Introduction to

Electrical Engineering

Partha Kumar Ganguly

Associate Professor

Department of Electrical Engineering

Shekhawati Engineering College

Dundlod, Jhunjhunu
Rajasthan

PHI Learning PfcO toiM

Delhi-110092

2014
 wv-

Contents

Preface xix

1. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Electric Current 1
1.3 Electrical Power and Electrical Energy
1.4 Electrical Circuit Elements 4
1.5 Resistance 4
1.5.1 Connection of Resistance 4
1.6 Division of Current in Parallel Circuits
1.7 Capacitance 15
1.8 Connections of Capacitors 15
1.9 Inductance 16
1.9.1 Connections of Inductors 17

Key Points 19
Exercises 21

Numerical Problems 21

2. CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction 24

2.2 Network Elements 24

2.3 Classification of Network 25
2.4 Source of Electrical Energy 26
2.5 Independent Source 26
2.6 Dependent Source 27
2.7 Source Conversion 28
2.8 Kirchhoff s Laws 30
2.9 Cramer's Rule 33
2.10 Nodal Analysis 54

vii
viii Contents

2.11 Star-Delta and Delta-Star Transformation 60

2.11.1 Delta-Star Transformation 61
2.11.2 Star-Delta Transformation 63

2.12 Superposition Theorem 71

2.13 Thevenin Theorem 82

2.14 Norton's Theorem 95

2.15 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 104
2.15.1 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC Networks 118

Key Points 125

Exercises 126
Numerical Problems 126

3. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 148-157

3.1 Effect of Electric Current 148

3.2 Joule's Law 148
3.3 Thermal Efficiency 149
3.4 Quantity of Electricity 151

3.5 Electric Power 151

3.6 Electric Energy 152

3.7 Mechanical Unit of Work, Power and Energy 152

Key Points 156

Exercises 156
Numerical Problems 157

4. ELECTROMAGNETISM 158-175
4.1 Introduction 158
4.2 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 755
4.3 Direction of Magnetic Lines of Force 158
4.4 Typical Electromagnetic Field 159
4.5 Electromagnet 160
4.6 Current Carrying Conductor Placed in Magnetic Field 161
4.7 Work Law 163
4.8 Biot-Savart Law 164
4.9 Force between Two Parallel Current
Carrying Conductors 169
4.10 Magnitude of Mutual Force 170

Key Points 173

Exercises 174

Numerical Problems 175

5. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 176-191

5.1 Introduction 776
5.2 Magnetic Circuit and Its Analysis 776
5.3 Important Terms 777
 Contents ix

5.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits 178

5.5 Types of Magnetic Circuits 179

5.5.1 Series Magnetic Circuit 179
5.5.2 Parallel Magnetic Circuit 180

5.6 Magnetization or B-H Curve 182

5.7 Magnetic Hysteresis 182
5.7.1 Hysteresis Loss 184
5.7.2 Importance of Hysteresis Loop 185

Key Points 189

Exercises 189
Numerical Problems 190

6. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 192-239

6.1 Introduction 192

6.2 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 193
6.3 Direction of Induced Electromotive Force 194
6.4 Dynamically Induced Electromotive Force 196
6.5 Generation of Alternating Voltage and Current 197
6.6 Equation of Alternating Electromotive Force and Current 198
6.7 Important Terms 200
6.8 Statically Induced Electromotive Force 207
6.8.1 Self-induced emf 207
6.8.2 Mutually Induced emf 210
6.9 Coefficient of Coupling 213
6.10 Inductance in Series 214
6.11 Inductance in Parallel 215
6.12 Energy Stored in
Magnetic Field 222
6.13 Magnetic Energy Stored in Per Unit Volume 224
6.14 Lifting Power of a Magnet 224
6.15 Closing and Opening of an Inductive Circuit 227
6.16 Rise of Current in an Inductive Circuit 228
6.17 Decay of Current in an Inductive Circuit 229
6.18 Eddy Current Loss 231

Key Points 234

Exercises 236
Numerical Problems 237

7. SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS 240-333

7.1 Introduction 240

7.2 Advantage of AC 240
7.3 Alternating Voltage and Current 241
7.4 Sinusoidal Alternating Quantity 242
X Contents

7.5 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current 243

7.5.1 Peak Value 243

7.5.2 Average Value 243

7.5.3 Effective Value or RMS Value 245

7.6 Form Factor and Peak Factor 248

7.7 Phasor Representation of an Alternating Quantity 251

7.7.1 Phasor Diagram Using RMS Value 252
7.7.2 Phasor Diagram of Sine Wave of Same Frequency 252

7.7.3 Phase and Phase Difference 253

7.8 Addition and Subtraction of Alternating Quantities 254

7.8.1 Parallelogram Method 254

7.8.2 Method of Components 255

7.9 AC Circuits 259

7.9.1 AC Through Only
Pure Resistance 260

7.9.2 AC Through Pure Inductance

Only 262

7.9.3 AC Through Capacitance Only 264

7.10 Skin Effect 266
7.11 Mathematical Representation of Phasors 270
7.11.1 Rectangular Form of Phasor
Representation 270

