Running head: ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 1

Addressing Anxiety and L2 Written Production in the Language Classroom

Yuanyuan Sun, Sarah van Nostrand, & Hanan Alqarni

Colorado State University

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Introduction

This paper was submitted as a part of requirements for E 527 Theories of Second

Language Acquisition. This paper focuses on researching the relationship between anxiety and

L2 written production. With a clearer understanding of the correlation between the two, L2

writing anxiety in the classroom can begin to be better addressed. In order to target specific

changes in the classroom that will reduce anxiety in L2 learners, and therefore improve written

production, there must be theoretical justifications to support these claims. The following section

is a literature review of past and current research on the topic of anxiety and L2 written

production, as well as L2 production as a whole. The literature review section is followed by a

brief summary of that research. This paper concludes with a pedagogical implications section

with the discussion on how the findings of studies and researches can be used to influence future

language teaching in particularly writing classrooms.

Literature Review

It is widely accepted that when learners experience high levels of anxiety, their academic

performance correspondingly drops (Gass, 2013). In other words, the more anxious a student

feels, the more poorly they are likely to perform. However, evidence is needed to substantiate

this claim, and the statement remains too broad. There are a variety of types of anxiety that can

be caused by multiple factors. Additionally, one could ask what specific aspects of a students

performance was adversely affected by anxiety: written production, oral production, or both.

This paper narrows the focus to anxiety that stems only from L2 written production.

Anxiety can be defined as a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness,

and worry (Horwitz, 1986, p. 125). Anxiety can also be associated with feelings of self-doubt,

uneasiness, frustration and worry, as well as other various individual, non-linguistically based
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differences such as motivation and personality. More specifically, looking through a socio-

psychological lens, anxiety is broken down into three possible categories: state anxiety, trait

anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety. Foreign language anxiety falls within the situation-

specific category of anxiety (Horwitz, 2001). Situation-specific anxiety differs from the general

feeling of anxiousness that people experience in a variety of situations in everyday lives. This is

known as trait anxiety. As its name suggests, trait anxiety is caused by specific factors, in this

case foreign language learning. This means that people who may not generally experience

anxiety in their day-to-day lives can still experience high levels of anxiety when learning a

second or foreign language.

Situation-specific foreign language anxiety can then be contrasted with writing anxiety,

which, according to Thompson (1980, cited in Atay & Kurt, 2006), is having a fear of the writing

process that outweighs the projected gain from the ability to write. This fear in the writing

process is thought to exist in part because writing requires individual work and is product-

oriented. When L2 learners write, they do not always receive the encouragement or support that

they feel they need from their peers or language instructors. This lack of support can then

manifest itself into a feeling of helplessness, which in turn can lead to students disliking the

writing process as a whole (Tsui, 1996, cited in Atay & Kurt, 2006).

Cheng (2002) compares second language classroom anxiety with second language

writing-specific anxiety in order to examine whether or not the two types of anxiety can

justifiably fall into different categories. The results, obtained through the use of the Foreign

Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and a modified Writing Apprehension Test

(WAT), indicated that second language classroom anxiety and second language writing anxiety,
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although sharing many similarities, are in fact two separate constructs. Therefore, they should be

treated as such when developing pedagogical interventions to target anxiety.

The FLCAS is an important scale used in measuring anxiety in second language learners

and deserves further attention. Developed by Horwitz and Cope (1986), the FLCAS is a 33-

question survey where students are asked questions ranging from their fears of evaluation, test

apprehension and anxiety, and fears of communicating orally in front of peers or language

teachers in their L2. Students answer these questions independently using a Likert scale, (see

Appendix A for an example of the FLCAS). This scale was developed with the understanding

that second language anxiety can be split into three categories: fear of negative evaluation, test

anxiety, and fear of communication (Horwitz, 1986). These categories that helped develop the

FLCAS show that within a situation-specific anxiety construct, there are many specific factors

that can induce anxiety. The FLCAS does not specifically address second language writing

anxiety, however, and so an offshoot of the FLCAS was developed to target and test L2 writing-

specific anxiety, called the Second Language Writing Apprehension Test (SLWAT). SLWAT is

an adaptation to Daly and Millers (1975s) development of the WAT, which is similar to the

FLCAS with its multi-question survey that students answer independently through the use of a

Likert scale, (see Appendix B for an example of the SLWAT).

The term writing apprehension, coined by the developers of the WAT, Daly and Miller

(1975), varies slightly from the term anxiety, as it deals primarily more with avoidance behavior.

The results of a recent study by Kirmizi (2015), which looked at foreign language students at a

Turkish university, indicated that low writing apprehension correlates strongly with higher test

scores of writing skills. In another study, Zhang (2011) focused on writing anxiety among

Chinese English majors. Her correlation analysis suggested a strong negative relationship
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between ESL writing anxiety and ESL writing performance. She identified, through the use of

the SLWAT, that low self-confidence, insufficient writing practice, fear of test-taking, and an

overall lack of writing knowledge as the main contributors to the students writing anxiety.

