr. Bossier City, LA 71111 MemberGetAMember
Jacksonville, FL 32226 Campaign
jea.com Bristol Technical Education Center
431 Minor St. Listed are the members participat-
Mallory Metal Products, Inc. Bristol, CT 06010 ing in the 2017 Member-Get-A-Mem-
2655 Airport Rd. ber campaign. The campaign runs
Santa Teresa, NM 88008 Campbell County High School from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 2017. Mem-
mallorymetal.com 1000 Camel Dr. bers receive 5 points for each Individ-
Gillette, WY 82716 ual Member and 1 point for every Stu-
Metso Minerals Industries, Inc. dent Member
8223 E. Pecos Rd. Graves County High School
recruited.
Mesa, AZ 85212 1220 Eagles Way
For campaign rules and a prize list,
metso.com Mayfield, KY 42066
please see page 81 of this Welding Jour-
Millard School Dist. Delta Tech Center nal. Standings as of March 21. For
Play Club S.A. De C.V. more information, call the AWS Mem-
Circuito San Roque N. 305 East 200 North
Delta, UT 84624 bership Dept. at (800) 443-9353, ext.
423 Puerto Interior 480.
Silao, GTO 36275 Mexico Orange Technical College
2900 West Oak Ridge Rd. J. J. Russell, Fox Valley 35
TowerMRL, Inc. D. K. Eck, Houston 30
2851 Capitol Dr. Orlando, FL 32809
O. N. Boylan, Cleveland 28
Sun Prairie, WI 53590 Oshkiimaajitahdah Institute of B. P. Brandmeir, Lehigh Valley 27
Technoloy S. Galyen, Florida West Coast 25
15525 Mendota Ave. J. P. Theberge, Boston 24
Affiliate Company Members J. R. Stempka NW Penn 20
P.O. Box 416
Rhoads Industries, Inc. Redby, MN 56670 T. W. Zablocki, Pittsburgh 16
1900 Kitty Hawk Ave. F. S. Babish, Lehigh Valley 15
Philadelphia, PA 19112 Springeld Clark CTC D. S. Beecher, San Diego 15
1901 Salem Rd. S. Catherman, Philadelphia 15
Industrial Door Contractors, Inc. Springfield, OH 45505 T. A. Harris, Johnstown-Altoona 15
820 Mayberry Springs Rd.
Columbia, TN 38401 Sulphur Springs High School
1200 Connally St.
The Attraction Services Company, Inc. Sulphur Springs, TX 75482
25625 Hercules St.
Valencia, CA 91355 UAF Bristol Bay Campus AWS Member Counts
P.O. Box 1070 April 1, 2017
Dillingham, AK 99576
Educational Institution Sustaining.................................596
Members Supporting Company Members Supporting ...............................344
Educational...............................770
Airon Academy Critical Path Metalworks Affiliate.....................................693
Second Floor, Nayana Mansion 614 Cliff St., P.O. Box 869 Welding Distributor ...................60
Near Ayyappa Temple, S.S Kovil Rd. Westcliff, CO 81252 Total Corporate .......................2463
Trivandrum, Kerala 695001 India Individual ...........................59,604
HFW Industries Student + Transitional ...........12,272
Allen County Career and Technical Ctr. 196 Philadelphia St. Total Members ..................71,876
1585 Bowling Green Rd. Buffalo, NY 14207
Scottsville, KY 42164

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 69

MAY 2017 S.N..qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:46 PM Page 70

SOCIETY NEWS
District Director Awards
Presented
The District Director Award pro-
vides a means for District Directors to
recognize individuals and corporations
who have contributed their time and
effort to the affairs of their local Sec-
tion and/or District.
District 3 Director Michael Seber-
gandio has nominated Ed Calaman,
York-Central PA Section; Justin Heis-
tand, Lancaster Section; and Jason
Deiter, Lehigh Valley Section.
Distinguished Member
Status Achieved
Dennis K. Eck, AWS Houston Sec-
tion, and David M. Beneteau, AWS De-
stroit Section, have attained the status
of Distinguished Member for their
participation in the Societys leader-
ship, professional development activi-
ties, and membership recruitment. gram, and has served as Chapter chair-
To qualify for distinguished mem- man the past two years. He has also
bership status, applicants must accrue participated in every Student Chapter
35 points or more from at least four fundraiser, as well as every community
categories: national AWS leadership, service project since his sophomore
local AWS leadership, professional de- year.
velopment, and AWS membership re- This award was established with the
cruitment. If you believe you qualify, purpose of recognizing AWS Student
contact the AWS Membership Depart- Members whose Student Chapter ac-
ment at (800) 443-9353 ext. 260. tivities have produced outstanding
school, community, and/or industry
achievements.
Student Chapter Member
Award Presented
The AWS Whitmer Career and
Technology Center Student Chapter,
Change of Address? Moving?
Northwest Ohio Section, Dist. 11, has
selected Tristan Carle to receive the
Make sure delivery of your
Student Chapter Member Award.
Welding Journal is not interrupted.
Carle was nominated for this award
Contact Maria Trujillo in the Mem-
by Craig Donnell, AWS Beaver Valley
bership Department with your new
Student Chapter advisor. Carle, who
address information (800) 443-
scored 100% on every written test he
9353, ext. 204; mtrujillo@aws.org.
has taken this year, has maintained a
3.8 GPA throughout the welding pro-

AWS Representative Delivers Lecture Series in India

Under the auspices of the Indian Institute of Welding
(IIW) and the American Welding Society (AWS), the IIW
Foundation conducts a lecture series every year in different
cities across India to benefit the welding industry. AWS sup-
ports this initiative by selecting and sending a renowned ex-
pert in the field.
This year, AWS chose Christopher Bloch to deliver lec-
tures on heat treatment of welded structures. Bloch is an ac-
claimed authority on heat treatment and an advisor to the
AWS D19 Committee for Welding of Tube and Piping.
Bloch visited numerous companies and gave presenta-
tions to hundreds of welding experts, engineers, and man-
agers from various organizations throughout India, includ-
ing Kochi, Trichy, Delhi, and Vadodara.
The final lecture was organized in Mumbai with the An-
nual Welding Seminar of the IIW Mumbai chapter. The event
hosted 175 welding experts.

Christopher Bloch, advisor to the AWS D19 Committe for Welding Christopher Bloch (fifth from left) posed with his wife and mem
of Tube and Piping, recently delivered a lecture on heat treatment bers of the Indian Institute of Welding at the Annual Welding
of welded structures in Mumbai, India. Seminar and Lecture Series VIII in Mumbai, India, earlier this year.

70 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY 2017 S.N..qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:47 PM Page 71

SOCIETY NEWS
Four New Trustees Elected to the AWS Foundation

Andrew Bonham Jeff Deckrow Jason Scales William Visintainer

The American Welding Society
(AWS) Foundation has announced the
election of four new members to the
board of trustees. Andrew Bonham,
Jeff Deckrow, Jason Scales, and
William Visintainer were each elected
to serve a three-year term from 2017
to 2019.
Andrew Bonham has been senior
vice president at ESAB Americas since
2013, with responsibility for more
than 1800 employees across North
and South America. Previously, he
worked at WR Grace and Invensys
Controls, held executive roles with Al-
liedSignal (now known as Honeywell),
and spent 12 years with General Elec-
tric in its plastics and silicone prod-
ucts groups.
Jeff Deckrow has worked with Hy-
pertherm since 1996, holding posi-
tions in sales, marketing, and sales
support. He currently serves as the
company's vice president of North
American sales. Deckrow is also chair
of the AWS Foundation Careers Com-
mittee, and is past chair and a mem-
ber of WEMCO, a standing committee
of the AWS.
Jason Scales has been with the Lin-
coln Electric Co. since 2011, and cur-
rently serves as its manager of educa-
tion services. He is a board member
of the James F. Lincoln Foundation,
and chairman of the Junior Board of
Lincoln Electric Co.
Bill Visintainer has been the owner
and president of Atlas Welding Supply
in Birmingham, Ala., since 2008. He
previously worked at BOC Gases for
11 years as a manager, and was the
20152016 president of the Gases
and Welding Distributors Association.

U.S. Coast Guard Visits AWS Headquarters

Members of the United States Coast Guard (USCG) recently toured the AWS Headquarters in Miami, Fla. The members work in the main
tence and engineering segments of the USCG Miami base, focusing on upkeep, supply, and retrofit of the patrol fleet. Pictured are USCG
officers, engineers, and maintenance personnel.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 71

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:10 PM Page 72

SECTION NEWS BY CINDY WEIHL cweihl@aws.org

of Technology. Three students from

District 1
Douglas A. Desrochers, director
(508) 763-8011
dadaws@comcast.net
BOSTON
March 2
Location: Tewksbury, Mass.
Summary: Laurie Jones, Section board
of director member and student affairs
chair, presented the Sections Instruc-
tor of the Year Award to Greater Low-
ell Technical School Metal Fabrication
Instructor Thomas Kasilowski.
District 2
Ken Temme, director
(856) 264-8377
kentemme@matrixnac.com
District 3
Michael Sebergandio, director
(717) 471-2065
drweld13@gmail.com
READING
March 18
Location: Lancaster County Career &
Technology Center, Mount Joy, Pa.
Summary: The Section held its Annual
Reading Section Welding Contest fea-
turing five career and technology
schools, including Lancaster County,
Berks County West, Lebanon County,
Reading-Muhlenberg, and York School
each school competed in the event
consisting of three levels. First level,
up to 500 h of instruction; second lev-
el, 5001000 h of instruction; and
third level, more than 1000 h of
instruction.
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com

PHILADELPHIA
February 8
Location: Benjamin Franklin Engi-
neering and Technology High School,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Presenter: Rob Yagle Jr., vice presi-
dent, Bay Technical Associates
Summary: Yagle gave a presentation to BOSTON Student Affairs Chair Laurie NEW JERSEY From left are Senior Past
members describing the various posi- Jones (left)presented the Sections District Director Kenneth Stockton, Jun
tive material identification (PMI) ma- Instructor of the Year Award to Thomas ior Past Director Harland Thompson,
chines that his company uses to pro- Kasilowski. and current Director Kenneth Temme.
vide material identification to clients
in the petrochemical and refining
industries.

NEW JERSEY
January 18
Location: Somerset County Vocational
and Technical School
Summary: The Section hosted a weld-
ing education and career night at Som-
erset County Vocational and Technical
School. Exhibitors included the Sheet
Metal Workers Union Local 22, United NEW JERSEY Staff Sergeants
States Army, Steamfitters and Pipefit- PHILADELPHIA District Director Ken Cameron Fischer (left) and Luis A.
Temme (left) and Section Chair Michael Navedo, United States Army, were one
ters Union Local 475, and Universal
Chomin (right) thanked speaker Rob of several exhibitors during the Sections
Technical Institute. Yagle Jr., vice president of Bay Technical. welding education and career night.

READING Welding students competing in the Annual Reading Section Welding Contest posed for a group photo.

72 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:11 PM Page 73

District 5
Joseph T. J. T. Mahoney, director
(352) 727-0366
Joseph.jt.mahoney@gmail.com
ATLANTA
February 16
Location: Jasper, Ga.
Presenter: Carl Matricardi, Section
vice chair and past district director
Summary: Matricardi presented a slide
show to members and students re-
garding his experience as an expert
witness in fatal welding accidents re-
sulting from safety procedures not be-
READING Seen are the judges of the Annual Reading Section Welding Contest. From
left are Richard Heisey, contest and Section chairman; Bryan Shenk; Tracy Davenport;
Craig Davis; Francis Butkus; Gene Henry; and David Hibshman.
ing followed. Additionally, Section
Chair Ren Engeron presented William
Bill Durret with a 50-Year Life Mem-
ber Award. Durret then spoke to the
students about the benefits of being
an AWS member. Two bags of welding
supplies and three free student mem-
berships were raffled off during the
meeting.
NORTH CENTRAL FLORIDA
February 21
Location: Airgas, Ocala, Fla.
Presenter: Steve Weaver, district man-
ager, Hypertherm Corp.
Summary: Weaver gave a video presen-
SECTION NEWS
tation and talk on how plasma cutting
works and the latest developments in
cutting equipment and accessories.
Meeting attendees then went to the
shop area and used the plasma system.
Professional development hours
(PDHs) were available to attendees
who requested them.
Tulsa School of Welding
Student Chapter
February 2
Location: Tulsa School of Welding,
Jacksonville, Fla.
Presenter: John Bray, AWS president
Topic: Mentoring and what it can do
for you
Summary: More than 50 students as
well as representatives from Lincoln
Electric and Strate Welding Supply at-
tended the Student Chapters Febru-
ary meeting. President Bray spoke
about the benefits of mentorship
while Lincoln representatives Steve
Mattson and Jim Issa spoke about
new company products. Steve Strate of
Strate Welding Supply spoke about
welding safety. The school supplied a
pizza dinner for all attendees.

Tulsa School of Welding Student Chap

ATLANTA Bill Durret (second from left) received his 50Year Life Member Award from ter AWS President John Bray (left)
Chair Ren Engeron (second from right). Also pictured are Section Vice Chair Carl Matri and Student Chapter President Dion
cardi (left) and Jordan Hunter (right). Thornhill.

ATLANTA February meeting attendees gathered for a photo.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 73

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:11 PM Page 74

SECTION NEWS
District 6
Michael Krupnicki, director
(585) 705-1764
mkrup@mahanyweld.com

NORTHERN NEW YORK

February 28
Location: Century House, Latham,
N.Y.
Presenter: Bob Cohen, president, Weld
Computer
Summary: More than 30 members
attended a presentation given by Co-
hen about adaptive controls for resist-
ance welding.

Tulsa School of Welding Student Chapter Pictured after their February meeting are
(from left) Student Chapter President Dion Thornhill, AWS Past President Nancy Cole, Dis
trict 5 Director J. T. Mahoney, and AWS President John Bray. District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@sgsdiving.com

COLUMBUS
March 7
Location: Crown Plaza Hotel, Colum-
bus, Ohio
Presenter: Uwe W. Aschemeier, senior
welding engineer, Subsea Global Solu-
tions, LLC, and District 7 director
Topic: The OSU Impulse Manufactur-
ing Laboratory
Summary: Aschemeiers presentation
focused on providing photos of under-
water repair projects with an emphasis
on underwater wet welding. Attendees
Tulsa School of Welding Student Chapter The speakers from the Sections February were introduced to hyperbaric wet and
meeting gathered for a photo. Seen (from left) are Dion Thornhill, Student Chapter presi dry welding, as well as top side weld-
dent; Jim Issa, Lincoln Electric; John Bray, AWS president; Steve Mattson, Lincoln Electric; ing repair techniques on ocean vessels
and Steve Strate, Strate Welding Supply.
and maritime underwater structures.

PITTSBURGH/Beaver Valley
Student Chapter
February 21
Location: Steamfitters Local 449 Tech-
nology Center, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Presenter: Efram Abrams, AWS learn-
ing sales representative
Summary: Abrams made a presenta-
tion about the online learning re-
sources available to colleges and
industry. The meeting also hosted the
student awards/scholarship presenta-
tions for the winners of the 36th Annu-
al Weld Off Competition. Section
Chair Don Stoll and John Foley, in-
structor at Pittsburgh Technical Insti-
COLUMBUS Chair Jim Worman (second from left) presented a welding helmet speak tute, presented the awards. Kerry Sabo
ers gift to Uwe Aschemeier (second from right). Also shown are John Lawmon (left), re of Lincoln Electric presented the
cipient of the Section Meritorious Award, and Bryan Lyons (right), recipient of the District award winners with company prod-
Meritorious Award. ucts, and System One provided x-rays

74 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:12 PM Page 75

SECTION NEWS
of the weld test coupons at no charge.
Hallie Schmitt became the first District 8 NORTHEAST MISSISSIPPI
February 16
woman in the history of the Pitts- D. Joshua Burgess, director Location: Mayhew, Miss.
burgh Section to win the Weld Off (931) 260-7039 Presenter: Caleb Brown, Mississippi
Competition and her coupon x-ray djoshuaburgess@gmail.com sales manager, ESAB Welding
showed no defects.

PITTSBURGH
March 14
Location: R. J. Lee Group,
Monroeville, Pa.
Presenter: Jim Pellegrino Jr., senior
materials consultant
Topic: Industrial forensics and testing
Summary: The Section held its annual
joint meeting with ASNT. The groups
were provided a presentation and tour
of the R. J. Lee facility, which is an
industrial analytical laboratory and
scientific firm. After the tour, mem-
bers of both organizations enjoyed a
buffet dinner at Palmeris Restaurant.
PITTSBURGH/Beaver Valley Student Chapter Secondary student winners (from left)
are Franklin Shaffer, third place; Ted Zablocki, instructor; Robert (Chuck) Kimble, second
place; Hallie Schmitt, first place; and Roger Hilty, instructor.

PITTSBURGH/Beaver Valley Student Chapter Section members gathered for a group photo at the February meeting.

PITTSBURGH Following a joint meeting between the Section and ASNT, members of both organizations posed for a photo.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 75

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:12 PM Page 76

SECTION NEWS
Summary: Members gathered for the Presenter: Josh Wallmuth, JW Custom including students from Auburn Uni-
Sections Student Night as well as a Fabrication versity, Central Alabama Community
presentation on welding safety and Summary: Students from Central College, and Southern Union State
equipment. Louisiana Technical Community Col- College toured Goldens Foundry and
lege and from Buckeye High School Machine Co. Established in 1882, it is
attended Wallmuths presentation on one of the oldest foundries in the U.S.
District 9 underwater welding. Students were
able to ask questions and learn more
and is still in operation today. The
company manufactures cast, ma-
Michael Skiles, director
about the industry. chined, and assembled gray and duc-
(337) 501-0304
tile iron components for the capital
michaelskiles@cox.net
OPELIKAAUBURN and durable goods industries. The
February 16 company is a fifth generation family
NEW ORLEANS Location: Goldens Foundry and owned business.
January 17
Machine Co., Columbus, Ga.
Location: Best Western Landmark
Summary: More than 55 members March 4
Hotel, Metairie, La.
Location: Auburn University, Auburn,
Presenter: Dwight Witter, ND3
Ala.
Topic: NDT training and rope access
Summary: District 9 and Auburn Uni-
technology
versity Materials Engineering hosted a
Summary: The Sections January gen-
merit badge university for local Boy
eral meeting consisted of Witters
Scouts.
presentation on NDT training and
rope access technology for welding and
inspection. The meeting was spon-
sored by Inspection Specialists, Inc.,
and they also supplied door prizes. A
50/50 raffle raised money for student
activities.

CENTRAL LOUISIANA NEW ORLEANS Section Chair D. J.

February 15 Berger (far right) presented a speaker
Location: Central Louisiana Technical recognition award to (from left) Dwayne
Community College, Jena, La. Witter and Dwight Witter, owners of
ND3.

NEW ORLEANS Chair D. J. Berger CENTRAL LOUISIANA Speaker Josh

(right) presented a sponsor recognition Wallmuth (left) and Buckeye High School
PITTSBURGH Pictured are John award to (from left) Sean Hargis and welding student Peyton Ryder (right)
Markanich, ASNT; Jim Pellegrino, R. J. Brian Connelly, Inspection Specialists, demonstrated the use of an underwater
Lee Group; and Don Stoll, Section chair. Inc. welding helmet.

NORTHEAST MISSISSIPPI Student Night meeting attendees listened to a presentation on welding safety and equipment.

76 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/10/17 1:28 PM Page 77

SECTION NEWS
manager from Paslin, gave a brief com-
District 10 pany introduction. Tupper then gave
Mike Sherman, director his talk on the vision applications in
(216) 570-9348 the automotive industry. He intro-
mike@shermanswelding.com duced multiple commonly used 2D
and 3D laser-based and camera-based
DRAKE WELL/Oil Region Student vision systems. The Section also recog-
Chapter nized the old timers after the talk, in-
March 9 cluding Salvatore Delisi.
Location: The Franklin, Franklin, Pa.
Presenter: Randy Voelp, manufactur-
ing representative, Metabo Grinders
Topic: Safe operation of grinders
Topic: Voelps presentation centered
around grinder operation safety, the
many uses of grinders, and the dos
and donts of operation. Meeting
attendees were able to ask questions
following the presentation.

NORTHWESTERN
PENNSYLVANIA
March 14
Location: Eriez Magnetics, Erie, Pa.
Presenter: Ron Bartosek, production NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA OPELIKAAUBURN District 9 and
manager and weld manager, Eriez Vice Chair Donna Bastian (right) pre Auburn University Materials Engineering
Magnetics sented Ron Bartosek (left) with a hosted local Boy Scouts for a welding
speaker gift. merit badge clinic.
Summary: Bartosek spoke to members
about the history of his company and
the state of manufacturing today in
Erie.

District 11
Phillip Temple, director
(734) 546-4298
nwcllc_ptemple@att.net

DETROIT
March 9
Location: Paslin, Warren, Mich.
Presenter: Terry Tupper, senior engi-
neer, material joining section, Fanuc
America DRAKE WELL/Oil Region Student Chapter Pictured after the March meeting are (front
Summary: The Section hosted its tech- row from left) Dan Bubenheim, Andy Klapec, Tanner Rose, Travis Crate II, and Travis
nical meeting/Old Timers Night. As a Crate. In the back row (from left) are Bob Hime, Dick Whitcomb, Ryan Lehnortt, and
cohost, Greg Stacey, sales account Robert Fugate.

OPELIKAAUBURN Members and welding students enjoyed a tour of Goldens Foundry and Machine Co., Columbus, Ga.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 77

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/10/17 1:26 PM Page 78

SECTION NEWS
March 16 tour was the attachment of the steel
District 12 Location: Burger Boat Co., Manitowoc, hull to the aluminum upper structure.
Daniel J. Roland, director Wis.
(920) 241-1542 Summary: The Section toured the
daniel.roland@airgas.com manufacturing facilities of the Burger
Boat Co. Led by the companys human
MADISONBELOIT/Blackhawk resources director, Curt Prokash, the
Technical Student Chapter tour included an extensive walk-
March 8 through of a 103-ft yacht that was un-
Location: Blackhawk Technical Col- der construction. The highlight of the
lege, Milton, Wis.
Presenter: Joe Thompson, industry
veteran
Summary: Thompson spoke about his
more than 40-year career in the weld-
ing industry. His career has gone from
welding in the military during the
Vietnam War to a business owner and DETROIT Don Maatz (left) thanked
then a regional sales representative. Terry Tupper (right) for his technical
Thompson was then given a tour of presentation on vision applications in
the Blackhawk Advanced Manufactur- the automotive structural assembly.
ing Facility by Student Chapter Presi-
DETROIT Chair Tyler Alexander (left),
dent Austin Duhr and Vice President and Mitch Dupon (center), presented
Mich Vanderkoi. Salvatore Delisi with a recognition
plaque as part of the Sections Old
LAKESHORE Timers Night.
February 16
Location: Machuts Supper Club, Two
Rivers, Wis.
Presenter: Ken Smith, business devel-
opment director, SciAps Manufactur-
ing; and John Greivell, vice president,
Raeco LIC, LLC
Summary: The February meeting was
a technical event presented by Smith
and Greivell. The meeting presented
the theory of operation and a real-
time demo of the SciAps laser and
x-ray hand-held alloy identification
testers. The presentation stressed the
identification of materials prior to LAKESHORE Pictured (from left) are LAKESHORE Host Curt Prokash (far
welding and the chemical analysis of Ken Smith, alloy business development left) posed with Section members in
completed welds and the surrounding director, SciAps Manufacturing; Adam front of the yacht currently under con
Witepalek, Section vice chair; and John struction at Burger Boat Companys
heat-affected zone. Greivell, vice president, Raeco LIC, LLC. main manufacturing area.

MADISONBELOIT/Blackhawk Technical College Student Chapter Student members posed with guest speaker Joe Thompson (center
holding banner).

78 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:13 PM Page 79

SECTION NEWS
New York and how it all started in
District 13 District 15 1919.
John Willard, director David Lynnes, director
(815) 954-4838 (701) 893-2295 NORTH TEXAS
kustom_bilt@msn.com dave@learntoweld.com January 17
Location: Fort Worth, Tex.
Summary: The January meeting fea-
District 14 District 16 tured award presentations for mem-
Tony Brosio, director bers. Candace Ortega received the
Karl Fogleman, director
(765) 215-7506 Howard E. Adkins Memorial Instruc-
(402) 677-2490
tbrosio@yahoo.com tor Section Award.
fogleman3@cox.net
ST. LOUIS
February 23
Location: Jerry Haas Race Cars, District 17
Fenton, Mo. J Jones, director
Presenter: John DeFlorian, general (832) 506-5986
manager, Jerry Haas Race Cars jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
Topic: Facility tour and presentation on
different company operations EAST TEXAS
Summary: DeFlorian led members on a February 11
tour of the race car manufacturing facil- Location: East Texas Oil Museum,
ity and questions were asked by atten- Kilgore, Tex.
dees regarding welding processes and Summary: Section members were
materials used to create the race cars. given a tour of the museum. It started NORTH TEXAS Chair Paul Stanglin
Templates and jigs all used to create with a short video including various (left) presented Candace Ortega with
frames were shown to attendees as well clips from the 1930s. Section Chair J the Howard E. Adkins Memorial Instruc
as non racing-related custom work. Jones enlightened the audience with a tor Section Award.
brief history of AWSs early days in

ST. LOUIS Event attendees gathered for a photo during a facility tour of Jerry Haas Race Cars.

EAST TEXAS J Jones (kneeling, left side of banner) and Bryan Baker (kneeling, right side of banner), posed with welding students from
Kilgore College and Bossier Parish Community College.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 79

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:14 PM Page 80

SECTION NEWS
February 14 HOUSTON Summary: Traditionally the January
Location: Arlington, Tex. January 18 Section meeting is Past Chairmans
Presenter: John Bray, AWS president Location: Bradys Landing Restaurant, Night. There were six past chairs in at-
Summary: AWS President John Bray Houston, Tex. tendance. Keynote speakers Lang and
visited the Section and shared infor- Presenter: Mike Lang, director of Wisnoski spoke to attendees about ex-
mation about the Society and the ben- training, Fluor; and Scott Wisnoski, panding the instruction of classic
efits of mentorship. Maverick Testing Labs welding techniques to include new
Topic: Proper training of incoming technology including Lincolns STT,
March 8 welders Millers RMD, and pulse welding.
Location: Grapevine, Tex.
Presenter: Linda Lewis, Grapevine
Foundry
Topic: Investment casting
Summary: Lewis explained the invest-
ment (lost wax) process. She covered
creating the wax mold, coating the
image with a strong shell, melting out
the wax, pouring the bronze into the
mold, and then finally removing the
shell to retrieve the final product. The
presentation was part of the CWI
nine-year recertification class held in
Dallas the week of March 5th.

TULSA
January 24
Location: Oklahoma Joes Bar-B-Que NORTH TEXAS AWS President John Bray (center) posed with Section officers (from left)
Tulsa, Okla. Ernest Levert, Paul Stanglin, John Kennedy, and Chelsey Morris.
Presenter: Paul Wittenbach, principal
welding and metallurgical engineer at
Phillips 66, and Section treasurer
Topic: Welding dissimilar metals in the
petrochemical industry
Summary: Wittenbach discussed weld-
ing considerations and practices used
within the petrochemical industry to
join base metals with different chem-
istry and microstructures. Weld joints
between combinations of carbon steel,
low-alloy steel, stainless steel, and
nickel alloys were evaluated.

District 18
John Stoll, director TULSA (From left) Section Chair Travis Weber stands with event speaker and Section
(713) 724-2350 treasurer Paul Wittenbach, and door prize winners Jay Rufner and Jacob Elliot.
John.Stoll@voestalpine.com

NORTH TEXAS Pictured are the Sections February meeting attendees.

80 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:14 PM Page 83

District 19
Shawn McDaniel, director
(509) 793-5182
shawnm@bigbend.edu
PUGET SOUND OLYMPIC
February 2
Location: Bellevue, Wash.
Presenter: Chris Sundberg, structural
engineer and Senior CWI
Summary: Sundberg presented on the
design, layout, and fabrication of re-
ducing elbows for piping. The presen-
tation was based on a technical paper
he coauthored for an ASCE pipelines
conference earlier in the year.
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
(505) 284-9644
phgorma@sandia.gov
SECTION NEWS
IDAHOMONTANA
February 23 District 21
Sam Lindsey, director
Location: Airgas fill plant and retail
(858) 740-1917
store, Idaho Falls, Idaho
slindsey@sandiego.gov
Presenter: Tom Little, fill plant man-
ager, Airgas
Summary: Members participated in a ARIZONA
October 19
fill plant tour and discussion on AWS
Location: Matheson Air Separation
B5.1, Specification for the Qualification
Plant, Mesa, Ariz.
of Welding Inspectors.
Presenter: Freddy Sanchez, operations
manager, Matheson Tri-Gas
UTAH
Summary: Members participated in a
February 16
plant tour and listened to a presenta-
Location: Mountainland Applied
tion on methods used to process air
Technology College, Lehi, Utah
and gas for the industry. Attendees
Summary: AWS Learning Sales Repre-
learned how welding gas is manufac-
sentative Efram Abrams gave a presen-
tured. Event attendees included Hay-
tation to welding educators from
den Kereluk, Jason Dominguez, David
around the state. He discussed avail-
Miller, Richard Santasiero, Michael
able opportunities for students and
educators who utilize the AWS library. Lloyd, Brent Couch, Daniel Boyer,
Randy Fox, Leon Zamora, Brian
He also outlined the AWS SENSE pro-
Headley, Kapp Brian, Tamara Drobit-
gram for schools.
sky, Mike Drobitsky, John Kocur,

HOUSTON Seen at Past Chairmans Night were Past Chairs (from left) Dennis Eck PUGET SOUND OLYMPIC Chair David
(20062007); Robert Hunt (19992000); Asif Latiff (20062007); Jerry Koza Jr. Edwards (right) thanked speaker Chris
(20082009); Grant Peltier (20152016); and John Bray (19981999). Sundberg for his presentation.

NORTHTEXAS Seen are attendees of the CWI nineyear recertification class during a tour of the Grapevine Foundry.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 83

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:14 PM Page 84
SECTION NEWS
Jerry Siko, Joshua Anderson, Robert
Holmes, Craig Burnhen, Ryan Priest,
Eric Tully, Kyla Cook, Blaine Cook,
Shawn Cook, Kenny Cook, Ty Wagner,
Esvin Barrios, Linda Zamora, Ken
Hughes, Tim Sullivan, Kyle Sargent,
Chad Norris, David Romero, Shane
Clayton, Clifton Green, Bryan
Makovicka, Leo Hernandez, Cory
Carpenter, David Hevlin, James Trim-
ble, Steele Buksas, Zak Noyes, Felixia
Vasquez, Xaviera Hannah, John Han-
charik, Nick Martinez, Jerry Wright,
Freddy Sanchez, and Fran Johnston.
November 16 and 17
Location: Las Vegas, Nev.
Summary: The Section sponsored the
2016 Welders without Borders: Weld-
ing Thunder Competition during the
annual FABTECH show. The two-day
competition featured high school and
college-level welding teams using pro-
IDAHOMONTANA Airgas Fill Plant Manager Tom Little (front row, fifth from left) welcomed Section members for a facility tour and
discussion on compressed gas safety and governing regulations.
UTAH Section members welcomed AWS Learning Sales Representative Efram Abrams (left of banner) during the February meeting.
84 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
vided drawings to weld a griddle and
grill. The students then used their
newly-built grilling equipment to com-
pete in a friendly cookoff that was
judged by culinary arts instructors
from Arizona Western College. For a
list of participants and winners, see
pages 3436 of the January 2017
Welding Journal.
January 11
Location: Mesa Community College
Welding Department, Mesa, Ariz.
Presenter: Nick Martinez, 1st vice chair
and project NDE/QC specialist, Salt
River Project
Summary: Martinez presented infor-
mation on AWS scholarships for con-
tinuing education opportunities avail-
able to students, teachers, and career
professionals. He addressed eligibility,
the selection process, financial aid,
and GPA requirements. The meeting
was well attended by students, their
parents, welding instructors, and
members.
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
SAN FRANCISCO
March 8
Location: ConXtech, Inc., Hayward,
Calif.
Presenter: John Rettie, tour guide
Summary: More than 58 members and
guests, many from nearby community
colleges, toured the ConXtech facility
where components for the ConX
Chassis Based Modular Building Sys-
tem are fabricated.
MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:15 PM Page 85

SECTION NEWS

ARIZONA Welding Thunder volunteer

ARIZONA Welding Thunder volunteer judges (from left) Shanen Aranmor, Eric Phye, judges Nick Martinez (left) and Gonzalo
Curtis Casey, Doug Anderson, Carl Van Hoose, and Jeff Davis. Huerta.

ARIZONA Participants at Scholarship Night at Mesa Community College.

SAN FRANCISCO A tour guide led attendees through the ConXtech facility.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 85

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:15 PM Page 86

SECTION NEWS

SAN FRANCISCO A group of meeting attendees are seen during their ConXtech facility tour.

Contact Robert Fugate for more infor- information about North Texas
SECTION EVENTS mation about Drake Well events at events by e-mail at
CALENDAR rfugate@vtc1.org. pstangli@cityofirving.org.

Please note events are subject to change.