7.11.2 Trignometrical Form of Phasor Representation 270

7.11.3 Polar Form of Phasor Representation 270

7.11.4 Form of Phasor Representation 271

Exponential
7.12 Addition and Subtraction of Phasors 272
7.13 Multiplication and Division of Phasors 274
7.14 AC Series Circuit 280
7.14.1 Through Resistance and Inductance Series Circuit
AC 280

7.14.2 AC Through Resistance and Capacitance Series Circuit 292

7.14.3 Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in Series 300

7.15 Series Resonance 302
7.15.1 Q-Factor of Series Resonant Circuit 304
7.16 Parallel AC Circuits 309
7.16.1 Phasor or Vector Method 309
7.16.2 Admittance Method 311
7.16.3 Method of Phasor Algebra or Vector Algebra 313

7.17 Parallel Resonance 316

7.17.1 Q-Factor of a Parallel Resonant Circuit 318

Key Points 326

Exercises 329
Numerical Problems 330

8. THREE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS 334-374

8.1 Introduction 334

8.2 Advantages Three-phase System over Single-phase System
of 335
8.3 Generation of Three-phase Voltages 335
8.4 Phase Sequence 337
 Contents xi

8.5 Interconnection of Three-phases 337

8.5.1 Star orWye (Y) Connection 338
8.5.2 Mesh or Delta (A) Connection 340

8.6 Power in Three-phase Circuits 343

8.7 Balanced Star-Delta (Y-A) and Delta-Star (A-Y) Conversion 344
8.8 Balance Three-phase Circuit Analysis 345
8.8.1 Method of Converting Three-phase Network to Single-phase Network 345
8.9 Comparison between Star and Delta Systems 345
8.10 Power Measurement in Three-phase Circuits 357
8.10.1 One-wattmeter Method 358
8.10.2 Two-wattmeter Method: Balanced or Unbalanced Load 359
8.10.3 Three-wattmeter Method 365

Key Points 371

Exercises 372
Numerical Problems 373

9. DC MACHINES (GENERATORS AND MOTORS) 375-396

9.1 Introduction 375

9.2 Main Constructional Features 375
9.2.1 Magnetic Field System 376
9.2.2 Armature 377
9.2.3 Commutator and Brush Gear 378

9.3 Equivalent Circuit of a DC Machine Armature 379

9.4 Winding Arrangements 380
9.5 Single-layer and Double-layer Winding 382
9.6 Lap Winding 385
9.7 Wave Winding 388
9.8 emf or Voltage Equation of a DC Machine 391
9.9 Armature Reaction 391
9.10 Commutation 394
9.10.1 Methods of Improving Commutation 394

10. DC GENERATOR 397-444

10.1 Introduction 397

10.2 DC Generator: emf Equation 397
10.3 Types of DC Generator 403
10.3.1 Separately Excited DC Generator 403
10.3.2 Self-excited DC Generator 404
10.4 Characteristics of DC Generators 415
10.5 No Load Characteristic Curve for Self-excited Generator 415
10.6 Voltage Build-up of a Shunt Generator 416
10.7 Critical Field Resistance of a Shunt Generator 417
10.8 Load Characteristics of Shunt Generator 418
xii Contents

10.9 Load Characteristics of Series Generator 418

10.10 Load Characteristic of Compound Generator 420
10.11 Causes of Failure to Build up Voltage in a Generator 420
10.12 Applications of DC Generators 421
10.13 Losses in DC Generator 422
10.14 Other Types of Losses 424
10.15 Power Flow Diagram 424
10.16 Efficiency of a DC Generator 425
10.16.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 426

10.17 Parallel Operation of Generators 430

10.17.1 Parallel Operation of DC Series Generator 430
10.17.2 Parallel Operation of DC Shunt Generators 432
10.17.3 Parallel Operation of DC Compound Generators 433

Key Points 440

Exercises 442
Numerical Problems 443

11. DC MOTOR 445-489

11.1 Introduction 445

11.2 Working Principle of DC Motor 445

11.3 Back emf 447

11.4 Determination of Electromagnetic Torque of a DC Motor 448

11.4.1 Shaft Torque 450

11.5 Types of DC Motors 450

11.5.1 Separately Excited DC Motor 451
11.5.2 Self-excited DC Motors 451
11.5.3 Compound Motor 453

11.6 Speed Equation and Speed Regulation 454

11.7 Characteristics of DC Motors 457
11.7.1 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor 457
11.7.2 Characteristic of DC Series Motor 459
11.7.3 Characteristics of DC Compound Motor 461
11.8 Applications of DC Motors 461
11.9 Speed Control of DC Motors 462
11.9.1 Speed Control of Shunt Motor 462
11.9.2 Speed Control of DC Series Motor 466
11.10 Necessity of a Starter in DC Motor 484
11.10.1 Three Point DC Shunt Motor Starter 485

Key Points 486

Exercises 487
Numerical Problems 488

12. TRANSFORMER 490-553

12.1 Introduction 490
12.2 Working Principle of a Transformer 491
 Contents xiii

12.3 Transformer Construction 492

12.4 An Ideal Transformer 494
12.5 Transformer Based on DC 496
12.6 Classification of Transformers 497
12.7 Transformer: emf Equation 497
12.8 Transformer at No-load 503
12.9 Transformer at Load 504
12.9.1 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Transformer 506

12.10 Mutual and Leakage Fluxes in a Transformer 506

12.11 Actual Transformer 508
12.12 Simplified Equivalent Circuit 509
12.13 Voltage Regulation 511

12.14 Losses in a Transformer 512

12.14.1 Core or Iron Losses 512
12.14.2 Copper Loss 513

12.15 Efficiency of a Transformer 513

12.15.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 514
12.16 All-day Efficiency 515
12.17 Auto-transformer 535

12.18 Three-phase Transformer 539

12.18.1 Three-phase Transformer Connections 540

Key Points 546

Exercises 548
Numerical Problems 550

13. AC INDUCTION MOTOR 554-589

13.1 Introduction 554
13.2 Constructional Features of a Three-phase Induction Motor 554
13.3 Production of Rotating Field and Rotation 555
13.4 Principle of Operation of a Three-phase Induction Motor 555
13.5 Slip 556
13.6 Transformer Action 557
13.7 Frequency of Rotor Current 558
13.8 Stator Construction 559
13.9 Rotor Construction 559
13.10 Magnitude of Stator and Rotor emf 561
13.11 Rotor Resistance 562
13.12 Rotor Reactance 562
13.13 Rotor Impedance 563
13.14 Rotor Current and Power Factor 563
13.15 Equivalent Circuit of Rotor 564
13.16 Losses in an Induction Motor 565
13.17 Power States in an Induction Motor 565
13.17.1 Relation between Rotor Copper Losses, Slip and Rotor Input 566
xiv Contents

13.18 Torque Developed by an Induction Motor 566"

13.18.1 Maximum Torque and Its Equation 568
13.18.2 Starting Torque (Ts) 568
13.18.3 Torque-Slip Characteristics 569
13.18.4 Starting Torque of Three-phase Induction Motor 570

13.19 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 571

13.20 Phasor Diagram of Three-phase Motor 573
13.21 Necessity of a Starter 581
13.22 Starting Methods of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor 582
13.22.1 Direct On Line (DOL) Starter 552
13.22.2 Stator Resistance Starter 583

13.22.3 Auto Transformer Starter 583

13.22.4 Star-Delta Starter 584

13.23 Starting Method of Slip Ring Induction Motor 585

Key Points 586

Exercises 587
Numerical Problems 588

14. ALTERNATOR OR SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR 590-621

14.1 Introduction 590
14.2 Alternator 590
14.3 Rotating Field 591

14.4 Advantages of Stationary Armature of Alternator 591

14.5 Construction of Alternator 592
14.5.1 Stator 592
14.5.2 Rotor 594
14.5.3 Miscellaneous 595

14.6 AlternatorOperation 595

14.7 Speed and
Frequency 596
14.7.1 Synchronous Speed 597
14.8 Pitch Factor and Distribution Factor 597
14.9 Excitation
Systems for Synchronous Machines 598
14.10 Alternator: emf Equation 599
14.11 Actual Voltage Generated 599
14.12 Alternator at No-load 605
14.13 Alternator at Load 606
14.14 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator 606
14.15 Armature Leakage Reactance 608
14.16 Armature Reaction in Three-phase Alternator 608
14.17 Synchronous Impedance 609
14.17.1 Calculation of Synchronous Impedance (Z,) 609
14.18 Voltage Regulation 610
14.19 Parallel Operation of Alternator 617
 Contents XV

Key Points 617

Exercises 618
Numerical Problems 618

15. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 622-640

15.1 Introduction 622

15.2 Construction of Synchronous Motor
a 622
15.3 Working Principle of a Synchronous Motor 623
15.4 Methods of Starting a Synchronous Motor 624
15.4.1 By Means of an Auxiliary Motor 624
15.4.2 Self-starting by the Use of Damper Winding 625

15.5 Equivalent Circuit and Phasor

Diagram of
a Synchronous Motor 626
15.6 Power Developed by a Synchronous Motor 628
15.7 Effect of Changing Field Excitation 629
15.8 Synchronous Condenser 630
15.9 Applications of Synchronous Motors 631
15.10 Comparison between Three-phase Synchronous and Induction Motors 632

Key Points 637

Exercises 637
Numerical Problems 638

16. POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 641-657

16.1 Introduction 641

16.2 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor 642

16.3 Causes of Low Power Factor 643

16A Power Factor Improvement 643
16.5 Methods of Power Factor Improvement 644
16.5.1 Power Factor Correction by Synchronous Motor 645

16.5.2 Power Factor Correction by Static Capacitors 645

16.6 Power Factor Correction in Three-phase Systems 646

16.7 Advantages and Limitation of StaticCapacitors 648
16.8 Economies of Power Factor Improvement 652
16.8.1 Most Economical Power Factor 652

Key Points 655

Exercises 656
Numerical Problems 656

17. ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS 658-699

17.1 Introduction 658
17.2 Analog and Digital Instruments 658
17.3 Classification of Electrical Instruments 658
17.4 Utilization of Effects in Analog Instruments 659
xvi Contents

17.5 Indicating Instruments 660

17.6 Moving Iron Instrument 663
17.6.1 Attraction Type Moving Iron Instruments 663
17.6.2 Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instruments 665
17.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments 667
17.6.4 Applications of Moving Iron Instruments 667

17.7 Permanent Magnet Type Moving Coil Instruments 668

17.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet Type
Moving Coil Instruments 677

17.8 Dynamometer Type Instruments 671

17.9 Dynamometer Type Wattmeter 672
17.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter 676
17.10 Rectifier Instruments 678
17.10.1 Limitations and Applications of Rectifier Instruments 679

17.11 Extension of Range of Ammeters and Voltmeters 680

17.11.1 Extension of Range of Moving Coil Ammeter 680
17.11.2 Extension of Range of Moving Coil Voltmeter 681

17.12 Sensitivity 683

17.13 Extension of Range of AC Instruments 683
17.13.1 Advantages of Instrument Transformers 685

17.14 Induction Type Single-phase Energy Meter 685

17.14.1 Errors in an Induction Type Energy Meter and Their Adjustments 688

17.15 Megger 690

17.16 Wheatstone Bridge 692
17.17 Slide Wire Bridge 693
17.18 DC Potentiometer 694
17.19 AC Bridge 695

Key Points 696

Exercises 697
Numerical Problems 698

18. GENERATION OF ELECTRIC POWER 700-722

18.1 Introduction 700
18.2 Sources of Energy 700
18.3 Salient Features of a Modern Coal-fired Steam Power Plant 700
18.3.1 Choice of Site for a Coal-fired Power Plant 704
18.3.2 Superthermal Power Plants 705
18.4 Hydroelectric Power Plants 705
18.4.1 Main Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Station 705
18.4.2 Limitations of Hydroelectric Plants 706
18.4.3 Choice of Site for Hydroelectric Power Station 706
18.4.4 Classification of Hydroelectric Plant 708
18.4.5 Surge Tanks 711
18.4.6 Hydro Potential in India 711
 Contents xvii

18.5 Nuclear Power Plant 711

18.5.1 Main Parts of a Reactor 712
18.5.2 Selection of Site for Nuclear Power Plants 713
18.5.3 Merits of Nuclear Power Plant 714
18.5.4 Limitation of Nuclear Power Plants 714
18.5.5 Classification of Reactor 715

Key Points 721

Exercises 722

19. FRACTIONAL HORSE POWER MOTOR 723-754

19.1 Introduction 723

19.2 Single-phase Induction Motor 724
19.2.1 Torque Produced for Self-starting By Single-phase Induction Motor 725

19.3 Split Phase Induction Motor 726

19 A Capacitor Motors 728
19.4.1 Capacitor Start Motor 728
19.4.2 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor 730
19.4.3 Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Single-phase Induction Motor 732
19.5 Shaded Pole Motor 733

19.6 AC Series Motor or Commutator Motor 735

19.7 Single-phase Synchronous Motor 738
19.7.1 Reluctance Motor 738
19.7.2 Hysteresis Motor 740

19.8 Servo Motor 741

19.8.1 DC Servo Motor 742
19.8.2 AC Servo Motors 742
19.8.3 Comparison of Servo Motors with Conventional Motors 744

19.9 Universal Motors 744

19.10 Stepper Motors 746
19.10.1 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor 747
19.10.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor 748
19.10.3 Hybrid Stepper Motor 749
19.10.4 Application of Stepper Motor 749

19.11 Permanent Magnet DC Motor 750

Key Points 751

Exercises 753

BIBLIOGRAPHY 755

INDEX 757-760