According to Cheng (2002), while there has been ample research in the field of foreign

and second language anxiety in relation to oral production, there has been little research in the

field of anxiety in relation to L2 written production. This is because oral communication in the

L2 is thought to produce the most fear, apprehension, and anxiousness in students. Written

production, on the other hand, is generally completed quietly and independently and therefore is

assumed to be the cause of little anxiety. What research has been done in this field is

inconclusive, according to Atay & Kurt (2006). With discussions primarily focusing on

speaking-induced anxieties, it was suggested by that oral production was the largest factor in L2

anxiety. However, more recent studies have helped to validate writing anxiety as its own type of

anxiety, specific to the language skill of writing. It is now supported that writing apprehension is

a strong indicator of academic performance (Atay & Kurt, 2006).

Most of the inconclusive data regarding L2 writing anxiety stems from research

suggesting that L2 learners actually need to experience some levels of anxiety in order to

perform well and boost motivation to learn. Negari & Rezaabadi (2012) suggests that in a low-

stress, low-anxiety, and low-pressure environments, students may not take the content being

taught in class seriously. With this view, some level of stress and feelings of anxiousness can be

productive and actually push students to perform better and concentrate more on the task at hand.

Contrary to studies done by Kirmizi (2015) and Zhang (2011) that strongly suggest a negative

relationship between writing anxiety and writing performance, Negari & Rezaabadi (2012)s data
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suggests that students experiencing higher levels of anxiety will perform better on L2 written

tests than those who experienced lower anxiety.

Furthermore, very interestingly, there have been several studies looking at the

relationship between language teachers own writing anxieties and how those effect their

students in the language classroom. Claypools study (1980, cited in Choi, 2013; Atay & Kurt,

2006), for example, assessed how high school teachers own levels of anxiety correlated with the

frequency of writing tasks assigned to students. The study revealed a negative relationship

between the two, indicating that teachers with high levels of writing anxiety assigned far fewer

writing tasks to students, putting them at a disadvantage by limiting their opportunities for

production practice. In regards to language processing and automaticity, as explained by Gass

(2013), practice, or output, is critical to determining future language use and success in second or

foreign language learning. Students need ample practice in order for their explicit writing

knowledge to become implicit. When this knowledge of particular writing skills or structures

become second nature to students, their writing anxieties lessen while writing performance and

production correspondingly improve (Gass, 2013). Therefore, it is imperative that foreign or

second language instructors, particularly those teaching writing, not let their own fears or

feelings of anxiousness toward writing affect their students.

Another reason it is vital that L2 writing students receiving ample practice is to look at

some of the theories regarding input and output. Early beliefs stemming from behaviorist views

suggested that input alone was sufficient in acquiring a language. Gass (2013) believes, however,

that comprehensible output, or the language that is produced by the learner, is critical to

language learning success. Input alone will never be enough for acquisition. To support this

claim, Swain (1995, cited in Gass, 2013) writes that it is critical for language students to be
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presented with the opportunity to practice comprehensible output, whether oral or written, for

various reasons. These includes measuring the progress and success of the student, and allowing

them to gain confidence in their own writing abilities, ultimately lowering anxiety levels.

Summary

Despite the presence of suggesting the academic benefits of experiencing anxiety in a

language classroom, the overwhelming majority of research supports the claim that anxiety

experienced on any level negatively correlates with students L2 writing production.

Additionally, developing activities that increase students writing output will help students gain

confidence, lower anxiety, and ultimately improve their L2 writing production.

Pedagogical Indications

As discussed in the literature review section, it is very clear that anxiety has negative

correlation with L2 learners writing production. Its important for English language teachers to

realize that anxiety is prevalent among L2 learners and it can negatively impact students

progress on increasing writing performance, and possibly cause them not be able to achieve

teaching goals and objectives as expected. In order to reduce students anxiety levels in L2

writing, there are several approaches suggested by the researchers.

According to Cohen (2002), writing activities should not be considered solitary acts. It is

necessary to create positive social environments for English writing classes to reduce stress and

anxiety among the students, which then translates to lower anxiety levels in their written

production. Cooperative learning methods, which can be used with any type of classes, can

contribute to improving learners academic performance and self efficiency, and reducing the

negative attitude toward writing tasks and assignments. Cohen (2002) suggests that low-stakes

collaborative tasks help to promote students active participation, which benefits their learning.
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Activities such as group compositions, relay the message, surveys and reports, timelines, and

letter exchanges can be very helpful in creating interactive and low-anxiety atmosphere for

students. These activities can be seen in more detail in Nations (2009) book titled Teaching

ESL/EFL reading and writing.

Last but not least, while as mentioned in the literature review, the product-oriented

writing could cause anxiety, Zhang (2011) points out that process-writing activities can help

learners work through negative feelings towards writing which can then reduce their writing

anxiety. Process-writing activities also allow the teacher to know and understand students

feelings, thoughts and needs, as well as provide ongoing feedbacks such as positive comments to

help reduce students fear for the teachers evaluation. The process-oriented activities can be

encouraging students to record their thoughts and progress by writing journals and diaries.