Reach out to the listed contact to conrm. New Orleans ANNOUNCE YOUR
SECTIONS ACTIVITIES
Colorado Meetings are usually the third Tuesday
of each of the following months: Sept., If you would like to submit an event
May 11 Oct., Nov., Jan., Feb., March, April, and or calendar listing, send along the fol-
Denver, Colo. May. lowing information: Section name;
Annual awards dinner with 2016 activity name, date, time, and loca-
AWS President David McQuaid Contact D. J. Berger for more information tion; and speaker name, title, affilia-
about New Orleans events at (504) 415- tion, and subject. If some of your
Contact Bob Teuscher for more informa- 9165, or by e-mail at meeting plans are pending, include
tion about Colorado events at (303) 893- dj@nationalitc.com. the name and e-mail or phone num-
3602 or by e-mail at bobteuscher@ ber of a contact person for the event.
hotmail.com.
North Texas Please keep in mind the Journal pub-
Drake Well lication cut-off is usually the 20th of
Meetings are the third Tuesday of each
the month, for two months ahead.
month: dinner at 6:30 pm, program at
May 5 For example, if you want to have your
7 pm
Cleveland, Ohio July meeting in the June Journal cal-
Humperdinks, 700 Six Flags,
Lorraine Community College endar, the deadline is April 20.
Arlington, Tex.
Weld-Ed Center Bring three canned goods for the
District 10 meeting Send your calendar event listing to
North Texas Food Bank and receive a
Cindy Weihl, senior editor, by e-mail,
door prize ticket.
August 4 cweihl@aws.org, or fax, (305) 443-
Meadville, Pa. Contact Paul Stanglin for more 7404.
Annual golf outing

86 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

MAY Section News.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:16 PM Page 87
Guide to AWS Services
American Welding Society
8669 NW 36th St., #130
Miami, FL 33166-6672
(800/305) 443-9353; Fax: (305) 443-7559
Phone extensions are in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
John Bray. . . . . . . .sales@affiliatedmachinery.com
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
3008 South Main Street, Pearland, TX 77581
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Chief Operating Officer
Matt Miller.. mmiller@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(207)
Senior Associate Executive Directors
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Chief Financial Officer/Chief Administrative Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(252)
Chief Information Officer
Emilio Del Riego..edelriego@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(247)
Board and Executive Director Services
Associate Director
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(294)
AWS Awards, Fellows, Counselors
Board and Executive Director Services
Program Manager
Chelsea Steel.. csteel@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and
Counselor nominations.
Administrative Services
Corporate Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
HUMAN RESOURCES
Director
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(208)
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and interna-
tional societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.
(202) 785-9500; F: (202) 835-0243
Monitors federal issues of importance to the
industry.
CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA INTERNATIONAL THERMAL
SPRAY ASSOCIATION
Program Manager
Alfred Nieves....anieves@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(467)
RWMA RESISTANCE WELDING MANUFACTURING
ALLIANCE
Program Manager
Adrian Bustillo....abustillo@aws.org. . . . .. . . .. . . .(295)
WEMCO ASSOCIATION OF WELDING
MANUFACTURERS
Program Manager
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . . . .(444)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director of North American Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Learning Sales Representative
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(307)
Corporate Director, Global Sales
Jeff Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities; cer-
tification, publications, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Welding Journal
Publisher/Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . . . . . .(238)
Society News Editor
Katie Pacheco.. kpacheco@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Section News Editor
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(256)
Inspection Trends Editor
Carlos Guzman..cguzman@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(348)
Welding Handbook Editor
Kathy Sinnes.. ksinnes@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(255)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Chief Marketing Officer (interim)
Michael Walsh.. mwalsh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(350)
MEMBER SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)
Senior Associate Executive Director
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
Corporate Director
Rhenda Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between members and AWS
headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273)
Managing Director
Judy Manso..jmanso@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(281)
Director of Agency Representation
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
EDUCATION SERVICES
Corporate Director
Patrick Henry..phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(226)
Director, Development and Systems
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . . . . . .(219)
TECHNICAL STANDARDS SALES
Managing Director
Michael Walsh...mwalsh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(350)
AWS Bookstore, Subscription Sales, and AWS
Reseller Management
Customer Service...customerservice@aws.org . . .(280)
STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
Managing Director Standards Development
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Committee Activities, Additive
Manufacturing, Welding Qualification
Director International Activities
Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American
Council of the International Institute of Welding
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of
Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities
Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(334)
Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommit-
tees on Reinforcing Steel and Stainless Steel, Joining
of Metals and Alloys, Piping and Tubing
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc Weld-
ing and Cutting Processes, Computational Weld
Mechanics
Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Structural Welding, Sheet Metal Welding
Program Managers
Annik Babinski..ababinski@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(310)
Automotive, Friction Welding, Resistance
Welding, Resistance Welding Equipment, Welding
and Brazing in Aerospace
John Douglass..jdouglass@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(306)
Brazing and Soldering, Methods of Weld Inspec-
tion, Welding in Marine Construction, Welding of
Machinery and Equipment
Peter Portela.. pportela@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(311)
High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Welding,
Welding in Sanitary Applications, Additive Manufac-
turing, Structural Subcommittees on Bridge Welding
and Titanium
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(308)
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Railroad
Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron Castings,
Welding Qualification
CUSTOMEROPERATIONS
Program Specialists
Vivian Pupo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(362)
Vanessa Vasquez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(361)
Answer customer questions about AWS.
AWS FOUNDATION, INC.
aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
William A. Rice.. brice@oki-bering.com
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . (461)
Associate Director of Scholarships
Vicki Pinsky.. vpinsky@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . (212)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
charitable organization established to provide support for
the educational and scientific endeavors of the American
Welding Society. Promote the Foundations work with your
financial support.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 87
Personnel MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:26 PM Page 88
PERSONNEL
Keen Adds Quality Control
Director and Technical
Welding Specialist
Keen Compressed Gas Co., Wilm-
ington, Del., has two new hires.
Lawrence Priebe has been named safe-
ty and quality control director. In this
role, he will be responsible for oversee-
ing the safety and quality of Keens op-
erations, including training, policy de-
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
88 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
velopment, and compliance objectives.
Priebe has been in the compressed gas
industry for more than 20 years. From
1999 through 2016, he served as the
manager of safety, compliance, and
transportation, where his responsibili-
ties included risk management, safety
and health, DOT, OSHA, EPA and
state-specific compliance, fleet man-
agement, and bulk and microbulk
installations. In 2007, Priebe received
his Certified Transportation Profes-
sional credential from the National
Private Truck Council. Tim Stott has
also joined Keen Compressed Gas Co.
as technical welding sales specialist.
His primary role will be assisting the
companys account managers and cus-
tomers with their technical welding
needs. He will also be responsible for
training and educating Keens sales as-
sociates and customers on welding
processes. Stott began working in the
welding industry at age seven in his
family-owned construction and weld-
ing business. In 1972, he was hired as
the field sales engineer for Airco,
where he went on to several other po-
sitions within the company. In 1993,
Stott was hired by Miller Electric as
their Mid-Atlantic district manager
where he managed relationships with
distributors and end users for more
than 20 years. Stott retired from
Miller Electric in February 2017.
Koike Names CEO
Koike Aronson,
Arcade, N.Y., has
announced that
President and
COO James
McAuliffe Jr. has
been named chief
executive officer
(CEO) of the com-
pany. McAuliffe
replaces Jerry
Leary, who has re-
J. McAuliffe Jr. tired after leading
the company since
2002. McAuliffe joined the company in
2016 and brought with him extensive
experience in finance, distribution, ac-
quisitions, manufacturing, and inter-
national operations.
Weiler Appoints New
Managing Director, Americas
Weiler Abrasives Group, Cresco, Pa.,
has appointed Bill Dwyre as managing
director of the newly formed Americas
business. This promotion, part of a
larger restructuring, supports the
integration of the acquisition of
continued on page 107
esab.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:22 PM Page 89

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

Lott Feature AmWeld 5/17.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 11:14 AM Page 90

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Introduction to Welding Pipe Downhill

BY NATHAN LOTT AND

Mastering techniques for welding with JAMES COLTON II
cellulosic electrodes expands
employment opportunities

Fig. 1 Pennsylvania College of Tech-

nology offers a B.S. in Welding and Fab-
rication Engineering Technology, an
Associate of Applied Science degree in
Welding Technology, and a certificate
in welding.

N
atural gas extraction and trans-
mission, as well as oil and
chemical processing and water
transmission, require field welding API
5L line pipe in grades X42 or X52. For
this thin-wall pipe, generally 0.5 in. or
less, many welding procedures require
downhill welding using the shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) process
90 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
and cellulosic (EXX10) electrodes. Lo-
cated in Williamsport, Pa., between
two of the states largest hydraulic
fracturing regions, Pennsylvania Col-
lege of Technology (PCT) teaches
welding pipe downhill as part of its
Welding & Fabrication Engineering
Technology program Fig. 1.
This article incorporates informa-
tion from the schools curriculum and
passes on advice instructors provide to
students. The figures show a 6-in.-
diameter, Schedule 80 (0.4375-in.-
wall) pipe. Any specific parameters or
dimensions used in an actual project
should always follow the supplied
Welding Procedure Specifications
(WPS), as well as applicable codes,
Lott Feature AmWeld 5/17.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 11:14 AM Page 91

THE AMERICAN WELDER

such as API 1104, Standard for Welding

Pipelines and Related Facilities, and
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
Section IX.

Why Downhill and

EXX10?
For situations that require manual
field welding, SMAW remains the pre-
ferred process because it minimizes
equipment requirements and skilled
operators can consistently produce
sound weld beads. On thinner-wall
pipe, downhill welding enables opera-
tors to run hot and fast, increasing
productivity compared to welding up-
hill, which is required on thicker wall
pipe to increase heat input to ensure
complete penetration Fig. 2.
To control the molten weld pool
and prevent the slag from rolling in
front of the pool, downhill welding re-
quires a fast-freezing EXX10 cellu-
losic electrode. These electrodes have a
thin coating (10 to 12% by weight)
that contains around 30% cellulose
(wood flour) and its associated mois-
ture content. Other ingredients
include a sodium-silicate binder,
titanium dioxide to create a quick-
freezing slag, deoxidizers such as fer-
romanganese and ferrosilicon, as well
as other elements that vary by
manufacturer.
During welding, the heat of the arc
melts the cellulose and turns it into
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and
large amounts of hydrogen. Carbon
dioxide becomes the shielding gas and
hydrogen increases arc voltage to cre-
ate a driving, deeply penetrating arc
a desirable characteristic when
welding an open-root joint in field
conditions, as well as for melting
through rust and dirt in field repair Fig. 2 Welding pipe with EXX10 electrodes in the downhill position requires different
welding techniques than uphill welding.
applications. Cellulosic electrodes also
strike easily, making them well suited
for tack welds. Power Sources for EXX10 starts. Typical OCVs range from 60 to
EXX10 electrodes produce a weld 90 V.
pool that wets and spreads well, yet EXX10 electrodes require direct Power sources for EXX10 electrodes
sets up fast enough to make this elec- current electrode positive (DCEP) po- also have a good inductor (an inductor
trode ideal for downhill welding tech- larity and more voltage than other resists change in the electric current
niques. The weld bead is flat with electrodes. Power sources designed for passing through it). Inductors act as a
coarse ripples and covered with a thin, running EXX10 electrodes have a high power reserve to keep the arc estab-
friable slag layer that is easily removed, open circuit voltage (OCV), which is lished as the operator manipulates the
which helps prevent slag inclusions voltage at the electrode before the arc electrode. Direct current welding gen-
when making multiple passes. As an in- is struck. Think of high OCV as a gar- erators, with their large magnetics and
teresting side note, the first covered den hose with the water turned on but smooth output, have historically set
electrode, patented in 1904 by Oscar the nozzle closed. Good electrical pres- the standard for EXX10 arc perform-
Kjellberg, was of the cellulosic type. sure directly relates to positive arc ance. That said, a new generation of

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 91

Lott Feature AmWeld 5/17.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 11:15 AM Page 92

THE AMERICAN WELDER

through to the backside of the joint, as

well as the option to step down to a 18-
in. electrode. If a 116-in. root opening
tightens, there is a higher probability
that the operator will need to use a
grinder to
open the root opening to ensure
penetration.
After setting the root opening
thickness, operators make four or
more 1-in.-long tack welds at the 12, 3,
6, and 9 oclock positions to maintain
root opening thickness and hold the
pipe in place. Note that the size of the
tack weld allowed varies by pipe diam-
eter. Tacks should be ground to bare
metal and the ends feathered.
Successful pipe welding demands a
good setup: concentrically align the
pipe ends and ensure an even root
opening around the entire circumfer-
Fig. 3 Inverters for welding downhill have specific settings for welding with E6010 elec- ence. If the setup is less than perfect,
trodes and can create a crisper arc using an adjustable arc force control. fix it now if at all possible Fig. 5.

inverters has been designed to deliver same size as the root face.
optimal results for welding with cellu- Depending on the WPS, pipe diam-
The Root Pass: Four Key
losic electrodes so that field welding eter, and personal preference, opera- Adjustments
applications can benefit from light- tors may have the flexibility to choose
weight, portable units. These inverters whether they want to set 116- or 332-in. Set welding amperage to fall within
feature a cellulosic operating mode root face and root openings, as well as the WPS and then match personal
that mimics the drooping volt/amp use either a 18- or 332-in. electrode for preferences. Typical starting points are
curve preferred for pipe welding. They the root pass. If the application allows, 80 to 90 A for a 18-in. electrode and
can create a crisper, more forceful, and the authors prefer choosing a nickel 105 to 115 A for a 532-in. electrode.
driving arc that benefits open root root face and root opening and a 532-in. Strike the arc on a tack weld at the top
welding and EXX10 arc characteristics, electrode because it allows flexibility if of the pipe, holding the rod perpendi-
plus they have an adjustable arc force the root opening tightens as the pipe cular to the pipe. The operator will
function so operators can tailor the arc heats, cools, and contracts Fig. 4. If clearly hear the arc when it penetrates
to match the application and personal a 332-in. root opening narrows, the op- through the pipe, and a small key-
preferences Fig. 3. erator might have a wide enough hole will open behind the electrode.
opening to push the molten metal At this point, tilt the electrode and
The Setup
Downhill pipe typically requires a
60-deg included angle, or 30-deg bevel.
Compared to the 75-deg included an-
gle or 37.5-deg bevel for uphill pipe
welding (necessary to reduce slag en-
trapment potential when using an
EXX18 electrode), the narrower angle
reduces deposition requirements and
improves productivity.
Depending on pipe diameter, the
bevel will terminate in a 116-in. or 332-in.
root face (flat) to support the heat of
the arc. Operators commonly refer to
these sizes as dime and nickel root
face, respectively. Because welding
pipe requires an open root to ensure
complete penetration, WPSs require a
root opening between pipe sections, Fig. 4 Use a piece of 332-in. GTAW wire to properly size a nickel width root opening.
with the root opening usually set the

92 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Lott Feature AmWeld 5/17.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 11:16 AM Page 93

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Fig. 5 Because good fitup is essential, one operator helps another Fig. 6 On a root pass with a properly sized keyhole, very little light
hold the pipe in position during tacking to create an even root open- appears on the outside of the pipe, as the arc force pushes the weld
ing all the way around the pipe. metal through to reinforce the backside of the joint.

start traveling toward the bottom of
the pipe, holding a 5- to 15-deg drag
angle and moving in a straight line
(e.g., no weave).
Very little arc light will be visible on
the outside of the pipe Fig. 6. Expe-
rienced pipe welders know how to read
the keyhole and make one of four ad-
justments to control keyhole size,
which should roughly match root
opening width. If the operator does
not see a keyhole, that indicates insuf-
ficient penetration. To correct the sit-
uation, the operator can do one or
more of the following:
1. Increase amperage, typically
done on the fly by a welders helper
with a remote amperage control.
2. Hold a longer arc, which increas-
es voltage and overall heat input.
3. Use more of a drag angle, which
pushes more heat back into the joint
Fig. 7.
4. Reduce travel speed.

Fig. 7 Directing the arc back into the pool can help open up the Fig. 8 Some operators place the electrode between the fingers of
keyhole. their free hand to help them drive the rod into the joint.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 93

Lott Feature AmWeld 5/17.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 11:16 AM Page 94
THE AMERICAN WELDER
If the keyhole is too large, the oper-
ator can make one or more of the fol-
lowing corrections:
1. Reduce amperage.
2. Increase travel speed until the
keyhole reaches the correct size.
3. Decrease arc length to lower volt-
age and cool the weld pool.
4. Hold the electrode more
perpendicular.
Beginners typically need to put
more pressure on the electrode than
they think (bury the rod is a com-
mon instruction) Fig. 8. Sometimes
the right amount of pressure can cause
the rod to bend a little bit, especially
with a smaller diameter electrode and
a narrow root opening.
There are two problems operators
may encounter on a root pass. One
problem is the arc may wander to one
side, and this can be caused by a con-
centricity problem with the electrode
coating. In SMAW, the coating crater,
or the cup-like formation of the coat-
ing that extends beyond the melting
core wire, performs the function of
concentrating and directing the arc.
Concentration and direction of the arc
stream is attained by having a coating
crater, somewhat similar to the nozzle
on a water hose, directing the flow of
Fig. 9 Looking at a root pass from the
inside of the pipe. It should be nearly
flush, although the WPS may allow up to
1
16 in. of reinforcement.
94 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
weld metal. When the coating is not
concentric to the core wire, the poor
arc direction causes inconsistent weld
beads, poor shielding, and incomplete
penetration. The electrode melts off
unevenly, leaving a projection on the
side where the coating is the heaviest.
This condition is often referred to as
fingernailing.
To counteract fingernailing, push
the thin side of the electrode further
into the groove to direct the arc force
into the joint. The second problem,
which has a similar solution, is arc
blow, where magnetic forces try to
push the arc toward one side of the
joint. If this occurs, push the electrode
toward the opposite side of the joint
and try to create a more even melt-off
rate. Arc blow can be caused by poor
grounding. Make sure the pipe is well-
grounded; repositioning the ground
clamp can solve the problem.
Old electrodes may also cause
welding issues. Where EXX18 low-
hydrogen electrodes will absorb mois-
ture and cause issues, the cellulose in
EXX10 electrodes can dry out, leaving
insufficient gases for the electrode to
perform properly.
Hot Pass
A good root pass will create rein-
forcement on the inside of the pipe
that is flush with the inside Fig. 9.
Fig. 10 Using the proper technique will
enable the hot pass to consume small dis-
continuities.
On the exterior, the root pass will
leave a convex (humped) weld bead
with wagon tracks of slag on either
side. Grind the bead with a disc
grinder to somewhat flatten the bead
and expose the wagon tracks, as they
can entrap slag. Do not grind the bead
too thin, as it needs to support the
heat of the hot pass, which will work
the slag to the top so that it joins the
new slag layer rather than become
trapped.
If the WPS allows the flexibility to
increase electrode diameter, note that
using a 532-in. electrode and running
hotter tends to melt out slag better.
However, using a 532- or 316-in. electrode
will allow for more weld metal deposi-
tion into the groove to fill the groove
faster. With more weld metal being
utilized, caution must be taken with
larger electrodes to use proper tech-
nique to avoid discontinuities that can
become trapped Fig. 10.
When making the hot pass, a slight
weave may be necessary to fill the
joint, and holding a longer arc also
helps widen the pool and increase heat
input. Otherwise, the electrode does
not require much manipulation until
reaching the bottom of the joint. Here,
when welding pipe in the 5G or 6G po-
sition, the pool may tend to sag. If
working with a helper, ask the helper
to decrease amperage. Also, many op-
erators use a stepping motion: drag
the electrode forward to melt out the
slag, step back an electrode diameter
to give the front edge of the pool a
chance to cool, then move forward and
repeat.
If the pool becomes fluid and wants
to run ahead of the arc when transi-
tioning from the 2 to 4 oclock posi-
tion, there is a misconception that am-
perage should be decreased. More of-
ten than not, the solution is to in-
crease amperage and use the addition-
al arc force to push the pool back into
the joint. Also, it may be necessary to
increase travel speed to stay ahead of
the pool.
When transitioning toward the bot-
tom of the pipe, be sure to maintain a
drag angle. A large percentage of weld
flaws occur because of poor electrode
angle between the 4 and 8 oclock posi-
tions Fig. 11.
After the root pass, note that the
WPS may call for an E7010 or E8010
electrode; regardless of EXX10-type
electrode, the technique will be simi-
Lott Feature AmWeld 5/17.qxp_Layout 1 4/6/17 11:18 AM Page 95
Fig. 11 The operator demonstrates a 5- to 15-deg drag angle, which is especially hard to
maintain when transitioning toward the bottom of the pipe. Keeping the elbow tucked in
tight helps.
lar. Also, note that several electrode
manufacturers offer EXX10 and
EXX10 plus electrodes. The plus
electrodes create a slightly narrower
and less fluid arc, so operators prefer
them for the root pass. The standard
EXX10 electrodes create a slightly
more fluid arc, which helps wet the
sidewalls on the hot pass and spread
the pool on the fill and cap passes.
Fill and Cap
For the fill and cap passes, operators
will usually step up to the largest elec-
trode allowed, often a 31 6-in. to provide
greater deposition and to help create a
wider pool. In fact, a cap made in a sin-
gle pass is often called a pool cap.
For the first fill pass, use a weave to
ensure tie-in with the pipe wall. Mov-
THE AMERICAN WELDER
ing the electrode side to side and creat-
ing an upside-down U shape is com-
mon, as is holding a longer arc than
for the previous passes. Combined
with a proper drag angle, these tech-
niques prevent the center of the pool
from sagging.
Because one of the most common
defects is insufficient fill, stripper
passes may need to be added to build
up the weld metal so that it is flush or
almost flush with the top of the joint.
The spots between the 2 and 5 and
710 oclock positions are notorious
for having low spots in the center, and
adding a stripper pass in this area may
be necessary.
The cap pass should bring the weld
metal up to the point where the cap is
flush to no higher than 116 in. above
the pipe surface. Without the need to
tie-in to the pipe wall, lower currents
may be used than for the fill pass(es).
Practice Makes Perfect
Welding pipe downhill with cellu-
losic electrodes isnt harder than uphill
welding, but it does require different
techniques. The skills learned for
welding uphill simply dont translate.
For example, the whip and pause
technique required for uphill EXX10
welding has no place in downhill weld-
ing, and the slag systems for basic and
rutile electrodes provide completely
different characteristics.
At Pennsylvania College of Technol-
ogy, students spend 80 h on their in-
troduction to downhill pipe welding
course. The course provides a good
foundation and will let students know
if they have an aptitude for the
process. However, like all welding ap-
plications, theres only one way to gain
proficiency: spend time in the booth
and practice downhill. WJ
NATHAN LOTT (nlott@esab.com) is account
manager, ESAB Welding and Cutting Products,
Hanover, Pa. JAMES COLTON II
(jcolton@pct.edu) is an AWS CWI and assis-
tant professor and co-department head, Weld-
ing Engineering Technology, Pennsylvania
College of Technology, Williamsport, Pa.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 95
Tucker Aluminum - May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:49 AM Page 96

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Preventing Defects when

Arc Welding Aluminum
BY CAROLYN TUCKER
These recommendations can help you
avoid rejectable porosity, incomplete
fusion, and crater cracks

R
ecent work at Newport News bons, water, hydrated aluminum ox- Lubricants or contaminants on the
Shipbuilding (NNS), a division of ide), when welding aluminu, include equipment for cleaning or machining
Huntington Ingalls Industries, the following: the weld joint
involved qualifying joints with a 45- Lubricants (oils, grease) or contami- Lubricants or contaminants in the
deg included angle for spray and nants (paint, debris) on the weld welding equipment
pulsed gas metal arc welding (GMAW) joint surfaces Moisture, typically condensation, on
of aluminum. This required producing
welds that were acceptable to the Class
1 radiographic testing (RT) require-
ments of Navy standards, which hold
the same porosity requirements for
aluminum as they do for steel.
Another recent NNS contract re-
quired ultrasonic testing (UT) of pro-
duction aluminum welds, which is not
a typical requirement. Through this
work, it was found that practices that
are sufficient for producing visually ac-
ceptable aluminum welds or volumet-
rically acceptable steel welds may not
be enough to produce acceptable RT or
UT aluminum welds, especially as joint
thicknesses and humidity increase.
The following recommendations
were used at NNS to prevent defects
such as rejectable porosity, incomplete
fusion, and crater cracks when arc
welding aluminum.

Hydrogen Sources Cause

Porosity
To prevent porosity when welding
aluminum, the source(s) of hydrogen
need to be eliminated. Since hydrogen
is highly soluble in molten aluminum,
but has low solubility in solid alu-
minum, it becomes trapped as porosi-
ty when aluminum welds solidify. Typ- Mechanized GMAW of an aluminum aircraft elevator for the USS Gerald R. Ford. (Photo
ical sources of hydrogen (hydrocar- courtesy of Chris Oxley, Newport News Shipbuilding.)

96 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Tucker Aluminum - May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:49 AM Page 97
Fig. 1 Pneumatic vs. electric cleaning equipment.
the base and/or filler metal
Moisture in the shielding gas
Moisture in the air (humidity), due
to insufficient shielding gas flow
Moisture in compressed air lines
used for pneumatic equipment or
cleaning
Hydrated oxides on the surface of
the base and/or filler metal.
Recommendations for
Preventing Porosity
Joint Cleaning and Fitup
Aluminum metal is soft and can
easily smear and hide defects or trap
contaminants, such as oxides, mois-
ture, and lubricants. As soon as alu-
minum metal is cleaned, it begins oxi-
dizing. Surface oxides on aluminum
metal can prevent proper penetration
of welds, become permanently hydrat-
ed if exposed to moisture, and should
be fully removed before welding. To
have the least amount of surface ox-
ides present, joint cleaning and fitup
should be performed just prior to
welding (within 8 h is recommended).
The following methods and prohibi-
tions are recommended for joint clean-
ing and fitup of aluminum:
Do not use lubricants. This in-
cludes, but is not limited to, oils,
grease, beeswax (used to preserve
sanding disks/grinding wheels), etc.
Use an electric saw with blades
dedicated to aluminum only to cut and
bevel plates as an alternative to ma-
chining with lubricants. If lubricants
are used when machining/beveling
joint edges, degrease the initial joint
preparation prior to mechanically
cleaning the joint surfaces.
Degrease the joint (e.g., wipe
down joint surfaces using acetone and
a clean rag). Always degrease prior to
using mechanical cleaning methods
(grinding, wire brushing, etc.) to pre-
vent smearing/trapping contaminants
in the base metal.
Do not sandblast aluminum base
metal, since sandblasting grit can be-
come embedded in the aluminum and
contaminate joint surfaces.
Use of electric-powered tools is
recommended. Avoid using pneumatic
equipment because the exhaust can
contain moisture and/or lubricants. If
pneumatic equipment is used, prevent
the exhaust from blowing contami-
nants into the joint. Installing a water
separator or dehumidifier on the com-
pressed air line to prevent moisture
contamination and degreasing the
joint after using compressed air is also
recommended. Examples of pneumatic
and electric equipment are shown in
Fig. 1.
Use stainless steel wire brushes/
wheels and rotary files that are dedi-
cated only to aluminum. Even new
wire brushes may have oils present
from their manufacturing process.
Soak new wire brushes/wire wheels/
THE AMERICAN WELDER
rotary files in acetone (or an equiva-
lent degreaser) for 5 min prior to re-
moving lubricants.
Use only grinding wheels meant
for aluminum and proven not to affect
weld quality. Some grinding wheels
marketed for aluminum may be in-
tended to last longer when grinding
aluminum and not necessarily produce
good quality welds. Organic binders
and fillers in grinding wheels can be a
cause of porosity. Grinding wheels and
rotary files both smear aluminum, but
are acceptable so long as their use does
not trap contaminants (oxides, lubri-
cants) or hide defects.
Do not weld over moisture. When
heating aluminum, take care not to
overheat one area and to avoid tem-
perature ranges that can metallurgical-
ly damage the material.
Filler Metals
Aluminum filler metal begins to ox-
idize as soon as it is manufactured. Us-
ing filler metal with the newest date of
manufacture possible is recommend-
ed, though hermetically sealed packag-
ing, similar to that for flux cored filler
metal, can help protect the wire from
the environment. Also, larger diameter
filler metals, such as 1/16 in. diameter
compared to 3/64 in. diameter, have a
smaller surface area to volume ratio
and, therefore, less surface oxides,
which typically result in less porosity.
Do not move the filler metal from a
cooler environment (e.g., air condi-
tioning) to a warmer, more humid en-
vironment and immediately begin
welding when the temperature of the
filler metal is lower than the dew point
temperature of the surrounding air.
Condensation can form on the filler
metal, as is shown in Fig. 2, and result
in unacceptable porosity in the weld.
While the filler metal can be heated
or allowed to dry to remove condensa-
tion, the surface oxides will be perma-
nently hydrated (Ref. 1). Aluminum
filler metal can still produce acceptable
RT or UT results with respect to poros-
ity as long as the hydration of the sur-
face oxides is limited. Therefore, stor-
ing the filler metal in a warm, dry area
was recommended (for example, stor-
ing the filler metal in a cabinet or tool
box heated by a light bulb). Also, prior
to welding, ensure the top strand of
wire is clean of dust or oxide and re-
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 97
Tucker Aluminum - May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:52 AM Page 98

THE AMERICAN WELDER

acceptable welds, while 45 ft/h is suf-

Fig. 2 Condensation is shown on aluminum filler metal.
move one complete strand if contami-
nation is suspected.
Welding Equipment
For GMAW, it is recommended to
use wire feeders and welding guns that
are dedicated to welding only alu-
minum to prevent cross contamina-
tion. Use plastic (nylon or Teflon) gun
neck and cable liners, along with inlet
guide plates, to prevent shaving the
aluminum welding wire. Using other
wires with the plastic liners can leave
behind residual wire drawing/feed aid
lubricants and/or cut up the plastic,
which may contaminate the weld. Us-
ing aluminum dedicated U groove
feed rollers will minimize wire scar-
ring. If available, utilize features such
as pre/post purge, hot start and crater
fill settings, and the heater in the wire
feeder to help prevent defects.
60% RH. Increasing joint thicknesses
may require increasing flow rates to
produce volumetrically sound welds.
For example, GMAW of thicker alu-
minum butt joints with 100% argon
shielding gas in approximately 60%
RH may require flow rates as high as
6080 ft/h to produce volumetrically
ficient when the RH is lower. To pro-
duce higher flow rates, gas
regulator/flowmeters set and calibrat-
ed to 50 lb/in. may be necessary to
overcome gas flow restrictions in the
wire feeder and welding gun. The fol-
lowing recommendations help ensure
sufficient shielding gas protection of
the weld:
Use a gas hose with low moisture
permeability.
Perform a pressure drop test be-
fore welding to verify that there are no
leaks in the setup.
Check the dew point of the gas
flow at the welding gun. Use a dew
point meter and, if necessary, attach a
short hose over the dew point meters
air temperature sensor to ensure that
the shielding gas flows to the sensor as
is shown in Fig. 3. If the dew point is
not 76F (Ref. 1) or below, purge the
entire welding system until the dew
point is acceptable (typically 58 min).
If the dew point does not reach accept-
able levels, purge the system with ni-
trogen until it reaches 76F or below
and then reattach the shielding gas.
Shelter the weld from drafts or
anywhere the shielding gas may be
compromised.
Set both the pre and post purge
for a minimum of 5 s.

Shielding Gas
Having sufficient shielding gas flow
without moisture contamination is
critical to prevent porosity in alu-
minum welds. The minimum shielding
gas flow rate needed to achieve satis-
factory RT and UT results may in-
crease as the relative humidity (RH) of
the surrounding environment increas-
es, especially above approximately Fig. 3 Testing the gas flow out of the welding gun with a dew point meter.

98 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Tucker Aluminum - May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:53 AM Page 99

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Table 1 Possible Causes of Different Porosity Types in RT Film

Description Possible Cause of Porosity

Localized disruption of shielding gas

Small Areas of Porosity Localized contaminants (paint, oils, etc.) on the base metal
Insufficient pre/post purge for starts and stops

Low heat input/fast cooling rate trapped hydrogen in the area of the
weld bead that solidified first
Root/Linear Porosity Note: If a backing strap is used, the thickness of the backing
strap may need to be increased to allow for hotter parameters
without melting through.
Contaminated shielding gas or insufficient flow rate
Porosity throughout Joint
Hydrated oxides, moisture, or contaminants on the filler/base metal

Avoid stopping and starting in Welding Technique the joint increases and traps more hy-
a joint. Use run on/off tabs, when drogen.
possible. Recommendations to Do not rely on visually sound met-
Set the gas flow rate with all of the Prevent Defects al when backgouging. It is possible to
welding equipment hooked to the flow completely miss excavating a defect in
meter. Gas flow restrictions in the Defects caused by welding tech- a joint due to the aluminum smearing.
wire feeder and welding gun (especial- nique and/or parameters include in- Figure 4 shows an example of the root
ly push/pull welding guns) can cause complete fusion and crater cracks. As of an unwelded aluminum butt joint
the set flow rate to drop as much as 15 joint thicknesses increase (approxi- that has been smeared due to grind-
ft/h. mately 3/4 in. and greater) and included ing. A 6-in. work line from the center-
When using shielding gas cylin- angles decrease (less than 60 deg), in- line of the joint should be marked to
ders, do not draw cylinders down to complete fusion particularly becomes aid in joint location and ensure excava-
zero pressure. Replace nearly empty more prevalent when the parameters tion is performed at the root. Measure
cylinders when approximately 500 and technique were not sufficient to the depth of the initial root pass to
lb/in. pressure remains. ensure good penetration. Increased determine the depth that needs to be
Cap off gas hoses when discon- thickness also leads to increased backgouged. Uniformly prep the back-
nected to avoid moisture pickup/ porosity, because the cooling rate of gouged joint profile with a minimum
contamination.
To ensure sufficient shielding gas
coverage, maintain a gas cup to work
distance approximately 3/8 to 5/8 in.,
keep the gas cup clean, use a slight
push/lead welding gun angle, and use
the largest size of gas cup that is able to
access the joint. When using 100% ar-
gon, a dark, sooty weld is an indication
of an incorrect welding gun angle or too
great of a gas cup to work distance.
Use an argon-helium or helium-
argon mixed gas rather than 100% ar-
gon or increase the percentage of heli-
um to increase penetration and de-
crease porosity.

Interpreting Causes
of Porosity
If unacceptable porosity occurs, it is
possible to narrow down possible
causes based on how it appears in the
RT film. Descriptions of porosity in RT
film and their possible causes are pro-
vided in Table 1. Fig. 4 The unwelded root of an aluminum butt joint smeared by grinding.

