Acoustics

Introduction

Definition of terms

z acoustics (-koo!stiks) n. 1. The physics of

sound. 2. The study of sound. 3. The study of
the nature, phenomena, and laws of sound
governing its generation, transmission, and
reception.

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z sound (sound) n. 1. Vibrations transmitted
through an elastic medium (solid, liquid or gas)
within the approximate range of 20 to 20k Hz,
capable of being detected by human organs of
hearing. 2. The alternation of rarefaction and
compression of air particles produced by a
vibrating object. 3. The alternation of stress,
pressure, particle velocity and particle
displacement transmitted through air or
another medium by a vibrating object.
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z noise (noiz) n. 1. Incoherent, random

vibrations of air particles. 2. Undesired sound.

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z ultrasound (ul!tr-sound) n. 1. Sound with
frequencies well above the human range of
hearing. 2. A device in medicine used to view
internal organs without the need for
exploratory surgery.

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z infrasound (in!fr-sound) n. Sound with

frequencies below 20 Hz.

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Question

If a tree falls in the forest, and nobody is there to

hear it, is there sound?

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Answer

Yes, said the physicist. Sound is physical

event which happens whether someone is
there to hear it or not.

No, said the philosopher. Sound is a sensation

known only to the mind of the listener.

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Real answer

z Sound is both a physical phenomena and a

physiological one.
z Sound originates when a body moves back
and forth rapidly enough to send a wave
through the medium in which it is vibrating. But
sound as a sensation must be received by the
ear and passed on to the brain, where it can
be registered as an event taking place in the
world around the listener.

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Part 1a

The Physics of Sound 1

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Generation of sound

z Sound is produced when a vibrating object

causes the particles around it (e.g. air) to also
vibrate in alternating sequences of
compressions and rarefactions. Imagine a
tuning fork

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A tuning fork example

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Medium for sound

z 1660 Robert Boyle conducted a simple

experiment by placing a watch with an
alarum inside a glass jar, then pumped the air
out of the jar.
z A decade earlier, Athanasius Kircher
conducted a similar experiment, but failed
because he could not remove enough air.
z The medium need not be air, as any swimmer
knows, or some hold-up men perhaps.

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Velocity of sound

z The velocity of sound depends upon the

medium in which it travels.
z Sound travels four times faster in water, and
fifteen times faster in iron or steel than in air.
z As a general rule, the denser the material, the
faster it can conduct sound

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 For solids
where:

Y Y Youngs modulus of elasticity

vs = d density of solid (kg/m3)
d

For liquids
where:

B B Bulks modulus of elasticity

vs = d density of liquid (kg/m3)
d

For gases
where:
specific heat constant
p
vs = p steady gas pressure (N/m2)
d
d density of gas (kg/m3)
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Velocity of sound in air

z 1640 French mathematician Martin Mersenne

computed for the return time of an echo from a known
distance. He computed a value of 316 m/s
z 1660 Italians Borelli and Viviani worked out a
method to measure sound timing the interval between
a cannon flash and the audible boom from the
observers position
z 1708 English William Derham further refined the
method of the Italians, taking into account changes in
wind speed and ambient atmospheric temperature.
He ended up with a value of 343 m/s at 20C.
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 Velocity of sound in dry air:

vs = 344.85m s 1 at 20C

Velocity of sound in air at different temperatures:

vs = 331.45 + 0.67Tc m s 1 where:

Tc Temperature in C

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Sample problems

1. A man standing at Echo Mountain times his

shout returning after 4.3 seconds. If the
temperature that day is 32 C, how far is the
rock face?

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 2. A meteorologist studying a storm on the
horizon times a thunderclap after a lightning
strike to arrive at about 5 seconds on the
average. If the storm is about 1.75 kilometers
away, what was the temperature that day?

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Sound as a wave

z Sound is a wave. In order to understand

sound, we must first realize that it is governed
by the wave theory. Thus most of the
properties of sound (with a few exceptions
naturally) are identical to light and
electromagnetic waves.

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Parts of a wave

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More definitions

z loudness (loud!ness) adj. The perceived

sensation of the strength or intensity of a wave
at a given instant. Also called volume or
sound pressure level (see). This
corresponds to the amplitude of the wave.

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z frequency (fre!kwen-se) n. The rate at which
the rarefaction and compression of air
particles occur within a given time. This is
perceived as pitch (see).

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z wavelength (wav!length!) n. The distance

between two points of one whole cycle of a
wave.

wavelength (l) = speed of sound / frequency

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Part 1b

The Physics of Sound 2

Phase and Interference

z Interactions of wave affect the loudness of

sound a phenomenon called interference
z When the waves are of the same frequency,
the resultant wave is the algebraic sum of their
amplitudes
z Complex interference occurs when the waves
are of different amplitudes and frequencies

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Modes of Propagation

z Reflection
z Refraction
z Diffraction
z Absorption

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Reflection

z The basic rule of sound reflection is the same

as that of light: the angle at which the waves
bounce off is equal to angle at which they
strike it
z There are two types of reflection: plane
reflection and parabolic reflection.

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Plane reflection

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Parabolic reflection

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Refraction

z Just like light, sound waves get bent when

traveling through mediums of varying densities
z In addition, sound travels faster in warm air as
it does in cold air

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Diffraction

z Sound waves can also go around corners

z When sound waves encounter an obstacle, it
uses the edge of barrier as a focal point to
generate a new set of waves
z These secondary waves propagate
omnidirectionally to carry the waves around
the obstacle

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Absorption

z When sound waves hit a curtain, a rug, or an

acoustic tile, its energy is dissipated by the
material as heat
z When waves enter these materials, they
bounce aimlessly inside the materials porous
structure
z When the waves finally manage to escape, the
sound is reduced to a fraction of its original
intensity

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Doppler Effect

z The received frequency from a moving sound

source changes relative to the observers
position.
z When the source is moving towards the
observer, the frequency increases, and vice-
versa.
z First observed by Johan Doppler in 1842 by
observing a moving train from a fixed position
(station).

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GENERATED WAVEFRONT

REGULARLY SPACED
WAVEFRONTS WILL BE PERCEIVED
AS A FIXED FREQUENCY (PITCH)

POINT SOURCE
OBSERVER

FIXED POINT SOURCE

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 ORIGINAL WAVEFRONT

BUNCHING OF WAVEFRONTS
WILL BE PERCEIVED AS A
HIGHER PITCH

POINT SOURCE
OBSERVER

POINT SOURCE MOVING

TOWARDS OBSERVER
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ORIGINAL WAVEFRONT

WAVEFRONTS FAR APART

WILL BE PERCEIVED AS A
LOWER PITCH

POINT SOURCE
OBSERVER

POINT SOURCE MOVING

AWAY FROM OBSERVER
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