Activities that include brainstorming, drafting, and revising can also guide students to consider

how they can convey meaning in writing effectively instead of only focusing on grammatical

forms. This could promote students confidence in using the target language and hence, reduce

their anxiety.
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References

Atay, D., & Kurt, G. (2006). Prospective teachers and L2 writing anxiety. Asian EFL Journal,

8(4), 100-118.

Cheng, Y. S. (2002). Factors associated with foreign language writing anxiety. Foreign

Language Annuals, 35(6), 647-656.

Choi, S. (2013). Language anxiety in second language writing: Is it really a stumbling block?

Second Language Studies, 31(2), 1-42.

Cohen, E. G. (2002). Cooperative learning and the equitable classroom in a multicultural

society. Plenary presentation of the IASCE in Manchester, England.

Daly, J. A., & Miller, M. D. (1975). The empirical development of an instrument to measure

writing apprehension. Research in the Teaching of English, 9(3), 242-249.

Gass, S. M. (2013). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. New York, NY:

Routledge.

Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied

Linguistics, 21, 112-126.

Horwitz, E. K. (1986). Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of a foreign language

anxiety scale. Tesol Quarterly, 20(3), 559-562.

Horwitz, E. K. (1991). Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of a foreign language

anxiety scale. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory and

research to classroom implications (pp. 37-41). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The

Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125-132.

Kirmizi, O. (2015). An investigation of L2 learners writing self-efficacy, writing anxiety and its
ANXIETY AND L2 WRITTEN PRODUCTION 10

causes at higher education in Turkey. International Journal of Higher Education, 4(2).

Nation, I. S. P. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL reading and writing. New York, NY: Routledge.

Negari, G. M., & Rezaabadi, O. T. (2012). Too nervous to write? The relationship between anxiety

and EFL writing. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(12), 2578-2586.

Zhang, H. (2011). A study on ESL writing anxiety among Chinese English majors - Causes,

effects and coping strategies for ESL writing anxiety. (D-essay in English Didactics)

Kristianstad University, Sweden.

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Appendix A

Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)

Each question is rated using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from Strongly Agree to
Strongly Disagree.

1. I feel nervous using the foreign language outside of the college or class.
2. I am not nervous speaking the foreign language in front of my classmates.
3. I get nervous when I arrive late to class or the day following my absence.
4. I get anxious when there are too many foreign language students registered in my class.
5. I feel anxious when I see classmates better than me in my foreign language class.
6. I feel comfortable in speaking with my foreign language teacher.
7. I feel anxious in reading/writing and grammar class.
8. I get upset due to the method of testing in the foreign language class.
9. I get anxious when I feel that I can't speak well in front of other language students not in
my class.
10. I get nervous when looking at my grades.
11. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my language class.
12. During language class, I find myself thinking about things that have nothing to do with
the course.
13. I tremble when I know that I'm going to be called on in language class.
14. I feel nervous when talking in the foreign language to someone I just met.
15. I get nervous when the language teacher gives us a lot of things to do in so little time.
16. I feel overwhelmed by the number of grammatical rules I have to learn in the foreign
language.
17. I fear pronouncing words incorrectly in my foreign language class.
18. I fear failing my foreign language class.
19. I feel low self-confidence about speaking the foreign language in front of the class.
20. I feel anxious about speaking the foreign language in front of other students.
21. I feel nervous when I am around more experienced foreign language users.
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22. I don't feel anxious when learning a foreign language.
23. In language class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know.
24. I feel anxious when I don't understand what the teacher is saying in the foreign language.
25. I feel anxious when I want to volunteer to say something but can't find the proper words
to say it in my foreign language class.
26. I feel nervous at English exam time.
27. I feel nervous when standing or giving a presentation in front of the class.
28. I don't feel anxious when learning a foreign language.
29. In language class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know.
30. I feel anxious when I don't understand what the teacher is saying in the foreign
language.
31. I feel anxious when I want to volunteer to say something but can't find the proper words
to say it in my foreign language class.
32. I feel nervous at English exam time.
33. I feel nervous when standing or giving a presentation in front of the class.
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Appendix B

Second Language Writing Apprehension Test (SLWAT) Example

Below are a series of statements about English writing. There is no right or wrong answers to
these statements. Please indicate the degree to which each statement applies to you by circling
whether you (1) Strongly Disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) are Uncertain, (4) Agree, or (5) Strongly
Agree with the statement.

1. I avoid writing.
2. I have no fear of my writing being evaluated.
3. I look forward to writing down my ideas.
4. I am afraid of writing essays when I know they will be evaluated.
5. Handing in a composition makes me feel good.
6. My mind seems to go blank when I start to work on a composition.
7. Expressing ideas through writing seems like a waste of time.
8. I like writing my ideas down.
9. I feel confident in my ability to clearly express my ideas in writing
10. I like to have my friends read what I have written.
11. Im nervous about writing.
12. People seem to enjoy what I write.
13. I enjoy writing.
14. I never seem to be able to clearly write down my ideas.
15. Writing is a lot of fun.