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 99

Tucker Aluminum - May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:54 AM Page 100
THE AMERICAN WELDER
60-deg included angle and avoid bevel-
ing only one side of the joint.
Contouring/grinding may be
needed to ensure proper penetration if
there is not enough space to split-pass.
When grinding, contour to ensure
there are no square edges.
Do not rely on sound when weld-
ing aluminum to ensure good parame-
ters. Visually observe the penetration
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
100 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
of the weld pool burning into the base
metal rather than listening for a
smooth sound without crackle.
Small, fast weld beads in groove
joints can solidify before completely
fusing to the base metal. However,
overly large weld beads can cause the
weld pool to roll in front of the arc,
also causing incomplete fusion.
Incomplete fusion is especially
prevalent in thicker joints with tight
(< 60 deg) included angles welded with
small (3/64-in.-diameter) filler metal. In-
creasing the included angle and filler
metal diameter (1/16 in.) as joint thick-
nesses increase is recommended.
Welding aluminum groove joint thick-
nesses over 3/8 in. using 3/64-in.-diame-
ter filler metal is not recommended.
Use a slight push/lead gun angle
to ensure proper gas coverage and
penetration.
To prevent crater cracks, using the
equipments crater fill settings is rec-
ommended. If crater fill settings are
not used, fill the end crater by using
any of these techniques:
Stop travel and fill the crater by
making a circular motion with the
welding gun.
After breaking the arc, immedi-
ately restart the arc and fill the crater.
Reverse direction where practical
and allowed.
Chip/grind as needed to remove
defects.
Conclusion
While producing volumetrically ac-
ceptable aluminum welds can be diffi-
cult, eliminating hydrogen sources and
ensuring good welding techniques and
parameters can help prevent common
defects when arc welding aluminum.
Using these recommendations has al-
lowed NNS to consistently produce ac-
ceptable RT and UT quality aluminum
welds. WJ
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Joe
Strickland for his contributions in
welding and troubleshooting.
References
1. Hobart Brothers Corp. 2013. Ho-
bart Filler Metals Guide for Aluminum
Welding, pp. 2426.
CAROLYN TUCKER is a welding engineer
at Newport News Shipbuilding in
Newport News, Virginia
Page 87.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/7/17 4:30 PM Page 101

Friends and Colleagues:

The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize
members for distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for
n sustaining the proffessiona
promoting and nal stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of
o the Society is
n ng accomplishments and the technical impact of the individual. Such
based on outstandi
accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of wellding, as
evidenced by:

Sustained service and perfor

o mance in the advanc
n ement of welding science and
technology

Publication of papers, articles and books which enhaanc
n e knowledge o
of welding

Innovative development of welding technology

Society and Section contributions

Professional recognitions

I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel have a
history of accomplishments and contributions to our proffession consistent with the standards set by
the existing AW WS Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that, in considering members
for nomination, you look to the most senior members of your S Section or District. In many cases, the
colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most faam miliar with their contributions, and who
would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I waant to be sure that we make the
extra efffort required to ensure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nominating process.

For specifics on nomination requirements, please contact Chelsea Steel at csteel@aw ws.org at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply foollow the instructions on thhe Fellow nomination foorm located at
www.aws.org/fellow. Please remember, we all benefit in the honor
h ing of those who have made major
contributions to our chosen profeession and livelihood. The deaadline for submission is August 1,
2017. The Fellows Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2018
consideration.

Sincerely,
Dr. Charles V. Robino
Chair, AWS Fellows Committee
May Learning Track.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 11:23 AM Page 102
THE AMERICAN WELDER
College of the Sequoias
Reaches New Heights
How one college is pulling all the stops to
fast track students into careers, bolster
industry, and expand its welding program
College of the Sequoias (COS) gets
its namesake from one of the tallest,
largest, and oldest trees on earth
the mammoth, cinnamon-red sequoias
of northern California. People travel
from all over the world to see these
natural skyscrapers, and often their
only expectation is to see very large
trees. Visitors are frequently surprised
to discover they leave with something
much greater than the trees them-
selves.
This sentiment makes the sequoias
an appropriate emblem for the col-
leges welding program, where stu-
dents leave with more than just a cer-
tificate or degree in a trade. Founded
in the 1960s, the program bounced
from campus to campus until it found
its permanent home in Tulare, Calif.,
Fig. 1 Welding Instructor Randy Emery (first from right) poses with students at the College of the Sequoias (COS) Tulare, Calif., campus.
COS is an AWS Sense Level 1 school and an Educational Institution member.
102 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
where it now boasts a state-of-the-art
welding facility; impassioned instruc-
tors; customizable delivery and cre-
dentialing options for students; and
an industry-approved, challenging
curriculum.
More notably, the college has
Randy Emery, a welding instructor
dedicated to expanding the program
and facility, motivating students, fos-
tering local interest in welding, and fa-
cilitating career pathways Fig. 1.
Welding Program
The welding program is designed to
prepare students for entry-level em-
ployment in the field of welding
through the study of fabrication, met-
al transfer, and different shielding gas-
LEARNING TRACK
BY KATIE PACHECO
es. Students in the program also learn
metallurgy, blueprint design and cre-
ation, joint design, and basic materials
science.
Students interested in welding have
multiple options at the college. They
can earn a 27-credit Certificate of
Achievement in Welding or a 60-credit
Associate of Science in Welding. In
both cases, students are required to
take 23 credits in agriculture project
construction/metal fabrication, oxy-
acetylene welding, shielded metal arc
welding, specialty metals welding, gas
tungsten arc welding, blueprint read-
ing/metallurgy, and agriculture work
experience. Those seeking the certifi-
cate need to take a four-credit elective
to cap off their study. Students on the
associate degree route are required to
May Learning Track.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 11:23 AM Page 103
Fig. 2 Secondyear student Jesse Coles watches the PlasmaCAM cutting system in ac
tion at the COS welding lab.
take 12 credits worth of electives, as
well as 25 credits of general education
and subject requirements.
The course options are designed to
lead the student through a typical
training progression from no previous
experience to entry-level employment
opportunities, explained Emery.
There are additional pathways for
students pursing an associate degree.
According to Emery, the college has
two delivery options. The first gives
students the ability to enroll in one
course at a time. The second option,
referred to as the welding training co-
hort, requires students to take five
Fig. 3 Pictured is an overhead view of the COS welding lab. It provides students 10,500
sq ft of usable shop space and 2000 sq ft of office and classroom space.
space and 2000 square feet of office
core courses during a semester.
The welder training cohort is de-
signed to fast track the training
process and delivers 19 credits in one
semester, said Emery.
Regardless of the road taken, the
courses offered by the college provide
students with the tools they need for a
prosperous career in industry. Most
of our students will find their employ-
ment opportunities in the local manu-
facturing and construction industries,
explained Emery. We have a high con-
centration of food processing in our
area that requires many supporting
contractors to build and maintain the
THE AMERICAN WELDER
food processing infrastructure.
The training students receive in the
program also makes them marketable
throughout the United States. Jesse
Coles, a second-year student at COS,
plans to explore Alaska and the Dako-
tas once he graduates, then pursue ei-
ther custom fabrication, structural
steel, or pipelining Fig. 2.
The Facility
Emery asserts that COS has a weld-
ing lab that is larger and better
equipped than many other community
colleges Fig. 3. We are blessed with
an outstanding training space with
10,500 square feet of usable shop
and classroom space. The area offers
various welding and metal fabrication
equipment, including shielded metal
arc, gas metal arc, flux cored arc, gas
tungsten arc, and oxyfuel welding, as
well as plasma arc cutting systems.
The college also has several up-
grades in mind for the future, includ-
ing an electrical upgrade. It is our
hope this electrical enhancement will
allow us to develop a pipe and preci-
sion sheet metal fabrication workcell,
said Emery.
Instructors
The success of the program is due,
in part, to the dedication and knowl-
edge of its staff. It currently has two
full-time and three adjunct instruc-
tors. All of our welding instructors
have adopted a very balanced training
delivery practice, explained Emery.
They deliver extensive welding aca-
demic sessions as well as plenty of
hands-on training.
Students also appreciate the unique
instruction provided by Emery. Mr.
Emery is one of the best teachers I
have ever had at the College of the Se-
quoias, said Coles. The instruction
he has given me, and the entire class,
has been very thorough, and he always
gives us personal attention if we need
help Fig. 4.
Where instruction is concerned, the
program also gets students involved in
the mix by promoting peer-to-peer
teamwork, which encourages students
to learn from one another and work
together to complete assignments
Fig. 5.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 103
May Learning Track.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 11:24 AM Page 104

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Transcending the Classroom

with Online Learning
To supplement its traditional, face-
to-face instruction, the college has im-
plemented the AWS Online Learning
Library into the welding cohort pro-
gram. The library offers 12 online
welding classes, as well as a learning
management system that allows teach-
ers to assign tasks and track student
progress. We have just completed our
first semester using the AWS Online
Learning Library with great success
and feedback from our students, ex-
plained Emery.
Coles concurs. I have taken seven
AWS online courses. I liked that it
started with the basics and reviewed
Fig. 4 Welding Instructor Randy Emery (right) provides oneonone instruction. the fundamentals of every subject, he
said. We used it in conjunction with
our written homework. We did it on
our personal time, but we also had one
day a week in the computer lab to do
it.
According to Emery, the library has
facilitated learning and retention by
providing 24-hour access to content, a
feature that especially benefits stu-
dents who work; permitting students
with varying knowledge bases to cus-
tomize their experience; and allowing
the school to offer stackable creden-
tials that are recognized by industry
and educational institutions.
The implementation of the library
has also unveiled an unanticipated
need within the student body. Many
of our community college students are
untrained or afraid of using basic com-
puter equipment and have been un-
able to advance their overall education
because of this computer skills gap,
admitted Emery. However, the library
also provided a solution by fostering
these very same skills.
These previously untrained stu-
dents used the experience provided by
the AWS learning management system
to both improve their welding theory
knowledge and achieve a much im-
proved level of computer operation
competencies, affirmed Emery.

Students and Companies

Benefit from Partnerships
Emery brings strong industry con-
nections to the fold. He is an AWS
Dist. 22 Section chair and an AWS Cer-
Fig. 5 Welding students work in teams to complete an assignment. tified Welding Inspector and Educator.

104 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

May Learning Track.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 11:24 AM Page 105

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Fig. 6 Local high school students pose with Welding Instructor Randy Emery (third from right) during the high school welding contest,
where competitors have a chance to win prizes and earn qualifications.

In my role as the AWS chairman, I
have the perfect opportunity to expose
our students to the many benefits of-
fered by AWS, said Emery.
He also spent 27 years in the Unit-
ed Association of Plumbers and Pipe-
fitters. This direct connection to the
construction industry gives our COS
program many built-in professional re-
lationships. These relationships help
deliver direct industry pathways for
students into apprenticeships and em-
ployment opportunities, he said.
According to Coles, Emery has
worked nonstop to keep the class in-
formed of good job opportunities.
The program has also developed an
internship opportunity with one of its
local employer partners, US Farm Sys-
tems. This internship is completing
its fourth year with great success for
both this critical employer and the
student interns, explained Emery. In
fact, the company has hired several
COS interns for full-time work.
Part of my job is to get to these
employers and make them realize its a
big benefit to train these students,
said Emery.
welder wall of fame. Emery originally
created the honor as a teaching tool to
encourage students to try harder.
I didnt expect this, but it created
competition. Now they ask, What do I
need to do to be the Welder of the
Week? he said.
Supporting High School
Welders
The COS also sponsors a high
school welding contest, where
teenagers are given the chance to com-
pete to receive prizes and earn qualifi-
cations Fig. 6. According to Emery,
the college reaches out to 10 local high
schools and presents the contest to
the instructors. Each instructor then
selects his or her top four welding stu-
dents, who are then invited to the COS
welding contest. Competitors are
tasked with joining sheet metal by
performing gas metal arc welding and
gas tungsten arc welding. Our high
school welding contest has been a
great event, and we are planning to
continue to grow it, said Emery.
For More Information
To learn more about the welding
program at the College of the Se-
quoias, contact Randy Emery at (559)
688-3180, e-mail randye@cos.edu, or
Frank Tebeau at (559) 688-3181,
e-mail frankt@cos.edu. WJ
KATIE PACHECO (kpacheco@aws.org) is
associate editor of the Welding Journal.

Welder of the Week

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

To inspire students and promote

professionalism, Emery has intro-
duced a Welder of the Week program.
The peer-nominated honor is be-
stowed on a weekly basis to one stu-
dent who shows up to class on time
and works well with others. The
Welder of the Week receives an award
and has his or her picture on the

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 105

Fact Sheet May 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:08 PM Page 106
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Coated Steels: Welding and Cutting Safety Concerns
Adapted from AWS Fact Sheet No. 34. All of the AWS Safety and
Health Facts Sheets are available through the AWS website at
aws.org. Click on Standards on the home page and then on Safety
and Health.
Introduction
Steels are coated to provide a protective covering or a
decorative finish. Protective coatings are designed to pre-
vent rusting or to shield the steel from chemical attack.
Coatings found on steels can become airborne or give off
fumes, smoke, or dust during joining and cutting. Some of the
coatings dusts, fumes, or gases can harm you. Their exposure
limits should not be exceeded. Exposure limits include
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL): The PEL is set by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
and is a legal employee exposure limit in the U.S.
Threshold Limit Value (TLV): The TLV is published by
the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH) and is a guideline for employers to
consider in controlling employee exposures.
Overview of Health Hazards
Employers need to know which chemical may be released
into the air that may injure welders. Welders must be
trained in how to do each process the correct way, and they
shall cut or weld only after proper safety precautions have
been taken.
Coatings may give off fumes and gases when welding or
cutting is performed. A health hazard may be created when
its dusts, fumes, or gases get into the air in large enough
amounts that safe levels are exceeded.
Protective coatings on steels can contain chromium, lead,
tin, zinc, or other materials. It is always good for the welder
to understand the coating types for the materials he works
with. If not, the welder should get this information from his
supervisor or employer.
Paints are made up of compounds that may release haz-
ardous materials into the air when heated. Paints are usually
used on a phosphated and passivated (often with chromi-
um) metal surface. The heat from the arc can cause paints to
give off unsafe amounts of gases like carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide. These also increase the risk of suffocation in
confined work areas, or those with poor air movement.
Steels coated with plastic materials should not be cut or
welded unless proper precautions are taken. It is best to re-
move the coating to a distance away from the weld or cut
where the temperature wont go above the point where the
material starts to break down.
For additional information, see AWS Fact Sheet 1, Fumes
and Gases.
AWS disclaims liability for any injury to persons or to property, or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect, con
sequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance on this information. AWS also makes no
guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein.
American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166, email info@aws.org; aws.org.
106 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
FACT SHEET
How to Avoid Health Hazards from Overexposure
The welder should make sure he or she knows what a
coating might give off when heated or burned:
Obtain the Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) for all materials
used.
Read and understand the specification for coating type
and coating weights.
Find out what hazardous materials are present or might
be given off by the coating when it is exposed to the arc or
high temperatures.
Use adequate ventilation whenever an airborne fume
gas or dust must be controlled. Use enough ventilation, ex-
haust, or both to keep the air the welder breathes below rec-
ommended safe levels such as the PEL and TLV.
Have air monitoring done as necessary to test for expo-
sure levels in the breathing zone of the welder and other
persons working nearby.
Use a respirator when required.
Orient the work so the welders head is kept out of the
fume plume.
See AWS Fact Sheet 1, Fumes and Gases.
See AWS Fact Sheet 11, Hot Work in Confined Spaces.
See AWS Fact Sheet 25, Metal Fume Fever.
Summary
Coatings on steels may be a source of exposure to fumes
and gases during welding, brazing, and cutting. Steel coat-
ings and paints contain materials that can cause harmful
overexposure when breathed. This is why coatings must also
be looked at in order to remove hazards from welding and
cutting. The joining of some coated steels requires special
types of ventilation. In some cases, the welder must wear a
respirator to keep safe.
Information Sources
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Safety in Welding,
Cutting, and Allied Processes, Z49.1, available from American Weld-
ing Society, 8669 NW 36th St., Miami, FL 33166; aws.org.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Code
of Federal Regulations, Title 29 Labor, Part 1910, available from the
U.S. Government Printing Office, 732 North Capitol Street NW,
Washington, DC 20401; osha.gov.
American Welding Society (AWS). Safety and Health Fact
Sheets, available from American Welding Society, 8669 NW 36th
St., Miami, FL 33166; aws.org.
ISO 15011-5, Health and safety in welding and allied
processes Laboratory method for sampling fume and gases
Part 5: Identification of thermal-degradation products generated
when welding or cutting through products composed wholly
or partly of organic materials using pyrolysis-gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry.
WJ
Personnel MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:27 PM Page 107

PERSONNEL ing director. He

will oversee all op-
continued from page 88 erations and sales
activity for the
Swatycomet in late company. Wilkin-
2015, launching son has been in
the company into the welding indus-
the global abrasive try for more than
market space. 25 years and has
Dwyre has been held several posi-
with Weiler since tions including
2013 serving as vice president of
D. Wilkinson
vice president of marketing, direc-
strategic market- tor of merchandis-
ing and later vice ing, customer service manager, and
president, sales, purchasing. Wilkinson has also been
B. Dwyre involved with industry associations
and marketing. In
his new role, including four years on the WEMCO
Dwyre will be responsible for executing Committee and decades of involve-
the regional growth strategy and will ment with GAWDA.
have full accountability for the regions
P&L. He will continue to report to
Chief Executive Officer Chris Weiler. Osborne Promotes Product
Manager, Polishing
Phoenix Welcomes New Osborne, Richmond, Ind., has pro-
Managing Director moted Tim Priestley to product man-
ager for its polishing division. He is
Phoenix International, Inc., has responsible for developing polishing
welcomed Dick Wilkinson as manag- products, including buffs, compounds,

For info, go to aws.org/adindex For info, go to aws.org/adindex

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 107

Personnel MAY 2017.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:27 PM Page 108
flapwheels, and non-wovens. Priestley
brings more than 29 years of experi-
WOORK
RK
ence to the position. Prior to joining
Osborne in 2013 as a field application
engineer, he held positions as a plant
manager of finishing operations, prod-
uct development manager, field serv-
SSM
MART
M ART
RT
ice and support manager, production
manager of buffing and welding opera-
tions, and a supervisor of plating oper-
ations.
Messer Hires Central Regional
Manager
Messer Cutting
Systems, Meno-
monee Falls, Wis.,
announced Todd
Wellens is the new
central regional
manager. Wellens
has more than 20
years of experi-
ence in the fabri-
cating machine
tool marketplace,
Model 200 Positioner T. Wellens
as well as ten
3 models av years of manufac-
, turing engineering experience.
. examiner at Lakeshore Technical Col-
OBITUARY
Bernhard Mueller
Bernhard Ben Mueller passed
Mode el 1200 Pipemate Guidelines for Submitting a Welding Journal Feature Article
Rottates pipe and tube
from 1 to 17 diameter,,
Have you ever thought about writ-
ing a feature article for consideration
in the Welding Journal? If so, our staff
stays on the lookout for original,
noncommercial, practical, and hands-
on stories. Take a look at our
editorial calendar available as part
of the American Welding Societys
Media Kit at aws.org/wj to see
what topics will be highlighted in fu-
ture issues as well as the editorial
deadlines. Potential ideas to focus on
could include a case study, recent
company project, tips for handling a
particular process, and so on.
Heres an easy breakdown of our
guidelines:
The text of the article should be
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
108 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017
away peacefully on
January 25. Born
on the family farm
in LaValle, Wis., in
1924, he attended
elementary school
in LaValle and
graduated from
Wonewoc, Wis.,
high school in
1942. He worked
several jobs on
B. Mueller
farms, construc-
tion, and truck
driving until 1948 when he began
what would become his lifes work and
passion: welding. Beginning with the
Milwaukee Road rail yards, then with
the Heil Co., and finally with the Man-
itowoc Co., Mueller was instrumental
in the creation and repair of machin-
ery, boats, and cranes. In addition to
his career as a welding technician, he
became active in the American Weld-
ing Society (AWS) in 1955 and part of
what is now the Wisconsin Technical
College system since 1966. If Mueller
was not welding and fixing something,
he was teaching others how to do it.
He retired from his position as a weld-
ing instructor and certified welding
lege, Cleveland, Wis., in 2007 at the
age of 83. Later that year, he was rec-
ognized by AWS for his life-long con-
tributions to the welding profession by
being named the Howard E. Adkins In-
structor of the Year. WJ
about 1500 to 2000 words and
provided in a Word document.
Line drawings, graphs, and
photos should be sent as high-resolu-
tion jpg or tiff files with a resolution
of 300 or more dots per inch.
Plan on about one figure for
every 500 words, and provide
captions for every image. Also, if a
nice lead photo is available, please in-
clude it for review.
The authors names, along with
the companies they work for and
their positions, should be listed.
If youd like to discuss a particular
idea or e-mail a submission for evalua-
tion, please contact Features Editor
Kristin Campbell at kcampbell@aws.org.
Brazing/ThermalSpray Profiles 2017.qxp_April School Profiles 2007 4/5/17 3:24 PM Page 109

BRAZING AND SOLDERING PROFILES (ADVERTISEMENTS)

Aimtek, Inc. Bellman Melcor Inc.

Established in 1973, Aimtek Founded by Richard Campbell,
is a manufacturer and value- Bellman-Melcor, LLC was
added supplier of Aerospace- created with one goal: to pro-
grade Brazing and Welding vide high quality products and
Alloys. Aimtek specializes in deliver them at a lower overall
precious metal-based brazing cost than any other supplier of brazing and soldering alloys.
alloys, as well as nickel, Since our inception in 1963, we have worked closely with the
titanium, and high tempera- engineering staff at some of the worlds largest companies to design
ture superalloys. Aimtek is and fabricate custom preforms and comprehensive solutions for
the exclusive North American use in a wide range of brazing applications. Focusing on process
distributor for Soudax, a respected European manufacturer of improvement and cost-saving solutions, we routinely provide
resistance microwelding equipment and hand tools for ball tack support on the entire brazing process.
welding, honeycomb, and numerous other set-up operations.
Aimteks quality certifications include AS9100, ISO9001, Pratt &
Whitney LCS, UTC Supplier Gold, Rolls Royce, Honeywell, and GE. (800) 3676024
Fax: 1888BRAZEIT2729348
(508) 8325035 www.bellmanmelcor.com
jkapur@aimtek.com
www.aimtek.com

New Improved Workhorse
2nd GENERATION
Vacuum Brazing
Vacuum Diffusion Bonding Furnaces
All Stainless Steel chamber.
Larger high-vacuum pumping system.
Improved hot zone design.
New HMI control strategy.
Temperature Uniformity of +/- 3C.
Highest Quality at an affordable price.
Centorr Vacuum Industries manufactures
custom vacuum furnaces for High-
performance sintering, pressure
densification, and heat-treat of alloy
steels, stainless steels, high-speed steels,
hardmetals and ceramics.
Vacuum furnaces can be designed
with Graphite or carbon-free hot zones
with Sweepgas synthetic or natural
binder and lubricant removal systems
available for pressed or injection molded
Over 400 metal and ceramic parts.
Workhorse Furnaces
Built Since 1954
Centorr Vacuum Industries, Inc.
55 Northeastern Blvd., Nashua NH
Toll free: 800-962-8631
603-595-7233
Fax: 603-595-9220 sales@centorr.com
Fusion, Inc.
Fusion produces a wide
variety of brazing and
soldering alloys in paste
form. Each contains
atomized filler metal,
appropriate flux, and special
binders which facilitate
automatic application. Thus,
all the ingredients for a
strong, reliable brazed or soldered joint are delivered in one step.
Fusion also designs and builds automatic brazing and soldering
machines. These custom-built systems convey fixtured parts
through a timed sequence of filler metal application, heating, and
cooling. Typically, 200-700 assemblies per hour can be joined with
just one operator.
Fusion Inc.
(800) 6269501, ext. 510
(440) 6025510 (Direct)
fusioninc.com
Harris Products Group
The Harris Products Group
has been manufacturing
quality braze filler metals in
the United States for over
50 years. We are leaders in
developing brazing and
soldering products to meet the industry needs for new metal joining
methods. We are certified to ISO 9001 and ISO 14000, and have
developed proprietary manufacturing technology to ensure the
highest standards of quality and traceability. Our experienced sales
and technical personnel are trained to assist you in producing
sound, cost effective brazed assemblies.
(800) 7334043
www.harrisproductsgroup.com

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 109

Brazing/ThermalSpray Profiles 2017.qxp_April School Profiles 2007 4/5/17 3:25 PM Page 110

BRAZING AND SOLDERING PROFILES (ADVERTISEMENTS)

LucasMilhaupt, SaintGobain
Global Brazing Solutions
Saint-Gobain is a world class
Lucas-Milhaupt is your single manufacturer of equipment and
supplier for the most comprehensive consumables for the thermal
selection of silver, gold, copper, spray and hardfacing industry.
nickel, and aluminum brazing Our extensive equipment
supplies. We can provide you experience dates back to 1920
technical support and materials with the development of the first
globally, wherever your company oxyacetylene wire flame gun followed by Rokide Spray Systems,
manufactures your product. We are Plasma Spray Systems, PTA systems and many innovative materials.
your one source for brazing materials including Handy One We offer a wide range of consumables in the form of powders,
flux cored products, silver and aluminum coated products, Sil-Fos, ingots, flexicords, Rokide rods, wires and hardfacing Tuf-Cote
Easy-Flo, Braze, Silvaloy, Silvabrite, Ultra Flux, and range for use in many different applications and industries. We
Handy Flux. supply our own raw materials and this enables us to develop a
product to meet your exact needs.

(414) 7696000 (800) 2430028

info@lucasmilhaupt.com (508) 7952380
www.lucasmilhaupt.com coatingsolutions@saintgobain.com
coatingsolutions.saintgobain.com

Metglas, Inc. ThermoCalc Software

Metglas is a worldwide Thermo-Calc Software is a
leader in the production leading developer of software
and databases for computational
of amorphous metal
thermodynamics and diffusion
brazing foils. controlled simulations.
Metglas Brazing Foils Thermo-Calc: powerful software
(MBF brand) are a solution to produce virtually reject-free joints for thermodynamic calculations
with high strength and superior resistance to corrosion and high- for multicomponent systems.
DICTRA: a unique tool for accurate simulations of diffusion in
temperature oxidation.Metglas Brazing Foils are available in
multicomponent alloys. TC-PRISMA: new software for modeling
various alloy compositions and widths, and are ductile enough to concurrent nucleation, growth and coarsening of precipitates.
be mechanically stamped and shaped to 3-D configurations. Databases available for steels, Ti, Al, Ni-superalloys, solders and
MBF bends 180 without fracturing. other materials.

(724) 7310074
(800) 5817654 paul@thermocalc.com
metglas@metglas.com thermocalc.com
brazing.metglas.com

Oerlikon Metco Wall Colmonoy

HighTemperature
Oerlikon Metco's innovative solutions NickelBased Brazing
improve the life, reliability and
performance of your manufactured Wall Colmonoy is a pioneer and
components and industrial processes. leading expert in the manufacture
Customers benefit from a broad range and development of high-tempera-
of surface solutions that include ture nickel-based brazing. Nicrobraz
thermal spray and laser cladding (nickel), Niferobraz (iron), and
advanced materials, integrated CuBraz (copper) brazing products
systems and surfacing services, high join parts for high-temperature and
temperature braze materials, and weld corrosion applications in Aerospace,
hardfacing materials all delivered Automotive, Energy, Nuclear, and
through a global sales, customer Defense industries. Available as powder, paste, transfer tape,
support and manufacturing network. rods, and sheets in a full range of sizes and specifications.
Wall Colmonoy also hosts a spring and fall Brazing School taught
by our industry-leading brazing engineers that includes practical
(516) 3341300 hands-on experience.
Fax: (516) 3382414
Info.Metco@oerlikon.com (248) 5856400
www.oerlikon.com/metco wcc@wallcolmonoy.com
www.wallcolmonoy.com

110 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Brazing/ThermalSpray Profiles 2017.qxp_April School Profiles 2007 4/5/17 3:25 PM Page 111
THERMAL SPRAY PROFILES
DeWAL Thermal, Plasma and HVOF tapes.
DeWAL precision tapes form a protective mask for ceramic and
metal plasma spraying, arc spraying, HVOF and grit blasting.
Diamond Abrasives
Loose and bonded
for all your Thermal Spray
cleaning, grinding and
polishing needs. Custom
size belts and disks.
Low minimum order.
Call today!
(802) 6745427
Call for Fast, Affordable, Custom Diamond Products
(ADVERTISEMENTS)
Determining the Thickness of Thermal Spray Aluminum
Coatings on Stainless Steel
Ensuring the long-term protection of
parts exposed to the extremely harsh
conditions found in offshore environ-
ments requires specialized anti-corro-
sion coatings. For example, thermal
spray aluminum (TSA) used to
protect stainless steel against corrosion
even at high temperatures can with-
stand marine influences for decades. However, to achieve such
longevity, the TSA must have a certain coating thickness, making
quality inspections mandatory. The thickness of thermal spray
aluminum (TSA) coatings on stainless steel and steel constructions
can be measured easily and effectively using Fischers PHASCOPE
PMP10 with the ESD20-TSA probe. Visit www.protective-coating-
inspection.com
Fischer Technology, Inc.
(860) 6830781
info@schertechnology.com
The Thermal Spray
Powder Specialists
Lineage Alloys, Inc., is a privately
owned company whose team of
experienced powder manufacturing
professionals have been producing
thermal spray powders at the
current location for over thirty-five years. We specialize in the
manufacturing of tungsten carbide powders for HVOF coatings and
Nickel Chrome carbide wear coatings. We also excel in the manufac-
ture of one-step thermal spray powders and NiCrSiB/WC Blends.
We have many years of wear coating experience and is dedicated
to providing the best powder solution for your Thermal Spray
requirements. The use of stringent quality control and
manufacturing processes guarantees the highest quality and most
consistent powders available.
Lineage Alloys, Inc.
(281) 4265535
www.lineagealloys.com
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 111
Brazing/ThermalSpray Profiles 2017.qxp_April School Profiles 2007 4/5/17 3:26 PM Page 112

THERMAL SPRAY PROFILES (ADVERTISEMENTS)

Thermal Spray Materials, HighQuality Thermal Spray

Equipment and Parts Components and Equipment

Plasma Powders & Systems, Inc., With over 100 years combined experience in
has been supplying the industry manufacturing thermal spray gun parts and
with thermal spray materials, consumables, along with engineering and
equipment and parts since 1980. a responsive sales team, Thermach, Inc.,
In addition to manufacturing continues to grow its equipment line and
self-bonding wire and powder at expand its capabilities as a thermal spray
our New Jersey USA facility, our supplier. Our current product line consists
extensive thermal spray services include coating development, of the AT-400 Twin Wire Arc Spray System;
sample part coating, equipment demonstration, training and on-site the AT-1200 Series Powder Feeders; the AT-
equipment repair services. Everything required for the customer 3000 Plasma System, which incorporates the SG100 Plasma Gun
from entry level to OEM is available including turnkey automated and utilizes the well-known AT-1200 Powder Feeder; and the new
systems. Plasma Powders serves every industry including the AT-8000 HVOF System, which incorporates the HV2000 Gun.
U.S. government. Alongside the standard product line, we also provide customers
with custom thermal spray components and part fixturing.
(732) 4310992
(800) 3584287 (920) 7794299
info@plasmapowders.com Fax: (920) 7794452
plasmapowders.com www.thermach.com

Polymet Corporation
Polymet is a world-class
manufacturer of high-
performance welding,
hardfacing and thermal spray
wire. Our manufacturing
processes include a patented
hot extruded forged wire
process, rolling, die drawing, and alloy cored wire fabrication.
Polymets multiple wire processing capabilities allows it to be
an innovator in problem solving. The high quality products
provide protection against abrasion, corrosion, impact and high
temperature application for the aerospace, automotive, chemical,
petrochemical, cement, mining, lumber, power generating, and
other industries.

(513) 8743586
sales@polymet.us
polymet.us

112 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Counselor Letter 1.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/7/17 4:28 PM Page 113

Friends andd Colleagues:

The Ameriican Welding Society established the honor of Counselor of the Society to recognize
f a career of distinguisheed leadership contributions in the advancement of welding
members for
science andd technology. Election as a Counselor is based upon an individuals career off
outstandingg achievements and accommpplishments. The selection committee is seeking g qqu
ualified
individuals who can demonstrate their leadership in the welding industry as evidenced bby:

Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and

technology

Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of weldiing

Innovative development of welding technology

Society, National and Section contributions

Professional recognition

Leadership in AWS or other corporate levels, particularly as it impacts the
advancement of welding technology

Facilitating others to participate as a volunteer in the advancement of weldinng
technology

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Chelsea Steel at csteel@aws.org at
AWS headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomina n tion
form located at www.aws.org/counselor. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoringn of
those who have made major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. Thee deadline
for submission is July 1, 2017. The Counselor Committee looks forward to receiving nu umerous
Counselor nominations for 2018 consideration.

Sincerely,

Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Committee


Counselor Letter 2.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/7/17 4:29 PM Page 114

AWS COUNSELOR APPLICATION GUIDELINES

Nomination packages for AWS Counselor should clearly demonstrate the candidates
outstanding contribution to the advancement of welding science and technology. In order for the
Counselor Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifications, the nomination
package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific accomplishments, how they
contributed to the advancements of welding technology and that these contributions were
sustained. Essential in demonstrating the candidates impact are the following:

1.
Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief

summary of the candidates most significant contributions to the advancement of
welding science and technology
2.
Publication of books, papers, articles or other significant works
3.
Inventions and patents
4.
Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS, other
professional organizations, industry or other recognized body
5.
Meaningful participation in AWS committees, Sections or other AWS voluntary
contributions
6.
Contributions to handbooks and standards
7.
Presentations made at technical sessions, including Section meetings
8.
Consultancy in technical matters or welding industry business matters
9.
Leadership in AWS or other corporate levels, particularly as it impacts the
advancement of welding technology
10.
Participation on organizing committees for technical programs
11.
Advocacy in support of AWS through institutional, political or other means
12.
Facilitating others to participate as a volunteer in the advancement of welding
technology

Note, packages for nominees that do not show participation in several of the activities above will
have a low probability of success.

SUPPORTING LETTERS

Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidates and his/her contributions are
encouraged. These letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight
into the contribution and stature of the candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the
candidate will have little impact on the selection process.

SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2017



Nomination of AWS Counselor

I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individuals career of
outstanding accomplishments.

To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry as evidenced by:
Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
Innovative development of welding technology
Society, National and Section contributions
Professional recognition

II. RULES
A. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of AWS membership
B. Each candidate shall be nominated by at least five members of AWS
C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form, available from AWS Headquarters
D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to
that in which the award will be presented
E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years
F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
G. All required mandatory information is to be included in the nomination package or the
package will be returned and not considered by the Selection Committee
H. Candidates who have been selected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for selection as
Counselors. Counselors may not be nominated for both of these awards at the same time.

III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTED

Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year

Return completed Counselor nomination package to:

Chelsea L. Steel Email: csteel@aws.org

Program Manager, Board and Telephone: 305-443-9353 Ext. 293
Executive Director Services 800-443-9353 Ext. 293
8669 NW 36th Street, # 130 Fax: 305-445-1809
Miami, FL 33166

CLASS OF 2018
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM
Date Name of Candidate
AWS Member Number Years of Membership
Home Address
City State Zip Code Phone
Email
Present Employer
Title/Position
Business Address
City State Zip Code Phone
Academic Background, As Applicable
Institution Major/Minor
Degree/Certification/Year

IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS) BE INCLUDED. USE SEPARATE SHEET
INDICATIING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR. THE CITATION
IS TO BE A PART OF THE NOMINATION PACKAGE.

