2017611 BeowulfWikipedia

Beowulf
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Beowulf(/beowlf,bio/[2]OldEnglish:[beowulf])isanOldEnglishepicpoemconsistingof3,182alliterativelines.ItmaybetheoldestsurvivinglongpoeminOldEnglishandis
commonlycitedasoneofthemostimportantworksofOldEnglishliterature.Adateofcompositionisamatterofcontentionamongscholarstheonlycertaindatingpertainstothemanuscript,
Beowulf
whichwasproducedbetween975and1025.[3]TheauthorwasananonymousAngloSaxonpoet,referredtobyscholarsasthe"Beowulfpoet".[4]

ThepoemissetinScandinavia.Beowulf,aherooftheGeats,comestotheaidofHrothgar,thekingoftheDanes,whosemeadhallinHeorothasbeenunderattackbyamonsterknownas
Grendel.AfterBeowulfslayshim,Grendel'smotherattacksthehallandisthenalsodefeated.Victorious,BeowulfgoeshometoGeatland(GtalandinmodernSweden)andlaterbecomeskingof
theGeats.Afteraperiodoffiftyyearshaspassed,Beowulfdefeatsadragon,butisfatallywoundedinthebattle.Afterhisdeath,hisattendantscrematehisbodyanderectatoweronaheadlandin
hismemory.

ThefullpoemsurvivesinthemanuscriptknownastheNowellCodex.Ithasnotitleintheoriginalmanuscript,buthasbecomeknownbythenameofthestory'sprotagonist.[5]In1731,the
manuscriptwasbadlydamagedbyafirethatsweptthroughAshburnhamHouseinLondonthathadacollectionofmedievalmanuscriptsassembledbySirRobertBruceCotton.[6]TheNowell
CodexiscurrentlyhousedintheBritishLibrary.

Contents
1 Historicalbackground
2 Summary
2.1 Firstbattle:Grendel
2.2 Secondbattle:Grendel'sMother
2.3 Thirdbattle:TheDragon
3 Authorshipanddate
4 Manuscript
4.1 Provenance FirstpageofBeowulfinCottonVitelliusA.xv
4.2 Writing
4.3 Transcriptions Author(s) Unknown
4.4 Translations Language WestSaxondialectofOldEnglish
4.5 Debateoveroraltradition
5 Sourcesandanalogues Date c.7001000AD(dateofpoem),
6 Dialect c.9751010AD(dateof
7 Formandmetre manuscript)[1]
8 Interpretationandcriticism
9 Artisticadaptations Stateof Manuscriptsuffereddamagefrom
10 Seealso existence firein1731
11 References Manuscript(s) CottonVitelliusA.xv
11.1 Notes
11.2 Citations Firstprinted Thorkelin(1815)
11.3 Sources edition
12 Externallinks Genre Epicheroicpoetry
Verseform Alliterativeverse
Length c.3182lines
Historicalbackground
Subject ThebattlesofBeowulf,the
Theeventsinthepoemtakeplaceovermostofthesixthcentury,aftertheAngloSaxonshadstartedtheirjourneytoEnglandandbeforethebeginningoftheseventhcentury,atimewhenthe Geatishhero,inyouthandoldage
AngloSaxonswereeithernewlyarrivedorwerestillinclosecontactwiththeirGermanickinsmeninNorthernGermany.ThepoemmayhavebeenbroughttoEnglandbypeopleofGeatish Personages Beowulf,Hygelac,Hrothgar,
origins.[7]IthasbeensuggestedthatBeowulfwasfirstcomposedinthe7thcenturyatRendleshaminEastAnglia,astheSuttonHooshipburialalsoshowscloseconnectionswithScandinavia, Wealheow,Hrothulf,schere,
andalsothattheEastAnglianroyaldynasty,theWuffingas,mayhavebeendescendantsoftheGeatishWulfings.[8][9]OthershaveassociatedthispoemwiththecourtofKingAlfredtheGreator Unferth,Grendel,Grendel's
withthecourtofKingCnuttheGreat.[10] mother,Wiglaf,Hildeburh.

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Thepoemdealswithlegends,wascomposedforentertainment,anddoesnotseparatebetweenfictionalelementsandrealhistoricevents,suchastheraidbyKing
HygelacintoFrisia.ThoughBeowulfhimselfisnotmentionedinanyotherAngloSaxonmanuscript,[11]scholarsgenerallyagreethatmanyoftheotherpersonalities
ofBeowulfalsoappearinScandinaviansources.(Specificworksaredesignatedinthefollowingsection).[12]Thisdoesnotonlyconcernpeople(e.g.,Healfdene,
Hrogar,Halga,Hroulf,EadgilsandOhthere),butalsoclans(e.g.,Scyldings,ScylfingsandWulfings)andsomeoftheevents(e.g.,theBattleontheIceofLake
Vnern).ThedatingoftheeventsinthepoemhasbeenconfirmedbyarchaeologicalexcavationsofthebarrowsindicatedbySnorriSturlusonandbySwedish
traditionasthegravesofOhthere(datedtoc.530)andhissonEadgils(datedtoc.575)inUppland,Sweden.[13][14][15]

Approximatecentralregionsoftribes
mentionedinBeowulf,withthe
locationoftheAnglesinAngeln.See
ScandzafordetailsofScandinavia's
politicalfragmentationinthe6th
century.
InDenmark,recentarchaeologicalexcavationsatLejre,whereScandinaviantraditionlocatedtheseatoftheScyldings,i.e.,Heorot,haverevealedthatahallwas
builtinthemid6thcentury,exactlythetimeperiodofBeowulf.[16]Threehalls,eachabout50metres(160ft)long,werefoundduringtheexcavation.[16]
Ohthere'smound
ThemajorityviewappearstobethatpeoplesuchasKingHrogarandtheScyldingsinBeowulfarebasedonrealhistoricalpeoplefrom6thcenturyScandinavia.[17]
LiketheFinnesburgFragmentandseveralshortersurvivingpoems,BeowulfhasconsequentlybeenusedasasourceofinformationaboutScandinavianpersonalitiessuchasEadgilsandHygelac,and
aboutcontinentalGermanicpersonalitiessuchasOffa,kingofthecontinentalAngles.
19thcenturyarcheologicalevidencemayconfirmelementsoftheBeowulfstory.EadgilswasburiedatUppsalaaccordingtoSnorriSturluson.WhenEadgils'mound(totheleftinthephoto)wasexcavated
in1874,thefindssupportedBeowulfandthesagas.Theyshowedthatapowerfulmanwasburiedinalargebarrow,c575,onabearskinwithtwodogsandrichgraveofferings.Theseremainsincludea
FrankishswordadornedwithgoldandgarnetsandataflgamewithRomanpawnsofivory.HewasdressedinacostlysuitmadeofFrankishclothwithgoldenthreads,andheworeabeltwithacostly
buckle.TherewerefourcameosfromtheMiddleEastwhichwereprobablypartofacasket.ThiswouldhavebeenaburialfittingakingwhowasfamousforhiswealthinOldNorsesources.Ongentheow's
barrowhasnotbeenexcavated.[13][14]

FindsfromEadgils'mound,left,excavatedin1874atGamla
Uppsala,Sweden,supportBeowulfandthesagas.Ongentheow's
barrow,right,hasnotbeenexcavated. [13][14]
iserectedinhishonor.
Summary
TheprotagonistBeowulf,aherooftheGeats,comestotheaidofHrothgar,kingoftheDanes,whosegreathall,Heorot,isplaguedbythemonsterGrendel.BeowulfkillsGrendel
withhisbarehandsandGrendel'smotherwithagiant'sswordthathefoundinherlair.
Laterinhislife,BeowulfbecomeskingoftheGeats,andfindshisrealmterrorizedbyadragon,someofwhosetreasurehadbeenstolenfromhishoardinaburialmound.Heattacks
thedragonwiththehelpofhisthegnsorservants,buttheydonotsucceed.BeowulfdecidestofollowthedragontoitslairatEarnans,butonlyhisyoungSwedishrelativeWiglaf,
whosenamemeans"remnantofvalour",[a]darestojoinhim.Beowulffinallyslaysthedragon,butismortallywoundedinthestruggle.Heiscrematedandaburialmoundbythesea

Beowulfisconsideredanepicpoeminthatthemaincharacterisaherowhotravelsgreatdistancestoprovehisstrengthatimpossibleoddsagainstsupernaturaldemonsandbeasts.Thepoemalsobeginsinmediasresorsimply,"inthemiddleof
things",whichisacharacteristicoftheepicsofantiquity.AlthoughthepoembeginswithBeowulf'sarrival,Grendel'sattackshavebeenanongoingevent.Anelaboratehistoryofcharactersandtheirlineagesisspokenof,aswellastheir
interactionswitheachother,debtsowedandrepaid,anddeedsofvalour.Thewarriorsformakindofbrotherhoodlinkedbyloyaltytotheirlord.

Firstbattle:Grendel

BeowulfbeginswiththestoryofHrothgar,whoconstructedthegreathallHeorotforhimselfandhiswarriors.Inithe,hiswifeWealhtheow,andhiswarriorsspendtheirtimesingingandcelebrating.Grendel,atrolllikemonstersaidtobe
descendedfromthebiblicalCain,ispainedbythesoundsofajoyhecannotshare,attacksthehall,andkillsanddevoursmanyofHrothgar'swarriorswhiletheysleep.Hrothgarandhispeople,helplessagainstGrendel,abandonHeorot.

Beowulf,ayoungwarriorfromGeatland,hearsofHrothgar'stroublesandwithhisking'spermissionleaveshishomelandtoassistHrothgar.

BeowulfandhismenspendthenightinHeorot.BeowulfrefusestouseanyweaponbecauseheholdshimselftobetheequalofGrendel.[20]WhenGrendelentersthehall,Beowulf,whohasbeenfeigningsleep,leapsuptoclenchGrendel's
hand.[21]GrendelandBeowulfbattleeachotherviolently.[22]Beowulf'sretainersdrawtheirswordsandrushtohisaid,buttheirbladescannotpierceGrendel'sskin.[23]Finally,BeowulftearsGrendel'sarmfromhisbodyattheshoulderand
Grendelrunstohishomeinthemarsheswherehedies.[24]

Secondbattle:Grendel'sMother

Thenextnight,aftercelebratingGrendel'sdefeat,HrothgarandhismensleepinHeorot.Grendel'smother,angrythathersonhasbeenkilled,setsouttogetrevenge.Sheviolentlykillsschere,whoisHrothgar'smostloyalfighter.

Hrothgar,BeowulfandtheirmentrackGrendel'smothertoherlairunderalake.Unferth,awarriorwhohaddoubtedhimandwishestomakeamends,presentsBeowulfwithhisswordHrunting.Afterstipulatinganumberofconditionsto
Hrothgarincaseofhisdeath(includingthetakinginofhiskinsmenandtheinheritancebyUnferthofBeowulf'sestate),Beowulfjumpsintothelake,atthebottomofwhichhefindsacaverncontainingGrendel'sbodyandtheremainsofmen
thatthetwohavekilled.Grendel'smotherandBeowulfengageinfiercecombat.

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Atfirst,Grendel'smotherappearstoprevail.Beowulf,findingthatHruntingcannotharmhisfoe,putsitasideinfury.Beowulfisagainsavedfromhisopponent'sattackbyhisarmour.BeowulftakesanotherswordfromGrendel'smotherand
slicesherheadoffwithit.TravellingfurtherintoGrendel'smother'slair,BeowulfdiscoversGrendelandsevershishead.ThebladeofBeowulf'sswordtouchesGrendel'stoxicblood,andinstantlydissolvessothatonlythehiltremains.Beowulf
swimsbackuptotherimofthepondwherehismenwaitingrowingdespair.CarryingthehiltoftheswordandGrendel'shead,hepresentsthemtoHrothgaruponhisreturntoHeorot.HrothgargivesBeowulfmanygifts,includingthesword
Ngling,hisfamily'sheirloom.Theeventspromptalongreflectionbytheking,sometimesreferredtoas"Hrothgar'ssermon",inwhichheurgesBeowulftobewaryofprideandtorewardhisthegns.[25]

Thirdbattle:TheDragon

Beowulfreturnshomeandeventuallybecomeskingofhisownpeople.Oneday,fiftyyearsafterBeowulf'sbattlewithGrendel'smother,aslavestealsagoldencupfromthelairofadragonatEarnans.Whenthedragonseesthatthecuphas
beenstolen,itleavesitscaveinarage,burningeverythinginsight.Beowulfandhiswarriorscometofightthedragon,butBeowulftellshismenthathewillfightthedragonaloneandthattheyshouldwaitonthebarrow.Beowulfdescendsto
dobattlewiththedragon,butfindshimselfoutmatched.Hismen,uponseeingthisandfearingfortheirlives,retreatintothewoods.Oneofhismen,Wiglaf,however,ingreatdistressatBeowulf'splight,comestohisaid.Thetwoslaythe
dragon,butBeowulfismortallywounded.AfterBeowulf'sdeath,heisrituallyburnedonagreatpyreinGeatlandwhilehispeoplewailandmournhim,fearingthatwithouthim,theGeatesaredefenselessagainstattacksfromsurroundingtribes.
Afterwards,abarrow,visiblefromthesea,isbuiltinhismemory.(Beowulflines27123182).[26]

Authorshipanddate
BeowulfwaswritteninEngland,butissetinScandinaviaitsdatinghasattractedconsiderablescholarlyattention.Thepoemhasbeendatedtobetweenthe8thandtheearly11thcenturies,withsomerecentscholarshipofferingwhathasbeen
called"acohesiveandcompellingcaseforBeowulf'searlycomposition."[27][28]However,opiniondiffersastowhetherthecompositionofthepoemisnearlycontemporarywithitstranscription,whetheritwasfirstwritteninthe8thcentury,or
ifaprotoversionofthepoemwasperhapscomposedatanevenearliertime(possiblyasoneoftheBear'sSonTales)andorallytransmittedformanyyears,thentranscribedinitspresentformatalaterdate.AlbertLordfeltstronglythatthe
manuscriptrepresentsthetranscriptionofaperformance,thoughlikelytakenatmorethanonesitting.[29]J.R.R.TolkienbelievedthatthepoemretainstoogenuineamemoryofAngloSaxonpaganismtohavebeencomposedmorethanafew
generationsafterthecompletionoftheChristianisationofEnglandaroundAD700,[30]andTolkien'sconvictionthatthepoemdatestothe8thcenturyhasbeendefendedbyTomShippey,LeonardNeidorf,RafaelJ.Pascual,andR.D.Fulk,
amongothers.[31][32][33]

Theclaimtoanearly11thcenturydatedependsinpartonscholarswhoarguethat,ratherthanthetranscriptionofatalefromtheoraltraditionbyanearlierliteratemonk,Beowulfreflectsanoriginalinterpretationofanearlierversionofthe
storybythemanuscript'stwoscribes.Ontheotherhand,somescholarsarguethatlinguistic,paleographical,metrical,andonomasticconsiderationsaligntosupportadateofcompositioninthefirsthalfoftheeighthcentury[28][34][35][36]in
particular,thepoem'sregularobservationofetymologicallengthdistinctions(MaxKaluza'slaw)hasbeenthoughttodemonstrateadateofcompositioninthefirsthalfoftheeighthcentury.[32][33]However,scholarsdisagreeaboutwhetherthe
metricalphenomenadescribedbyKaluza'sLawproveanearlydateofcompositionorareevidenceofalongerprehistoryoftheBeowulfmeter[37]B.R.Hutcheson,forinstance,doesnotbelieveKaluza'sLawcanbeusedtodatethepoem,while
claimingthat"theweightofalltheevidenceFulkpresentsinhisbook[b]tellsstronglyinfavorofaneighthcenturydate."[38]

Manuscript
Beowulfsurvivesinasinglemanuscriptdatedonpaleographicalgroundstothelate10thorearly11thcentury.Themanuscriptmeasures245185mm.[39]

Provenance

Thepoemisknownonlyfromasinglemanuscript,whichisestimatedtodatefromclosetoAD1000,inwhichitappearswithotherworks.TheBeowulfmanuscriptisknownastheNowellCodex,gaining
itsnamefrom16thcenturyscholarLaurenceNowell.Theofficialdesignationis"BritishLibrary,CottonVitelliusA.XV"becauseitwasoneofSirRobertBruceCotton'sholdingsintheCottonlibraryin
themiddleofthe17thcentury.Manyprivateantiquariansandbookcollectors,suchasSirRobertCotton,usedtheirownlibraryclassificationsystems."CottonVitelliusA.XV"translatesas:the15thbook
fromtheleftonshelfA(thetopshelf)ofthebookcasewiththebustofRomanEmperorVitelliusstandingontopofit,inCotton'scollection.KevinKiernanarguesthatNowellmostlikelyacquiredit
throughWilliamCecil,1stBaronBurghley,in1563,whenNowellenteredCecil'shouseholdasatutortohisward,EdwarddeVere,17thEarlofOxford.[10]

TheearliestextantreferencetothefirstfoliationoftheNowellCodexwasmadesometimebetween1628and1650byFranciscusJunius(theyounger).[10]TheownershipofthecodexbeforeNowell
remainsamystery.[10]

TheReverendThomasSmith(16381710)andHumfreyWanley(16721726)bothcataloguedtheCottonlibrary(inwhichtheNowellCodexwasheld).Smith'scatalogueappearedin1696,andWanley's
in1705.[40]TheBeowulfmanuscriptitselfisidentifiedbynameforthefirsttimeinanexchangeoflettersin1700betweenGeorgeHickes,Wanley'sassistant,andWanley.InthelettertoWanley,Hickes
respondstoanapparentchargeagainstSmith,madebyWanley,thatSmithhadfailedtomentiontheBeowulfscriptwhencataloguingCottonMS.VitelliusA.XV.HickesrepliestoWanley"Icanfind
nothingyetofBeowulph."[41]KiernantheorisedthatSmithfailedtomentiontheBeowulfmanuscriptbecauseofhisrelianceonpreviouscataloguesorbecauseeitherhehadnoideahowtodescribeitor
Remountedpage,BritishLibrary becauseitwastemporarilyoutofthecodex.[42]
CottonVitelliusA.XV
ItsuffereddamageintheCottonLibraryfireatAshburnhamHousein1731.Sincethen,partsofthemanuscripthavecrumbledalongwithmanyoftheletters.Rebindingefforts,thoughsavingthe
manuscriptfrommuchdegeneration,havenonethelesscoveredupotherlettersofthepoem,causingfurtherloss.KevinKiernan,inpreparinghiselectroniceditionofthemanuscript,usedfibreoptic
backlightingandultravioletlightingtoreveallettersinthemanuscriptlostfrombinding,erasure,orinkblotting.[43]
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Writing

TheBeowulfmanuscriptwastranscribedfromanoriginalbytwoscribes,oneofwhomwrotethefirst1939linesandasecondwhowrotetheremainder,withadifferenceinhandwritingnoticeableafterline1939.[10]Thescriptofthesecond
scribeisarchaic.[10]Whilebothscribesappeartoproofreadtheirwork,thereareneverthelessmanyerrors.[44]Thesecondscribetoiledoverthepoemformanyyears"withgreatreverenceandcaretorestoration".[10]Theworkofthesecond
scribebearsastrikingresemblancetotheworkofthefirstscribeoftheBlicklinghomilies,andsomuchsothatitisbelievedtheyderivefromthesamescriptorium.[10]FromknowledgeofbooksheldinthelibraryatMalmesburyAbbeyand
availableassourceworks,andfromtheidentificationofcertainwordsparticulartothelocaldialectfoundinthetext,thetranscriptionmayhavebeenmadethere.[45]

Transcriptions

IcelandicscholarGrmurJnssonThorkelinmadethefirsttranscriptionsofthemanuscriptin1786andpublishedtheresultsin1815,workingaspartofaDanishgovernmenthistoricalresearchcommission.Hemadeonehimself,andhad
anotherdonebyaprofessionalcopyistwhoknewnoAngloSaxon.Sincethattime,however,themanuscripthascrumbledfurther,makingthesetranscriptsaprizedwitnesstothetext.Whiletherecoveryofatleast2000letterscanbeattributed
tothem,theiraccuracyhasbeencalledintoquestion,[c]andtheextenttowhichthemanuscriptwasactuallymorereadableinThorkelin'stimeisuncertain.

Translations

In1805,thehistorianSharonTurnertranslatedselectedversesintomodernEnglish.[47]Thiswasfollowedin1814byJohnJosiasConybearewhopublishedanedition"inEnglishparaphraseandLatinversetranslation."[47]In1815,Grmur
JnssonThorkelinpublishedthefirstcompleteeditioninLatin.[47]N.F.S.Grundtvigreviewedthiseditionin1815andcreatedthefirstcompleteversetranslationinDanishin1820.[47]In1837,JohnMitchellKemblecreatedanimportantliteral
translationinEnglish.[47]In1895,WilliamMorris&A.J.WyattpublishedtheninthEnglishtranslation.[47]ManyretellingsofBeowulfforchildrenalsoappearedaroundthebeginningofthe20thcentury.[48]In1909,FrancisBartonGummere's
fulltranslationin"Englishimitativemeter"waspublished,[47]andwasusedasthetextofGarethHinds'sgraphicnovelbasedonBeowulfin2007.

Duringtheearly20thcentury,FrederickKlaeber'sBeowulfandTheFightatFinnsburg[49](whichincludedthepoeminOldEnglish,anextensiveglossaryofOldEnglishterms,andgeneralbackgroundinformation)becamethe"centralsource
usedbygraduatestudentsforthestudyofthepoemandbyscholarsandteachersasthebasisoftheirtranslations."[50]

Agreatnumberoftranslationsareavailable,inpoetryandprose.AndyOrchard,inACriticalCompaniontoBeowulf,lists33"representative"translationsinhisbibliography,[51]andithasbeentranslatedintoatleast23otherlanguages.[52]

SeamusHeaney's1999translationofthepoem(referredtobyHowellChickeringandmanyothersas"Heaneywulf"[53])waswidelypublicized.TranslatingBeowulfisoneofthesubjectsofthe2012publicationBeowulfatKalamazoo,
containingasectionwith10essaysontranslation,andasectionwith22reviewsofHeaney'stranslation(someofwhichcompareHeaney'sworkwiththatofAngloSaxonscholarRoyLiuzza).[54]R.D.Fulk,ofIndianaUniversity,publishedthe
firstfacingpageeditionandtranslationoftheentiremanuscriptintheDumbartonOaksMedievalLibraryseriesin2010.[55]

J.R.R.Tolkien'slongawaitedtranslation(editedbyhisson,Christopher)waspublishedin2014asBeowulf:ATranslationandCommentary.[56][57]ThisalsoincludesTolkien'sownretellingofthestoryofBeowulfinhistale,SellicSpell.

Debateoveroraltradition

ThequestionofwhetherBeowulfwaspasseddownthroughoraltraditionpriortoitspresentmanuscriptformhasbeenthesubjectofmuchdebate,andinvolvesmorethansimplytheissueofitscomposition.Rather,giventheimplicationsofthe
theoryoforalformulaiccompositionandoraltradition,thequestionconcernshowthepoemistobeunderstood,andwhatsortsofinterpretationsarelegitimate.

ScholarlydiscussionaboutBeowulfinthecontextoftheoraltraditionwasextremelyactivethroughoutthe1960sand1970s.Thedebatemightbeframedstarklyasfollows:ontheonehand,wecanhypothesiseapoemputtogetherfromvarious
talesconcerningthehero(theGrendelepisode,theGrendel'smotherstory,andthefiredrakenarrative).Thesefragmentswouldhavebeentoldformanyyearsintradition,andlearnedbyapprenticeshipfromonegenerationofilliteratepoetsto
thenext.Thepoemiscomposedorallyandextemporaneously,andthearchiveoftraditiononwhichitdrawsisoral,pagan,Germanic,heroic,andtribal.Ontheotherhand,onemightpositapoemwhichiscomposedbyaliteratescribe,who
acquiredliteracybywayoflearningLatin(andabsorbingLatinatecultureandwaysofthinking),probablyamonkandthereforeprofoundlyChristianinoutlook.Onthisview,thepaganreferenceswouldbeasortofdecorativearchaising.[58][59]
Thereisathirdviewthatseesmeritinbothargumentsaboveandattemptstobridgethem,andsocannotbearticulatedasstarklyastheycanitseesmorethanoneChristianityandmorethanoneattitudetowardspaganismatworkinthepoemit
seesthepoemasinitiallytheproductofaliterateChristianauthorwithonefootinthepaganworldandoneintheChristian,himselfperhapsaconvert(oronewhoseforebearshadbeenpagan),apoetwhowasconversantinbothoralandliterary
compositionandwascapableofamasterful"repurposing"ofpoetryfromtheoraltradition.

However,scholarssuchasD.K.Crownehaveproposedtheideathatthepoemwaspasseddownfromrecitertoreciterunderthetheoryoforalformulaiccomposition,whichhypothesisesthatepicpoemswere(atleasttosomeextent)improvised
bywhoeverwasrecitingthem,andonlymuchlaterwrittendown.Inhislandmarkwork,TheSingerofTales,AlbertLordreferstotheworkofFrancisPeabodyMagounandothers,saying"thedocumentationiscomplete,thorough,andaccurate.
ThisexhaustiveanalysisisinitselfsufficienttoprovethatBeowulfwascomposedorally."[60]

ExaminationofBeowulfandotherOldEnglishliteratureforevidenceoforalformulaiccompositionhasmetwithmixedresponse.While"themes"(inheritednarrativesubunitsforrepresentingfamiliarclassesofevent,suchasthe"armingthe
hero",[61]ortheparticularlywellstudied"heroonthebeach"theme[62])doexistacrossAngloSaxonandotherGermanicworks,somescholarsconcludethatAngloSaxonpoetryisamixoforalformulaicandliteratepatterns,arguingthatthe
poemsbothwerecomposedonawordbywordbasisandfollowedlargerformulaeandpatterns.[63]

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LarryBensonarguedthattheinterpretationofBeowulfasanentirelyformulaicworkdiminishestheabilityofthereadertoanalyzethepoeminaunifiedmanner,andwithdueattentiontothepoet'screativity.Instead,heproposedthatother
piecesofGermanicliteraturecontain"kernelsoftradition"fromwhichBeowulfborrowsandexpandsupon.[64][65]Afewyearslater,AnnWattsarguedagainsttheimperfectapplicationofonetheorytotwodifferenttraditions:traditional,
Homeric,oralformulaicpoetryandAngloSaxonpoetry.[65][66]ThomasGardneragreedwithWatts,arguingthattheBeowulftextisoftoovariedanaturetobecompletelyconstructedfromsetformulaeandthemes.[65][67]

JohnMilesFoleywrote,referringtotheBeowulfdebate,[68]thatwhilecomparativeworkwasbothnecessaryandvalid,itmustbeconductedwithaviewtotheparticularitiesofagiventraditionFoleyarguedwithaviewtodevelopmentsoforal
traditionaltheorythatdonotassume,ordependupon,ultimatelyunverifiableassumptionsaboutcomposition,andinsteaddelineateamorefluidcontinuumoftraditionalityandtextuality.[69][70][71][61]

Finally,intheviewofUrsulaSchaefer,thequestionofwhetherthepoemwas"oral"or"literate"becomessomethingofaredherring.[72]Inthismodel,thepoemiscreated,andisinterpretable,withinbothnoetichorizons.Schaefer'sconceptof
"vocality"offersneitheracompromisenorasynthesisoftheviewswhichseethepoemasontheonehandGermanic,pagan,andoralandontheotherLatinderived,Christian,andliterate,but,asstatedbyMonikaOtter:"...a'tertiumquid',a
modalitythatparticipatesinbothoralandliteratecultureyetalsohasalogicandaestheticofitsown."[73]

Sourcesandanalogues
NeitheridentifiedsourcesnoranaloguesforBeowulfcanbedefinitivelyproven,butmanyconjectureshavebeenmade.TheseareimportantinhelpinghistoriansunderstandtheBeowulfmanuscript,aspossiblesourcetextsorinfluenceswould
suggesttimeframesofcomposition,geographicboundarieswithinwhichitcouldbecomposed,orrange(bothspatialandtemporal)ofinfluence(i.e.whenitwas"popular"andwhereits"popularity"tookit).Therearefivemaincategoriesin
whichpotentialsourcesand/oranaloguesareincluded:Scandinavianparallels,earlyIrishliteraturesourcesandanalogues,classicalsources,ecclesiasticalsources,andechoesinotherOldEnglishtexts.[74]

EarlystudiesintoScandinaviansourcesandanaloguesproposedthatBeowulfwasatranslationofanoriginalScandinavianwork,butthisideahasbeendiscarded.In1878,GubrandurVigfssonmadetheconnectionbetweenBeowulfandthe
Grettissaga.ThisiscurrentlyoneofthefewScandinaviananaloguestoreceiveageneralconsensusofpotentialconnection.[75]TalesconcerningtheSkjldungs,possiblyoriginatingasearlyasthe6thcenturywerelaterusedasanarrativebasis
insuchtextsasGestaDanorumbySaxoGrammaticusandHrlfssagakraka.SomescholarsseeBeowulfasaproductoftheseearlytalesalongwithGestaDanorumandHrlfssagakraka,andsomeearlyscholarsofthepoemproposedthatthe
lattersagaandBeowulfshareacommonlegendaryancestry,Beowulf'sHrothulfbeingidentifiedwithHrlfKraki.PaulBeekmanTaylorarguedthattheYnglingasagawasproofthattheBeowulfpoetwaslikewiseworkingfromGermanic
tradition.[76]

FriedrichPanzeattemptedtocontextualiseBeowulfandotherScandinavianworks,includingGrettissaga,undertheinternationalfolktaletype301B,or"TheBear'sSon"tale.However,althoughthisfolkloristicapproachwasseenasastepinthe
rightdirection,"TheBear'sSon"talewasseenastoouniversal.Later,PeterJrgensen,lookingforamoreconciseframeofreference,coineda"twotrolltradition"thatcoversbothBeowulfandGrettissaga:"aNorse'ecotype'inwhichahero
entersacaveandkillstwogiants,usuallyofdifferentsexes".[77]

ScholarswhofavoredIrishparallelsdirectlyspokeoutagainstproScandinaviantheories,citingthemasunjustified.WilhelmGrimmisnotedtobethefirstpersontolinkBeowulfwithIrishfolklorehowever,MaxDeutschbeinisthefirstperson
topresenttheargumentinacademicform.HesuggestedtheIrishFeastofBricriuasasourceforBeowulfatheorythatwassoondeniedbyOscarOlson.SwedishfolkloristCarlWilhelmVonSydowarguedagainstbothScandinavian
translationandsourcematerialduetohistheorythatBeowulfisfundamentallyChristianandwrittenatatimewhenanyNorsetalewouldhavemostlikelybeenpagan.[78]

Inthelate1920s,HeinzerDehmersuggestedBeowulfascontextuallybasedinthefolktaletype"TheHandandtheChild,"duetothemotifofthe"monstrousarm"amotifthatdistancesGrettissagaandBeowulfandfurtheralignsBeowulfwith
Irishparallelism.JamesCarneyandMartinPuhvelalsoagreewiththis"HandandtheChild"contextualisation.CarneyalsotiesBeowulftoIrishliteraturethroughtheTinBFrechstory.Puhvelsupportedthe"HandandtheChild"theory
throughsuchmotifsas(inAndersson'swords)"themorepowerfulgiantmother,themysteriouslightinthecave,themeltingoftheswordinblood,thephenomenonofbattlerage,swimmingprowess,combatwithwatermonsters,underwater
adventures,andthebearhugstyleofwrestling."[79]

AttemptstofindclassicalorLateLatininfluenceoranalogueinBeowulfarealmostexclusivelylinkedwithHomer'sOdysseyorVirgil'sAeneid.In1926,AlbertStanburroughCooksuggestedaHomericconnectionduetoequivalentformulas,
metonymies,andanalogousvoyages.[80]In1930,JamesA.WorkalsosupportedtheHomericinfluence,statingthatencounterbetweenBeowulfandUnferthwasparalleltotheencounterbetweenOdysseusandEuryalusinBooks78ofthe
Odyssey,eventothepointofbothcharactersgivingtheherothesamegiftofasworduponbeingprovenwrongintheirinitialassessmentofthehero'sprowess.ThistheoryofHomer'sinfluenceonBeowulfremainedveryprevalentinthe1920s,
butstartedtodieoutinthefollowingdecadewhenahandfulofcriticsstatedthatthetwoworksweremerely"comparativeliterature",[81]althoughGreekwasknowninlate7thcenturyEngland:BedestatesthatTheodoreofTarsus,aGreek,was
appointedArchbishopofCanterburyin668,andhetaughtGreek.SeveralEnglishscholarsandchurchmenaredescribedbyBedeasbeingfluentinGreekduetobeingtaughtbyhimBedeclaimstobefluentinGreekhimself.[82]

FrederickKlaeber,amongothers,arguedforaconnectionbetweenBeowulfandVirgilnearthestartofthe20thcentury,claimingthattheveryactofwritingasecularepicinaGermanicworldrepresentsVirgilianinfluence.Virgilwasseenasthe
pinnacleofLatinliterature,andLatinwasthedominantliterarylanguageofEnglandatthetime,thereforemakingVirgilianinfluencehighlylikely.[83]Similarly,in1971,AlistairCampbellstatedthattheapologuetechniqueusedinBeowulfisso
rareinepicpoetryasidefromVirgilthatthepoetwhocomposedBeowulfcouldnothavewrittenthepoeminsuchamannerwithoutfirstcomingacrossVirgil'swritings.[84]

ItcannotbedeniedthatBiblicalparallelsoccurinthetext,whetherseenasapaganworkwith"Christiancolouring"addedbyscribesorasa"Christianhistoricalnovel,withselectedbitsofpaganismdeliberatelylaidonas'localcolour',"as
MargaretE.Goldsmithdidin"TheChristianThemeofBeowulf,".[85]BeowulfchannelsthebooksofGenesis,Exodus,andDaniel[86]initsinclusionofreferencestotheGenesiscreationnarrative,thestoryofCainandAbel,Noahandtheflood
myth,theDevil,Hell,andtheLastJudgment.[85]

Dialect

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ThepoemmixestheWestSaxonandAngliandialectsofOldEnglish,thoughitpredominantlyusesWestSaxon,asdootherOldEnglishpoemscopiedatthetime.[87]

ThereisawidearrayoflinguisticformsintheBeowulfmanuscript.ItisthisfactthatleadssomescholarstobelievethatBeowulfhasenduredalongandcomplicatedtransmissionthroughallthemaindialectareas.[10]Thepoemretainsa
complicatedmixofthefollowingdialecticalforms:Mercian,Northumbrian,EarlyWestSaxon,KentishandLateWestSaxon.[10]ThereareinBeowulfmorethanthirtyonehundreddistinctwords,andalmostthirteenhundredoccurexclusively,
oralmostexclusively,inthispoemandintheotherpoeticaltexts.Considerablymorethanonethirdofthetotalvocabularyisalienfromordinaryproseuse.Thereare,inroundnumbers,threehundredandsixtyuncompoundedverbsinBeowulf,
andfortyofthemarepoeticalwordsinthesensethattheyareunrecordedorrareintheexistingprosewritings.Onehundredandfiftymoreoccurwiththeprefixge(reckoningafewfoundonlyinthepastparticiple),butoftheseonehundred
occuralsoassimpleverbs,andtheprefixisemployedtorenderashadeofmeaningwhichwasperfectlyknownandthoroughlyfamiliarexceptinthelatestAngloSaxonperiod.Thenounsnumbersixteenhundred.Sevenhundredofthem,
includingthoseformedwithprefixes,ofwhichfifty(orconsiderablymorethanhalf)havege,aresimplenouns,atthehighestreckoningnotmorethanonefourthisabsentinprose.Thatthisisdueinsomedegreetoaccidentisclearfromthe
characterofthewords,andfromthefactthatseveralreappearandarecommonaftertheNormanConquest.[88]

Formandmetre
AnOldEnglishpoemsuchasBeowulfisverydifferentfrommodernpoetry.AngloSaxonpoetstypicallyusedalliterativeverse,aformofverseinwhichthefirsthalfoftheline(theaverse)islinkedtothesecondhalf(thebverse)through
similarityininitialsound.Inaddition,thetwohalvesaredividedbyacaesura:"OftScyldScefing\\sceaenareatum"(l.4).Thisverseformmapsstressedandunstressedsyllablesontoabstractentitiesknownasmetricalpositions.Thereisno
fixednumberofbeatsperline:thefirstonecitedhasthree(OftSCYLDSCEFING,withictusonthesuffixING)whereasthesecondhastwo(SCEAenaREATum).

Thepoethasachoiceofepithetsorformulaetouseinordertofulfillthealliteration.WhenspeakingorreadingOldEnglishpoetry,itisimportanttorememberforalliterativepurposesthatmanyofthelettersarenotpronouncedinthesameway
asinmodernEnglish.Theletterh,forexample,isalwayspronounced(Hrogar:[hrogar]),andthedigraphcgispronounced[d],asinthewordedge.Bothfandsvaryinpronunciationdependingontheirphoneticenvironment.
Betweenvowelsorvoicedconsonants,theyarevoiced,soundinglikemodernvandz,respectively.Otherwisetheyareunvoiced,likemodernfinfatandsinsat.SomeletterswhicharenolongerfoundinmodernEnglish,suchasthorn,
,andeth,representingbothpronunciationsofmodernEnglishth,as//inthingand//thisareusedextensivelybothintheoriginalmanuscriptandinmodernEnglisheditions.Thevoicingofthesecharactersechoesthatoffand
s.Botharevoiced(asinthis)betweenothervoicedsounds:oer,laleas,suern.Otherwisetheyareunvoiced(asinthing):unor,su,sofst.

KenningsarealsoasignificanttechniqueinBeowulf.Theyareevocativepoeticdescriptionsofeverydaythings,oftencreatedtofillthealliterativerequirementsofthemetre.Forexample,apoetmightcalltheseathe"swanroad"orthe"whale
road"akingmightbecalleda"ringgiver."TherearemanykenningsinBeowulf,andthedeviceistypicalofmuchofclassicpoetryinOldEnglish,whichisheavilyformulaic.Thepoemalsomakesextensiveuseofelidedmetaphors.[89]

J.R.R.Tolkienarguedthatthepoemisanelegy.[90]

Interpretationandcriticism
ThehistoryofmodernBeowulfcriticismisoftensaidtobeginwithJ.R.R.Tolkien,[91]authorandMertonprofessorofAngloSaxonatUniversityofOxford,whoinhis1936lecturetotheBritishAcademycriticisedhiscontemporaries'
excessiveinterestinitshistoricalimplications.[92]HenotedinBeowulf:TheMonstersandtheCriticsthatasaresultthepoem'sliteraryvaluehadbeenlargelyoverlookedandarguedthatthepoem"isinfactsointerestingaspoetry,inplaces
poetrysopowerful,thatthisquiteovershadowsthehistoricalcontent..."[93]