ESSENTIAL FOR THE NOMINATION PACKAGE

The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based upon and extracted from the categories indicated on
the second page of this application. It is strongly recommended that the nominator prepare a complete summary of
the nominees history as an attachment to this application to ensure that the committee has sufficient information to
deliberate and make the appropriate selections of Counselor nominees.

SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER:
AWS Member Number:

The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is
encouraged to include a detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals
describing the specific accomplishments of the candidate. Signatures on the nominating form, or supporting letters
from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original application and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are
secured the total package should be submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER Print name

AWS Member Number
NOMINATING MEMBER Print name
AWS Member Number
NOMINATING MEMBER Print name
AWS Member Number
NOMINATING MEMBER Print name
AWS Member Number

SUBMISSION DEADLINE IS JULY 1, 2017

may 2017 wj classifieds.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:29 PM Page 117

CLASSIFIEDS

FOR SALE OR RENT

MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1Ton thru 60Ton
Tank Turning Rolls

Rentals, Lease and Sales

Welders

Used Equipment for Sale

www.mitrowskiwelding.com
Weld
Automation

Gen
ne
Generators

1-866-733-3272
1-866-7
7
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
JOE FULLER LLC
We manufacture tank turning rolls
3-ton through 120-ton rolls
TRAINING www.joefuller.com

2017
CWI/CWE PREPARATORY COURSE
FUNDAMENTALS, CODE, PLUS 5 DAYS ON PART B.
PLENTY OF SELF STUDY FOR NIGHTS & WEEKEND
Houston, TX June 1223, Aug. 718
email: joe@joefuller.com
Marksville, LA June 516, Sept. 1829 Phone: (979) 277-8343
Ardmore, OK July 1021 Fax: (281) 290-6184
Ellijay, GA Aug. 28Sept. 8, Nov. 617
Pascagoula, MS May 29June 9, Aug. 1425 Our products are made in the USA
Searcy, AR July 24Aug. 4
SPECIAL PART B WORKSHOP
GET A WHOLE WEEK OF PART B PREPARATION
Ellijay, GA Aug. 711, Oct. 913, Nov. 610 Change of Address? Moving?
Houston, TX Dec. 48 Place Your
VISUAL INSPECTION COURSE Make sure delivery of your Classified Ad Here!
HANDSON TRAINING FOR NEW CWI INSPECTORS! Welding Journal is not interrupted.
Call the AWS sales team at:
Ellijay, GA Sept. 48, Oct. 913 Contact Maria Trujillo in the Mem- (800) 443-9353
CALL OR EMAIL bership Department with your new
12287622890 address information (800) 443- Sandra Jorgensen, ext. 254
9353, ext. 204; mtrujillo@aws.org. sjorgensen@aws.org
info@realeducational.com
Also Offering: RT Film Interpretation, Annette Delagrange, ext. 332
Welding Procedure Fundamentals, adelagrange@aws.org
CWS, SCWI, 80Hour CWI Renewal

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 117

may 2017 wj classifieds.qxp_Layout 1 4/7/17 3:29 PM Page 118

ADVERTISER INDEX

ALM Positioners 21 HDE Technologies, Inc. 61

almmh.com (855) 7504295 hdetechnologies.com (916) 7144944

Arcos Industries, LLC Inside Back Cover Hi Tecmetal Group 28

arcos.us (800) 2338460 htg.cc (216) 8818100

Astaras 29 Hobart Institute of Welding Technology 26

e3tungsten.com/www.astaras.com web contact only welding.org (800) 3329448

Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. 108 Hypertherm 11

atlaswelding.com (800) 9629353 hypertherm.com/XPR300 (800) 7372978

AWS Advertising Sales 57 Intercon Enterprises, Inc. 32

aws.org/advertisingsales (800) 9629353, ext. 220 intercon1978.com (800) 6656655

AWS Education Services 27 K.I.W.O.T.O., Inc. 26

aws.org/education (800) 4439353, ext. 455 rodguard.net (269) 9441552

AWS Foundation 43 Kobelco Welding of America, Inc. 25

aws.org/foundation (800) 4439353, ext. 212 kobelcowelding.com (800) 9613158

AWS Member Services 51, 59 Lincoln Electric Co. Outside Back Cover
aws.org/membership (800) 4439353, ext. 480 lincolnelectric.com (216) 4818100

AWS Standards Development 62 Lucas Milhaupt 56

aws.org/standards (800) 4439353, ext. 340 lucasmilhaupt.com (414) 7696000

Bluco Corp. 100 Midalloy 107

bluco.com (800) 5350135 midalloy.com (800) 7763300

Camfil Air Pollution Control 2 ORS Nasco 63

camfilapc.com (800) 4796801 orsnasco.com (800) 6786577

CDA Technical Institute 31 Ridgid, Inc. 5

commercialdivingacademy.com (888) 9742232 ridgid.com/B500 (800) 4743443

CIBO Abrasives USA 23 SelectArc, Inc. Inside Front Cover

ciboabrasives.com (704) 7701698 selectarc.com (937) 2955215

CM Industries, Inc. 17 SK Brazing USA, LLC 60

cmindustries.com (800) 5300032 skbrazing.com (414) 6280584

CorMet 30 Sumner Mfg. 14

cormet.com (800) 8482719 sumner.com (281) 9996900

Dewalt 7 TEC Welding Products 13

dewalt.com/minihub (800) 4339258 tectorch.com (760) 7473700

Diamond Ground Products, Inc. 13, 15 ThermoCalc Software 16

diamondground.com (805) 4983837 thermocalc.com/welding (724) 7310074

Elco Enterprises, Inc./Wire Wizard Weding Products 60 Triangle Engineering, Inc. 61

wirewizard.com (517) 7828040 trieng.com (781 8781500

ESAB Welding & Cutting 89 TRUMPF 9

esab.com/beas (800) 3722123 us.trumpf.com web contact only

FABTECH USA 2017 33 Voestalpine Bohler Welding USA, Inc. 1

fabtechexpo.com (800) 4439353, ext. 297 voestalpine.com/welding (800) 5270791

Fischer Engineering Co. 105 Weld Aid 61

fischerengr.com (937) 7541750 weldaid.com (800) 9353243

Flexovit Abrasives 107 Weld Engineering Co., Inc. 88

flexovitabrasives.com (800) 6893539 weldengineering.com (508) 8422224

Fusion, Inc. 47 Welder Training & Testing Institute 63

fusioninc.com (800) 6269501 wtti.com (800) 2239884

Gullco International, Inc., U.S.A. 15 WEMCO/Welding Equipment Manufacturers Committee 62

gullco.com (440) 4398333 aws.org/wemco (800) 4439353, ext. 444

Harris Products Group 19 Brazing and Thermal Spray Profiles 109112

harrisproductsgroup.com (800) 7334043
Visit our Interactive Ad Index: aws.org/adindex

118 WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017

Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 143

WELDING RESEARCH
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, MAY 2017
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

Observation and Analysis of ThreeDimensional

Weld Pool Oscillation Dynamic Behaviors
A sensor was used to observe weld pool oscillation in three dimensions, and
then the 3D data was used to analyze the oscillation behaviors

BY K. ZHANG, Y. M. ZHANG, J. S. CHEN, AND S. J. WU

ral frequency of the oscillation and di-

ABSTRACT ameter of the weld pool. A theoretical
model for CJP was proposed based on
Pool oscillation frequency is thought to have a direct relationship with weld joint pene
a stretched membrane theory. A simi-
tration, and appropriate oscillations help refine grains and reduce defect sensitivity. This
paper uses a novel laser dotmatrix sensor to observe the pool oscillation three dimension lar relation was also derived by
ally (3D) and use the 3D data as an enhanced ability to analyze oscillation behaviors. To this Zacksenhouse et al. (Ref. 34), who
end, pool oscillations were excited using pulse current, oscillation images were captured at developed an analytical model for sta-
1000 frames per second by a highspeed camera, and the acquired highspeed images were tionary complete-joint-penetration
processed and observed. The processed/observed images provide experimental data about pool and verified their mode by
oscillation amplitude and mode to study oscillation behaviors. It was found that three oscil experiments.
lation modes associated with partial, complete, and critical penetration exist during the base Richardson et al. (Ref. 29) studied
time period. From the observed 3D dynamic evolution process, the periodical contraction the oscillation frequency for a station-
and expansion at its natural frequency as excited by the pulsing current were observed. The ary GTA weld pool by an arc voltage
amplitude of the oscillation was found to gradually decrease as the oscillation process pro
signal and arc light intensity signals,
ceeded and the liquid metal solidified during the base current period. Furthermore, the am
plitude was found to increase as the peak current increased. The experiments under and found that the natural oscillation
constant current and highfrequency pulsing current provided supplemental data to under frequency is strongly dependent on
stand the pool behaviors. Because of the enhanced ability of 3D observation of the oscilla the pool geometry and correlates well
tion, this study enhanced the understanding on the pool oscillation and experimentally veri with the inverse of the square root of
fied certain theoretical derivations about oscillation that have not been verified previously. the pool mass. They found a distinct
boundary exists for pool oscillation
frequency in the intermediate state
between the partial and CJP condi-
KEYWORDS tions (Ref. 30). They also later found
that arc light is a better transducer to
Pulsed GTAW (GTAWP) Oscillation Mode Oscillation Behavior detect pool oscillation than is arc volt-
Dynamic Evolution Process age due to the volume effect of the
plasma region (Ref. 30). In 1993, Yoo
Introduction tion with the weld penetration (Refs. et al. (Ref. 30) proposed three kinds of
1823, 2931) and its effect on the oscillation modes for CJP welding,
The weld pool is where complex grain refinement and defect inhibition which were, respectively, symmetric,
welding phenomena originate, playing a using methods like magnetic force stir- sloshing, and mixed modes. However,
fundamental role in determining result- ring and ultrasound vibration (Refs. 32, these modes were proposed based on
ant welds. It has been the subject of 33). simulation without experimental
many recent studies (Refs. 17). Among Kotecki et al. (Ref. 8) studied com- verification.
weld pool behaviors, oscillation has re- plete joint penetration (CJP) weld pool Xiao et al. (Refs. 1820) studied weld
ceived attention from welding re- behavior in the case of stationary gas pool oscillation under stationary and
searchers around the world (Refs. tungsten arc welding (GTAW) using low-speed welding conditions, and pro-
828), since Kotecki et al. (Ref. 8) first high-speed motion pictures. They first posed two pool oscillation modes: one
observed the phenomena of weld pool brought attention to the research com- for partial joint penetration and anoth-
oscillation in 1972, and has been stud- munity regarding the oscillation phe- er for complete joint penetration under
ied with regard to different interests. nomena of the weld pool. They found stationary welding conditions. Further-
Particular interests included its correla- a relationship exists between the natu- more, in welding with low traveling

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 143-s

Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 144
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 Sensing system for pool oscillation experiment.
speeds, there even exists a third oscilla-
tion mode: asymmetrical. They further
developed and improved their corre-
sponding theoretical model based on
classical hydrodynamics to the liquid
metal or a stretched membrane theory
on the basis of Koteckis research (Ref.
8). They found the natural oscillation
frequency of a partial joint penetration
pool is considerably higher than the
natural oscillation frequency of a CJP
pool and that an abrupt transition oc-
curs between the partial and complete
joint penetration oscillation modes. In
addition, they found the oscillation fre-
quency drops after the weld pool
changes from partial to complete joint
penetration because of the change in
the oscillation mode. This result is fun-
damental by providing an effective
method to distinguish the partial and
complete joint penetration.
Ramos et al. (Ref. 31) studied the
weld pool oscillation in pulsed gas
metal arc welding (GMAW-P) by
means of Shadowgraphy image pro-
cessing techniques, and obtained the
frequency spectra by fast Fourier
transform. They found the method of
Shadowgraphy image processing for
measuring the weld pool oscillation is
more reliable than that from using the
arc voltage signal.
Furthermore, research has also re-
vealed that, like arc vibration and
weaving, ultrasonic vibration, and
weld pool stirring by electromagnetic
force, the pool oscillation during
pulsed arc welding can also promote
grain refinement of the weld and re-
duce weld defects (Refs. 32, 33,
3538). Among the reasons support-
ing this theory is that pulsed arc weld-
ing can excite the pool oscillation by
144-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
varying the energy input into the weld
pool. This favors generating finer
grains and more effective substruc-
tures, thus better ensuring production
of quality welds.
Along this direction, preliminary
investigations by Nakata et al. also
showed the effect of current pulsation
on the weld solidification structure of
aluminum alloys (Ref. 32). They also
explored the effect of low-frequency
GMAW-P on grain refinement of the
weld metal and improvement of solidi-
fication crack susceptibility in alu-
minum alloys (Ref. 33). They found
that weld pool oscillation strongly af-
fects grain refinement and, to some
extent, also found that grain refine-
ment has a beneficial effect on the so-
lidification crack susceptibility of the
weld metal.
In previous studies, the pool oscilla-
tion was studied based on analyzing
the frequency of the oscillation as a
one-dimensional signal; for example,
the weld penetration was experimen-
tally correlated to the frequency from
such one-dimensional, signal-based
frequency. While the one-dimension-
based analysis on the weld pool has
the advantage of simplicity, the weld
pool is actually a distributive body
whose oscillation is in all directions. It
is apparent that one-dimension meth-
ods do not fully characterize the pool
oscillation such that many phenomena
and characteristics are still not fully
revealed. The pool oscillation should
be studied fully dimensionally, but the
major challenge lies in the lack of an
effective method to measure the
three-dimensional surface and the
complexity of the analysis of the
three-dimensional oscillation of the
flexible distributive body.
Along this direction, Shi et al. (Refs.
2123) made the first attempt to ana-
lyze the pool oscillation based on a
three-dimensional laser multiline sens-
ing method to investigate weld pool os-
cillation in pulsed GTAW. However, they
focused on the correlation of the pool
oscillation characteristic frequency with
the weld penetration. In this paper, a
novel sensing system is used to observe
the three-dimensional weld pool surface
to analyze the oscillation modes three-
dimensionally and their correlation
with the dynamic evolution process of
the weld pool.
In particular, in previous work
(Refs. 3943), a new laser dot-matrix
sensing method was proposed. The
three-dimensional surface of the weld
pool can be monitored and measured.
To this end, a 19 19 dot-matrix pat-
tern was projected onto the weld pool
surface. Because of the specular nature
of the weld pool surface, a laser dot
matrix reflected from the weld pool
surface can be intercepted/imaged
by/on a diffusive imaging plane placed
a distance from the center of the weld
pool. The images are captured by a
high-speed camera, and the three-
dimensional shape of the weld pool
surface can be directly observed as
well as monitored and reconstructed
from a two-dimensional to three-di-
mensional freedom surface. Because
the reflected position on the imaging
plane differs with the curvature of a
specific position of the weld pool sur-
face, variations of the reflected laser
dot matrix can characterize the pool
oscillation direction as well as the am-
plitude of convexity and concavity of
the weld pool surface.
This paper focuses on the analysis of
the dynamic behavior of the pool oscil-
lation using the unique laser dot-matrix
sensing method introduced previously.
From the reflected laser dot matrix im-
age captured by high-speed camera, the
oscillation modes were clearly revealed
and the dynamic real-time evolution
process for pool oscillation under differ-
ent penetration states were explored ac-
cording to the shape variation of surface
oscillation of the weld pool under vari-
ous welding conditions of pulse current
and penetration, such as complete, par-
tial, and critical penetration, which is
defined as the states of penetration be-
tween complete and partial penetration.
Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 145
Furthermore, the variations of oscilla-
tion amplitude related to the pulse cur-
rent were analyzed to evaluate the pool
oscillation process.
Methods and Principles
Sensing System
The proposed weld pool surface
sensing system is shown in Fig. 1 (Ref.
43), where a 20-mW illumination laser
with an interbeam angle of 0.77 deg and
a wavelength of 685 nm with variable
focus was used to generate a 19 19
dot-matrix structured light pattern. The
laser pattern was projected onto the
area under the electrode at 30 deg with
a 50-mm distance from the electrode
and covering the entire possible weld
pool surface. To intercept the reflected
laser pattern, an imaging plane was
placed at a known distance of approxi-
mately 50 mm from the electrode,
which could be as simple as a piece of
glass attached with a grid paper. A high-
speed camera was used to record the re-
flected images on the imaging plane. To
minimize the influence of the arc, the
camera was fitted with a band pass filter
of 20-nm bandwidth centered at a 685-
nm wavelength of the laser used. As
shown in Fig. 1, a universal coordinate
system served to locate the positions for
all the objects in the sensing system. In
this system, the torch was on the z-axis,
and the workpiece surface was on the x
y plane.
Characteristics for Pool
Oscillation
During the peak current period, the
center of the weld pool surface was de-
pressed by the arc jet pressure. During
the base current period, the balance
among the arc jet pressure, surface
tension, and gravity, which were exert-
ed on the weld pool, was broken after
the arc plasma pressure was suddenly
reduced. As such, the surface tension
pulled the pool back toward a new
equilibrium position, inducing an os-
cillation to the pool. On the other
hand, the molten specular weld pool
surface could reflect, like a mirror,
most of the incidental laser light. As a
result, the reflected laser dot matrix
could respond simultaneously to the
motion of the weld pool surface to re-
1A 2A
1B 2B
Fig. 2 Characteristic principles for pool oscillation.
flect its oscillation.
When the laser dot matrix project-
ed onto the weld pool surface, the
laser dots were reflected onto the im-
aging plane. The reflected dots on the
imaging plane had a different mapping
relationship corresponding to the dif-
ferent shapes of the weld pool surface
(Refs. 43, 44): convex, concave, and
combination Fig. 2. Figure 2(1a2a)
are, respectively, the scheme of the
mapping relationship corresponding
to Fig. 2(1b4b), which are the reflect-
ed laser dot matrix images of the dif-
ferent weld pool surfaces. The figures
show the adjacent laser dot distance at
the center of the weld pool changes
with the convex or concave state of the
weld pool surface. According to the
mapping relationship between the
projected laser dots and reflected laser
dots, the weld pool surface of Fig.
2(1b) is moderately convex; the weld
pool surface of Fig. 2(2b) is more con-
vex because the distance of the reflect-
ed laser dots in the center of the weld
pool is larger than that of Fig. 2(1b);
the weld pool surface of Fig. 2(3b) is
moderately concave because the dis-
tance of the reflected laser dots in the
center of the weld pool is close; and in
Fig. 2(4b), the distance of the reflected
laser dots in the center of the weld
pool is closer, showing that the weld
pool surface is deeper than that of Fig.
2(3b). If the weld pool surface were
much deeper downward, the reflected
laser dots on the imaging plane would
probably converge to a point or even
cross up and down. Therefore, the am-
plitude of the change in the pixel dis-
tance between two adjacent laser dots
WELDING RESEARCH
3A 4A
3B 4B
in the center of the weld pool can rep-
resent the amplitude of the weld pool
oscillation.
Experimental Procedure
and Method
The experiment aimed to study
pool oscillation behavior in different
weld penetrations for GTAW-P under
stationary conditions, which meant
zero travel speed. Typical 304 stainless
steel plates, 4.7 mm thick, were used
as the workpiece, which was placed on
a thick copper plate with a backfill of
argon. Welding was carried out using a
2% thoriated tungsten electrode with
a diameter of 2.4 mm and a tip angle
of 60 deg at direct current electrode
negative with 99.995% argon shield-
ing gas at a flow rate of 15 L/min and
a distance of 5 mm from the tungsten
electrode to the specimen.
The welding parameter design is
given in Table 1. The image-capture
rate was set to 1000 frames per second
(f/s). The base time was set to 20 ms
to observe the weld pool oscillation
process at its natural frequency. The
base time was set to 10 ms, mainly for
inspecting the pool oscillation behav-
ior of complete joint penetration,
whereas the 3-ms base time served in
studying the forced pool oscillation be-
havior when the pulse frequency was
greater than the natural frequency of
the weld pool because of the very
short base current time. Experiment 1
was designed to judge the pool oscilla-
tion under constant welding current
conditions. Experiments 2 and 5 were
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 145-s
Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 146

WELDING RESEARCH

1A 2A 3A 1A 2A 3A

3B
1B 2B 1B 2B 3B
Fig. 3 Symmetrical oscillation at the center of the pool under Fig. 4 Symmetrical oscillation at the center of the pool under
partial penetration. complete joint penetration.

designed for exploring oscillation be-
havior and partial penetration. Experi-
ment 3 was designed for exploring
forced oscillation. Experiments 4 and
6 were designed for complete joint
penetration and oscillation behavior.
Experiments 5 and 7 were designed
for critical penetration and oscillation
behavior. The other experiments were
designed for analyzing pool oscillation
behavior or amplitude issues.
Experimental Results and
Discussion
Pool Oscillation Mode
The oscillating weld pool was im-
aged/captured at 1000 f/s by the high-
speed camera during welding. Both the
convexity and concavity of the weld
pool surface under the pulse current
were observed. The variation in the re-
flected laser dot matrix presented the
dynamic variation in the weld pool
surface such that the pool oscillation
behavior could be clearly observed. Re-
sults of the experiment showed three
pool oscillation modes at different
depths of penetration.
Symmetrical Oscillation under Partial
Penetration
Figure 3(1b) and (2b) are the con-
secutive reflected laser dot-matrix im-
ages of the oscillating weld pool at par-
tial penetration, such as those in Ex-
periments 2 and 5 in Table 1. The pixel
distance of adjacent laser dots in the
weld pool center in Fig. 3(1b) is rela-
tively large, while in Fig. 3(2b) it is
much smaller. This concurs with the
characteristic principles discussed in
the section titled characteristics for
pool oscillation. The center of the
weld pool shrank toward the inside
[Fig. 3(1b)] and, correspondingly, the
shape of the weld pool oscillation sur-
face was concave, whereas the center
of the weld pool expanded toward the
outside [Fig. 3(2b)], correspondingly,
and the shape of the weld pool oscilla-
tion surface was convex.
Figure 3(1b and 2b) shows that the
weld pool oscillation in the partial pene-
tration is symmetrical about the center
of the weld pool. As was presented in
Refs. 18 and 20, the oscillation model
can be described with the first harmonic
mode of the Bessel function.
The arc pressure is known to be
caused by a magnetic pressure differen-
tial along the length of the arc, which
accelerates the arc plasma and entrains
the gas toward the workpiece to form a
dynamic jet pressure (Refs. 8, 29). It in-
creases with the square of the current
and decreases from electrode to work-
piece as the arc radius increases. Thus,
the arc jet pressure derived from the
peak current is much greater than that
derived from the base current.
When the welding current is

Table 1 Welding Parameters

No Peak Current Base Current Peak Time Base Time Pulse Frequency Captured Rate Target of Study
Ip/A Ib/A Tp/ms Tb/ms f/Hz f/s
1 60 60 1000 DC oscillation
2 60 20 20 20 25.0 1000 Partial / behavior
3 80 20 20 3 43.5 1000 Forced oscillation
4 80 20 20 5 40.0 1000 Complete / behavior
5 80 20 20 20 25.0 1000 Mode / behavior
6 100 20 20 10 33.33 1000 Complete / behavior
7 100 20 20 20 25.0 1000 Critical / behavior
8 120 20 20 5 40.0 1000 Oscillation behavior
9 140 20 20 5 40.0 1000 Oscillation behavior
10 160 20 20 5 40.0 1000 Oscillation behavior

* Partial partial joint penetration; complete complete joint penetration; critical critical penetration; mode partial and critical penetration; behavior
oscillation behavior.

146-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 147
1A
1B
Fig. 5 Sloshing oscillation under critical penetration.
switched to the base current from the
peak current, the arc jet pressure sud-
denly releases from the top of the pool
and induces pool oscillation at a natu-
ral frequency. The surface tension
pulls the pool back toward its equilib-
rium position. The pixel distance at
the central region of the weld pool en-
larges [Fig. 3(2b)], and the weld pool
continues to expand upward after it
reaches its point of equilibrium, due to
the inertia. When the weld pool ex-
pands upward to its highest position,
the surface tension and gravity drag
the pool back toward its point of equi-
librium, and the pixel distance at the
central region of the weld pool shrinks
Fig. 3(1b). The weld pool continues
to depress downward after it reaches
its point of equilibrium position, again
due to the inertia. More details on the
evolution process can be seen in the
section titled pool oscillation under
partial penetration.
Due to the support of the solid
metal in the bottom of the pool, the
liquid metal around the pool edge was
pushed upward when the liquid metal
at the central pool was depressed
downward. The scheme of the pool os-
cillation mode for partial penetration
is illustrated in Fig. 3(1a, 2a). The os-
cillation mode was consistent with the
mode 1 proposed by Xiao et al. (Ref.
18). Figure 3(3a and 3b) are the top
and bottom for the weld associated
with partial penetration.
2A
3A
2B 3B
Symmetrical Oscillation under
Complete Joint Penetration
Images of the oscillating weld pool
in Fig. 4(1b and 2b) show complete
joint penetration occurring as it did in
Experiments 4 and 6 (Table 1). Figure
4(3a and 3b) are the top and bottom of
the weld, respectively, corresponding
to CJP oscillation. To a first approxi-
mation, the oscillation under CJP can
be described in terms of a stretched
membrane or classical hydrodynamics
to the liquid metal in the weld pool
(Refs. 8, 18, 20).
In Fig. 4(1b), a bright region appears
in the central region of the molten pool.
The brightness is much higher there
than in other regions of the molten
pool. Under the CJP condition, the bot-
tom metal of the workpiece has also
been melted, as shown in Fig. 4(3b).
The bottom of the weld pool loses the
support of the solid metal, and, instead,
is maintained by the surface tension of
the liquid metal from the bottom pool.
Therefore, the liquid weld metal in the
CJP pool has an extra degree of freedom
(normal to the surface of the pool) (Ref.
20), and the surface tension along the
top and bottom surface of the pool as
the main driving force has a significant
influence on the oscillation behavior.
When the arc jet pressure acts on the
top of the weld pool surface, the weld
pool surface depresses to such a low po-
WELDING RESEARCH
sition that the reflected laser dot-
matrix shrinks into a large bright point
in the center of the weld pool. At this
time, the shape of the weld pool surface
is concave (see the section titled charac-
teristics for pool oscillation). The
scheme of the pool oscillation mode is
shown in Fig. 4(1a).
Figure 4(2b) shows a brighter circle
in the edge of the pool. When the arc
jet pressure on the top of the weld
pool surface is suddenly released, the
surface tension on the weld pool top
and bottom pulls the pool back toward
its equilibrium position. The center of
the weld pool first expands upward,
and then the edge of the weld pool fol-
lows with the motion of the weld pool
center. However, because of the lack of
support of solid metal in the bottom
of the pool, the weld pool surface is
pushed down to a relatively low posi-
tion by the high arc pressure that de-
rived from the pulse current. There-
fore, the edge of the weld pool does
not easily drag back to the convex
when the pools center reaches the
highest point, and most of the time,
the reflected image of the weld pool
surface, like in Fig. 4(2b), is a bright
circle around the pools edge. The sec-
tion titled Characteristics for Pool Os-
cillation shows that the shape of the
weld pools central region is convex
and that of the weld pool edge is con-
cave, as shown in Fig. 4(2b). The
scheme of the oscillation mode is illus-
trated in Fig. 4(2a).
It is apparent from the reflected
laser dot characteristic that the pool
oscillation under complete joint pene-
tration is also radial symmetrical with
respect to the arc axis. However, both
the top and bottom of the weld pool
are liquid film, and the pool oscillation
morphology is significantly different.
The corresponding image of the oscil-
lating weld pool surface [Fig. 4(1a)] is
also considerably different from the
image under partial penetration
Fig. 3(1a). Figure 4(1b and 2b) shows
that the pool oscillation amplitude is
much greater than that under partial
penetration. The results coincide with
mode 2 proposed by Xiao et al. (Refs.
1820), and the experimental phe-
nomena also verify the hypothesis
proposed by Richardson et al. (Ref.
30), i.e., there exists a kind of symmet-
rical oscillation mode under complete
joint penetration as described earlier.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 147-s
Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 148
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 6 Pool oscillation process under partial penetration (Ip = 80 A, Ib = 20
A, f = 25 Hz, Tb = 20 ms): A Amplitude variation of pool oscillation ; B
some typical pool oscillation images. (Welding base time from 3760 to
3804 ms.)
Sloshing Oscillation under Critical
Penetration
Figure 5(1b and 2b) shows the pool
oscillation under the critical penetra-
tion, such as in Experiments 5 and 7,
(Table 1). In Fig. 5(1b and 2b), the sym-
bols and represent the weld pool
oscillation valley and peak, respectively.
The pixel distance minimum in Fig.
5(1b) is located on the pool oscillation
images right side, whereas the pool os-
cillation images minimum pixel dis-
tance in Fig. 5(2b) is located on the left
side, neither at the center of the weld
pool. Unlike the pool oscillation under
complete or partial penetration, the ex-
treme position (oscillation center here-
after) of the oscillating pool under criti-
cal penetration is not always at the weld
pool center but instead shifts like a
wave of water in a pool. It is possible
that the oscillation center would shift to
another position in the next moment.
The oscillation behavior is somewhat
like a wave of water in a pool, so the
pool oscillation mode is defined as
sloshing oscillation or swing oscillation.
The scheme of the oscillation mode is
given in Fig. 5(1a and 2a).
Why did the oscillation center shift?
When the weld pool grows, the bottom
metal of the workpiece also gradually
melts into a liquid state. Because the
microstructure, crystal structure, and
defects/imperfections are not uniform
and continuous, it is possible that the
earliest spot that is melted is not exactly
at the weld pool center. The melting
process of the bottom pool is thus not
perfectly uniform and symmetrical (in
stationary welding). Therefore, the
asymmetrical position results in that
the forces of the weld pool are off-bal-
ance and not uniform, and the force of
148-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
B
the unbalance causes
asymmetrical movement, like a sloshing
wave of water, in the oscillating pool.
In the situation of critical penetra-
tion, only a very small part of the bot-
tom metal melted. A large part of the
weld pool was still backed by the solid
metal. Under the arc pressure, only a
small part of the liquid metal was
pushed downward. With the increased
pool size, less liquid metal was backed
by solid material and more liquid metal
was pushed downward. Only after the
bottom size of the pool reached a cer-
tain threshold, the oscillation became
the mode of complete joint penetration.
Our series of experimental results
has also shown that this oscillation be-
havior occurred under critical penetra-
tion, i.e., after complete joint penetra-
tion was achieved until the area of the
bottom liquid surface reached approxi-
mately 0.3 and 0.5 times that of the top
surface as suggested by literature (Ref.
30). Thus, critical oscillation was not at
a specific position as its oscillation cen-
ter but in a transition stage. This is con-
sistent with the results that were ob-
tained in terms of oscillation frequency
characteristics (Ref. 20). Figure 5(3a
and 3b) is the top and bottom of the
corresponding weld with critical pene-
tration in which the bottom pool sur-
face area is less than 0.3 and 0.5 times
that of the top pool surface.
Pool Oscillation Process for
Pulsed GTAW
To investigate the evolution process
of pool oscillation during GTAW-P, a
series of consecutive reflected weld
pool images based on laser dot-matrix
was captured at 1000 f/s. The peak
and base times of the pulsing current
were both 20 ms. The other welding
parameters are given in Table 1. With-
in a pulse period, 20 frames of images
under peak current and 20 frames of
images under base current were cap-
tured and processed. The feature
points were extracted, the missing
points were added by interpolation,
and the point in the laser dot matrix
in the image corresponding to the os-
cillation center was replaced by the
symbol +, as shown in Fig. 6.
As previously mentioned, the pixel
distance between two adjacent laser
dots around the oscillation center of a
weld pool is defined as the amplitude of
pool oscillation. When the current
switches from the peak to base current,
the arc plasma pressure suddenly releas-
es. The surface tension pulls the pool
back toward the equilibrium position
and the natural oscillation occurs due to
the surface tension and gravity. A differ-
ent penetration state has a different
pool oscillation behavior that can be ob-
served and analyzed from the consecu-
tive oscillation behavior within a 40-ms
pulse period.
Pool Oscillation under Partial
Penetration
Again, 40 frames of consecutive
weld pool oscillation images were cap-
tured and processed including 20
frames for the peak and 20 frames for
the base times such as in Experiment
5 (Table 1). Some typical oscillation
images taken after processing are
shown in Fig. 6B. Figure 6 shows the
oscillation dynamic evolution process
is clearly observable. The reflected
laser pattern is distorted because of
the pool oscillation, and its variations
Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 149
A B
Fig. 7 Pool oscillation process under greater partial penetration (Ip = 80 A, Ib = 20 A, f = 25 Hz, Tb = 20 ms): A Amplitude variation of
pool oscillation; B some typical pool oscillation images. (Welding base time from 4608 to 4628 ms.)
respond to the regular and periodic
contraction and expansion during the
entire period.
As previously mentioned, the pixel
distance between two adjacent laser
dots at the weld pool oscillation center
is defined as the amplitude of pool os-
cillation. The amplitude in each image
was calculated. The relationship be-
tween the amplitude and welding time
is shown in Fig. 6A. The following phe-
nomena can be discerned from Fig. 6A:
During the base current time when the
arc plasma pressure on the top of the
weld pool surface is released, the weld
pool oscillates at a natural frequency,
and the amplitude gradually decreases
with weld pool solidification because
of the reduced heat input under the
base current. The variation in the am-
plitude of the weld pool surface is
from 19 to 36 pixels during the base
time period, while the variation in the
amplitude of the weld pool surface is
from 17 to 23 pixels during the peak
time period. Because of the support of
the solid metal in the bottom (Fig. 3),
it is difficult for the pools surface to
be pulled to a lower position only by
the surface tension than that by the
pulse arc jet pressure; therefore, in
general, the lowest amplitude value is
not lower than the values during the
peak current period.
During peak current time, the weld
pool surface is also not completely
still, possibly because of the effect of
the natural oscillation in the base
current period. The surface tension on
the weld pool surface prevents the
pool oscillation from stopping imme-
diately; instead oscillation continues
at a lower amplitude Fig. 6A.
In addition, the pools natural fre-
quency can be easily calculated from
the pool oscillation process shown in
Fig. 6B. The pool oscillation has 4.5 cy-
Fig. 8 Variation of weld pool oscillation surface under complete joint penetration (Ip =
100 A, Ib = 20 A, f = 33.3 Hz, Tb = 10 ms).
cles within 20 ms when the welding
time is from 3783 to 3803 ms; thus,
the oscillation frequency at the mo-
ment is approximately 225 Hz. The os-
cillation phenomena for the other ex-
periments was similar to those in Ex-
periment 5.
Figure 7 shows the pool oscillation
process when the welding time was
from 4608 to 4628 ms with the same
welding parameters as for the experi-
ment shown in Fig. 6. Because the weld-
ing time was longer than that of Fig. 6,
the depth of penetration is correspond-
ingly deeper, the oscillation process is
sharper, and the oscillation amplitude
from 10 to 40 pixels is much greater
than that of the oscillation of welding
time from 3782 to 3802 ms.
According to Fig. 7, it can be calcu-
lated that the natural oscillation fre-
quency is approximately 200 Hz,
which is less than the 225 Hz of Fig. 6.
The results are consistent with the
other studies, indicating the natural
frequency decreases with the increase
in the geometry or mass of the weld
pool (Refs. 8, 29).
As can be seen in Figs. 6 and 7,
compared with the arc voltage varia-
WELDING RESEARCH
tion, arc light intensity (Ref. 30), or
shadowgraphy image techniques
(Ref. 31), with the help of a three-
dimensional laser dot matrix sensing
method and high-speed camera, the
variation of oscillation morphology
can be observed more easily, and the
dynamic evolution process of weld
pool surface oscillation can be clearly
observed and analyzed.
Pool Oscillation under Complete Joint
Penetration
Figure 8 shows the variation of the
oscillating weld pool surface and several
corresponding pool oscillation images
that are typical for complete joint pene-
tration, such as those in Experiment 6
(Table 1), with the welding time t0 being
equal to 6080 ms. The reflected images
from the pool oscillation surface were
taken at 1, 4, 7, and 10 ms after the arc
plasma pressure was suddenly removed.
The pool oscillation process was just as
the scheme of oscillation under the time
axis of Fig. 8.
As indicated in the section titled
symmetrical oscillation under complete
joint penetration, the pool oscillation
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 149-s
Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 150
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 9 Sloshing pool oscillation under critical penetration
(Ip = 80 A, Ib = 20 A, f = 40 Hz, Tb = 20 ms).
mode and phenomena of complete joint
penetration are similar to that of the
partial penetration. However, when
the weld was at complete joint penetra-
tion, the metal in the bottom of the
weld pool was also molten such that the
bottom of the weld pool lost the sup-
port of the solid metal. Instead, it was
maintained by the surface tension of
the liquid metal in the bottom pool. The
weight of the weld pool itself had a sig-
nificant effect on pool oscillation. The
amplitude of the pool oscillation was
much greater than that under partial
penetration, and the motion of weld
pool oscillation was sharper Fig. 8.
Apparently, the pool surface was
lower than the top of the workpiece
due to the effect of surface tension and
the lack of support from bottom solid
metal. When the welding current
switched from peak to base current
such that the arc jet pressure on the
top of the pool was suddenly removed,
the surface tensions of the top and bot-
tom of the weld pool together pulled
the pool back toward its equilibrium
position and the oscillation occurred at
a natural frequency. The oscillation
process is as shown in Fig. 8. As can be
seen, the weld pool gradually expanded
up from the bottom to the top. The
pool morphology is as shown in the
scheme of Fig. 8 in the corresponding
images t0 + 1 ms to t0 + 10 ms. Then
the oscillation process repeated as de-
scribed previously, but the amplitude
of the pool oscillation decreased with
150-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
Fig. 10 Variation in maximum and minimum amplitude for sloshing os
cillation during a 20ms base current time.
the solidification of the
liquid pool. During the
next 40-ms period, the
pool oscillation process
was similar.
Because of the lack of
the support of the bot-
tom solid metal and the
weight of the weld pool
itself, the weld pool shrank downward
to a lower position, and the reflected
laser dot-matrix at the pool center grad-
ually converged to a litter area as shown
in the image of t0 + 1 ms in Fig. 8. The
image of t0 + 4 ms in Fig. 8 shows the
weld pool continues to shrink, and the
brightness is the largest in the entire
weld pool area. When the pool surface
expanded upward, the distance between
adjacent laser dots at the center of the
pool gradually became larger. However,
the shape of the weld pool edge might
still be concave, and the reflected laser
dot-matrix converged. As a result, the
brightness of the area is larger, looking
like a bright ring, as shown in the image
of t0 + 7 ms Fig. 8. The bright ring in
the image of t0 + 10 ms became bigger,
and shows that the edge part of the pool
expanded upward. If the pool were to
continue to expand upward, and the
concaveness of the pool edge gradually
became flat, even convex, then the
bright ring would gradually disappear.
When the arc jet pressure, once
again, was exerted on the top of the
weld pool surface, the weld pool sur-
face concaved downward to the very
low level because of the forced action
of the arc pressure, as shown in the
last scheme of Fig. 8.
Pool Oscillation under Critical
Penetration
As mentioned previously, when the
penetration is between the partial and
complete, the pool oscillation dynamic
process is in the critical penetration
stage as can be seen in Fig. 9, which in-
cludes 20 frames from 20-ms base cur-
rent time, such as those in Experiment
5 (Table 1). The lowest positions of the
oscillating pool surface in the follow-
ing 120 images are labeled with the
sign. The dynamic variation of pool
oscillation by the shift of the sign in
the following 120 images is clearly
evident. The maximum amplitude and
lowest oscillation position distribution
are shown in Fig. 9.
Figure 9 indicates the pool surface
is not symmetrically and vertically os-
cillated as is the case in partial pene-
tration and complete joint penetra-
tion, and the pool oscillation center is
no longer fixed at the center of the
weld pool but constantly moves like
the waves on a water surface. The pool
behavior looks like the swing or slosh-
ing wave of water in a pool.
Figure 10 shows the variations in
maximum and minimum amplitude for
sloshing oscillation during a 20-ms base
current time. Again, the peak current
has an amplitude of 80 A and a duration
of 20 ms. The base current has an am-
plitude of 20 A and duration of 20 ms.
In Fig. 10, when the welding time reach-
es 7084 ms, the critical penetration
process occurs, and the natural oscilla-
tion process is forcibly stopped after the
base time of 20 ms, because the arc jet
pressure, once again, is exerted on the
top of the weld pool surface, which is
derived from the pulse current.
Compared with partial penetration
(Fig. 7) and complete joint penetration
(Fig. 8), the oscillation amplitude of
critical penetration (Fig. 9) is mini-
mum, and the oscillation frequency is
not a fixed value but varies.
Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 151
A
B shows typical images for DC-GTAW af-
Fig. 11 Behavior of weld pool oscillation under different peak currents (Ib = 20 A, f = 40
Hz, Tb = 5 ms): A Amplitude variation of pool oscillation in different peak currents; B
typical pool oscillation images for different peak currents.
In the critical penetration, the oscil-
lation center dynamically changes. The
weld pool surface morphology is
abruptly different from those in partial
and in complete joint penetration. The
pool oscillation mode is also essentially
different from those in partial and in
complete joint penetration. It is appar-
ent the morphology variation in the
weld pool surface that is clearly observ-
able from the reflected images is not ob-
tainable from the one-dimensional arc
voltage or arc light signal that were used
in pool oscillation studies in literature.
Relationship between
Amplitude and Pulse Current
Difference
To observe the pool oscillation am-
plitude in different peak currents, all
other welding parameters were kept
the same: 20-A base current, 5-ms du-
ration for the base current, and 20-ms
duration for the peak current. Differ-
ent peak currents were applied in dif-
ferent experiments (Table 1).
To ensure the conditions were the
same, only after the weld pool had
grown to the same size was the weld
ter image processing. The symbol
still represents the weld pool oscilla-
pool oscillation observed. Figure 11B
shows typical pool oscillation images
after processing when the peak cur-
rents were 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, and
160 A, respectively. Figure 11A shows
the amplitude of pool oscillation at the
different peak currents. The arc pres-
sure increases with the square of cur-
rent and decreases from electrode to
workpiece as the arc radius increases.
The pressure accelerates the arc plas-
ma and entrained gas toward the
workpiece to form a dynamic jet pres-
sure, and the jet acts on the pool sur-
face to create pressure. As shown in
Fig. 11A, the amplitude of pool center
oscillation gradually increases from 30
to approximately 100 pixels when the
corresponding welding peak current
gradually increases from 60 to 160 A.
The conclusion can be drawn that,
under the condition of the same base
current, the greater the peak current
the greater the pool oscillation ampli-
tude. The appropriate amplitude of pool
oscillation helps to improve the weld
quality, gain refinement, and defect in-
hibition (Refs. 29, 30); however, im-
proper amplitude might influence the
stability of the welding process. Thus,
the relationship between amplitude and
WELDING RESEARCH
arc pressure needs to be understood.
Discussion
The authors have studied in detail
the oscillation modes and dynamic be-
haviors. However, the studies were
done under pulsed current with mod-
erate frequency. To gain a broader and
more complete view, the authors
wished to briefly study the oscillations
under extreme frequencies by using di-
rect current (DC) as the extreme for
low frequency and pulsing current
with high frequency.
Pool Dynamic Behavior under Direct
Current GTAW
To study the behavior under ultra-
low frequencies, (DC) was used. As
shown in Fig. 12, the amplitude of the
pool center during DC-GTAW was also
measured based on the same method
described previously. Figure 12B
tion center. Figure 12A shows ampli-
tude variations from consecutive 140
ms welding time from 1577 to 1617
ms. Figure 12A shows the amplitude
of the pool oscillation center almost
remains constant since the welding
current stays nearly constant during
DC-GTAW, although some slight
changes for the amplitude might have
resulted from minor disturbances. Ac-
cording to the sections titled Pool Os-
cillation under Partial Penetration and
Pool Oscillation under Complete Joint
penetration, the pool behaviors during
DC-GTAW differ entirely from those in
GTAW-P during the peak period.
Forced Pool Oscillation under
HighFrequency Pulsing Current
As mentioned previously, when the
arc jet pressure on the top of the weld
pool is released, the pool oscillate is ex-
cited at the natural frequency corre-
sponding to the geometry of the weld
pool. However, when the base time is
shorter than the period of the pool os-
cillation at the national frequency, the
oscillation process would be forcibly ter-
minated. Figure 7 shows that after the
current is switched at 4608 ms from 80-
A peak current to 20-A base current,
which lasts 20 ms, the natural oscilla-
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 151-s
Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 152

WELDING RESEARCH

tion frequency of the weld pool is 200

Hz. The oscillation period is 5 ms.
Clearly, if the base time is less than 5
ms, such as in Experiment 3 (Table 1),
the oscillation process will be terminat-
ed before a complete natural oscillation
cycle is finished. Natural oscillation will
not occur. The pool oscillation frequen-
cy is expected to be equal to that of the
pulse frequency of GTAW-P. In this case,
the oscillation will be much stronger A
such that the images become blurrier.
To analyze such oscillation, the im-
ages have been enhanced to increase the
contrast as in Fig. 13 where the base
current is 3 ms where the fourth image
was acquired 3 ms after the peak cur-
rent had been applied. Despite the rela- B
tively blurrier images, it is still clear that
the reflection in the fourth image shows Fig. 12 Pool dynamic behavior under DCGTAW (welding current I = 60 A): A Amplitude
variation during DCGTAW; B some typical images for DCGTAW.
a concave pool surface (as indicated by
the bright spot in the center) rather
than a convex pool surface as it should
be if the natural oscillation continues.

Conclusion
Pool oscillation behavior has been
characterized by and analyzed from
the reflection laser dot-matrix pattern
from the oscillating weld pool surface.
From reflection laser dot-matrix
pattern-based analyses, the following
conclusions can be drawn for the pool
oscillation in GTAW-P:
1) Pool oscillation dynamic behav-
iors can be clearly observed and easily
measured according to the reflected
images derived from the laser dot-
matrix sensing method.
2) The dynamic evolution process
of the oscillating weld pool and the
variation in the weld pool surface mor-
phology can be clearly presented using
the innovative three-dimensional weld
pool surface sensing method.
3) There exists three oscillation
modes: symmetrical oscillation for
partial penetration, sloshing oscilla-
tion for critical penetration, and sym-
metrical oscillation for complete joint
penetration, which differs significant-
ly from that of partial penetration.
4) The amplitude of the pool oscil-
lation gradually increases as the peak
current increases. This is because the
arc plasma pressure on top of the pool
surface increases as the peak current
increases.
5) The natural frequency oscillation
can be excited after the current is re-
A B
Fig. 13 Forced pool oscillation under highfrequency pulse current (Ip = 80 A, Ib = 20 A, f
= 43.5 Hz, Tb = 3 ms).
duced to the base level but its continu-
ation to finish a complete cycle re-
quires the base current period be suffi-
ciently long in comparison with the
period of natural frequency. A relative-
ly short base current period will result
in a forced oscillation at the frequency
of the pulsed current.
6) Oscillations with smaller ampli-
tude still exist in the weld pool during
the peak current period. However,
during welding with a constant cur-
rent, the oscillation in the weld pool is
insignificant.
Acknowledgments
The financial support from the Chi-
na Scholarship Council is greatly ap-
preciated. This work is also partially
supported by the National Science
Foundation under grant NSF 1208420
and the University of Kentucky Insti-
tute for Sustainable Manufacturing.
C D
References
1. Zhang, Z. Z., and Wu, C. S. 2015. Ef-
fect of fluid flow in the weld pool on the
numerical simulation accuracy of the ther-
mal field in hybrid welding. Journal of Man-
ufacturing Processes 20: 215223.
2. Wu, C. S., Wang, L., Ren, W. J., and
Zhang, X. Y. 2014. Plasma arc welding:
Process, sensing, control and modeling.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 16:
7485.
3. Liu, Z. M., Wu, C. S., Liu, Y. K., and
Luo, Z. 2015. Keyhole behaviors influence
weld defects in plasma arc welding process.
Welding Journal 94(9): 281-s to 290-s.
4. Chen, S. B., and Lv, N. 2014. Re-
search evolution on intelligentized tech-
nologies for arc welding process. Journal of
Manufacturing Processes 16: 109122.
5. Bahrami, A., Aidun, D. K., and Valen-
tine, D. T. 2014. Interaction of gravity
forces in spot GTA weld pool. Welding Jour-
nal 93(4): 139-s to 144-s.
6. Bahrami, A., and Aidun, D. K. 2014.
Modeling of carbon steel-duplex stainless
steel GTA weld pool. Welding Journal 93(7):

152-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

Zhang Paper 2016110 May 2017_Layout 1 4/7/17 4:01 PM Page 153
262-s to 270-s.
7. Ahsan, M. R. U., Kim, Y. R., Ashiri,
R., Cho, Y. J., Jeong, C., and Park, Y. D.
2016. Cold metal transfer (CMT) GMAW
of zinc-coated steel. Welding Journal 95(4):
120-s to 132-s.
8. Kotecki, D., Cheever, D., and How-
den, D. 1972. Mechanism of ripple forma-
tion during weld solidification. Welding
Journal 51(8): 368.
9. Yudodibroto, B., Hermans, M., Hira-
ta, Y., and den Ouden, G. 2013. Influence
of filler wire addition on weld pool oscilla-
tion during gas tungsten arc welding. Sci-
ence and Technology of Welding & Joining.
10. Tewari, S. 1999. Effects of oscilla-
tion on impact property of weldments. ISIJ
International 39: 809812.
11. Methong, T., and Poopat, B. 2013.
The effect of ultrasonic vibration on prop-
erties of weld metal. Key Engineering Mate-
rials, Trans Tech Publications, pp. 177181.
12. Kageler, C., and Schmidt, M. 2010.
Frequency-based analysis of weld pool dy-
namics and keyhole oscillations at laser
beam welding of galvanized steel sheets.
Physics Procedia 5: 447453.
13. Jose, M., Kumar, S.S., and Sharma,
A. 2016. Vibration assisted welding
processes and their influence on quality of
welds. Science and Technology of Welding and
Joining 21: 243258.
14. Huang, C., and Kou, S. 2003. Liqua-
tion cracking in partial-penetration alu-
minum welds: Effect of penetration oscilla-
tion and backfilling. Welding Journal 82(7):
184-s to 194-s.
15. Hermans, M., and den Ouden, G.
1999. Process behavior and stability in
short circuit gas metal arc welding. Welding
Journal 78(4): 137-s to 141-s.
16. Dowden, J., and Kapadia, P. 1999.
Oscillations of a weld pool formed by melt-
ing through a thin workpiece. Lasers in En-
gineering (UK) 8: 311318.
17. Cho, J., Farson, D. F., Hollis, K. J.,
and Milewski, J. O. 2015. Numerical analy-
sis of weld pool oscillation in laser welding.
Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology
29: 17151722.
18. Xiao, Y., and den Ouden, G. 1990. A
study of GTA weld pool oscillation. Welding
Journal 69(8): 289-s to293-s.
19. Xiao, Y., and den Ouden, G. 1992.
Direct observation of GRA weld pool oscil-
lation. International Trends in Welding Sci-
ence and Technology, pp. 423426.
20. Xiao, Y., and den Ouden, G. 1993.
Weld pool oscillation during GTA welding
of mild steel. Welding Journal 72(8): 428-s
to 434-s.
K. E. ZHANG (zhangke@sjtu.edu.cn), SHAOJIE WU, YUMING ZHANG (yuming.zhang@uky.edu), and JINSONG CHEN are with the Insti
tute for Sustainable Manufacturing, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. K. E. ZHANG is also with the Welding and Laser Processing In
stite, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China.
21. Shi, Y., Zhang, G., Li, C., Gu, Y., and
Fan, D. 2015. Weld pool oscillation fre-
quency in pulsed gas tungsten arc welding
with varying weld penetration. IEEE Inter-
national Conference on Automation Science
and Engineering (CASE). IEEE, pp.
401406.
22. Shi, Y., Zhang, G., Ma, X., Gu, Y.,
Huang, J., and Fan, D. 2015. Laser-vision-
based measurement and analysis of weld
pool oscillation frequency in GTAW-P.
Welding Journal 94(5): 176-s to 187-s.
23. Yu, S., Chunkai, L., Leiming, D.,
YuFen, G., and Ming, Z. 2016. Frequency
characteristics of weld pool oscillation in
pulsed gas tungsten arc welding. Journal of
Manufacturing Processes 24: 145151.
24. Tarn, A., and Hardt, D. 1989. Weld
pool impedance for pool geometry meas-
urement: Stationary and non-stationary
pools. Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measure-
ment, and Control 101: 545553.
25. Kovacevic, R., Zhang, Y., and Li, L.
1996. Monitoring of weld joint penetrations
based on weld pool geometrical appearance.
Welding Journal 75(10): 317-s to 329-s.
26. Joshi, Y., Dutta, P., Schupp, P., and
Espinosa, D. 1997. Nonaxisymmetric con-
vection in stationary gas tungsten arc weld
pools. Journal of Heat Transfer 119:
164172.
27. Andersen, K., Cook, G.E., Barnett,
R. J., and Strauss, A. M. 1997. Synchro-
nous weld pool oscillation for monitoring
and control. IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications 33: 464471.
28. Aendenroomer, A., and den Ouden,
G. 1998. Weld pool oscillation as a tool for
penetration sensing during pulsed GTA
welding. Welding Journal 77(5): 181-s to
187-s.
29. Renwick, R., and Richardson, R.
1983. Experimental investigation of GTA
weld pool oscillations. Welding Journal
62(3): 29-s to 35-s.
30. Yoo, C. D., and Richardson, R. W.
1993. An experimental study on sensitvity
and signal characteristics of welds pool os-
cillation. Transactions of the Japan Welding
Society 24: 5462.
31. Ramos, E. G., Carvalho, G. C. D.,
and Alfaro, S. C. A. 2013. Analysis of weld
pool oscillation in P-GMAW by means of
shadowgraphy image processing. Soldagem
& Inspeao 18: 3949.
32. Matsuda, F., Ushio, M., Nakata, K.,
and Miyanaga, Y. 1978. Effects of current
pulsation on weld solidification structure
of aluminum alloys. Transactions of JWRI 7:
287289.
33. Yamamoto, H., Harada, S., Ueyama,
WELDING RESEARCH
T., Ogawa, S., Matsuda, F., and Nakata, K.
1993. Beneficial effects of lowfrequency
pulsed MIG welding on grain refinement of
weld metal and improvement of solidifica-
tion crack susceptibility of aluminium al-
loys: Study of lowfrequency pulsed MIG
welding. Welding International 7: 456461.
34. Zacksenhouse, M., and Hardt, D.
1983. Weld pool impedance identification
for size measurement and control. Journal
of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Con-
trol 105: 179184.
35. Pearce, B., and Kerr, H. 1981. Grain
refinement in magnetically stirred GTA
welds of aluminum alloys. Metallurgical
Transactions B 12: 479486.
36. Brown, D., Crossley, F., Rudy, J., and
Schwartzbart, H. 1962. The effect of elec-
tromagnetic stirring and mechanical vibra-
tion on arc welds. Welding Journal 41(6):
241-s to 250-s.
37. Mukae, S., Katoh, M., Nishio, K.,
and Tsutsui, T. Effect of electromagnetic
stirring on weld solidification structure of
5052 alloy. Kei Kinzoku Yosetsu (J. Light
Met. Weld. Constr.) 22: 299309.
38. Vives, C. 1989. Electromagnetic re-
fining of aluminum alloys by the CREM
process: Part I. Working principle and met-
allurgical results. Metallurgical Transactions
B 20: 623629.
39. Zhang, W., Liu, Y., Wang, X., and
Zhang, Y. 2012. Characterization of three
dimensional weld pool surface in GTAW.
Welding Journal 91(7): 195-s to 203-s.
40. Zhang, W. 2014. Machine-human co-
operative control of welding process. PhD
dissertation. University of Kentucky, Dept.
of Electrical Engineering, Lexington, Ky.
41. Zhang, W., Wang, X., and Zhang, Y.
2013. Analytical real-time measurement of
a three-dimensional weld pool surface.
Measurement Science and Technology 24:
115011.
42. Zhang, Y. M., Beardsley, H. E., and
Kovacevic, R. 1994. Real-time image pro-
cessing for 3D measurement of weld pool
surface. The 1994 International Mechanical
Engineering Congress and Exposition, pp.
255262.
43. Song, H., and Zhang, Y. 2007. An
image processing scheme for measurement
of specular weld pool surface. 2007 2nd
IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and
Applications, IEEE, pp. 510.
44. Song, H., and Zhang, Y. M. 2008.
Measurement and analysis of three-dimen-
sional specular gas tungsten arc weld pool
surface. Welding Journal 87(4): 85-s to 95-s.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 153-s
Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 154

WELDING RESEARCH

Mechanized Oxyfuel Control with

Ion Current Sensing

An approach for sensing standoff distance and fueloxygen mixture using only
the electrical characteristics of the flame is described

BY C. R. MARTIN

for sensing standoff distance and fuel-

ABSTRACT oxygen mixture using only the electri-
cal characteristics of the flame. Meas-
This paper advances an approach to sensing in mechanized oxyfuel systems where
urements were also presented demon-
sensors are eliminated and the electrical characteristics inherent to the torch, flame, and
workpiece are used to measure standoff distance and fueloxygen ratio. Electrical prop strating how total flow and plate tem-
erties are also shown to be correlated to preheat flow rate and work temperature. These perature might be measured. In this
measurements were conducted by applying voltage to the torch and measuring the approach, the torch was presumed to
resulting current transmitted through the flame. Measurements with an Oxweld C67 be electrically isolated from the work-
torch heating a temperaturestabilized plate revealed a nonlinear currentvoltage charac piece, and the torch tip and workpiece
teristic with three regimes at signal level voltages (10 to 10 V). These regimes were acted as electrodes.
dominated by different physical phenomena that empowered the observer to
understand various parameters of the system typically only available by mounting
sensors in the vicinity of the flame. Eliminating sensors from the hot zone had positive
Literature Review
cost implications, but there was an even stronger potential benefit to the reliability of
the system, because those sensors were susceptible to damage from the process. The aggregate of several studies
spanning roughly a century and a half
is a relatively complete picture of the
KEYWORDS physical processes at work (Refs. 1, 5).
Electrical currents in flames have been
Oxyfuel Cutting Ion Current Height Control Sensing the subject of interest since at least
the eighteenth century (Ref. 1). Identi-
fying them to be caused by the forma-
Introduction lenging to find the sensing suite neces- tion of ions during the chemical reac-
sary for total automation that does tion was an important part of under-
The present paper advances an ap- not also undermine the systems cost, standing the electrical structure of the
proach to sensing in oxyfuel systems reliability, or some other important as- atom (Refs. 2, 3).
whereby active sensors were obsoleted pect of the process. As a result, oxyfuel By the middle of the twentieth cen-
by relating the electrical properties of cutting has largely retained its old de- tury, it was clear that the currents to
the flame to process parameters. mands on the operators attention, and from metal (absorbing) surfaces
While the immediate application envi- knowledge, and skill. near a flame were due to unequal bom-
sioned here was in mechanized oxyfuel To illustrate the challenge, one bardment of positive and negative
cutting systems, the same physics and might consider the capacitive rings ions (Refs. 1, 4). This information is in
concepts were relevant to welding, that have long been favorites for sens- harmony with the now canonical ki-
heating heads, scarfing, and other ing torch standoff from the workpiece. netic theory of gases. The painstaking
more specialized applications. For a cost potentially in excess of the process of identifying those ions in
torch itself, these systems suffer from different flames would span the re-
poor performance at the plates edge, mainder of the century (Ref. 5), with
Background susceptibility to electrical interference, several important works in this area
unpredictable drastic behaviors in the casting light on the internal structure
A niche has been carved out by presence of moisture, and regular of flames (Refs. 6, 7).
mechanized oxyfuel cutting where degradation and ultimate destruction In a flame, free electrons are far
cost, material thickness, or both typi- due to long-term exposure to heat and more mobile than their heavier, posi-
cally determine the process selection. slag. A desire for immunity to edge tively charged molecular counterparts.
It might be said that the century-old and moisture effects dares designers An electric field applied between two
cutting process competes adeptly to place the ring ever closer to the surfaces adjoining the flame will drive
against its more modern peers when flame with predictable implications on electrons away from one (cathode) and
these concerns are paramount. How- the longevity of the sensor. towards the other (anode). When posi-
ever, oxyfuel cutting has proved chal- This paper describes an approach tive ions impact a metal surface, they

154-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 155
A B
Fig. 1 Spatial structure of the system under study. The torch is an Oxweld C67 with a
in., twopiece tip. The coupon is internally cooled 34 in. from the top surface. The
hot section depth is visible from the dark oxidation on the cylinders outer diameter.
can diffuse into it. However, they are
more often neutralized by the libera-
tion of an electron from the metal.
When free electrons or negative ions
impact the metal surface, the process
is reversed. In this way, the net flow of
electrons from the cathode will be the
difference between the rate of impact
of positive ions and electrons. As an
external electric field drives electrons
from the cathode surface, their con-
centration (and rate of bombardment)
will drop, and the system will be
brought into a new equilibrium. This
equilibrium is abruptly interrupted
when increasing the net current ex-
hausts the electrons in the vicinity of
the cathode. Instead of driving addi-
tional current, increases in the electric
field strength cause a mounting accu-
mulation of positive charge around the
cathode face. This is called saturation.
It is not surprising that as tenable
explanations for these physics gained
broad consensus, engineers were also
identifying problems for their applica-
tion. In the United States patent
record, the earliest appearance of ion-
current sensing applied to oxyfuel
torches appears to have been Mott,
Chouinard, and Hardings 1944 patent
ambiguously titled Torch Device (Ref.
8), assigned to the National Cylinder
Gas Co. In 1960, their competitor, the
Air Reduction Co., was assigned a
patent along similar lines (Ref. 9). In
both cases, standoff alone was sensed
by a control system applying a con-
stant electrical excitation to the flame.
The torch height was regulated to con-
the approach has not been widely
adopted in the oxyfuel industry, such
as gaps in the fundamental under-
serve the apparent conductivity of the
flame.
This approach was predicated on
the notion that if the torch was quite
close to the workpiece, it would be
easy to pass current through the
flame. The opposite would be true if
the torch were far away. While that
simple notion certainly stands up to
scrutiny, a realistic system is rich with
secondary effects that can confuse sys-
tems built on the vacuum tube elec-
tronics that were in use in 1944. It
seems reasonable to speculate that
these obstacles may have hindered the
spread of the technology.
At the same time, researchers in a
number of other industries were suc-
cessful with ion current applications.
Automotive engine researchers turned
to the same physics for robust sensing
in the internal combustion chamber
(Ref. 10). It is from this body of work
that the name ion current sensor is
borrowed. This type of sensing has
been used to tackle the perplexing
problems controlling compression ig-
nition internal combustion engines
(Ref. 11) as well as diagnosing com-
bustion dynamic problems in diesel
engines (Ref. 12) and engine knock.
Meanwhile, engineers in the fur-
nace industry today favor what they
call flame rectification for burner diag-
nostics (Refs. 13, 14). Ion currents
have been used for robust diagnosis of
combustion dynamics in gas turbine
burners (Ref. 15), and the application
of more intense electric fields has even
been used to control burning rates of
WELDING RESEARCH
gases (Ref. 16) and solid propellants
(Ref. 17).
A pair of patents assigned to the
Caterpillar Tractor Co. in 1974 (Ref.
18) and 1982 (Ref. 19) probably repre-
sent the most advanced documented
application of ion current sensing to
the oxyfuel process. The latter was ac-
quired by Messer Cutting Systems,
and served the basis of their Sense-
matic oxyfuel control systems in the
1990s. The system was eventually
dropped from the Messer catalog due
to the limitations of the economical
processor power at the time (Ref. 20).
This brief review of ion current
sensing suggests two reasons for why
standing of the physics and limitations
of the available electronics. Since the
processing capacity of an mp3 player
would be more than is required for the
measurements proposed below, the
availability of robust and economical
electronics is no longer a realistic con-
cern. The remainder of the paper is de-
voted to constructing the argument
that the physics involved are complex
but easily measured.
Experiment
Controlled tests of the voltage-
current characteristic of a methane-
oxygen preheat flame on an Oxweld C-
67 torch with a -in., two-piece tip
while varying the flow rate, fuel-
oxygen ratio, standoff, and coupon
surface temperature were conducted.
The flame was stagnated over a 218-in.-
diameter (54 mm) SAE 4140 steel test
coupon with internal cooling channels
to stabilize the temperature. The sur-
face temperature was approximated
with a thermal model for the plate
based on two thermocouples embed-
ded in the coupon Fig. 1. The
coolant was a mixture of air and water
adjusted to stabilize the coupon sur-
face temperature independently of the
heating conditions.
While the details of the thermal
model are beyond the scope of this pa-
per, the author offers some discussion
in Ref. 21. Figure 1 shows the experi-
ment illustrated with the classical in-
ner and outer cone structure of the
oxyfuel flame.
The flame was interrogated by a
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 155-s
Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 156
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 Diagram of the amplifier and measurement circuit used in these experiments. Electrical connections to the torch and workpiece
were shielded by an earthgrounded foil.
+/-10 V triangle wave, and signals in-
dicating the current and voltage were
simultaneously returned by the circuit
shown in Fig. 2. The circuit was cali-
brated using a series of shunt resistors
to simulate the flame, and the four po-
tentiometers were adjusted to provide
command/response precision to 0.1%
of measurements taken with an
Agilent precision multimeter. The
TL074 quad-opamp was selected for
its frequency response and ultra-low
bias current to avoid corrupting the
current measurement. The distance
between the torch and the workpiece
precludes the possibility of a twisted
pair-noise rejection strategy, so foil
shielded signal wire was used to good
effect.
While the circuit allows for either
voltage or current command mode,
these tests were conducted entirely
with respect to voltage. Fuel and oxy-
gen flow rates were monitored with
thermal mass flow meters. Standoff
height was changed by indexing a rack-
and-pinion height adjustment.
Results
Figure 3 presents voltage and cur-
rent waveforms beside three current-
tify the components of the floating po-
voltage characteristic curves exempli-
fying data collected in 97 tests at vari-
ous standoffs, plate temperatures,
flow rates, and fuel-oxygen ratios.
Each curve expresses three distinct
156-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
regimes. At the center, the flame acted
like a quasi-uniform plasma with some
volume resistivity (Ref. 4). Bracketing
this regime were abrupt saturations
limiting the current observed (Ref. 2).
Once this occurs, additional voltage
drives no more current, barring some
secondary mechanism, which was ob-
served here.
Figure 4 shows an electrical model
exhibiting the behaviors as they have
been described thus far. The interac-
tion between each surface and the
plasma was represented as a unique
semiconductor component. For exam-
ple, in Regime 2, the sleeve compo-
nent behaved as a short, but it transi-
tioned into a constant current source
at saturation, which we called I1. Simi-
larly, the stagnation junction saturat-
ed at a current, I2. The insert junction
was not shown to saturate at these
currents, so it acted as a short under
all conditions.
Figures 5 through 13 were pro-
duced by fitting the current-voltage
characteristics with a piecewise
function.
 (V  V1 ) / R1 + I 1 V < V1 

I =  (V  V0 ) / R2 V1  V < V2 (1)
 (V  V ) / R + I V  V
 2 3 2 2
Here, each regime was character-
ized by a corresponding resistance, R1,
R2, and R3. The saturation voltages
V1 and V2 were calculated in terms
of the floating potential, V0, and the
saturation currents, I1 and I2.
V1 = V0 + I1R2 (2a)
V2 = V0 + I2R2 (2b)
The outer cone resistance, ROC, was
the resistance responsible for the slope
of the current-voltage characteristic in
Regime 2. It should be equal to R2 so it
can be measured directly as the slope
in Regime 2.
Roc = R2 (3)
The inner cone resistance, RIC, de-
termined the slope in the partial satu-
ration observed in Regime 1. If R1 was
the resistance determined by the slope
in Regime 1, then
RIC = R1 ROC (4)
It is worth mentioning that the
floating potential, V0, would be more
correctly modeled as the aggregate of
potentials generated at the surfaces,
 but the ultimate effect is similar. In
 this work, we make no effort to quan-

tential contributed by the torch and
work, but treat the floating potential
as a single parameter.
The Regime 3 resistance was moti-
vated by the observation that, in many
Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 157

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 3 A and B Example of voltage and current waveforms as well as data at 0.23 and 0.46in. standoffs with fueloxygen ratios of
0.55 and 0.80. The torch voltage was positive, and the current was measured positive from the torch to the workpiece.