Inhistoricalterms,thepoem'scharacterswouldhavebeenNorsepagans(thehistoricaleventsofthepoemtookplacebeforetheChristianisationofScandinavia),yetthepoemwasrecordedbyChristianAngloSaxonswhohadlargelyconverted
fromtheirnativeAngloSaxonpaganismaroundthe7thcenturybothAngloSaxonpaganismandNorsepaganismshareacommonoriginasbothareformsofGermanicpaganism.BeowulfthusdepictsaGermanicwarriorsociety,inwhichthe
relationshipbetweenthelordoftheregionandthosewhoservedunderhimwasofparamountimportance.[94]

StanleyB.GreenfieldhassuggestedthatreferencestothehumanbodythroughoutBeowulfemphasisetherelativepositionofthanestotheirlord.Hearguesthattheterm"shouldercompanion"couldrefertobothaphysicalarmaswellasathane
(Aeschere)whowasveryvaluabletohislord(Hrothgar).WithAeschere'sdeath,HrothgarturnstoBeowulfashisnew"arm."[95]Inaddition,Greenfieldarguesthefootisusedfortheoppositeeffect,onlyappearingfourtimesinthepoem.Itis
usedinconjunctionwithUnfer(amandescribedbyBeowulfasweak,traitorous,andcowardly).GreenfieldnotesthatUnferisdescribedas"attheking'sfeet"(line499).Unferisalsoamemberofthefoottroops,who,throughoutthestory,
donothingand"generallyserveasbackdropsformoreheroicaction."[96]

Atthesametime,RichardNortharguesthattheBeowulfpoetinterpreted"DanishmythsinChristianform"(asthepoemwouldhaveservedasaformofentertainmentforaChristianaudience),andstates:"Asyetwearenoclosertofindingout
whythefirstaudienceofBeowulflikedtohearstoriesaboutpeopleroutinelyclassifiedasdamned.Thisquestionispressing,given...thatAngloSaxonssawtheDanesas'heathens'ratherthanasforeigners."[97]Grendel'smotherandGrendelare
describedasdescendantsofCain,afactwhichsomescholarslinktotheCaintradition.[98]

Otherscholarsdisagree,however,astothemeaningandnatureofthepoem:isitaChristianworksetinaGermanicpagancontext?ThequestionsuggeststhattheconversionfromtheGermanicpaganbeliefstoChristianoneswasaveryslow
andgradualprocessoverseveralcenturies,anditremainsuncleartheultimatenatureofthepoem'smessageinrespecttoreligiousbeliefatthetimeitwaswritten.RobertF.Yeagernotesthefactsthatformthebasisforthesequestions:

ThatthescribesofCottonVitelliusA.XVwereChristianisbeyonddoubtanditisequallycertainthatBeowulfwascomposedinaChristianisedEngland,sinceconversiontookplaceinthesixthandseventhcenturies.Yettheonly
BiblicalreferencesinBeowulfaretotheOldTestament,andChristisnevermentioned.Thepoemissetinpagantimes,andnoneofthecharactersisdemonstrablyChristian.Infact,whenwearetoldwhatanyoneinthepoem
believes,welearnthattheyarepagans.Beowulf'sownbeliefsarenotexpressedexplicitly.Heofferseloquentprayerstoahigherpower,addressinghimselftothe"FatherAlmighty"orthe"WielderofAll."Werethosetheprayersof

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apaganwhousedphrasestheChristianssubsequentlyappropriated?Or,didthepoem'sauthorintendtoseeBeowulfasaChristianUrhero,symbolicallyrefulgentwithChristianvirtues?[99]

Thelocationofthecompositionofthepoemisalsodeeplydisputed.In1914,F.W.Moorman,thefirstprofessorofEnglishLanguageatLeedsUniversity,claimedthatBeowulfwascomposedinYorkshire,[100]butE.TalbotDonaldsonclaimed
thatitwasprobablycomposedmorethantwelvehundredyearsago,duringthefirsthalfoftheeighthcentury,andthatthewriterwasanativeofwhatwasthencalledWestMercia,locatedintheWesternMidlandsofEngland.However,thelate
tenthcenturymanuscript"whichalonepreservesthepoem"originatedinthekingdomoftheWestSaxonsasitismorecommonlyknown.[101]Donaldsonwrotethat"thepoetwhoputthematerialsintotheirpresentformwasaChristianand...
poemreflectsaChristiantradition".[101]

Artisticadaptations
Seealso
ListofBeowulfcharacters
OnTranslatingBeowulf
SuttonHoohelmet#Beowulf

References DavidWoodardappearsasboth
BeowulfandGrendelinthestage
Notes productionExplodingBeowulf
(Berlin,2010)
a."wg"means"fight,battle,war,conflict"[18]and"lf"means"remnant,leftover"[19]
b.Thatis,R.D.Fulk's1992AHistoryofOldEnglishMeter.
c.Forinstance,byChaunceyBrewsterTinkerinTheTranslationsofBeowulf,[46]acomprehensivesurveyof19thcenturytranslationsandeditionsofBeowulf.

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ISBN3125396832
3.Chase,Colin.(1997).ThedatingofBeowulf.pp.922.UniversityofToronto
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4.Robinson2001,?:'Thenameofthepoetwhoassembledfromtraditionthe
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5.Robinson2001:'LikemostOldEnglishpoems,Beowulfhasnotitleintheunique
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FulldigitalfacsimileofthemanuscriptontheBritishLibrary'sDigitisedManuscriptswebsite(http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Cotton_MS_vitellius_a_xv)
Beowulf(http://epublib.info/beowulfdownloadepub)ePub/Mobiversion
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AnnotatedListofBeowulfTranslations:TheListArizonalCenterforMedievalandRenaissanceStudies(http://www.acmrs.org/academicprograms/onlineresources/beowulflist)
onlinetext(http://www.sacredtexts.com/neu/ascp/a04_01.htm)(digitisedfromElliottvanKirkDobbie(ed.),BeowulfandJudith,AngloSaxonPoeticRecords,4(NewYork,1953))
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