researchers, but close inspection

Fig. 4 An equivalent circuit model for the system under study. The sleeve, insert, and
stagnation blocks did not behave consistently across all conditions and required special
treatment.
conditions, the work saturation did
not seem to be bounded as the ideal
model would predict. While this paper
will not address the matter entirely,
more detail is provided in the sections
discussing sensing flow and work
temperature.
Discussion
The partial saturation between
Regimes 1 and 2 of Fig. 3 was due to
an interaction between the complexity
of the flame structure and the tip
geometry. Since the path from the
work through the outer cone to the
sleeve formed the shortest electrical
path, the sleeve surface was expected
to saturate first, and any additional
current would be forced through the
longer path through the inner cone
(Ref. 21). The resulting abrupt change
in the flames apparent resistance pro-
duced the transition to Regime 1 in
Fig. 3. It stands to reason that at
strongly negative electrical potentials,
a second saturation occured, but prac-
tical considerations have motivated us
to consider only signal level voltages
(-10 to 10 V) in the present study.
The positive saturation in Regime 3
appeared to, more closely, resemble
the hard saturation described by most
showed a small declining positive
slope. While Regimes 1 and 2 enjoyed
remarkable immunity to changes in
the work surface condition, the work
surface saturation causing Regime 3
exhibited drastic changes from test-to-
test. These phenomena are afforded
some discussion in the sections on
sensing flow rate and plate tempera-
ture below.
The need for the floating potential,
V0, in the electrical model is also appar-
ent in Fig. 3, since zero current did not
occur at zero voltage but at some offset
voltage. This has long been understood
to be due to the dissimilar rates of bom-
bardment of negative (electrons) and
positive (ionized atoms and molecules)
ions (Ref. 1). Conducting surfaces in-
serted in plasmas (like flames) are as-
sumed, either through absorption or
through exchange of electrons, to neu-
tralize ions on impact. As a result, a flow
of current between the surface and the
plasma will occur when the impact of
small, quick electrons outpaces the slug-
gish positive counterparts. The floating
potential is the voltage required to
counteract that effect in balance be-
tween the two conducting surfaces. If all
conditions at the surfaces are symmetri-
cal, then the floating potential will be
zero (Refs. 2, 3).
Sensing Height
While standoff was shown to im-

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 157-s

Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 158
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Standoff distance vs. the Regime 2 resistance. Data were col
lected with 20 ft3/h (9.4 L/min) and 0.55 fueltooxygen ratio (by vol
ume). The black squares represent four tests conducted in an
edgestart configuration with flow rates 20 or 27 ft3/h (9.4 or 12.7
L/min) and with 0.50 or 0.61 fueltooxygen ratios.
pact all the regimes in some form, its
impact was most disentangled from
the secondary effects in Regime 2. At
most conditions, the outer cone length
was proportional to ROC, as shown in
Fig. 5. The data were collected with the
total flow at 20 ft3/h (9.4 L/min) and
at a fuel-to-oxygen ratio of 0.55 by vol-
ume (stoichiometric is 0.5).
The black squares of Fig. 5 repre-
sent separate measurements taken
above a 1-in.-tall steel slat arranged
in an edge-start configuration while
varying flow and mixture. The torch
was positioned such that half of the
flame stagnated on the top of the slat
and the other half washed over the
vertical face. The tight cluster of black
squares include data at 20 and 27 ft3/h
(9.4 and 12.7 L/min) and 0.50 F/O ra-
tio. The outlier point was produced by
increasing the F/O ratio to 0.60 while
holding the flow rate at 20 ft3/h.
These represent a deliberate effort
to confuse the measurement by ma-
nipulating the plate surface, flame
stagnation geometry, flow rate, and
mixture. Only the mixture seemed to
have produced a severe effect. The fol-
lowing sections are devoted to quanti-
fying the measurements sensitivities,
but a detailed study of variable work
geometry is left to future study.
Height Sensitivity to Mixture
As the outlier of Fig. 5 suggests, vari-
158-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
Fig. 6 Outer cone resistance (Regime 2 resistance) at vari
ous standoff distances vs. fueltooxygen ratio (by volume).
Data were collected at a 20 ft3/h (9.4 L/min) flow rate.
ations in the
F/O mixture
stand to impact the height measure-
ment. Figure 6 shows outer cone resist-
ance (Regime 2 slope) at three standoff
distances while varying the F/O mixture
at a constant total flow rate. At leaner
mixtures and small standoffs, substan-
tial changes in mixture were required to
produce a noticeable effect. However,
the lean flames exhibited drastically
shorter outer cones, causing a nonlinear
increase in resistance at high standoff
(black triangles).
As the mixture was pushed richer,
eventually the flame was made to lift
off the torch and stabilize on the
coupon surface. Beginning around the
0.75 F/O ratio, the lifted flame caused
resistance to approach infinity, but
rather than trending to infinity as a
multiple of one another, the data drift-
ed upward as a group. This behavior
suggests the flame resistivity was un-
changed, but some series resistance
had been added.
At a low F/O ratio, the outer cone
resistance was linearly proportional to
the cone length, which implied some
uniform bulk resistivity. If that bulk
resistivity were to trend upwards, then
the outer cone resistances at different
standoffs should always be in the same
ratio to one another as the distances at
which they were observed. Instead,
Fig. 6 suggests some offset resistance
is added to all of the values equally.
ROC = ROC|REF + ROC (5)
If this increase in resistance is
caused by the beginnings of flame
liftoff, then it should also have a
strong impact on inner cone resist-
ance. Figure 7 shows the Regime 1 re-
sistance and the inner cone resistance
calculated from Equation 4.
The collapse of data onto a single
curve suggests the electrical model
was correct. Furthermore, the similar
shapes of Figs. 5 and 6 encourage the
notion that they may be subject to the
same phenomenon.
RIC = RIC|REF + RIC (6)
Figure 8 shows deviations in the
outer and inner cone resistances while
varying the F/O ratio. The F/O ratio
0.60 was selected as the reference val-
ue because the outer cone was sup-
posed to be in proper electrical contact
with the plate at the highest standoff.
The resulting scatter was not small
enough to be completely neglected,
but the argument for a linear correla-
tion seems quite strong.
These results indicate that as the
flame approached liftoff conditions, an
electrical barrier grew between both
cones and the torch. While that barrier
does not affect the two equally, it did
seem to maintain a strong proportion-
ality even as the inner and outer re-
sistances were increased several times
over. That proportionality could hardly
be expected to be similar for different
tip geometries, but for the tip under
test, that ratio was about 15.6%.
Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 159

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 7 A and B Regime 1 resistance taken directly from measurements and inner cone resistance calculated by subtracting the outer
cone resistance from R1.

Fig. 8 Deviations in inner cone and outer cone resistance, due to Fig. 9 Outer cone resistance vs. total preheat flow rate for
changes in the F/O mixture, plotted against one another at various various standoffs and F/O ratios.
standoffs.

ROC 0 .16RIC (7)
If measurements in RIC are per-
formed simultaneously with the
measurements of ROC, a sufficiently
aware controller could be configured
to compensate for drifts in the F/O
mixture during a long operation us-
ing a trivial correction.
Height Sensitivity to Flow
Figure 9 shows the outer cone re-
sistance measured over a wide range of
flows. At stoichiometric conditions, a
10% increase in flow caused about a
10% decrease in outer cone resistance.
This represented the worst case meas-
ured. At rich conditions, any impact
from the flow rate was not discernible
from the scatter.
The substantial scatter in the data
were due to insufficient experimental
control of the F/O ratio at rich condi-
tions. Recall from Fig. 6 that small
changes in the F/O ratio had drastic
effects in rich conditions. The same
scatter is not visible at leaner condi-
tions because of the insensitivity to
the F/O ratio those conditions exhibit.
Sensing the Preheat Mixture
The section titled height sensitivity
to mixture provides a method for us-
ing the inner cone resistance as a
means for compensating the height
measurement for changes in the fuel-
to-oxygen ratio, but fully autonomous
multitorch systems should be capable
of detecting gas pressure balance
across torches. If some torches burn
hot, it can cause irregularities in the
part geometries, while a cold torch can
cause a costly lost cut.
To this end, the inner cone resist-
ance was not an ideal quantity for
sensing, because it was insensitive to
the mixture over much of the range
studied here. Instead, negative satura-
tion current, I1, offered a preferable al-
ternative. The electrical current at
which the sleeves surface saturates

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 159-s

Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 160
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 10 Negative saturation current plotted against the F/O ratio.
was certain to be a strong function of
the temperature and concentration of
ions at the sleeve surface.
Figure 10 shows the saturation cur-
rent plotted vs. the F/O ratio at vari-
ous standoffs. Even while the inner
cone resistance is relatively flat, I1
demonstrates a strong dependence on
the F/O ratio while remaining insensi-
tive to standoff. Measurements of I1
sensitivity to flow showed sensitivities
no larger than 0.5 A per ft3/h (1 A
per L/min). If nothing was known
about the flow, these sensitivities
could not be ignored. If mixture ad-
justments are made while making even
a meager attempt to preserve total
flow, they are justifiably neglected.
Mixture Errors at High Standoff
Using a saturation current method
to detect the mixture can work with
very little knowledge of the torch loca-
tion relative to any other electrode.
However, there are extreme cases
when a neutral or stoichiometric
flames short outer cone fails to engage
with the work; the outer cone resist-
ance can actually grow to overwhelm
the inner cone resistance. In these
conditions, the change in the voltage-
current characteristic becomes quite
subtle, instead of the severe changes
shown in Fig. 3, and the saturation
current becomes difficult to determine
with any certainty. To illustrate this
point, the error bars in Fig. 10 were
approximated by presuming a 5% er-
160-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
Fig. 11 Plate saturation resistance vs. total flow rate.
ror in the Regime 1 and 2 resistance
measurements.
Once aware of the phenomenon,
this effect was easily avoided by taking
intermittent mixture measurements
during a preheat operation. These con-
ditions can be relied upon to have the
workpiece in a stable location a short
distance from the torch with excellent
engagement between flame and work.
Sensing Preheat Flow
That none of the measurements
discussed so far bore a strong depend-
ence on flow was helpful to our ap-
proach. However, it left few options
but to turn to the dubious class of
measurements that rely on the work-
piece to serve as the primary sensing
surface. For a given mixture, the
strongest impact that flow will have is
to elongate the flames luminous zone.
It seems reasonable to conjecture that
something similar would happen to
the flames electrical structure.
Equation 1 uses a resistance, R3, to
characterize the continued rise in cur-
rent after the positive saturation. In
some conditions, this behavior was
nearly negligible. In others, it was
more substantial than the saturation
current itself. The author has offered
some explanation for the behavior
(Ref. 21), but it remains to be seen
whether this is correct. Though the
present study offers no means to
quantify the effect, the rise of current
in Regime 3 seems to correlate with
the surface area of the flames lumi-
nous zone that washes over the
coupons surface.
To investigate the effect, some
equivalent of RIC for the plate surface
were considered
R3 = R3 ROC (8)
which was the component of the
effective resistance after saturation oc-
curred that was not due to the outer
cone.
Figure 11 shows the results plotted
against flow for selected mixtures and
standoffs. Despite the scatter, there
was an excellent correlation between
flow and electrical engagement with
the work. However, without a theoret-
ical basis for confidence in the meas-
urement, the scatter was sufficient to
cast doubt on its feasibility in practice.
Further work is required.
Surface Irregularities
The appearance of repeatable out-
liers along the bottom of the plot be-
lied the ambition that this measure-
ment might be insensitive to the plate
condition. The measurements were
shown in the legend in the order they
were taken. Some of the data collected
in this study took the plate surface to
its melting point, after which small
beads of molten metal were allowed to
freeze on the plates surface. Those
formed a complex surface geometry
that seemed to have burned off at high
Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 161

WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 12 Positive saturation current vs. plate surface temper Fig. 13 Positive saturation current vs. plate surface tempera
ature plotted for four data series. Data series 2 and 4 were ture for all data collected at 0.23 in. standoff. The F/O ratio was
conducted with F/O ratio 0.55, flow rate 20 ft3/h (9.4 L/min), not controlled. Flow was not controlled for the black diamonds.
and standoff 0.23 in. Series 3 was conducted with an elevated
F/O ratio 0.70, and series 1 was conducted while varying assessing the level of are the only results that show chrono-
standoff to control plate temperature. oxidation, scale, or logical sensitivity. In data series 1, the
other potentially un- height of the torch was varied. In the
flow rates, creating the hysteresis loop desirable impurities other experiments, the plate coolant
formed by the white circles. on a workpiece. was varied.
It is possible that an alternative Were one to approach the question Given the shape of the trend and
method could be developed by which without data to act as a guide, there is the temperatures involved, it is possi-
the torch is lowered until the R3 values good reason to speculate that floating ble that thermionic emission may have
stabilize to some large threshold. The potential might bear a good sensitivity been responsible for the abrupt rise,
implications on flame length could be to plate temperature. Measurements or a cold plate could have been cooling
interpreted as an indirect measure- showed the floating potential varied the plasma and retarding the rate of
ment of flow without dependence on between about 0.5 to 1.0 V, and plots ion bombardment. It is difficult to per-
the work surface, but no such investi- controlling for plate temperature im- form even an order-of-magnitude ap-
gation was performed in this study. plied a modest positive correlation. proximation of thermionic emission
However, the extreme scatter was currents since the phenomenon is
discouraging. It is possible that chemi- widely known to be sensitive to sur-
Plate Temperature cal action at the plate surface may be face roughness and composition, nei-
Measurement influencing the measurement, so we ther of which is well controlled in this
were compelled to abandon it for the experiment. While it seemed unlikely
Attempts to measure the work tem- present purpose. However, if chemical to be the direct cause for changes in
perature using electrical characteris- action contributed to the floating po- saturation, it should also be noted that
tics were frustrated by the same severe tential, it may prove an excellent indi- the melting temperature for the steel
sensitivities to the surface condition cator for the burning rate in a cut. used was usually reported to be about
as the flow measurement, but the situ- Figure 12 shows the positive satu- 1440C.
ation was helped somewhat by the im- ration current for four data series in To give some indication of the re-
portance of plasma and plate tempera- which the plate temperature was al- peatability of these measurements, Fig.
ture in shaping the positive satura- lowed to vary. Because all other data 13 shows positive saturation current
tion. In the course of this investiga- showed a strong dependence on the plotted for all data collected throughout
tion, floating potential, Regime 3 re- mechanical condition of the plate sur- the entire study, 0.23-in. (5.8-mm)
sistance, and positive saturation cur- face, these data series were organized standoff without regard to F/O ratio,
rent were examined as possible means by the order they were taken. Each and the order of collection or plate sur-
for detecting plate temperature. data series represented consecutive face condition. The white circles repre-
Regime 3 resistance formed a scat- measurements that were collected sent all data collected at the 20 ft3/h
ter that seemed to be more predomi- without removing the torch from the (9.4 L/min) flow rate. Black diamonds
nantly determined by the plate surface coupon. No care was taken to control included all flows ranging from 15 ft3/h
roughness than anything else. As a the plate condition between data se- (7.1 L/min) to 30 ft3/h (14.2 L/min).
happy accident, this may actually offer ries. Similar controls were used in all While the level of scatter was not partic-
a controller the means for qualitatively other data presented here, but these ularly encouraging, it was not unman-

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 161-s

Martin201690_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:03 PM Page 162
WELDING RESEARCH
ageable given that a preheat process will
exhibit far more parametric stability
than is represented here. A more trou-
bling observation comes from recalling
that the kindling temperature of steels
in atmospheric oxygen has been report-
ed to be between 1760 (960C) and
2500F (1371C) (Ref. 22), a range
where these data show little sensitivity.
Inspection of the characteristic
curves like those in Fig. 3 failed to sup-
port the notion of a well-defined
abrupt transition like the negative sat-
uration. Instead, the curves were much
more gradual and never seemed to
flatten to a new well-defined resist-
ance. Whether its misapplication can
be blamed for the scatter or not re-
mains to be seen, but the piecewise
linear electrical model does not seem
to be appropriate in Regime 3.
Conclusions
The data presented here confirms
the feasibility for measuring standoff
and fuel-oxygen mixture using flame
electrical characteristics. Methods for
measuring work temperature and pre-
heat flow rate were also presented, but
additional work characterizing the
work saturation phenomena is neces-
sary before they will be practical.
The quantitative measurements
made were specific to the Oxweld C-67
burning methane with a -in., two-
piece tip, but the phenomena should
be extensible to any torch with a simi-
lar geometry. Acetylene single-piece
tips may pose the most interesting
variant for future attention because
they often have no recessed surface to
which the partial saturation of Regime
1 is attributed.
The simplest of the measurements,
standoff distance, was proportional to
the Regime 2 resistance. Under stable
fuel and oxygen flow rates, the data
collected suggests that accuracies bet-
ter than 0.05 in. may be achievable.
Variations in flow have a minor
impact on the measurement, while
variations in mixture can be impor-
tant. Measurements suggest that ef-
fects due to unexpected drifts in the
F/O ratio can be compensated for by
simultaneously observing the Regime
1 resistance.
CHRISTOPHER REED MARTIN (crm28@psu.edu) is an assistant professor of mechanical engineering at Penn State University, Altoona College, Altoona Pa.
162-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
The preheat fuel-oxygen ratio can
be sensed via the negative partial satu-
ration current. This measurement was
insensitive to standoff and only very
weakly sensitive to flow rate. Provided
the measurement is performed with a
sufficiently low standoff, the data sug-
gests that better than 0.025 error in
the ratio is possible.
The piecewise linear model for ion
currents seemed to be inadequate in
Regime 3. A more complete electrical
model for the workpiece surface might
offer calibrated measurements for flow
and plate temperature.
Preheat flow rate had little impact
on most of the electrical properties of
the flame, but it did have the effect of
lengthening the outer cone. Though its
theoretical validity may be question-
able, the Regime 3 resistance showed
an excellent correlation to flow, but
the measurement approach suffered
from dependency on the physical con-
dition of the workpiece.
Work temperature seemed to be
correlated to the positive ion current
saturation levels. While this is clearly
the most difficult of the measure-
ments, its potential value motivates
further investigation. The data collect-
ed thus far were not sufficient to place
confidence in the measurement tech-
nique, but neither was there a satisfac-
tory electrical model for the flame-
plate interaction.
References
1. Fialkov, A. 1997. Investigations on
ions in flames. Progress in Energy and Com-
bustion Science 23: 399528.
2. Thompson, J. 1906. Conduction of
Electricity through Gases, 2d ed. London:
Cambridge University Press.
3. Wilson, H. 1916. The electrical con-
ductivity and luminosity of flames contain-
ing salt vapours. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London A 216: 6390.
4. Lawton, J., and Weinberg, F. 1969.
Electrical Aspects of Combustion. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
5. Holm, T. 1999. Aspects of the mecha-
nism of the flame ionization detector.
Journal of Chromatography A 842: 221227.
6. Calcote, H., and Pease, R. 1951. Elec-
trical properties of flames. Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry 43(12): 27262731.
7. Calcote, H. 1957. Mechanisms for
Formation of ions in flames. Combustion
and Flame 1(4): 385403.
8. Mott, C., Chouinard, A., and Hard-
ing, R. 1944. Torch device. United States
Patent 2,364,645.
9. Anderson, N. 1960. Method and ap-
paratus for automatic torch positioning.
United States Patent 2,949,391.
10. Rado, W. 1974. Characteristics of a
plasma generated by combustion in a spark
ignition engine. Journal of Applied Physics
46(6): 24682474.
11. Henein, N., Bryzik, W., Abdel-
Rehim, A., and Gupta, A. 2010. Characteris-
tics of ion current signals in compression ig-
nition and spark ignition engines. SAE Inter-
national Journal of Engines 3(1): 260281.
12. Badawy, T., Shrestha, A., and Naeim,
H. 2012. Detection of combustion resonance
using an ion current sensor in diesel en-
gines. ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas
Turbines and Power 134(5): 755 763.
13. Jones, A. 1988. Flame failure detec-
tion and modern boilers. Journal of Physics
E 21: 921928.
14. Platvoet, E., and Baukal, C. 2013.
Process burners 101. CEP Magazine. Au-
gust: 3539.
15. Chorpening, B., Thornton J., Hucka-
by, E., and Benson, K. 2007. Combustion
oscillation monitoring using flame ioniza-
tion in a turbulent premixed combustor. J.
Eng. Gas Turbines Power 129(2): 352357.
16. Marcum, S., and Ganguly, B. 2005.
Electric-field-induced flame speed modifi-
cations. Combustion and Flame 143: 2736.
17. Andreasson, S., Bemm, E., Larson,
A., and Nyholm, S. 2005. Evaluation of an
electrothermal-chemical concept where
propellant combustion is stimulated by
conducting electric current through the
flame. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics
41(1): 338343.
18. Stolin, B., and Brown, R. 1974.
Torch height control for flame cutting ma-
chines. United States Patent 3,823,928.
19. Richardson, R. 1982. Torch height
sensing apparatus. United States Patent
4,328,049.
20. Toberna, J. 2016. History of ion
current sensing in messer cutting systems.
Personal conversation, 14 September.
21. Martin, C., Leonard, C., and Von-
Fricken, J. 2016. A study of the electrical
characteristics of an oxy-fuel flame. Experi-
mental Thermal and Fluid Science. Submit-
ted.
22. Bolobov. 2001. Conditions for the
ignition of iron and carbon steel in oxygen.
Combustion Explosion and Shock Waves
37(3): 292296.
ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 163

WELDING RESEARCH

Laser VisionBased Detection of

Weld Penetration in GTAW
An inspection method was proposed to monitor weld penetration
for investigating the control of weld defects

BY G. ZHANG, Y. SHI, Y. GU, D. FAN, AND M. ZHU

(Refs. 37), radiography (Refs. 8, 9),

ABSTRACT infrared sensing (Refs. 1012), ultra-
sonic (Refs. 1316), magnetic detec-
In automatic gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), incomplete joint weld penetration, ex
tion (Ref. 17), acoustic measurements
cessive weld penetration, or weld pool collapse may occur due to changes in welding
conditions or weld structures so that the required weld integrity cannot be assured. In (Refs. 18, 19), and weld pool oscilla-
order to realtime monitor the weld penetration to prevent these defects, an innovative tion (Refs. 2023). Nacereddine et al.
method was proposed that detects the dynamic change of the reflection image area (Ref. 24) used the radiographic sensor
(RIA) for the laser pattern reflected by the specular weld pool surface. The dynamic to automatically detect the weld de-
change in the RIA was found to be determined by the weld pool surface, which was in fects, which was considered as a non-
turn determined by the weld penetration. Because of this physics mechanism, the RIA destructive examination method.
demonstrated two peaks that corresponded to the occurrences of the complete joint However, radiographic sensors can-
penetration and excessive penetration, respectively. This unique characteristic eases the not be installed on weld lines to sup-
determination of the weld penetration status based on a simple analysis of the one port online detection. Ultrasonic
dimensional RIA signal. Further, in comparison with the computation of the 3D surface
method lacks a visual record and re-
of the weld pool, the RIA was computed simply by image binarization. The proposed
method is not only innovative and physics based but also easy to implement online in quires highly skilled operators to per-
real time. Experiments and comparative analyses from highspeed and backside images, form defect recognition, although it is
weld beads, and RIA signals verified the physics mechanism and the effectiveness of the being widely implemented due to its
proposed method. flexibility and lower cost (Ref. 14).
Carvalhoa et al. (Ref. 25) used the
magnetic testing method to inspect
KEYWORDS pipeline weld defects and recognize
the defect pattern. However, this
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Weld Penetration Laser Vision method was limited to ferromagnetic
Image Processing Weld Pool Surface
materials for off-line detection. Alfaro
et al. (Ref. 26) utilized the infrared
Introduction cause defects when using welding pa- sensor to measure weld penetration by
rameters predetermined from nominal real-time monitoring the weld pool
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is conditions. These defects include in- temperature, but the temperature gra-
a major arc process for precision join- complete joint weld penetration, ex- dient of the weld pool was extremely
ing in reactor pressure vessels, nuclear cessive weld penetration, weld pool high. To use the measurement to de-
power plants, and other industries due collapse, and porosity. Repairing is not rive the weld penetration, the point
to its ability to produce high-quality preferred because of the high costs as being measured must be accurately po-
welds (Ref. 1). However, it is conven- well as the increased production time. sitioned. In practice, an error can be
tionally performed by skilled human Equipping machines/robots with expected under the varying condi-
welders who can adapt to the varied adaptation abilities appears to offer a tions. Tao et al. (Ref. 27) investigated
welding conditions and control weld better solution but presents technical acoustic emissions to detect welding
quality timely and correctly. As labor challenges. porosity and incomplete joint weld
costs and a shortage of skilled welders Adaptation ability depends on the penetration using the amplitude and
continuously increase, automated availability of methods that can detect centroid frequency of acoustic emis-
GTAW becomes urgent (Ref. 2). Unfor- possible weld defects. They can espe- sion. This method requires noise re-
tunately, in the absence of human cially detect the weld penetration to duction as well as an efficient and fast
adaptation, varying or inconsistent meet the minimal requirement for data processing system when welding
conditions such as in joint geometry, weld integrity. Possible methods in- defects are encountered.
root opening, and mismatch will likely clude the following: machine vision Recently, Zhang et al. (Ref. 28) pro-

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 163-s

ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 164

WELDING RESEARCH

posed an alternative method to sense

weld penetration based on arc voltage,
and obtained the step-by-step pulsed
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW-P)
complete joint weld penetration. Yoo
et al. (Ref. 29) had monitored the in-
tensity of arc light caused by pool os-
cillation and then ensured the weld
penetration status in step-by-step
GTAW. Shi et al. (Ref. 30) had pro-
posed a new method to detect pool os-
cillation frequency, and identified the
weld penetration. However, it is diffi-
cult to separate the characteristic sig-
nal from the small variations in the arc
voltage, which can be easily disturbed. A B
Those methods can only detect the
partial and complete joint penetration.
Vision sensing methods have great-
ly improved our abilities to monitor
the welding process to prevent certain
defects (Ref. 31). However, for real-
time detection during welding, the
ability of conventional vision method
is affected by the strong arc light and
the specular weld pool surface. The
weld pool surface that can reflect weld
defects cannot be clearly imaged. Fur-
thermore, the process to extract fea-
ture signals of weld defects from the
weld pool images is complex and time-
consuming. To overcome such short- C D
comings, an innovative inspection
method was proposed in this work to
detect the weld penetration status to Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the correlation between the characteristic of reflection
prevent possible incomplete joint weld laser stripes, weld pool surface, and weld penetration in stationary GTAW.
penetration, excessive weld penetra-
tion, or weld pool collapse. 32) first proposed the basic method, real time.
The objective of this study was to es- and it was developed by the University Figure 1 depicts the correlation of
tablish the experimental system and ac- of Kentuckys Zhang and Saeed et al. the change in reflection laser images
quire the characteristic signal from the (Refs. 33, 34) as well as Song et al. and the weld pool surface as well as the
reflection laser images by the developed (Refs. 35, 36) to monitor the weld pool weld penetration in stationary GTAW.
image processing algorithm, which rep- surface. In their method, a dot matrix In this case, five laser stripes were pro-
resents the weld penetration status. laser pattern was projected onto the jected onto the weld pool surface. Their
Verification experiments were then con- weld pool surface, which was specular reflections from the weld pool surface
ducted, and the correlation between the and reflected as a mirror. The reflec- gathered as the weld pool surface con-
characteristic signal and the weld pene- tion of the projected laser pattern cavity and its back-side width increased
tration status was derived. from the weld pool surface was used to when the penetration status changed
compute the 3D weld pool surface and from partial to complete joint and ex-
Proposed Method estimate the weld penetration as well cessive. However, as the back-side
as control it (Refs. 3741). However, width of the weld pool further in-
The proposed laser vision-based the computation for the weld pool sur- creased to the level comparable with
method monitors the change in the re- face was relatively complex. The novel- the top-side width of the weld pool, an
flection laser stripes on the imaging ty of our proposed method lies in cor- excessive weld penetration level, the
plane that reflects the variation of the relating the reflection characteristic to gathered laser stripes on the image
weld pool surface to determine/esti- the status of the weld penetration started to disperse with a larger curva-
mate the weld penetration status from partial, complete joint, excessive, or ture because of the more concave pool
partial, complete joint to excessive, or weld pool collapse without actually surface. Hence, the number of the pix-
pool collapse. The principle can be il- computing the 3D weld pool surface. els of the reflection laser stripes in a
lustrated in Fig. 1. As a result, the status of the weld pen- given area on the image varies accord-
To this end, Kovacevic et al. (Ref. etration can be determined rapidly in ingly during the penetration develop-

164-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 165
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of an experimental system.
ment process as the reflection changes
from gathering to dispersing. To simply
and quickly achieve the change in the
laser stripe characteristics, the sum of
the gray value of the pixels (SGVP) in a
given area on the reflection image was
computed and used to reflect the
change in the reflection, and the
change in the weld penetration status.
It had been demonstrated that the con-
vexity of the weld pool surface closely
correlated with the back-side width of
the weld pool (Refs. 4042).
Experimental
Experimental System
Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of
the system that real-time monitors the
laser stripes reflected by the weld pool
surface. The system includes a struc-
tured-light laser generator, an imaging
plane, two GZL-CL-22C5M-C high-
speed cameras, and cameras 1 and 2
produced by Point Grey Research Co.
While camera 1 captured the reflec-
tion laser stripes, camera 2 captured
the back-side surface of the workpiece
to observe the actual weld penetration
status. A 50-mW Stocker Yales
LasirisTM SNF continuous illumination
laser with variable focus was utilized
to generate the five-line laser pattern.
Fig. 3 Flow chart of the image processing algorithm.
The imaging plane (a thin glass with a
sheet of white paper attached) was
used to intercept/image the reflection
laser stripes. The corresponding high-
speed camera can take 60 to 1800 pic-
tures at one second. The direct current
electrode negative (DCEN) GTAW
without filler metal was used to per-
form bead-on-plate experiments on
type 304 stainless steel sheet with di-
mensions 100 50 2 mm.
The welding direction is the negative
y axis in Fig. 2. The welding torch was
perpendicularly installed and kept sta-
tionary during the welding process
while the workpiece was moving. The
travel speed was controlled by a com-
puter-assisted servomotor. The welding
torch, laser generator, and imaging
plane were carefully aligned. To reduce
the influence of strong arc light, the
high-speed camera was fitted with a
composite filter lens that most of the
interference of arc radiation, which was
distributed along the entire visible
wavelength spectrum, was effectively
filtered out. The sampling frequency of
two cameras were the same at 200 Hz.
Pure argon was used as the shielding gas
at a flow rate of 10 L/min. The system
was programmed to simultaneously
capture the weld pool reflection and
workpiece back-side images as well as
control the workpiece movement.
WELDING RESEARCH
Image Processing Algorithm
A novel, specific image processing al-
gorithm that can quickly address the
specific characteristics of the reflection
laser images and the particular informa-
tion of our concern was developed.
Figure 3 shows the principle/flow-
chart of the proposed algorithm con-
sisting of the following: image prepro-
cessing, selecting the region of inter-
est (ROI), and identifying and record-
ing the two characteristic peaks that
are to be detailed in later experiments.
In the image preprocessing section,
linear grayness conversion was utilized
to enhance the contrast of the reflec-
tion laser stripes from the back-
ground. A homomorphic filter was
used to reduce/eliminate the effect of
the noises produced in the background
such as signal transmission, experi-
ment surroundings, and strong arc
light. Because the change of the ROI
was represented by the SGVP defined
in the experimental system section,
the reflection laser image was further
binarized to easily calculate the gray
value. The selection of the ROI (a rec-
tangular window) was crucial for effec-
tively processing the image to extract
the relevant information.
While a larger rectangular window
(e.g., rectangle 1 in Fig. 4) increases
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 165-s
ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 166

WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of the ROI selection. Fig. 5 Flow chart of the adaptive selection of the ROI.

the processing time, a too small win-
dow (e.g., rectangle 3 in Fig. 4) would
lose the characteristic information re-
flecting the variation in the weld pool.
Hence, in this work, a special algo-
rithm was developed to adaptively se-
lect the ROI, as shown in Fig. 5. As can
be seen, by finding the upmost, lower-
most, leftmost, and rightmost bright
points, the ROI of a rectangle can be
adaptively defined. Furthermore, the
running time of this algorithm was the
shortest, which will be demonstrated
by later experimental data.
In particular, as shown in Fig. 5, after
searching and ensuring the four charac-
teristic points, the rectangular window
would be acquired and its four sides
should be located in the above recorded
point respectively, such as rectangle 2 in
Fig. 4. Thus, this rectangular window
can encompass all the laser stripes that
were reflected by the weld pool surface
and imaged on the plane.
Compared with the algorithm pro-
posed in Ref. 30, which was utilized to
extract the weld pool oscillation fre-
quency in GTAW, this algorithm
processed the images simply and
avoided the errors caused by the devia-
tion that the laser stripes were reflect-
ed on the relative side of the image
plane. In addition, this algorithm over-
comes the blindness of first selecting
the rectangular window for correcting
the reflection laser image.
Experimental Results
and Discussion
A series of stationary and traveling
GTAW experiments have been con-
ducted to verify the effectiveness and
feasibility of the proposed weld pene-
tration monitoring method and image
processing algorithm. The parameters
for the six representative experiments
corresponding to different cases to be
discussed in detail are listed in Table 1.
Meanwhile, the verified back-side im-
age of the weld pool was captured to
calculate the times when complete
joint weld penetration and excessive
weld penetration occurred.
Stationary GTAW Experiment
The images shown in Fig. 6 (weld-
ing current was 70 A) start at the 9th s
during the experiment. The laser
stripes reflected by the weld pool sur-
face are shown in Fig. 6A while the
workpiece back-side images are shown
in Fig. 6B.
Figure 6A gives three apparent ob-

Table 1 Welding Parameters

Welding and Laser Parameters

Welding Distance from the Distance from the Center of the Angle of the Laser Arc Length/ Welding Traveling
Condition Weld Tungsten Axis to Laser Generator to the Center Projected to the mm Current/A Speed/mms1
the Imaging Plane/mm of the Weld Pool Surface/mm Weld Pool Surface (deg)

Stationary 50 40 30 5 70 0
Experiment 50 40 30 5 75 0
50 40 30 5 65 0
Traveling 50 40 30 5 70 1.3~1.0~0.8
Experiment 50 40 30 5 67 2.5~2.3~2.0
50 40 30 5 63 2.3~2.0~1.7

166-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 167
C The back-side images in Fig. 6B,
Fig. 6 Sampled images in the stationary experiment. Starting at the 9th s with the sam
pling interval 0.5 s.
servations: 1) the number of the re-
flected stripes that were imaged in-
creased from three to four in frame
(c1); 2) the reflected stripes gathered
and changed to a spot in frame (e1)
and then were separated in frame (h1)
and clearly separated in (i1); 3) the
number of the identifiable reflected
stripes became five in frame (i1).
While the projected laser has five
stripes, only those projected on the
weld pool surface were specularly re-
flected and imaged. Observation 1
clearly suggests that the weld pool sur-
face had been increased from the time
of frame (a1) (t = 9 s) to intercept
three stripes to the time of frame (c1)
(t = 10 s) to intercept four stripes.
What is interesting is that, while
the weld pool surface has been in-
creased and more stripes were inter-
cepted as explained, the image region
of the reflection laser stripes was de-
creased. When the incident light was
unchanged, the reflected pattern was
only determined by the shape of the
reflection mirror, which was the weld
pool surface in this case. This clearly
suggests that the reflection mirror in-
placed in the yoz plane (shown in Fig.
creased its concavity degree. Before
the back-side of the workpiece be-
comes free surface, the liquid metal in
the weld pool, due to the increased
volume because of the thermal expan-
sion, could only elevate from the work-
piece. The weld pool surface must be
convex unless the arc force creates a
local concavity. The weld pool surface
may become globally concave only af-
ter the back-side surface of the work-
piece becomes a free surface that is no
longer able to constrict the weld pool
metal. Hence, the contraction of the
reflection laser stripes not only re-
flects that the weld penetration be-
came complete, such that the back-
side surface was free, but also that the
concavity degree or the back-side free
surface increased, i.e., the weld pene-
tration increased.
When the concavity degree further
increased, the focal length of the con-
cave reflection mirror (weld pool sur-
face) reduced to deviate the focal point
from the imaging plane toward the
mirror. While the light (reflection of
the laser stripes) converged before the
focus point, it diverged after the focal
WELDING RESEARCH
point. Hence, the divergence of the re-
flection, from frame (g1) to (j1), re-
flects the change of the focal point to
become more deviated toward the re-
flection mirror or the increase of the
concavity degree. The increased con-
cavity degree was caused by the in-
creased back-side free surface, i.e., the
increased weld penetration. Hence, the
divergence of the reflection from
frame (g1) to (j1) reflects the increase
in the weld penetration.
captured from camera 2, which was
2) at 30 deg with the z axis from be-
hind, show the variation of back-side
high-temperature region of the work-
piece. As the weld penetration in-
creased, the variation of the high-tem-
perature region also extended. When
the workpiece is just penetrated, only
a little liquid weld metal may exceed
beyond the bottom of the workpiece,
as can be seen in Fig. 6B frame (d2).
In the zoomed-in images shown in
Fig. 6C, the red and green lines, re-
spectively, represent the high-temper-
ature region edge of weld metal and
the edge of liquid metal exceeding the
workpiece bottom surface that was
also the back-side surface edge of the
weld pool. Figure 6C frame (e2) shows
that parameters h and w were utilized
to represent the height and width of
the liquid metal exceeding the bottom
of the workpiece, respectively. The ex-
ceeding liquid metal increased as the
free surface on the bottom of the
workpiece increased, i.e., as the weld
penetration increased. From the
zoomed-in frames (d2~f2), it was easi-
ly found that h and w both increased
as the weld penetration increased.
This is understandable because when
the arc force, which tends to press the
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 167-s
ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 168

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 7 The change of the RIA in the stationary experiment (welding current was 70 A): A Original; B fivepoint smooth filtered.

A B

Fig. 8 The change of RIA in the stationary experiment (welding current was 75 A): A Original; B fivepoint smooth filtered.

liquid metal beyond the bottom of the
workpiece (if it has become free liquid
surface), remains the same, an in-
creased free bottom surface, i.e., an in-
creased penetration, an increased
gravity, will allow the liquid metal to
move further beyond the bottom of
the workpiece.
An easy way was needed to conve-
niently and accurately detect the
changes of the weld penetration status
for real-time control. To this end, we
proposed to compute the area of the
reflected laser on the image. We have
proposed, in the image processing al-
gorithm section, to binarize the image
to separate the laser reflection from
the background such that the SGVP
can be used to measure the total area
on the image that intercepted the re-
flected laser. This area, referred to as
the reflection image area (RIA) in this
paper, is suggested to first increase as
the weld pool surface increases such
that more laser stripes are reflected,
and then decrease as the reflection
mirror (weld pool surface) changes
from convex to concave such that the
reflection becomes from divergent to
convergent, as the weld penetration
increases.
After the mirror surface became
concave, the reflection became conver-
gent and the focal point moved toward
the mirror as the concavity degree in-
creased (as the weld penetration in-
creased). When the focal point moved
to the imaging plane, all the laser re-
flection converged to form a very
bright area. While this area was very
bright, its area became minimum be-
cause of the best focus. Then, as the
weld penetration increased such that
the concavity degree further increased,
the focal point moved away from the
imaging plane when moving toward
the reflection mirror. The laser reflec-
tion diverged again but from the focal
point. Because of the divergence, the
RIA increased as the focal points
moved toward the weld pool surface
when the weld penetration increased.
After the concavity increases to a de-
gree such that the concavity becomes
deep, some reflection will be blocked
by the workpiece such that the RIA
will decrease. As such, we expect that
the RIA will demonstrate a twin peaks
characteristic during the complete
joint development process of the weld
penetration. For the stationary experi-
ment designed to examine this entire
process, the authors expect to observe
this phenomenon.
Figure 7A shows the change of the
RIA during the stationary experiment.

168-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 169
A B
Fig. 9 The change of RIA in the stationary experiment (welding current was 65 A): A Original; B fivepoint smooth filtered.
A B C D
Fig. 10 Reflection image series during the weld penetration establishment process with a moving workpiece. The image sampling inter
val was 0.5 s.
The adaptive ROI selection, proposed in
the image processing algorithm section,
was used to obtain the ROI within
which the binarization was performed
and the sum of gray value of pixels was
counted as the area for the RIA plotted
in Fig. 7A. Figure 7B shows a filtered
RIA during the experiment. It was clear
that the twin peaks characteristic in-
deed exists in the penetration develop-
ment process as analyzed above.
To convincingly show this inherent
characteristic of the RIA with varying
weld penetration, results from two ad-
ditional experiments with a different
welding current are shown in Figs. 8
and 9.
Observations of Figs. 8B and 9B
showed the twin peaks were clearly
seen in the welding process as the weld
penetration increased despite differ-
ent welding currents that generated
different arc forces acting on the weld
pool and produced diverse weld pool
geometry. In addition, these two peaks
were easily distinguished from the en-
tire change of the RIA. Hence, this
characteristic of the RIA is inherent
for the penetration development
process, independent from the adap-
tive ROI selection that only reduced
the computation to improve the real-
time ability to implement, and can be
E F G H
used to monitor the status of weld
penetration in stationary welding.
Traveling GTAW Experiment
In stationary GTAW, the fluid flow
status and weld pool surface geometry
were relatively stable such that the laser
stripes may be reflected and intercepted
with desirable regularity. The RIA was
also easy to obtain. Verification experi-
ments have also been conducted to veri-
fy the phenomenon observed earlier
from the stationary experiment, as well
as our observations and analyses as the
effectiveness of the proposed image
processing algorithm. Now the question
is if all these will hold for a moving
welding process where the weld metal
fluid flow and the weld pool surface
may be less stable and more complex.
To answer this question, experiments
with varying travel speed have been
conducted using the parameters given
in Table 1. Because of the movement,
the images can be mapped, in time, to
the back-side weld bead that better
showed the change of the weld penetra-
tion than the back-side surface image.
In the moving experiment with 70 A
welding current, the travel speed was
first set at 1.3 mm/s to run 4.6 s, and
WELDING RESEARCH
I J
then decreased to 1.0 mm/s to run 2 s,
and finally decreased to 0.8 mm/s to
last to the end of the experiment in or-
der to obtain an excessive weld penetra-
tion or weld pool collapse. The images
presented in Fig. 10 start 1 s before the
speed is changed to 1.0 mm/s.
Figure 11A plots the change of the
RIA characteristic on the reflection
laser image with the time. Figure 11B
gives the weld bead on both sides with
the first vertical line representing
where the tungsten axis (arc center)
was when the welding started, the sec-
ond vertical line representing where
the speed was changed to 1.0 mm/s,
and the third line representing where
the speed was changed to 0.8 mm/s.
When the travelling speed is 1.3
mm/s (frame (a) and to (b) in Fig. 10,
first second in Fig. 11A, and the seg-
ment before the first and second verti-
cal lines from the left), the weld pene-
tration was partial. After the speed
was decreased to 1.0 mm/s, the pene-
tration changed from partial to com-
plete joint (between the second and
third vertical lines from the left in Fig.
11B and the period from t = 2 to 4 s in
Fig. 11A, and frame (c) to (f) in Fig.
10). This can be easily seen from the
back-side weld bead in Fig. 11B. Figure
11A suggests that the first peak of the
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 169-s
ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 170
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 11 The traveling experimental result (speed 1.3~1.0~0.8 mm/s): A The change of RIA; B weld bead.
RIA, at which the convexity of the
weld pool surface reaches its maxi-
mum, occurs less than 1.0 s after the
speed decreases. This should be the
moment at which the complete joint
penetration was sufficiently estab-
lished, such that the free surface on
the bottom can allow the liquid metal
to move beyond the bottom surface to
off-set the increase in the volume
thermal expansion. The complete joint
penetration must have been estab-
lished before this moment.
As can be seen from the back-side
weld bead in Fig. 11B, the complete
joint penetration indeed happens in
the first half of this 2-s period. In Fig.
10, the laser reflection is more concen-
trated in frame (d) than that in frame
(c). This again suggests that at the
time of frame (d), the convexity of the
reflection mirror has been reduced
from that at the time of frame (c). At
the time of frame (f), the laser reflec-
tion has been well converged. This im-
170-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
Fig. 12 The traveling experimental result (speed 2.5~2.3~2.0
mm/s): A The change of RIA; B weld bead.
plies that the focal point is at the im-
aging plane. The concavity of the weld
pool surface was large but not too ex-
cessive to block the laser reflection.
The weld penetration should be signif-
icant but not yet excessive. This can be
verified from the back-side weld bead
in Fig. 11B.
During the welding period with
speed at 0.8 mm/s, the back-side weld
pool shape between the third vertical
line and the rightmost vertical line in
Fig. 11B and the typical frame (g) of
Fig. 10, combining the change of the
SGVP in the RIA in Fig. 11A (t > 3 s)
showed that the weld penetration fur-
ther increased. This implies that the
concavity will further increase, and it
becomes possible that the focal point
moves away from the imaging plane
toward the weld pool surface such that
the reflection on the image starts to
diverge. This is clear in Fig. 10 where
an increasing reflection divergence can
be observed after frame (h). As such,
one can expect that the second peak of
the RIA should occur before the time
of frame (h), i.e., less than 1 s after the
speed is decreased to 0.8 mm.
Figure 11A shows that the second
peak occurs approximately 0.6 s after
the speed decreases at t = 3 s in Fig.
11B. Of course, this further increase of
the concavity was a result of the fur-
ther increase in the weld penetration.
As can be seen from Fig. 11B, the pen-
etration indeed becomes larger on the
right of the last (from left) of the ver-
tical line. An excessive weld penetra-
tion occurred but no melt-through
occurred.
The welding current and welding
speed significantly affected the arc
stability and the liquid metal fluid
flow, which, in turn, determined the
geometry of weld pool surface and the
characteristics of the reflection laser
stripes. Hence, to test if this character-
istic of the reflection laser stripes was
also produced in different traveling
ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 171
A B
Fig. 13 The traveling experimental result (speed 2.3~2.0~1.7 mm/s): A The change of RIA; B weld bead.
conditions, two traveling experiments
performed with different welding cur-
rent and welding speed were selected,
and the corresponding data were de-
tailed. The results can be shown in
Figs. 12 and 13, respectively.
From Figs. 12A and 13A, it is clear-
ly observed that the twin peaks were
detected from the reflection laser
stripes as the penetration increased
from partial to excessive as shown in
Figs. 12B and 13B. As such, the phe-
nomena observed in the stationary
weld pool development were also ob-
served at the moving weld pool.
Conclusions
In this paper, an innovative inspec-
tion method was first proposed to
monitor the weld penetration for in-
vestigating the control of weld defects.
The following conclusions can be
drawn:
1) A novel laser-vision based
method has been proposed to real-
time detect the change of the weld
pool surface in GTAW. Experiments
show that the change of the reflection
image area (RIA) for the projected
laser lines reflected by the pool surface
enables representing the weld penetra-
tion status from partial, complete
joint, and excessive to weld pool col-
lapse in the stationary and travelling
condition.
2) A new image processing algo-
rithm had been developed and suc-
cessfully applied to quickly process the
series of intercepted images and ob-
tain the change of the RIA characteris-
tic. Twin peaks illustrated in the RIA
during the penetration development
process provided a robust method to
analyze for the occurrences of critical
adequate penetration and excessive
penetration.
3) Stationary and traveling experi-
ments together with the comparative
cross analyses of different data sources
verified the effectiveness of the pro-
posed method as a unique novel weld
penetration monitoring approach for
its principle, physics mechanism, and
image processing algorithm.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the Nation-
al Natural Science Foundation of China
(#61365011), Young Creative Talent
Support Program of Long Yuan of Chi-
na and Hong Liu Outstanding Talent
Training Plan of Lanzhou University of
Technology (#J201201), State Key Lab-
oratory of Advanced Processing and Re-
cycling of Nonferrous Metals of China
(#SKLAB02015008), and Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of Gansu Province of
China (#1508RJZA070).
References
1. Ravisankar, A., Velaga, S. K., Rajput,
G., and Venugopal, S. 2014. Influence of
welding speed and power on residual stress
during gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) of
thin sections with constant heat input: A
study using numerical simulation and ex-
perimental validation. Journal of Manufac-
turing Processes 16(2): 200211.
2. Kah, P., Shrestha, M., Hiltunen, E., and
Martikainen, J. 2015. Robotic arc welding
sensors and programming in industrial ap-
WELDING RESEARCH
plications. International Journal of Mechanical
and Materials Engineering 13: 116.
3. Kovacevic, R., Zhang, Y. M., and
Ruan, S. 1995. Sensing and control of weld
pool geometry for automated GTA welding.
Journal of Engineering for Industry 117(2):
210222.
4. Kovacevic, R., Zhang, Y. M., and Li, L.
1996. Monitoring of weld joint penetra-
tion based on weld pool geometrical ap-
pearance. Welding Journal 75(10): 317-s to
329-s.
5. Chen, S. B., Zhao, D. B., Lou, Y. J.,
and Wu, L. 2004. Computer vision sensing
and intelligent control of welding pool dy-
namics. Robot Weld Intelligent Automation
LNCIS 229: 2555.
6. Ario, S., Baskoro, R. M., and Masashi,
K. 2009. Welding penetration control for
aluminium pipe welding using omni-direc-
tional vision-based monitoring of molten
pool. Jointing Conference 27(2): 1721.
7. Huang, W., and Kovacevic, R. 2012.
Development of a real-time laser-based
machine vision system to monitor and
control welding processes. International
Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technol-
ogy 63(14): 235248.
8. Guu, A. C., and Rokhlin, S. I. 1989.
Computerized radiographic weld penetra-
tion control with feedback on weld pool de-
pression. Materials Evaluation 47: 1014.
9. Rokhlin, S. I., and Guu, A. C. 1990.
Computerized radiographic sensing and
control of an arc welding process. Materials
Evaluation 69: 38.
10. Beardsley, H., Zhang, Y. M., and Ko-
vacevic, R. 1994. Infrared sensing of full
penetration state in gas tungsten arc weld-
ing. International Journal of Machine Tools
and Manufacture 34(8): 10791090.
11. Chen, W. H., and Chin, B. A. 1990.
Monitoring joint penetration using in-
frared sensing techniques. Welding Journal
69(4): 181-s to 185-s.
12. Vasudevan, M., Chandrasekhar, N.,
Maduraimuthu, V., Bhaduri, A. K., and Raj,
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 171-s
ZHANG SUPP MAY 2017 WJ 201689_Layout 1 4/6/17 4:09 PM Page 172
WELDING RESEARCH
B. 2011. Real-time monitoring of weld pool
during GTAW using infra-red thermogra-
phy and analysis of infra-red thermal im-
ages. Welding in the World 55(7): 8389.
13. Siores, E. 1988. Development of a
real-time ultrasonic sensing system for auto-
mated and robotic welding. PhD disserta-
tion. West London, UK, Brunel University.
14. Schuster, G. J., Doctor, S. R., and
Bond, L. J. 2004. A system for high-resolu-
tion, non-destructive, ultrasonic imaging
of weld grains. IEEE Transactions on Instru-
mentation and Measurement 53: 1526
1532.
15. Carlson, N. M., and Johnson, J. A.
1988. Ultrasonic sensing of weld pool pen-
etration. Welding Journal 67(11): 11-s to
16-s.
16. Mizota, H., Nagashima, Y., and
Obana, T. 2015. Fundamental study of
molten pool depth measurement method
using an ultrasonic phased array system.
Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 54(7S1):
07HC03-1-4.
17. Shilov, A. V., Kushner, A. V., and
Novikov, V. A. 2016. The detection of real
defects in ferromagnetic objects using a
magnetic-field imaging film. Russian Jour-
nal of Non-destructive Testing 52(4): 220
225.
18. Pal, K., and Pal, S. K. 2011. Moni-
toring of weld penetration using arc
acoustics. Materials and Manufacturing
Processes 26: 684693.
19. Lv, Na., Xu, Y. L., Zhong, J. Y., Chen,
H. B., Wang, J. F., and Chen, S. B. 2012. Re-
search on detection of welding penetration
state during robotic GTAW process based
on audible arc sound. Industrial Robot: An
International Journal 40(5): 474493.
20. Aendenroomer, A. J. R., and Ouden,
G. D. 1998. Weld pool oscillation as a tool
for penetration sensing during pulsed GTA
welding. Welding Journal 77(5): 181-s to
187-s.
21. Ju, J. B., Hiroyuki, H., and Suga, A.
2004. Oscillation of molten pool by pulsed
assist gas oscillating method and penetra-
tion control using peculiar frequency. Jour-
nal of High Temperature Society 30(5):
263269.
22. Wang, Q. L., and Lin, S. B. 1988. De-
tection of the weld full penetration signals
GANG ZHANG, YU SHI (berscheid@126.com), YUFEN GU, DING FAN, and MING ZHU are with the Status Key Laboratory of Advanced Process
ing and Recycling Nonferrous Metals, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, China.
172-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
of a traveling arc in GTAW process. Process-
ing of JIW Asian Pacific Regional Welding
Congress, Hobart, Australia.
23. Wang, Q., Geng, Z., and Yin, S.
1991. Real-time full penetration control
with sensor in the TIG welding of alu-
minum alloy. Proceedings of International
Conference Joining: 916.
24. Nacereddine, N., Hamami, L., Tridi,
M., and Oucief, N. 2007. Non-parametric
histogram-based thresholding methods for
weld defect detection in radiography. IEEE
Word Academy Science, Engineering and
Technology 1(9): 12371241.
25. Carvalhoa, A. A., Silvab, R. R., Re-
belloc, J. M. A., and Sagrilo, L. V. S. 2010.
Pattern recognition techniques applied to
the detection and classification of welding
defects by magnetic testing. Science and
Technology of Welding Joining 21(2):
91111.
26. Alfaro, S. C., and Franco, A. F. D.
2010. Exploring infrared sensing for real
time welding defects monitoring in GTAW.
Sensors 10: 59625974.
27. Tao, Y., Wang, W., and Sun, B. S.
2014. Non-destructive online detection of
welding defects in track crane boom using
acoustic emission technique. Advances in
Mechanical Engineering 6: Article
ID.505464.
28. Zhang, S. Q., Hu, S. S., and Wang, Z.
J. 2016. Weld penetration sensing in
pulsed gas tungsten arc welding based on
arc voltage. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 229: 520527.
29. Yoo, C. D., and Richardson, R. W.
1993. An experimental study on sensitivity
and signal characteristics of weld pool os-
cillation. Transaction of the Japan Welding
Society 24(2): 140148.
30. Shi, Y., Zhang, G., Ma, X. J., Gu, Y.
F., Huang, J. K., and Fan, D. 2015. Laser-vi-
sion based measurement and analysis of
weld pool oscillation frequency in GTAW-P.
Welding Journal 94(5): 176-s to 187-s.
31. Li, Y., Li, Y. F., Wang, Q. L., Xu, D.,
and Tan, M. 2010. Measurement and de-
fect detection of the weld bead based on
online vision inspection. IEEE Transaction
on Instrumentation Measurement 59(7):
18411849.
32. Kovacevic, R., and Zhang, Y. M.
1996. Sensing free surface of arc weld pool
using specular reflection: Principle and
analysis. Journal of Engineering Manufac-
ture 210(62): 553564.
33. Saeed, G., and Zhang, Y. M. 2003.
Mathematical formulation and simulation
of specular reflection based measurement
system for gas tungsten arc weld pool sur-
face. Measurement Science and Technology
14: 16711682.
34. Zhang, Y. M., Song, H. S., and
Saeed, G. 2006. Observation of a dynamic
specular weld pool surface. Measurement
Science and Technology 17: L9L12.
35. Song, H. S., and Zhang, Y. M. 2008.
Measurement and analysis of three-dimen-
sional specular gas tungsten arc weld pool
surface. Welding Journal 87(4): 85-s to 95-s.
36. Song, H. S., and Zhang, Y. M. 2007.
Image processing for measurement of three-
dimensional GTAW weld pool surface. Weld-
ing Journal 86(10): 323-s to 330-s.
37. Liu, Y. K., and Zhang, Y. M. 2015.
Controlling 3D weld pool surface by adjust-
ing welding speed. Welding Journal 94(4):
125-s to 134-s.
38. Wang, Z. Z., Huang, X. Y., Yang, R.
G., and Zhang, Y. M. 2013. Measurement
of mirror surfaces using specular reflection
and analytical computation. Machine Vision
and Applications 24: 289304.
39. Zhang, W. J., Liu, X. K., and Wang,
X. 2012. Characterization of three dimen-
sional weld pool surface in GTAW. Welding
Journal 91(7): 195-s to 203-s.
40. Liu, Y. K., Zhang W. J., and Zhang,
Y. M. 2013. Estimation of weld joint pene-
tration under varying GTA pools. Welding
Journal 92(12): 314-s to 321-s.
41. Wang, X. W., Liu, Y. K., Zhang, W. J.,
and Zhang, Y. M. 2012. Estimation of weld
penetration using parameterized three-di-
mensional weld pool surface in gas tung-
sten arc welding. IEEE International Sympo-
sium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE) 12(9):
835840.
42. Zhang, G., Shi, Y., Li, C. K., Huang,
J. K., and Fan, D. 2014. Research on the
correlation between the status of three di-
mensional weld pool surface and weld pen-
etration in TIG welding. Acta Metallurgica
Sinica 50(8): 9951002.
NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 173

WELDING RESEARCH

Interface Evolution in Aluminum Alloy/

Uncoated Steel Arc Welds

New findings on spalling phenomena and mechanisms when Zn15% Al and

Al12% Si fluxcored welding wires are deposited on five types of steel sheets

BY S. NIU, H. DONG, AND P. LI

termetallic compounds spalling into the

ABSTRACT weld was observed in the joint between
5A02 aluminum alloy and stainless steel
Zn15% Al and Al12% Si fluxcored welding wires were deposited on five types of steel
(Refs. 5, 6). In our previous work (Ref.
(Q235 and ST16 carbon steel as well as 304, 410, and 430 stainless steel) sheets with differ
ent alloying elements content and microstructures using the gas tungsten arc welding 7), a laminar intermetallic compound
process. Lap joining 5052 aluminum alloy to ST16 low carbon steel and 304 stainless steel layer that peeled off from the interface
sheets was also conducted with these two welding wires. Spalling of the intermetallic com was detected when Zn-15% Al flux-
pounds (IMCs) layer occurred, and fine FeAlZn IMCs integrated with ZnAl solid solution cored welding wire was used to join
when Zn15% Al fluxcored welding wire was used. The results indicate that Cr in stainless 5052 aluminum alloy to Q235 steel
steel could effectively restrain the detachment of FeAlZn IMCs and growth of the interfacial sheets. In an immersion test between
layer compared to carbon steels. However, Cr could not restrain the spalling of FeAlSi IMCs. solid iron and molten aluminum,
The shape of IMCs containing Cr turned block like instead of needle like when Al12% Si flux Shahverdi et al. (Ref. 8) and Bouayad et
cored welding wire was melted on a stainless steel surface. Reducing welding heat input al. (Ref. 9) both found that the inter-
could completely suppress the spalling of FeAlZn IMCs, and the thickness of the interfacial
metallic compound layer cracked and
layer also decreased. However, reducing welding heat input could restrain but not
completely eliminate the spalling of FeAlSi IMCs. During welding, the arc should not peeled off into the aluminum side. The
directly exert on the steel surface, since the arc force could facilitate diffusion of Fe and Cr to influence of elements addition may play
the weld and promote formation of FeAlSi and FeAlZn IMCs. an important role.
In this paper, welding wires were de-
posited onto different types of steels
KEYWORDS with different alloying elements, con-
tent, and microstructure, and the lap
Aluminum Alloy Steel Arc Braze Welding (ABW) Microstructure joints between aluminum alloy and steel
Intermetallic Compound
sheets were made by the ABW process.
The influence of welding wire, composi-
Introduction join aluminum alloy to steel, and sound tion and microstructure of steel sub-
joints with a thin interfacial layer less strate, welding heat input, and arc force
Dissimilar metal joints between alu- than 1 m were obtained (Refs. 13). on the spalling behavior of Fe-Al-Zn and
minum alloy and steel combine low- However, the workpiece assembly dur- Fe-Al-Si intermetallic compounds was
density, high-specific strength, and ing FSW was not as flexible as with arc explored. The effect of these intermetal-
high-corrosion resistance of the two welding. Arc braze welding (ABW) is a lic compounds on the properties of lap
materials, which has been increasingly promising method to join aluminum al- joints was investigated as well.
used in manufacturing industries, such loy to steel, which can control the
as automotive, shipbuilding, and air- growth of intermetallic compounds ef- Experimental Procedure
craft. But the large differences between fectively. As Fe diffuses to the weld dur-
aluminum and steel in thermal-physical ing the arc brazing process, the spalling The materials used in this paper
properties and the formation of brittle behavior of Fe-rich intermetallic com- were 2-mm-thick 5052 aluminum alloy,
intermetallic compounds creates a chal- pounds is inevitable. Dong et al. (Ref. 4) 1.5-mm-thick Q235 steel, 1.0-mm-thick
lenge for joining these two materials. lap joined 5A02 aluminum alloy to ST16 steel, and 1.5-mm-thick 304, 410,
Efforts need to proceed to ameliorate Q235 steel with different types of weld- and 430 stainless steel sheets with di-
compatibility between the two metals ing wire. Needle-like Fe-Al-Si inter- mensions of 200 100 mm. The mi-
and suppress the growth of brittle inter- metallic compounds distributed in the crostructure of the Q235 steel sheet is
metallic compounds. weld, and higher Si content in the filler ferrite and pearlite. The German DIN
Solid state joining processes such as wire could suppress the spalling of the standard ST16 steel for the automobile
friction stir welding (FSW) were used to intermetallic compound. Block-like in- industry has a very low carbon content,

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 173-s

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/10/17 4:20 PM Page 174

WELDING RESEARCH

and the microstructure is almost ferrite.

The microstructure of German DIN A B
standard ST06 Z galvanized steel is fer-
rite with 7-m-thick zinc coating on the
surface. The microstructures of 304,
410, and 430 stainless steel are mainly
austenite, martensite, and ferrite, re-
spectively. The Zn-15% Al (Sun Kwang
Brazing Filler Metal Co., Ltd.) and Al-
12% Si (Shanghai Know-How Material
& Technology Co., Ltd.) flux-cored weld-
ing wires are cored with CsAlF4 and Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the following: A Depositing; B lap joining.
KAlF4 fluxes, respectively. The outside
diameter of the two types of filler wires
is 2 mm.
The nominal composition of alu-
minum alloy, steels, and welding wires
are listed in Table 1. The schematic dia-
gram of the depositing experiment is
shown in Fig. 1A. The welding wire was
melted by the arc and then deposited on
the surface of a steel sheet by the assis-
tance of flux, which was cored in the
wire. The welding place was in the mid- Fig. 2 Schematic of the specimen for a tensile shear test (dimensions in mm).
dle of the steel sheet along the length-
wise direction. The lap joining assembly was tested in a DNS100 universal test- lyzed with a Zeiss SUPRA55 field emis-
is shown in Fig. 1B. During welding, the ing machine with a strain rate of 2 sion scanning electron microscope
travel speed was 2 mm/s, the flow rate mm/min. To minimize the inherent equipped with energy dispersive X-ray
of argon was 10 L/min, and the arc bending stress in the overlap specimens spectrometer (EDS).
length was kept constant at 5 mm for during testing, a spacer plate was insert-
the convenience of wire feeding. Be- ed between each end of the sample and Results and Discussion
cause the melting point of the Al-12% Si the tensile test fixture to accommodate
welding wire (570C) is higher than that the sample offset. The tensile shear Depositing FluxCored Welding Wires
of the Zn-15% Al welding wire (440C), strength is the maximum load divided on Steel Sheets
the welding parameters were different by the length of the tested weld. Three
for the control of heat input into the replicates from each joint were prepared It is relatively easy to investigate the
weld pool. The flux-cored wire was con- to evaluate the average tensile shear interaction between the weld bead and
tinuously fed through wire drive wheels strength. The fracture surface was ana- different steels without the influence of
at a constant rate during welding.
The welding parameters for de-
Table 1 Nominal Composition of Aluminum Alloy, Steels, and Welding Wires (wt%)
positing and lap joining experiments
are listed in Tables 2 and 3. Before
Materials C Zn Cu Mn Cr Ni Ti Si Mg Fe Al
welding, the workpieces were polished
by a stainless steel brush to remove
5052 Al 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.18 0.02 0.11 2.15 0.42 Bal.
the oxide layer and then cleaned with
acetone to wipe off metal powder and Q235 0.12 0.23 0.03 0.08 Bal.
grease on the surface. ST16 0.002 0.12 0.02 0.06 0.002 Bal. 0.04
The cross sections of welded spec- 304 0.05 1.24 18.1 8.03 0.36 Bal.
mens were prepared to examine the 410 0.12 0.16 12.2 0.41 Bal.
macrostructure and microstructure of 430 0.11 0.28 16.1 0.22 Bal.
the joints. The optical microstructure Zn15% Al Bal. 0.50 0.02 15.0
was observed with a Leica MEF4 optical Al12% Si 0.20 0.30 0.15 1113 0.10 0.80 Bal.
metalloscope. The backscattered image
and elemental distribution were ob-
served with a Shimadzn EMPA-1600.
The electron beam spot for EPMA quan- Table 2 Parameters for Depositing Experiment
titative analysis was 1 m, and the
measurement error was less than 2%. Filler Wire Welding Wire Feeding Travel Speed
The dimensions of the specimen for Current (A) Speed (mm/s) (mm/s)
the tensile shear test are shown in Fig. Zn15% Al 30 8 2
2. The quasistatic tensile shear strength Al12% Si 40 10 2

174-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/10/17 4:21 PM Page 175

WELDING RESEARCH

A B shown in Fig. 3. A thick intermetallic

compound layer formed close to the in-
terface, and both ends of the layer
flexed to the weld in Fig. 3A. Mean-
while, lots of lamellar intermetallic com-
pound layers distributed in the weld. In
Fig. 3B, one end of the thick intermetal-
lic compound layer still stuck to the in-
terface, and the other end of the inter-
metallic compound layer is curled. The
thickness of this layer is around 100
m. This phenomenon was also ob-
C D served in our previous work (Ref. 7),
which decreased the tensile strength of
the joint. However, the interfacial layers
only slightly spalled into the welds
when Zn-15% Al welding wire was de-
posited on stainless steels sheets as
shown in Fig. 3CE. No band-like inter-
metallic compound layer was observed
in the welds. The morphology and
spalling behavior of intermetallic com-
Fig. 3 Optical microstructure of de
pounds using Zn-15% Al flux-cored
E welding wire are summarized in Table 4.
positing Zn15% Al fluxcored welding
wire on: A Q235 steel; B ST16 steel; It seems that the carbon content and
C 304 stainless steel; D 410 stainless microstructure of steel have no influ-
steel; and E 430 stainless steel. ence on the spalling of intermetallic
compound layers. But Cr plays a signifi-
cant role in suppressing the detachment
aluminum alloy base metal during con- of intermetallic compound layers in the
ventional dissimilar metal joining of resultant joints (Fig. 3).
aluminum alloy to steel. The optical mi- Black interfacial layers marked as 1-
crostructure of resultant joints with Zn- A and 2-A were observed between
15% Al flux-cored welding wire is steels and welds in Fig. 4A, B. Accord-
ing to quantitative analysis, the inter-
Table 3 Parameters for LapJoining Experiment facial layers are confirmed as -
Fe2Al5Znx in Table 5 (Ref. 10). The
Filler Joint Specimen Welding Wire Feeding Travel Speed spalled intermetallic compound layers
Wire Type No. Current (A) Speed (mm/s) (mm/s) (1-B and 2-B) in the welds distributed
5052/ST16 #L1 50 7 1 discontinuously. They broke into
lap joint #L2 60 8 1 pieces integrating with Zn-Al solid so-
Zn15% Al lution like peeling off from the origi-
5052/304 #L3 50 7 1 nal interfacial layer according to their
lap joint #L4 60 8 1 shape. The dark intermetallic com-
pound layer spalled in the welds has a
5052/ST16 #L5 60 7 1 similar composition to the interfacial
lap joint #L6 70 8 1 layer. As Al is more active than Zn, Fe
Al12% Si
reacts with Al first during welding.
5052/304 #L7 60 7 1
lap joint #L8 70 8 1 The interfacial layer solidifies first be-
cause of its high melting point. The

Table 4 Morphology and Spalling Behavior of Intermetallic Compounds Using Zn15% Al FluxCored Welding Wire

C Content Cr Content Microstructure Thickness of IMC

Material (wt%) (wt%) of Steel (m) Spalling Behavior
Q235 0.12 0.03 Pearlite + Ferrite 20 Lamellar spallation
ST16 0.002 0.02 Ferrite 17 Lamellar spallation
304 0.05 18.1 Austenite 8 Partial bulges
410 0.12 12.2 Martensite 9 Partial bulges
430 0.11 16.1 Ferrite 8 Partial bulges

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 175-s

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 176

WELDING RESEARCH

A B C

Fe-Al intermetallic compound acts as a D E

diffusion barrier to suppress the reac-
tion between Fe and molten Zn (Refs.
10, 11). According to Nakamori et al.
(Ref. 12), when the Al concentration
in the weld pool is higher than 0.15
wt-%, the inhibition layer of Fe2Al5 can
effectively prevent the formation of
the Fe-Zn compound. As a result, no
Fe-Zn compound was found in the
welds. When the interfacial layer
grows thick enough, it becomes unsta-
ble and breaks into the weld pool. For
the sake of discontinuity of the spalled
interfacial layer, the liquid Al-Zn alloy
flows through the opening and facili-
tates the detachment. Since the cool-
ing rate is extremely fast during the
welding process, and the residual liq- Fig. 4 Electron backscattering micrograph of a weld with Zn15% Al fluxcored welding
uid Al-Zn alloy experiences nonequi- wire deposited on: A Q235 steel; B ST16 steel; C 304 stainless steel; D 410 stain
less steel; E 430 stainless steel.
librium solidification. The dark gray
phase (1-E and 2-E), with more than
50% Al, has a higher melting point, ac- process, two mechanisms have been Figure 4CE shows that the interfa-
cording to the Zn-Al phase diagram proposed to explain the formation of cial layers grew thicker and slightly
(Ref. 13). The light gray phase (1-D Fe-Zn intermetallic compounds (Ref. spalled into the weld in some loca-
and 2-D), with less than 35% Al, solid- 11). One is the Al-depletion model, in tions. The intermetallic compound in
ifies subsequently. The white Zn-rich which iron atoms diffuse across the Fe- dark interfacial layers (3-B, 4-B, and 5-
phase (1-C and 2-C) is pushed to the Al interface into molten Zn and Fe-Zn B) is confirmed as -[Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx in
grain boundary and solidifies last. intermetallic compound forms at the Table 3. The composition of the
When stainless steels were applied, a molten Zn/Fe-Al interface. Another is spalled Fe-Al intermetallic compound,
discontinuous white phase (3-A, 4-A, the Zn-diffusion model, in which zinc marked as 3-C, 4-C, and 5-C near the
and 5-A) formed on the steel side next atoms diffuse across the Fe-Al interface interfacial layers, is similar to that of
to the dark interfacial layers in Fig. to steel substrate and Fe-Zn intermetal- the interfacial layers. Because Cr has a
4CE. However, this phenomenon was lic compound forms at the Fe-Al/Fe in- similar atomic radius with Fe, they co-
not observed in the joints with low car- terface. The formation of white Fe-Zn exist in the intermetallic compound in
bon steels. The higher Si content in intermetallic compound is consistent a form of substitutional solid solution.
stainless steel substrate may have re- with the Zn-diffusion model. The Fe-Zn The diffusion coefficient of Cr in liq-
sulted in this consequence. According intermetallic compound is not homoge- uid Al is smaller than that of Fe (Ref.
to the Sandelin effect (Refs. 14, 15), the neous, so the quantitative analysis of 17), and the melting point of Cr is
increasing content of Si and P in base EPMA may be not be precise. But based higher than that of Fe. Consequently,
metal can promote the reaction be- on the study of the galvanizing process Cr had a significant effect on restrain-
tween Fe and Zn to form Fe-Zn com- (Ref. 16), the intermetallic compound ing the spalling of the interfacial layer
pounds. In the hot-dip galvanizing is most likely to be -FeZn13 compound. when Zn-15% Al flux-cored welding

176-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 177

WELDING RESEARCH

A B C

Fig. 5 Optical microstructure of deposit D E

ing Al12% Si fluxcored welding wire on:
A Q235 steel; B ST16 steel; C 304
stainless steel; D 410 stainless steel; E
430 stainless steel.

Table 5 Element Content and Possible Phase at Each Spot in Fig. 4 (at%)

Positions Elements Content (at%) Possible Phase

Al Si Cr Fe Ni Zn O

1A 66.610 0.129 0.005 27.076 0.013 5.318 0.849 Fe2Al5Znx

1B 62.679 0.397 0.015 28.063 0.000 7.503 1.343 Fe2Al5Znx
1C 8.571 0.098 0.000 0.438 0.003 80.899 9.991 ZnAl solid solution
1D 32.882 0.063 0.000 0.137 0.028 57.092 9.798 ZnAl solid solution
1E 50.900 0.049 0.022 0.108 0.007 40.091 8.823 ZnAl solid solution
2A 65.648 0.007 0.007 22.069 0.000 11.081 1.188 Fe2Al5Znx
2B 66.549 0.069 0.000 26.839 0.000 5.960 0.583 Fe2Al5Znx
2C 1.641 0.033 0.000 0.473 0.000 89.294 8.559 ZnAl solid solution
2D 32.893 0.031 0.018 0.132 0.027 57.790 9.109 ZnAl solid solution
2E 53.996 0.000 0.003 0.087 0.000 37.654 8.260 ZnAl solid solution
3A 2.035 0.686 11.342 53.559 3.120 25.712 3.546 FeZn13
3B 63.787 0.513 5.779 21.484 1.436 7.001 0.000 [Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx
3C 63.519 0.256 1.036 13.347 1.311 20.531 0.000 [Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx
3D 1.523 0.020 0.129 0.403 0.021 97.904 0.000 ZnAl solid solution
3E 45.762 0.072 0.071 0.113 0.095 53.887 0.000 ZnAl solid solution
3F 69.906 0.036 0.021 0.066 0.022 29.949 0.000 ZnAl solid solution
4A 2.115 1.383 10.127 59.525 0.020 23.705 3.125 FeZn13
4B 66.121 0.359 3.031 22.911 0.054 6.317 1.207 [Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx
4C 70.750 0.266 1.814 20.090 0.008 6.306 0.766 [Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx
4D 5.465 0.062 0.000 0.194 0.025 82.292 11.962 ZnAl solid solution
4E 39.195 0.076 0.004 0.265 0.000 50.623 9.837 ZnAl solid solution
4F 62.227 0.055 0.033 0.073 0.019 32.294 5.299 ZnAl solid solution
5A 1.697 0.382 9.569 55.518 0.073 28.352 4.409 FeZn13
5B 64.891 0.215 3.557 22.486 0.027 7.082 1.742 [Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx
5C 70.830 0.308 2.514 21.021 0.003 4.943 0.381 [Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx
5D 1.649 0.052 0.007 0.160 0.000 85.728 12.404 ZnAl solid solution
5E 41.020 0.046 0.021 0.034 0.010 50.113 8.756 ZnAl solid solution
5F 63.194 0.019 0.032 0.072 0.009 29.715 6.959 ZnAl solid solution

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 177-s

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/10/17 4:23 PM Page 178

WELDING RESEARCH

A B C

wire was used. The rest of the Al-Zn al- D E

loy had the same solidification process
as that in low-carbon steels.
Figure 5 shows the optical mi-
crostructure of a weld with Al-12% Si
flux-cored welding wire deposited on
different steel sheets. A needle-like
phase grew from the interfacial layer
when low-carbon steels were used in
Fig. 5A, B. The needle-like phase exists
not only near the interface but in the
whole joints. With stainless steels, the
block-like phase instead of needle-like
phase distributes homogeneously in
the entire welds as shown in Fig.
5CE. The morphology and spalling
behavior of intermetallic compounds
using Al-12% Si flux-cored welding
wire are summarized in Table 6. It Fig. 6 Electron backscattering images of the weld by depositing Al12% Si fluxcored
seems that the shape change of a spe- welding wire on: A Q235 steel; B ST16 steel; C 304 stainless steel; D 410
cific phase is not caused by carbon stainless steel; E 430 stainless steel.
content and microstructure of steel
substrates, but by Cr diffusing from layers marked as 1-A and 2-A in Fig. es in the welds (1-B and 2-B) have
the stainless steel substrate. 6A, B are very thin and confirmed as lower Fe content so as to form 6-
The morphology of spalled inter- 5-Fe2Al7Si (Refs. 19, 20), based on the FeAl4Si phase (Refs. 19, 20). The dark
metallic compound layers using Al- quantitative analysis in Table 7. The gray zone (1-C and 2-C) in the joints
12% Si flux-cored welding wire differs formation of needle-like intermetallic consists of the -Al and Al-Si binary
from that using Zn-15% Al flux-cored compounds depends on Fe diffusion. phase, which is not homogeneous due
welding wire Fig. 6A, B. The IMCs The farther from the interface it is, to nonequilibrium solidification.
grew from the interfacial layers like the less Fe content it has. The branch- The Cr in stainless steel substrate
stems and lots of cracks were identi-
fied in the branches, while Al-12% Si
Table 6 Morphology and Spalling Behavior of Intermetallic Compounds Using Al12%
flux-cored welding wire was melted on Si FluxCored Welding Wire
low-carbon steels. Song et al. (Ref. 18)
calculated the formation enthalpy of Material C Content Cr Content Microstructure Thickness of IMC Spalling Behavior
Al-Fe-Si ternary intermetallic com- (wt%) (wt%) of Steel (m)
pound, and indicated that the forma-
tion enthalpy of Al-Fe-Si ternary Q235 0.12 0.03 Pearlite + Ferrite 5 Needlelike spallation
phase was lower than that of the the ST16 0.002 0.02 Ferrite 4 Needlelike spallation
304 0.05 18.1 Austenite 16 Blocklike spallation
Fe-Al binary phase. So Si in welding
410 0.12 12.2 Martensite 10 Blocklike spallation
wire can decrease the formation en- 430 0.11 16.1 Ferrite 9 Blocklike spallation
thalpy of the IMC layer. The interfacial

178-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 179

WELDING RESEARCH

the weld is 6-[Fe, Cr]Al4Si compound,

A B as shown in Table 7. The thickness the
of interfacial layer is about 15 m. The
blocky gray phase (4-C and 5-C) in
the weld is 6-[Fe, Cr]Al4Si as well.
During welding, Fe and Cr diffuse
from the steel to the weld pool under
the heating of arc. The Al-[Fe, Cr]-Si
ternary intermetallic compound with
the higher melting point cannot grow
continuously to form dendrite, but nu-
cleates in the weld pool to form a
D block-like or flower-like phase. The
C rest of the dark gray zone (3-C, 4-D
and 5-D), which consists of the -Al
and Al-Si binary phase is inhomoge-
neous under nonequilibrium solidifi-
cation.

Lap Joining of Aluminum Alloy

to Steel Sheets
Microstructure

Fig. 7 Microstructure of the following: A 5052/ST16 lap joint with a welding current Lap joints of 5052 aluminum
of 50 A; B 5052/ST16 lap joint with a welding current of 60 A; C 5052/304 lap joint alloy/ST16 steel sheets and 5052 alu-
with a welding current of 50 A; D 5052/304 lap joint with a welding current of 60 A. minum alloy/304 stainless steel sheets
were made with the GTAW. Zn-15% Al
cannot restrain the spalling of inter- Fig. 6C. The interfacial layer (3'-A) con- and Al-12% Si flux-cored welding wires
metallic compounds, but just changes sists of 5-[Fe, Cr]2Al7Si, the same as the were used to investigate the spalling of
their shape, compared to that using Zn- lumpy zone (3-B) growing from the in- Fe-Al-Zn and Fe-Al-Si intermetallic
15% Al flux-cored welding wire. When terface Fig. 6. compounds. The microstructure of
the flux-cored welding wire was deposit- In the welds with 410 and 430 joints #L1#L4 (Table 3) with Zn-15%
ed on a 304 stainless steel sheet, the stainless steels, the interface is com- Al welding wire is shown in Fig. 7.
thickness of the interfacial layer reached posed of two layers (Fig. 6D, E). The The welding current for joints be-
20 m and a large amount of blocky in- one sticking to the steel is [Fe, Cr]2[Al, tween 5052 aluminum alloy and ST16
termetallic compounds grew from it Si]5 compound, and the other close to steel sheets (#L1) is 50 A, and the

Table 7 Element Content and Possible Phase at Each Spot in Fig. 6 (at%)

Positions Elements Content (at%) Possible Phase

Al Si Cr Fe Ni Zn O
1A 68.271 12.404 0.004 19.321 0.000 0.000 0.000 5Fe2Al7Si
1B 63.977 21.482 0.000 14.380 0.016 0.000 0.145 6FeAl4Si
1C 98.020 1.929 0.004 0.043 0.000 0.004 0.000 Al + AlSi eutectic
2A 67.531 12.816 0.000 19.027 0.000 0.027 0.599 5Fe2Al7Si
2B 66.158 17.956 0.001 15.103 0.022 0.005 0.755 6FeAl4Si
2C 96.328 1.590 0.000 0.105 0.008 0.000 1.969 Al + AlSi eutectic
3A 63.822 13.389 4.976 17.192 0.570 0.051 0.000 5[Fe, Cr]2Al7Si
3B 62.061 16.812 5.432 15.273 0.422 0.000 0.000 5[Fe, Cr]2Al7Si
3C 66.692 32.731 0.031 0.178 0.091 0.000 0.277 Al + AlSi eutectic
4A 55.154 16.485 3.890 24.299 0.038 0.019 0.115 [Fe, Cr]2[Al, Si]5
4B 70.993 12.303 3.160 13.544 0.000 0.000 0.000 6[Fe, Cr]Al4Si
4C 70.607 12.985 3.115 13.169 0.002 0.000 0.122 6[Fe, Cr]Al4Si
4D 60.995 37.521 0.009 0.139 0.010 0.000 1.326 Al + AlSi eutectic
5A 59.457 12.537 4.969 22.986 0.051 0.000 0.000 [Fe, Cr]2[Al, Si]5
5B 70.311 13.850 3.104 12.735 0.000 0.000 0.000 6[Fe, Cr]Al4Si
5C 70.502 13.825 2.905 12.768 0.000 0.000 0.000 6[Fe, Cr]Al4Si
5D 93.915 5.760 0.017 0.214 0.000 0.012 0.082 Al + AlSi eutectic

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 179-s

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 180

WELDING RESEARCH

thickness of the interfacial layer is 14

A B
m Fig. 7A. When the welding cur-
rent increases to 60 A, the thickness of
the interfacial layer is about 20 m,
and spalling behavior of the inter-
metallic compounds is quite obvious
Fig. 7B. An 80-100-m-thick
spalling intermetallic compound layer
was observed above the interface. Lots
of intermetallic compound strips dis-
tributed over this layer, which indicat-
ed that reducing welding heat input
can also restrain the spalling of the Fe-
Al-Zn intermetallic compound. The
welding current for joints between the
5052 aluminum alloy and 304 stain-
less steel sheets (#L3 and #L4) are 50 Fig. 8 A Backscattered electron image of
and 60 A, respectively. The interfacial a fusion brazed joint between 5052 aluminum
layer is thinner than that of the joints alloy and ST16 steel sheets with a welding cur
between 5052 aluminum alloy and rent of 60 A; B magnified view of zone P.
ST16 steel sheets. No spalling inter-
metallic compound was found in the
weld Fig. 7C, D. Consequently, A B C
when Zn-base welding wire was used,
Cr in the stainless steel could com-
pletely restrain the spalling of Fe-Al-
Zn intermetallic compounds and the
growing of the interfacial layer.
Figure 8 shows the backscattered
electron image of the joint between the
5052 aluminum alloy and the ST16 steel
sheets (#L2) with a welding current of D E F
60 A. According to the quantitative
analysis in Table 8, the interface (L2-A)
is probably to be -Fe2Al5Znx inter-
metallic compound with a thickness of
15 m. Most researchers believe that
the reaction between Fe and Al follows
parabolic kinetics (Refs. 9, 21, 22).
Bouch et al. (Ref. 21) reported that the
diffusion rate of Al is faster than that of
Fe. As a result, Al crosses the interface Fig. 9 Backscattered electron image and EPMA element distribution maps of the
fusionbrazed joint between 5052 aluminum alloy and 304 stainless steel sheets with a
reacting with Fe, and the -Fe2Al5Znx welding current of 60 A.
interfacial layer grows into the steel
substrate. Small Zn-rich spots appear

Table 8 Quantitative Analysis Results of Each Point in Figs. 8 and 9

Position Composition (at%) Possible Phase

Al Si Cr Fe Ni Zn Mg

L2A 64.973 0.026 27.544 7.394 0.063 Fe2Al5Znx

L2B 57.730 0.040 15.120 26.650 0.460 Fe2Al5Znx
L2C 10.250 0.210 3.100 86.440 Znrich solid solution
L2D 2.589 0.001 0.188 90.207 7.015 Znrich solid solution
L2E 77.638 0.013 0.087 22.172 0.090 ZnAl solid solution
L4A 70.300 0.627 4.602 19.809 1.782 2.873 0.007 [Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx
L4B 2.687 0.038 0.385 1.785 0.167 94.938 Znrich solid solution
L4C 2.136 0.018 0.013 0.100 0.049 97.588 0.096 Znrich solid solution
L4D 79.000 0.029 0.077 0.027 20.809 0.058 ZnAl solid solution

180-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 181

WELDING RESEARCH

rich solid solution to form a layer. Al-

though the welding heat input of the
lap joint between the 5052 aluminum
and the ST16 steel sheets with welding
current of 60 A was three times larger
than the depositing experiment, the
Fe2Al5Znx intermetallic compound was
still fine, and the finer zone was beyond
the analyzing ability of equipment in
Fig. 8B. Because the arc did not exert on
the steel sheet directly, the diffusion of
Fe and the growth of intermetallic com-
pound are restrained, leading to this
phenomenon. Except for the spalling in-
termetallic compound layer, the weld
consisted of Zn-Al solid solution (L2-C
and L2-D), which experienced nonequi-
A B librium solidification Fig. 8.
Figure 9 shows the backscattered
Fig. 10 Backscattered electron image of: A Lap joint between 5052 aluminum alloy electron image and the element distri-
and ST16 steel sheets with a welding current of 70 A; B lap joint between 5052 alu bution maps of the joint between
minum alloy and 304 stainless steel sheets with a welding current of 70 A.
5052 aluminum alloy and 304 stain-
less steel sheets (#L4). The thickness
of the interfacial layer is about 10 m,
consisting of Fe, Cr, Al, and Zn. Ac-
cording to the quantitative analysis in
Table 8, the interfacial layer (L4-A)
could be the -[Fe, Cr]2Al5Znx inter-
metallic compound. Fe and Cr were
not spalling into the weld, and the
thickness of the interfacial layer was
thinner than that in the joint between
the 5052 aluminum alloy and ST16
steel sheets. This phenomenon indi-
cated that Cr in the stainless steel base
A B metal can restrain the spalling of Fe in
the Zn-Al alloy and the growing of the
Fig. 11 Tensile shear curves for samples #L1L8. interfacial layer. Lots of Zn-rich spots
(L4-B) appeared above the interfacial
above the interface and connect to each terfacial layer. layer and formed a layer. It seems that
other, forming a discontinuous layer. Based on Fig. 8B, it can be seen that the Zn-rich phase hardly permeated
Some Zn-rich strips also exist inside the the dark zone (L2-B) is the -Fe2Al5Znx into the interfacial layer, because few
interface. Thick intermetallic compound intermetallic compound, while the Zn-rich strips exist in the interfacial
layer spalled above the interfacial layer white zone (L2-C) is the Zn-rich solid layer Fig. 9.
Fig. 7B. It seemed that the Zn-rich solution according to the quantitative The lap joint between 5052 alu-
phase penetrated into the interfacial analysis in Table 8. The shape of the minum alloy and ST16 steel sheets
layer, and it made the -Fe2Al5Znx inter- Fe2Al5Znx intermetallic compound was (#L6) and that between 5052 alu-
metallic compound peel off from the in- irregular, which integrated with the Zn- minum alloy and 304 stainless steel

Table 9 Quantitative Analysis Results of Each Point in Fig. 10

Position Composition (at%) Possible Phase

Al Si Cr Fe Ni Mg
L6A 65.993 6.089 27.892 0.026 Fe2[Al, Si]5
L6B 70.711 18.837 10.221 0.231 6FeAl4Si
L6C 97.728 1.802 0.029 0.441 Al solid solution
L6D 78.431 20.899 0.028 0.642 Al + AlSi eutectic phase
L8A 72.356 9.289 5.102 13.032 0.172 0.049 5[Fe, Cr]2Al7Si
L8B 67.978 21.122 0.666 9.901 0.152 0.181 6Fe Al4Si
L8C 98.515 1.207 0.022 0.037 0.014 0.205 Al solid solution
L8D 73.165 26.303 0.050 0.041 0.050 0.391 Al + AlSi eutectic phase

MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 181-s

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 182

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 12 Fracture location of joints between 5052 aluminum alloy and ST16 steel sheets with a welding current of: A 50 A; B 60 A.

sheets (#L8) are shown in Fig. 10. Ac-

cording to the quantitative analysis in Table 10 Tensile Shear Strength and Fracture Path of FusionBrazed Joints
Table 9, the interfacial layer of joint
#L6 (L6-A) is Fe2[Al, Si]5 intermetallic Filler Wire Joint Type Joint No. Tensile Shear Strength Fracture
(N/mm) Location
compound, while that of joint #L8
(L8-A) is 5-[Fe, Cr]2Al7Si intermetal- Zn15% Al 5052/ST16 lap joint #L1 164 Interface
lic compound. In the lap joining uxcored #L2 222 Weld
process between aluminum alloy and ller wire 5052/304 lap joint #L3 224 Interface
steel sheets, no matter if low-carbon #L4 276 Interface
steel or stainless steel was applied, Al12% Si 5052/ST16 lap joint #L5 146 Interface
uxcored #L6 136 Interface
the spalling intermetallic compound
ller wire 5052/304 lap joint #L7 238 Weld
in the weld (L6-B and L8-B) is 6, dif- #L8 302 Weld
fering from the depositing experi-
ment. However, in our previous study
(Ref. 6), a block-like intermetallic Table 11 Analysis Results in Dierent Positions on Fracture Surface in Fig. 13 (wt%)
compound containing Cr was found
in the joint between 5052 aluminum Position Mg Al Si Cr Fe Ni Zn
alloy and 304 stainless steel sheets F1 0.02 15.54 0.08 73.92 10.44
with Al-12% Si filler wire. This phe- F2 0.04 0.19 0.11 99.05 0.61
nomenon is related to the welding arc F3 0.24 43.34 0.05 0.29 56.08
directly exerting on the steel sheet. In F4 0.03 50.38 0.30 7.69 31.46 2.61 7.53
the depositing experiment, the arc F5 0.17 58.46 6.91 34.46
force directly acts on the steel sheet, F6 0.09 5.14 0.61 94.16
resulting in severe diffusion of Fe and G7 0.48 83.55 5.83 1.96 7.61 0.66
Cr into the weld. As a result, the in-
termetallic compound containing Cr strength of joint #L2 with a welding
Mechanical Property
nucleates first and grows into an ir- current of 60 A is 35% higher than that
regular blocky phase. In the lap join- of joint #L1 with a welding current of
The tensile shear strength and frac-
ing process, the arc points to the alu- 50 A. The joint #L2 fractured at the
ture location of each joint are listed in
minum side with an angle of 10 deg. weld root where defects exist Fig.
Table 10, and the tensile shear curves
Although the welding heat input for 12B. This phenomenon indicated that
are shown in Fig. 11, respectively. The
the lap joint is three times larger than the fine -Fe2Al5Znx and Zn-rich phase
lap joint between 5052 aluminum alloy
the deposited sample, less Fe diffuses mixed the structure of spalling inter-
and ST16 steel sheets with a welding
into the weld and Cr is barely found metallic compound layer and interfacial
current of 50 A (#L1) fractured along
in the weld because the arc force did layer can intensify the bonding strength
the interface Fig. 12A. The fracture
not exert on the steel directly. The of the interfacial layer. The typical qua-
morphology and EDS results of typical
dark gray zone in the weld (L6-C and si-cleavage fracture feature with slip
joints are shown in Fig. 13 and Table 11.
L8-C) consists of -Al solid solution, zones and tear edges is observed on the
The fracture surface consists of the Fe-
while the light gray zone in the weld fracture surface of joint #L2 Fig. 13B.
Al-Zn intermetallic compound (F1) with
(L6-D and L8-D) consists of -Al solid The joints between the 5052 aluminum
lots of cracks on the surface Fig. 13A.
solution and Al-Si eutectic phase alloy and 304 stainless steel sheets (#L3
In some locations, the interfacial layer
Fig. 10. This segregation is caused by and #L4) fractured along the interface.
peels off, and the ferritic grain (F2) is ex-
the rapid cooling of the weld pool. The tensile shear strength is 2436%
posed. The average tensile shear

182-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96

NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 183
A B
C D
E
higher than that of the joints between
the 5052 aluminum alloy and ST16
steel sheets, which reflects that the
bonding strength of the -[Fe,
Cr]2Al5Znx interfacial layer is higher
than that of the -Fe2Al5Znx interfacial
layer. The fracture surface of joint #L4
consists of the Fe-Cr-Al-Zn intermetal-
lic compound (F4).
When the Al-12% Si flux-cored
welding wire was applied, the joints
between the 5052 aluminum alloy and
ST16 steel sheets (#L5 and #L6) main-
Fig. 13 Fracture surface of: A joint #L1; B joint #L2;
C joint #L4; D joint #L6; E joint #L8.
ly fractured along the
interface, while the
joints between the 5052
aluminum alloy and 304
stainless steel sheets
(#L7 and #L8) fractured
at the weld root where
defects exisisted. The
thickness of the interfa-
cial layer of joint #L6 is
similar to that in joint
#L8. However, the ten-
sile shear strength of
joint #L8 is 122% higher than that of
joint #L6, which means the bonding
strength of the 5-[Fe, Cr]2Al7Si inter-
facial layer is higher than that of the
Fe2[Al, Si]5 interfacial layer. The frac-
ture surface of joint #L6 is shown in
Fig. 13D. The bulges (F5) are the resid-
ual interfacial layer consisting of the
Fe-Al-Si intermetallic compound. The
flat region (F6) is the surface of the
steel sheet. The fracture surface of
joint #L8 showed quasi-cleavage frac-
ture characteristic in Fig. 13E. Fe was
WELDING RESEARCH
detected on the fracture surface (F7),
so the crack initiation regions could be
the needle-like Fe-Al-Si intermetallic
compound. In our previous work, the
needle-like Fe-Al-Si intermetallic com-
pound spalling into the weld brought a
negative effect to the tensile strength
of the joint (Ref. 23).
In general, intermetallic com-
pounds easily spall when the joints
between the aluminum alloy and low-
carbon steel sheets are made with Zn-
15% Al welding wire, but the tensile
shear strength is 1263% higher than
that using Al-12% Si welding wire.
The residual stress in joints between
aluminum alloy and stainless steel
sheets using Zn-15% Al welding wire
is higher than that using Al-12% Si
welding wire. Cracks often generate
in the weld root. The tensile shear
strength of joints between aluminum
alloy and stainless steel sheets using
Zn-15% Al welding wire is 610%
lower than that using Al-12% Si weld-
ing wire.
MAY 2017 / WELDING JOURNAL 183-s
NIU 201673_Layout 1 4/7/17 10:55 AM Page 184
WELDING RESEARCH
Conclusions
In this paper, Zn-15% Al and Al-12%
Si flux-cored welding wires were de-
posited on two types of low-carbon
steels and three types of stainless steels.
These two welding wires were also ap-
plied to lap joining 5052 aluminum al-
loy/ST16 low-carbon steel sheets and
5052 aluminum alloy/304 stainless
steel sheets. The conclusions are drawn
as follows:
1) The Zn in Zn-15% Al welding wire
can cause spalling of laminar Fe-Al-Zn
intermetallic compound when alu-
minum alloy is joined to low-carbon
steel sheets. Reducing welding heat in-
put can completely restrain the spalling
of Fe-Al-Zn intermetallic compound. In-
side the spalling intermetallic com-
pound layer, fine Fe-Al-Zn intermetallic
compound integrates with Zn-Al solid
solution, which can enhance the weld
strength.
2) Cr in stainless steel base metal
can effectively restrain the spalling of
Fe-Al-Zn intermetallic compound and
the growing of the interfacial layer,
when aluminum alloy is joined to
stainless steel sheets with Zn-15% Al
welding wire.
3) When Al-12% Si welding wire is
applied, whether joining aluminum al-
loy to low-carbon steel sheets or to
stainless steel sheets, needle-like Fe-Al-
Si intermetallic compounds spall into
the weld. Reducing the welding heat in-
put can decrease the amount of Fe-Al-Si
intermetallic compounds, but it cannot
completely restrain the spalling of
them.
4) In the lap joining process, the arc
should not directly point to the steel
surface. If the arc directly acted on the
low-carbon steel sheet, more Fe would
diffuse into the weld, and more Fe-Al-
Si or Fe-Al-Zn intermetallic com-
pounds would spall into the weld. If
the arc directly exerted on the stain-
less steel sheet, more Fe and Cr would
diffuse into the weld, and the [Fe, Cr]-
Al-Si intermetallic compound would
grow into an irregular blocky phase.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially support-
SONG NIU, HONGGANG DONG (donghg@dlut.edu.cn), and PENG LI are with the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Dalian Univer
sity of Technology, Dalian, China.
184-s WELDING JOURNAL / MAY 2017, VOL. 96
ed by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No.
51374048). This work was technically
supported by the Collaborative Innova-
tion Center of Major Machine Manufac-
turing in Liaoning.
References
1. Lee, W., Schmuecker, M., Mercardo, U.
A., Biallas, G., and Jung, S. 2006. Interfacial
reaction in steel-aluminum joints made by
friction stir welding. Scripta Materialia 55:
355358.
2. Watanabe, T., Takayama, H., and
Yanagisawa, A. 2006. Joining of aluminum
alloy to steel by friction stir welding. Journal
of Materials Processing Technology 178:
342349.
3. Miyagawa, K., Yasui, T., Tsubaki, M.,
and Fukumoto, M. 2009. Spot welding be-
tween aluminum alloy and several kinds of
steels by friction stirring. Quarterly Journal
of the Japan Welding Society 27: 8993.
4. Dong, H., Hu, W., Duan, Y., Wang, X.,
and Dong, C. 2012. Dissimilar metal joining
of aluminum alloy to galvanized steel with
Al-Si, Al-Cu, Al-Si-Cu and Zn-Al filler wires.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology
212: 458464.
5. Song, J. L., Lin, S. B., Yang, C. L., Ma,
G. C., and Liu, H. 2009. Spreading behavior
and microstructure characteristics of dissim-
ilar metals TIG welding-brazing of alu-
minum alloy to stainless steel. Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering A 509: 3140.
6. Dong, H., Liao, C., Chen, G., and Dong,
C. 2012. Butt joining of aluminum to steel
by arc brazing process. Materials and Manu-
facturing Processes 27: 13921396.
7. Dong, H., Hu, W., and Zhang, X. 2013.
Detachment of interfacial layers during arc-
brazing of aluminum alloy to carbon steel
with filler wire. Transactions of Nonferrous
Metals Society of China 23: 15831588.
8. Shahverdi, H. R., Ghomashchi, M. R.,
Shabestari, S., and Hejazi, J. 2002 Mi-
crostructural analysis of interfacial reaction
between molten aluminium and solid iron.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology
124: 345352.
9. Bouayad, A., Gerometta, C., Belkebir,
A., and Ambari, A. 2003. Kinetic interac-
tions between solid iron and molten alu-
minium. Materials Science and Engineering A
363: 5361.
10. McDermid, J. R., Kaye, M. H., and
Thompson, W. T. 2007. Fe solubility in the
Zn-rich corner of the Zn-Al-Fe system for
use in continuous galvanizing and galvan-
nealing. Metallurgical and Materials Transac-
tions B 38: 215230.
11. Kato, T., Nunome, K., Kaneko, K.,
and Saka, H. 2000. Formation of the zeta
phase at an interface between an Fe sub-
strate and a molten 0.2 mass% Al-Zn during
galvannealing. Acta Materialia 48:
22572262.
12. Nakamori, T., Adachi, Y., Toki, T., and
Shibuya, A. 1996. Effect of microstructure of
base steel on Fe-Zn alloy growth during gal-
vanizing of an interstitial free steel. Iron and
Steel Institute of Japan International 36:
179186.
13. ASM International. 1992. Handbook
ASM. Volume 03-Alloy Phase Diagrams.
14. Mishra, R., and Dutta, M. 2007. Ef-
fect of steel composition on iron dissolution
in molten zinc and development of Fe-Zn
phases on steel surface. Iron and Steel Insti-
tute of Japan International 47: 15041509.
15. Song, G. M., Vystavel, T., van der
Pers, N., De Hosson, J. T. M., and Sloof, W.
G. 2012. Relation between microstructure
and adhesion of hot dip galvanized zinc
coatings on dual phase steel. Acta Materialia
60: 29732981.
16. Adachi, Y., and Arai, M. 1998. Trans-
formation of Fe-Al phase to Fe-Zn phase on
pure iron during galvanizing. Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering A 254: 305310.
17. Du, Y., Chang, Y. A., Huang, B., Gong,
W., Jin, Z., Xu, H., Yuan, Z., Liu, Y., He, Y.,
and Xie, F. Y. 2003. Diffusion coefficients of
some solutes in fcc and liquid Al: Critical
evaluation and correlation. Materials Science
and Engineering A 363: 140151.
18. Song, J. L., Lin, S. B., Yang, C. L., and
Fan, C. L. 2009.Effects of Si additions on in-
termetallic compound layer of aluminum-
steel TIG welding-brazing joint. Journal of
Alloys and Compounds 488: 217222.
19. Gupta, S. P. 2002. Intermetallic com-
pound formation in Fe-Al-Si ternary system:
Part I. Materials Characterization 49:
269291.
20. Maitra, T., and Gupta, S. P. 2002. In-
termetallic compound formation in Fe-Al-Si
ternary system: Part II. Materials Characteri-
zation 49: 293311.
21. Bouch, K., Barbier, F., and Coulet, A.
1998. Intermetallic compound layer growth
between solid iron and molten aluminium.
Materials Science and Engineering A 249:
167175.
22. Tang, N., Li, Y. P., Kurosu S., Koizumi,
Y., Matsumoto, H., and Chiba, A. 2012. In-
terfacial reactions of solid Co and solid Fe
with liquid Al. Corrosion Science 60: 3237.
23. Niu, S., Chen, S., Dong, H., Zhao, D.,
Zhang, X., Guo, X., and Wang, G. 2016. Mi-
crostructure and properties of lap joint be-
tween aluminum alloy and galvanized steel
by CMT. Journal of Materials Engineering
and Performance 25: 18391847.
arcos.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:20 PM Page C3

Arcoss Delivers Soluttions

to High
H Nic
ckel Allloy
Wel
e ding Ch halleng
ges.

Arcos Industries, LLC offfers

f over 30 high nickel allloy electrode products to handle
h the wide
variety of critical weldingg applications that you face each day.. Our reputation
n for excellent
quality and superb servicce ensures that you can rely on Arcos to provide you u with the best in
bare wire, covered and tu ubular high nickel alloy weelding electrodes.

800-233-8
8460 ww
ww.arcos.us
.
For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
lincoln electric.qxp_FP_TEMP 4/5/17 3:24 PM Page C4

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex