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1 (
I7 LOAN C 9 - V : RETI..lF,
AFWL TFr! '?'fCfi1.. LIBRARf ._
KIRTLAND AFB, N. M. - -
Calibration of Transonic *.?
-
and Supersonic Wind Tunnels
CONTRACT NAS2-8606
NOVEMBER 1977
NASA
~-
Calibration of Transonic
andSupersonic Wind Tunnels
Prepared for
AmesResearch Center
under Contract NAS2-8606
National AeroMubics
and Space Administration
Scientific andT e c h i d
Information Office
1977
-
" ..
FOREWORD
...
I l l
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sect ion
1 . INTRODUCTION ...................... 1
A . Gackground ................... 1
B.
c.
. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
H i s t o r i c a lS k e t c h
Calibration Procedures
2
4
References
It . TUNNEL VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A . Types o f Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B . OperationalParameters ............
1 . PressureControl . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
8
8
2 . C a l i b r a t i o n Accuracy. Flow U n i f o r m i t y and
R e l a t i o n s h i p t o Model T e s t i n g . . . . . . . 12
References
C . Flow Parameters and U n c e r t a i n t yR e l a t i o n s h i p s . 22
1 . Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 . Temperature ................ 34
3 . Mach Number ................ 36
4
5
.. .......
Flow A n g u l a r i t y and Curvature
Reynolds Number ..............
40
42
6.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
Unsteadiness.Turbulence. and Noise 47
7. Humidity 52
8. T e s t Mediums ............... 56
References
V
Sect ion Page
.
. . . . .. .. .. ..
." ~ .;r
.... F Measurement o f UnsteadyFlowDisturbances 144
.
"
H.
.3
Standard
Boundary Layers andWall Generated Noise
. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ......
Models
169
174
.. 1
2
AGARD Force Models
TransonicPressureModels: ....... 2-0
174
175
. 3 TransonicPressureModels:
References
....... 3-0 175
1.
.. 1
. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
O p t i c a l Methods
Supersonic Tunnels
182
182
.
2 Transonic
3 Newer Methods
References
. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Tunnels 182
183
J. Humidity Measurements
References
.............. 185
A . Random E r r o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
B. F i x eEd r r o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
C . Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
.. . .
D . ErrorPropagation ................ 192
References
.... v. . .
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............. 195
B . Transonic
Tunnel s . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Supersonic Wind Tunnel C a l i b r a t i o n 195
198
C . Supersonic
Tunnels 202
APPENDICES
I1 . LASER
DOPPLER
VELOCIMETERS ................ 222
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
References
Ill . PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EFFECTS OF VIBRATION OF A CIRCULAR CYLINDER ON STATIC
255
. .
IV . FACILITIES WHICH RESPONDED TO QUESTIONNAIRE
A .
Table 1 : Facilities . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. 260
B .
Table I I : T e sSt e c t i o n
CharacteristIcs 267
vi
"
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
-.
Fiqure . Title Page
1.c.1 Data
and E r r oFrl o w ..........
Diagram,
Ref. 1 5
2. B. 1 Jackson's Flow Quality Criteria for Transonic
Tunnels,
Ref. 1 .................... 14
2. B. 2 A l l o w a b l e L i n e a r MachNumber Gradient Over
Model L e n g t hf o r BouyancyDrag C o e f f i c i e n t
C o n t r i b u t i oonf 0.0001, .................. 17
2. B. 3 Effects of Reynolds Number o n C a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e
PWT-16T Tunnel a t Mm = 0 . 6 and 0 . 8 f o r ew = 0 and
~ = 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2. B. 4 MachNumber Gradient OverModel LengthasPercent
o f Average MachNumber f o r Bouyancy D r a g . C o e f f f c I e n t
o f 0.0001 ....................... 19
2. c. 1 Afterbody DragData a t anAverage MachNumber of
0.95.... ...................... 23
2.c.2 AfterbodyDragDataWithTunnel MachNumber Given
t o ThreeDecimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
. The U n c e r t a i n t y o f P i t o t - t o - S t a t i c P r e s s u r e
2.c.3
F u n cot ifo n Number
Mach . . . . . . as. .a . . . . 27.
2.C.4 The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic P r e s s u r e t o S t a g n a t i o n
PressureError,TransonicOperation .......... 29
2.c.5 The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic P r e s s u r e t o S t a t i c P r e s s u r e
Error,TransonicOperation. .............. 31
2.C.6 The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic Pressure t o MachNumber
Error,
Supersonic Operation .............. 32
2.C.7 The R e l a t i o n o f S t a g n a t i o n t o S t a t i c T e m p e r a t u r e a s
a Function o f MachNumber ............... 35
2.C.8 The S e n s i t i v i t y o f MachNumber
and Stagnation Pressure Error .t o.S.t a.t i c.P.r e.s s.u r.e . . . . 38
2.C.9 The S e n s i t i v i t y o f MachNumber t o S t a t i c P r e s s u r e
and StagnationPressures. ............... 39
2.c. 10 Change i n F l o w D i r e c t i o n W i t h Increment o f Mach
Number, Ref. 3 ..................... 41
vii
' Flgure Title Page
2.c. 1 1
Pressure Error. ....................
The'Sensitlvity of Unit .Reynolds Number to Statfc
43
The Sensitivity of Unit Reyno1,ds Number to Stagnation
Pressure Error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.c.12
44
2.C. I3 The Sensitivity of Unit Reynolds Number to Stagnation
Temperature Error . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.C.14 The Sensltlvity of Unlt Reynolds Number to Mach Number
Error......................... 46
2.C.15 Flow Disturbances in Transonic Tunnels, Ref. 5 .... 49
2.C. 16 Flow Disturbances in Supersonic and Hypersonic
Tunnels, Ref. 5 ................... 50
17 The Ratio of Relative Humidity in the Stream to
........
2.C.
Reservoir as a Function of Mach Number. 53
2.C. I8 Reservoir TemperatureRequired to Avoid
Condensation, Ref. 1 0. .... . . . . .. ...... 54
3.8.1 Total Temperature Probes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.C. 1 Isentropic Stagnation Pressure Probe, Ref. 8. . . . . .
70
3.C.2 AEDC Supersonic Mach Number Probes. . . . . . . . . . . 72
viii
F I qure Title Paqa
APPENDIX I
A. 1.4 F l u c t u a t i o nD i a g r a mf o r 1 PercentTemperature
S p o t t i n e s s( E n t r o p y Mode), Ref. 7 ........... 209
fx
Fiqutc Title Page
1
A.1.7 Comparison of Pitot Probe and Hot-wire
.Measurements of Free-Stream Pressure
Fluctuations in a Conventional, Mach 5
Nozzle, Ref. 14 ... ..............
1 214
APPENDIX I I
A.II.l Dual Beam Laser Doppler Velocimeter, with
Optional Forward and Backscatter Modes. ...... 224
APPENDIX I l l
A.lll.1 Pressure Distribution ona Circular Cylinder
in Crossf low,Ref. 1 ................ 258
X
. .. ..
NOMENCLATURE*
A a m p l i t u d eo fs i n u s o i d a lo s c i l l a t i o n , or p r o b ei n t e r f e r e n c e
f u n c t i o ni n t r o d u c e di n Eq. (3.0.1)
BY
Chapman-Rubesin v i s c o s i t y parameter
AC dragcoefficientincrementproduced by a l i n e a rp r e s s u r e .
DG g r a d i e n ti nt h et e s ts e c t i o n
RMS v a l u e o f f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t
RMS f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t p e r u n i t band
widthatfrequency n.
D d i a m e t e ro f a t r a n s v e r s e ,c y l i n d r i c a l ,p r o b es u p p o r t
DS
d i s t a n c e between c e n t e r so fs l o t si nt u n n e lw a l l
d diameterofstaticpressureprobe
dl d i a m e t e ro fP i t o tp r o b e
orifice diameter
F (n) n o n d i m e n s i o n a ls p e c t r a lf u n c t i o nw h i c hi s ameasure o f t h e
i n t e n s i t y o f s t a t i cp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n sp e ru n i t band w i d t h
a tt h ef r e q u e n c y n,
ACp = 1; F(n)dn
f o s c i lf lraeotqfi oune n c y
frequencyofstaticpressurefluctuations
fP
fr f i n e n erpa
so
rstofi ob e nose
(2Ln/d)
H t o t a l head or s t a g n a t p
i or n
e s tsseu
ies
nrctet i o n
xi
t o t a l head i n s e t t l i n g chamber
time-averaged, t o t a lp r e s s u r eb e h i n d a normalshock
RMS o f f l u c t u a t i n g t o t a l p r e s s u r e b e h i n d a normalshock
nose 1 eng t h
d i s t a n c e from c o n e - c y l i n d e r j u n c t u r e t o n e a r e s t s t a t i c
pressure orifice
a d i s t a n c ef r o m a s t a t i c p r e s s u r e o r i f i c e t o b e g i n n i n g o f a
probeenlargement,e.g., f l a r e or support
Machnumber i nt e s ts e c t i o n
mass f l o w p e r u n i t a r e a t h r o u g h v e n t i l a t e d w a l l
mass f l o w p e r u n i t a r e a i n f r e e s t r e a m o f t e s t s e c t i o n
n r e d u c e df r e q u e n c yo fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s , fpwT/u,
"d g e n e r a ld e s i g n a t i o nf o rd i r e c t i o nn o r m a l to a w a l l
P s t a t i cp r e s s u r ei nf r e e s t r e a mo ft e s ts e c t i o n
measured, unsteady s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
s t a t i cp r e s s u r ei ns e t t l i n g chamber
t r u e ,u n s t e a d ys t a t i cp r e s s u r eo fu n d i s t u r b e df r e e s t r e a m
time-averaged, t r u es t a t i cp r e s s u r e
s t a t i cP r e s s u r e measuredona probe o r t u n n e l s i d e w a l l
i n d i c a t e d dynamicpressure, HI-P
dynamic p r e s s u r e i n s e t t l i n g chamber
dynamic p r e s s u r e o f f r e e s t r e a m i n t e s t s e c t i o n
xi i
viscous parameter for flow through slots
RS
number
ReynoldsRe
t time
u(t1 total,
unsteady
velocity
along a probe
axis
ut4 toea1
uncertainty
Interval for Mach
number, Eq. ( 4 . 0 . 3 )
"m velocity of freestream in test
section
WS width of slots
WT square root of
cross-sectional
area o f test
section
X Cartesian
coordinate
measured along
the
tunnel
axis
Y Cartesian
coordinate
measured normal to
the
tunnel
sidewalls
2 Carteslan
coordinaee
measured
normal
to
the
top
and
bottom
walls of tunnel
Greek Letters
a angle of attack
8 (I" 2 1 112
Y ratio of specific
heats
6 angle
between orifice planes
of a yameter
ll azmuthal
angle
polar
orcoordinate
angle
xiii
e semi-vertex angle of a cone
W'
viscosity coefficient at wall temperature
0 density of gas
a
m
standard deviation in Mach number along tunnel centerline
T wall porosity
TW
shear stress ata solid wall
xiv
I-
1. INTRODUCTION
1 .A. Background
I
t r a n s o n i c - w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c ep r o b l e m ,t h eu s eo fs t a n d a r dm o d e l s , and t h e r o l e
w h i c ho p t i c a l methodscanhave d u r i n gt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n s .S e c t i o n IV discusses
thevarioustypes o f e r r o r s i n c a l i b r a t i o n measurements and t h e i r e f f e c t s on
f i n a lr e s u l t s . In a d d i t i o nt op r e s e n t i n gc o n c l u s i o n s and r e c m e n d a t l o n s , a
summary o f t h eq u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t si sg i v e ni nS e c t i o n V. Themanual concludes
w i t h four appendfces.Appendices I and t i r e v i e w ,r e s p e c t i v e l y ,t h eu s eo fh o t - ,
w i r t s / f i l m s and laserDopplervelocimeters.Appendix 1 1 1 d i s c u s s e st h ee f f e c t s
o f v i b r a t i o no n a c y l i n d r i c a l ,s t a t i cp r e s s u r e probe. F i n a l l y , Appendix IV
sumnarizesthecharacteristicsoftunnelsforwhichquestionnaireswerereceived.
1 .B. H i s t o r i c aS
l ketch
2
Dr. Zahm also was concerned with flow uniformity
and the accuracy o f
calibration of thetunnel velocity. He developed an extremely sensitive
manometer for measuring the pressures generatedbv a.Pitot-statlc tube which
was used for velocity measurements. In describing this instrument, he used
the term "wind tunnel" for the first time in the literature. Zahm also used
a toy balloon moving with the flowto obtain a time-of-flight measurement o f
the velocity.
Another calibration procedureused by Zahm involved measurement of the
force on a llpressure plate" or drag plateat the same time the flow velocity
was measured. This method allowed determination of the flow velocityduring
.later testsby observing the forceon the pressure plate,Ref. 4.
Add i t iona 1 discussion of early wind tunnels and measurement techniques
is
also given in an article by Goin -(Ref. 5).
From the beginning, the development of wind tunnel facilities has usually
been a precursor of improved flight vehicles as outlined by Goethert in Ref. 6.
The development of new and improved wind tunnels has, in turn, required new
calibration procedures, techniques and instrumentation in the struggle to
provide experimental data with the accuracy requiredby vehicle designers.
3
I.C. CalibratioP
n rocedures
Boththequalityoftheflow and t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h t h e f l o w
conditionsare known a r e c o n s i d e r e d as p a r t o f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n c o n t r i b u t i o n .
I t i s s u g g e s t e dt h a tt h ec a l i b r a t i o ne f f o r ti n c l u d et h ef o l l o w i n ge l e m e n t s :
2. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f optimum tunneloperationalparameterssuchas
w a l la n g l e and p o r o s i t y ,c o n t r o l systemperformance,etc.
3. D i a g n o s t i c measurements t o i n v e s t i g a t e a specificflowproblem or
deficiency.
6. P e r i o d i cr e - e v a l u a t i o no fb a s i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o nf o rc o n t r o l or
monitoringpurposes.This may be accomplished i n p a r tb yt e s t so n
a s t a n d a r d f a c i 1 it y model.
4
0
FACILITY
1 FORCE
I' PRESSURE &
TEMPERATITRF: TRANSIENTS
I
Figure l . C . 1 . DATA
AND ERROR FLOW DIAGRAM, Ref. 7
R . J.: " F u r t h e rC o r r e l a t i o no f Data From I n v e s t i g a t i o n so f a H i gh
Subsonic-Speed T r a n s p o r t A i r c r a f t Model i n ThreeMajor Wind Tunne 1
A l A A Paper 71-291, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1971-
2. P r i t c h a r d , J. L.:
"The Dawn o f Aerodynamics,''Journal o f theRoyal
A e r o n a u t i c aS
l ociety, V . 61, March 1957.
6
I I. TUNNEL VARIABLES
The m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d w i n d t u n n e l s o p e r a t i n g
i n t h e Machnumber range from 0.4 t o 3.5. Themodes o f o p e r a t i o n of t h e
v a r i o u sf a c i l i t i e ss u r v e y e di n c l u d e : (1) continuousflow, (2) blowdown, and
(3) i n t e r m i t t e n t .
I n thecase of i n t e r m i t t e n t t u n n e l s , e.g., a Ludwiegtube,thevery
s h o r tr u nt i m e sr e q u i r es p e c i a lp r o v i s i o n sf o r measurement and r e c o r d i n g
systems. Pressure measurementscanbeaccomplishedusing e i t h e rh i g h - r e s p o n s e
p r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r so r a capture system which permits measurements o f
p r e s s u r ea f t e rt h er u n . However, t h e same basicproceduresmustbefollowed
i n o r d e rt oc a l i b r a t et h ef a c i l i t y as f o r a l o n g - r u n - t i m ef a c i l i t y . Thus, t h e
s p e c i a lp r o b l e m sa s s o c i a t e dw i t ht h es h o r tr u nt i m e so fi n t e r m i t t e n tt u n n e l s
a r en o td i s c u s s e d ,b u tt h eg e n e r a ld i s c u s s i o n so fc a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r e sa r e
applicable.
A l t h o u g ht r a n s o n i ct u n n e l sw i t hh i g h - a s p e c t - r a t i o (2-D) t e s t s e c t i o n s
a r eg e n e r a l l yo p e r a t e da th i g h e r Reynolds numbers, t h i st y p eo ft u n n e li sn o t
d i s c u s s e ds e p a r a t e l y becausetheysharethe same c a l i b r a t i o n problemsas sym-
m e t r i c atl u n n e l s .
Discussionsofthevarioustopicsare o f a generalnaturewherepossible.
S u b d i v i s i o n si n t ot r a n s o n i c and supersonicareasare made where d i c t a t e d b y
t h ep e c u l i a r i t i e so ft h e s er e g i o n s .F u r t h e rs u b d i v i s i o n sa r e made, as
a p p r o p r i a t e ,i nd i s c u s s i o n s o f details.
7
1I.B. OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
Pressure controls are incorporatedin some form in all wind tunnels (with
the possible exception of supersonic,indraft tunnels). The methods of control
are obviously different for transonic and supersonic wind tunnels and for
intermittent, blowdown and continuous wind tunnels. This section is limited
to discussions of pressure control systems as they influence tunnel calibra-
tion programs and the effects of variations introduced
by these systems on
tunnel flow quality and measurement accuracy.
For supersonic tunnels the Mach number(and all Mach dependent test
b y the nozzle geometry and stagnation con-
section conditions) are determined
ditions. The supersonic nozzle is not normally considered a static pressure
control (although it does perform that function). Several tunnels include
automatic control o f nozzle geometry. The pressure control is simplest for
the atmospheric-stagnation-pressure, supersonictunnel since the prime function
of the drive systemis to create the pressure ratio necessary to start
and
maintain nozzle flow. For pressure tunnels, both the tunnel pressurization and
main drive system control the stagnation pressure.
8
T r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t i o nr e q u i r e sa d d i t i o n a lc o n t r o lo ft h et e s ts e c t i o n
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e .I na d d i t i o nt oc o n t r o lo f compressorpressure r a t i o ,t h es t a t i c
p r e s s u r ei sc o n t r o l l e d by some t y p eo f plenum evacuation system. A t supersonic
Mach numbers aboveabout 1.4 a v a r i a b l e geometry,convergent-divergentnozzle
i s u s u a l l y used. Also, a s p e c i f i e d Yach number can be a t t a i n e do v e r a range o f
t u n n e lp r e s s u r er a t i o s b yo t h e rc o n t r o lv a r i a b l e s .T u n n e l. p r e s s u r er a t i o may
t h e r e f o r e beone o ft h ev a r i a b l e si n v e s t i g a t e df o rt u n n e lf l o wo p t i m i z a t i o n ,i n
terms o f b o t h f l o w u n i f o r m i t y and minimum power consumption. Plenum evacuation
canbeaccompli shedby ejectorflapswhich usethemainstreamflowto pump t h e
plenum, o r a u x i 1 i a r y pumping systemscan beused.
Almost a l l o ft h ec o n t i n u o u st u n n e l sr e s p o n d i n gt ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e use
ma nua 1 con t r o 1 o f t o t a l and s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ,a l t h o u g hs e v e r a l haveava i l a b l e
automatic systems t o i n d i c a t e t h e measured t e s t c o n d i t i o n s t o t h e o p e r a t o r s , and
a f e wi n c l u d ec l o s e d - l o o p ,a u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l . The response o f a continuous
t u n n e l ,p a r t i c u l a r l y a l a r g e one, t oc o n t r o li n p u t si si n f l u e n c e d by thetime
constantsinvolved. These t i m ec o n s t a n t sa r e a f u n c t i o no ft h ec i r c u l a t i n ga i r
mass, t h e r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a o f t h em a i nd r i v e ,e t c . , and a r eg e n e r a l l yl a r g e .
A b e n e f i c i a le f f e c t o f t h el a r g et i m ec o n s t a n t si st h a ts h o r t - t e r md i s t u r b a n c e s
tend t o be h e a v i l ya t t e n u a t e d andsmoothed. Precise, smooth c o n t r o li sp o s s i b l e
by manual c o n t r o l ,b u t changes i n l e v e l r e q u i r e a l o n g e rp e r i o dt h a nf o rs m a l l
timeconstant systems. F l u c t u a t i o n si nt h ec o n t r o l l e dp r e s s u r et e n dt oo c c u r
a tt h e system naturalfrequency,which i s t h ei n v e r s e o f thetimeconstant.
The p e r i o d o f t h e s ef l u c t u a t i o n s can be verylong - up t o 10-15 seconds. In
ordertoobtain a measurement o f t h e mean v a l u e o f t u n n e l f l o w c o n d i t i o n s , measure-
mentsover atleast one p e r i o da r er e q u i r e d .
9
but the system can also be computer or program c o n t r o l l e d t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t
Reynolds number a s t h e s t a g n a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s d u r i n g t h e r u n , or t h e
pressure may be i n c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y w i t h t i m e t o i n v e s t i g a t e R e y n o l d s number
e f f e c t s ,e x p l o r ef l u t t e rb o u n d a r i e s ,e t c .I ng e n e r a l ,t h ef u n c t i o n a lc a p a b i l i t y
ofthestagnationpressure system has become more s o p h i s t i c a t e d w i t h t h e i n t r o -
duction of digital computer c o n t r o l .
From t h e f l o w q u a l i t y s t a n d p o i n t , t h e mostimportantperformanceparameter
ofthe system i s t h e a c c u r a c y o f p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l o r , i n more s p e c i f i ct e r m s ,
t h ev a r i a n c eo ft h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ea b o u tt h e mean l e v e l . The p e r i o d o f
thisvariationistypically about 1 secondand t h ec u r r e n ts t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t
appears t o be about a 0.1 percentstandarddeviation; much l a r g e r p e r t u r b a t i o n s ,
up t o 1/2%, can e a s i l y r e s u l t due t o e l e c t r i c a l n o i s e , m e c h a n i c a l f r i c t i o n or
misadjustment o ft h ec o n t r o l computer. The s t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o ls y s t e m
must o p e r a t e c o n t i n u o u s l y t o overcome the disturbance created by the decreasir 9
r e s e r v o i rp r e s s u r e . Thusa c o n t r o l l e ro fh i g h e ro r d e rt h a nt h a t used for a
c o n t i n u o u st u n n e lp r e s s u r ec o n t r o li su s u a l l yr e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v et h ed e s i r e d
accuracy. A simpleregulatorisnormallyinadequate.
10
A u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l of t h e downstream t h r o a t a r e a i s used i n anumber of facili-
t i e s .A u t o m a t i cc o n t r o li sh i g h l yd e s i r a b l ei no r d e rt om a i n t a i nc o n s t a n t Mach
number d u r i n g model a t t i t u d e v a r i a t i o n s and simultaneouslymaintain optimum
plenumevacuation.Moresophisticatedoperational modes a r e a v a i l a b l e under
computer c o n t r o l , suchas Machnumber sweeps, e t c . The performance o f t h i s
system a l s o d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e v a r i a t i o n of the test section Machnumber.
Currentbestperformanceappears t o be 'about 0.001. butlargervariationsare
possibleatsubsonic speeds, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t h i g h m o d e l - p i t c h r a t e s .
I n t h e absence o f p e r t u r b a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d by t h e Mach o r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
c o n t r o ll o o p ,s m a l lv a r i a t i o n si ns t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec a n n o tn e c e s s a r i l y be
takenintoaccountbysimultaneous measurement of t h e twopressuresbecause of
phase l a g and a t t e n u a t i o n e r r o r s .
An i m p o r t a n tp r o c e d u r a ld i f f e r e n c ei nm a k i n gc a l i b r a t i o n measurements i n
a blowdown tunnel i s thatrunsshould be made a t each c a l i b r a t e d Machnumber
where a l l t u n n e l v a r i a b l e s a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t d u r i n g an e n t i r e blowdown, in
o r d e rt od e t e c tt i m eo rv a l v ep o s i t i o n dependent e f f e c t s . If a traversing
a n g u l a r i t yp r o b ei s moved a l o n g t h e t u n n e l c e n t e r l i n e d u r i n g t h e r u n , f o r example,
time-dependent e f f e c t s will be o b s c u r e d b y t h e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s and v i c ev e r s a .
I n t e r m i t t e n t( I m p u l s e ) Wind Tunnels
I n t e r m i t t e n tw i n dt u n n e l sa r ec o n s i d e r e dt o b et h o s et h a to p e r a t ei n a
b a s i c blowdown mode, b u t w i t h a r u nt i m eo fa b o u t 4 t o 5 seconds or less. The
Ludwieg t u n n e li s a t y p i c a lf a c i l i t yo ft h i sc l a s s . The Ludwieg p r i n c i p l e
canbeapplied to e i t h e r a supersonicor a transonicwindtunnel.Pressure
c o n t r o li sl i m i t e dt ot h ei n i t i a lc h a r g et u b ep r e s s u r e and i st h e r e f o r er e l a -
t i v e l ys t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . An advantage o f theLudwiegtunnel i st h a tt h es t a g n a -
t i o np r e s s u r e downstream o ft h ei n i t i a le x p a n s i o nt u b ei sc o n s t a n t( n e g l e c t i n g
v i s c o u se f f e c t s ) . The p r i m a r yc a l i b r a t i o n measurement problemsassociated
withthe L u d w i e gt u n n e lo b v i o u s l ya r i s e from t h e s h o r t t e s t d u r a t i o n .
11
ll.B.2 C a l i b r a t i o nA c c u r a c y , Flow U n i f o r m i t y and R e l a t i o n s h i pt o Model T e s t i n g
The c a l i b r a t i o n o f a t r a n s o n i c w i n d t u n n e l i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d i f f i c u l t
than calibration of a supersonictunnel due p r i m a r i l y t o t h e v e n t i l a t e d t e s t
s e c t i o nw a l l s . The v e n t i l a t e d w a l l s and t h e b a s i c n a t u r e o f t r a n s o n i c flow
p r e v e n tt h ed e t e r m i n a t i o no ft e s ts e c t i o nc o n d i t i o n s from t u n n e l o r n o z z l e geom-
e t r ya l o n e , as i s t h ec a s ew i t h a c a l i b r a t e ds u p e r s o n i ct u n n e ln o z z l e . A
measurement o f t e s t s e c t i o n s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , i n a d d i t i o n t o s t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e ,
i sr e q u i r e dd u r i n gc a l i b r a t i o n and r o u t i n et e s to p e r a t i o n s .F u r t h e r ,f o rf i x e d
t e s ts e c t i o n geometry,the model o r o t h e r a p p a r a t u s i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n can i n f l u -
ence t h e Mach number. These f a c t o r sr e q u i r et h a tt h et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o np r o v i d e
a r e l a t i o n between t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n anda
r e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e measured i n t h e plenum chamber o r o n t h e v e n t i l a t e d w a l l .
T r a n s o n i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni sf u r t h e rc o m p l i c a t e d by t h ea d d i t i o n a ld e g r e e s
of freedom providedby a ventilatedwall, i.e., a t each Mach number, t h e optimum
w a l la n g l e ,w a l lp o r o s i t y( f o ra d j u s t a b l ep o r o s i t yw a l l s ) , plenum e v a c u a t i o nf l o w
r a t e ,t u n n e lp r e s s u r er a t i o , and choke c o n t r o l p o s i t i o n must a l l be determined.
Criteria for optimum a d j u s t m e n t i n c l u d e u n i f o r m i t y o f Mach number and, a t super-
sonic speeds, shock and expansion-wave c a n c e l l a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h a r e
u s u a l l ye v a l u a t e d based on t e s t so fc o n e - c y l i n d e r models. A t subsonic speeds, in
additiontominimizingvariationsin Mach number d i s t r i b u t i o n , o t h e r c r i t e r i a f o r
o p t i m i z a t i o na r et u n n e ln o i s el e v e l and f o r c e s ona standardmodel. A recent
r e p o r t byJackson(Ref. I ) p r o v i d e s a comprehensivediscussionoftheprocedures
employed i ns e l e c t i n at r a n s o n i ct u n n e lp a r a m e t e r st om i n i m i z e Machnumber varia-
tions.
Many o ft h et r a n s o n i ct u n n e l ss u r v e y e dd e t e r m i n et h ew a l la n g l e basedon
shock and expansion wave c a n c e l l a t i o n a t s u p e r s o n i c speeds, and t h i s a n g l e i s
oftenmaintainedconstantatall Mach numbers, w h i l e o t h e r s a d j u s t t h e w a l l
a n g l ea c c o r d i n gt o a Machnumber schedule. I ng e n e r a l ,a d j u s t m e n to fw a l la n g l e
w i t h Machnumber will p r o v i d e amore uniformflow.
A t y p i c a lo p t i m i z a t i o np r o b l e ma ts u b s o n i c Mach numbers i s b a l a n c i n g o f
plenum evacuation and chokeareafor a c h o k e - c o n t r o l l e d blowdown tunnel. The
a v e r a g et e s ts e c t i o n Mach number can be a t t a i n e d w i t h an i n f i n i t e number of
c o m b i n a t i o n so f plenum pumpingand chokearea.Forexample,the criterion
u s u a l l y chosen i s t o m i n i m i z e downstream Mach number increasesordecreasesfrom
12
theupstreamvalue. Downstream d i s t u r b a n c e si n Machnumber a r eu n d e s i r a b l e
becausetheycancreatebouyancyeffectsfurther upstream.Sincethedisturb-
ancemagnitude i se x t r e m e l ys e n s i t i v et o changes i n plenumpumping a t subsonic
Mach numbers belowabout 0 . 8 5 , t h e optimumpumping i s d e t e r m i n e dd u r i n gc a l i b r a t i o n
and m a i n t a i n e dc o n s t a n tf o rr o u t i n et e s t i n g . The t e s ts e c t i o n Machnumber is
c o n t r o l l e d by v a r y i n g t h e chokeareawhichdoesnot alter the downstream d i s t u r b -
ance.
I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t c r i t e r i a based o nt h es t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n do n o t
d i s t i n g u i s h between random o r p e r i o d i c v a r i a t i o n s and mean f l o w g r a d i e n t s . Thus,
i n a d d i t i o n to s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n c r i t e r i a , c o n s i d e r a t i o n must be g i v e n t o empty-
t u n n e ls t a t i cp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t s . The s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e
t e s ts e c t i o n mustbe e i t h e rc o n s t a n t( w i t h i na c c e p t a b l el i m i t s )o r any g r a d i e n t
mustbe known a n d r e p e a t a b l e t o a sufficiently high degree o f accuracy so t h a t
bouyancy c o r r e c t i o n s c a n b e made t o a t t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d a c c u r a c y i n measurements
o f model drag. I t i st h e r e f o r eo fi n t e r e s tt oi n v e s t i g a t e ,i n a systematic
manner, t h e e f f e c t s of testsectionpressuregradientondrag measurement accuracy
and how t h i s r e l a t e s t o f l o w q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s .
0.024
0.020
l-
0.01 6 -
z -0 AEDC-PWT 16T DATA
-
0
,/
I- "JACKSON S CR I T E R I A FOR "GOOD"
->
a "
FLON QUAL 1 T Y /
-"
:0 . 0 12
I
u
a
I:
0.008
t
.'3 "
0.004
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .o 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
TESTSECTIONMACHNUMBER, Mm
AC = -
qw
dP/dx , (2.8.1)
DG
where V i s t h e model volume, S i s wingreferencearea, qm i st h ea v e r a g et e s t
s e c t i o n dynamicpressure, dP/dx i st h ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t and AC i st h e
DG
d r a gc o e f f i c i e n ti n c r e m e n tp r o d u c e d by t h ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t .
M -
g r a d i e n ti nt e r m so f
1.4 t o 0.0005 a t M = 3.0.The
AP/H overthe
P
- x
H
(1 + 0.2 M 2) -3.5 (2.B.2)
qW
- D 0.7 M 2 ( 1 + 0.2 M2 -3.5 (2.B.3)
H
15
may beused t o w r i t e Eq. (2.6.1)as
#-
2
-
(2. e.4)
M (1+0.2 Hz)
AC
DG
= "[
SLm M(I+O.Z )
2
'M
] AM . (2.6.5)
16
"
V -
sLm
L/
2
3
T E S TS E C T I O N MACH NUHEER
17
0.020
0.016
0.012
Hm - Mc
0.008
0.004 -
0
0 1 .o 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Re x 10-6/ft
I~ 1 I 1 1 1
0 4 8 12 16 20
Re x 10'6/m
18
I
F i g u r e 2.8.4. MACH
NUHHER
GRADIENT O V E R NOOELLENGTHASPERCENT OF AVERAGE
MACH
NUMBER FOR RQUYANCY DRAG C O E F F I C I E N TO F 0.0001
The v a l u eo ft h ep a r a m e t e r V/SLm f o r s e v e r a l a i r c 2r. a f t t y p i c a l OF fighter,
a t t a c k and t r a n s p o r t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e l i s t e d below.
Aircraft W/SL
-m
F-1 5 0.054
F-16 0.048
YF-17 0.043
A-7 0.071
oc-8 0.061
DC-9 0.088
DC-IO 0.083
8-741 0.065
8-727-100 0.076
8-727-200 0.056
C-141A 0.055
C -5A 0.078
*
Due totheapproximatevalues used f o r some o f t h e a i r c r a f t volumes, the
valuesof W/SL, shouldberegarded as approximate.
20
I I .D. P.eferences
This data appearsto have substantial scatter but may be correlated using Mach
number measurements with a precision of 0.001 as shown in Fig. 2.c.2.* It
also may be noted that for a typical fighter aircraft configuration the tran-
o f 0.001 is "equivalent"
sonic drag riseis such that a Mach numt.er uncertainty
to 0,0002 (2 counts) in drao coefficient. Similarly. other parameters must be
II.C.1.
Pressures
of this pressure to the test section static pressure. During supersonic opera-
tion static pressure is usually obtained from stagnation pressure and the Mach
-
nozzle setting.
Figures 2.C.l and 2 were obtained through private communication with Mr. Jack
Runkel. NASA Langley Research Center. This requirement for a Mach number accuracy
O f at least 0.001 i s also substantiated by the recent nozzle-afterbody tests
reported by Spratley and Thompson (Ref. 1 7 ) .
22
NASALANGLEY
TAILINTERFERENCE MODEL
M = .95
.28
cD
.24
1 2 3 4 5 6
"jdP
.2a
.24
.20
.16
(assuming t h e r a t i o o f s p e c i f i c h e a t s i s 1.4):
" - a H2
aHS
HS H2
= aM[ 35 (M2
(M2 + 5) (7M2
112-
1) -
3 (2.c.1)
I f it i s assumed t h a tt h et o t a lp r e s s u r ei s measured i n t h e s t i l l i n g
(2.c.2)
a nd
S o l v i n g for -
H
i nt h ef i r s te q u a t i o n and s u b s t i t u t i n gi n t ot h el a t t e r ,
t h ef o l l o w i n ge x p r e s s i o ni so b t a i n e d .
"aH2 5 (M2-1)2 -
'Pm
= o (2.C.4)
H2 M2 ( 7M2- 1 ) Po0
which yields
aH2 H2 2. 2
- I -
5 (M - 1 ) (2.C.5)
a pm M2(7M2-l) '
3.5
Since -
"2
pm
= [F]
2
[4"] 7H - 1
2.5
,then -
aH2
a pm
(2.C.6)
canbe s i m p l i f i e d to:
M 1.6, t h ee r r o ri ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e may be g r e a t e rt h a n, . t h ee r r o ri n
*
P i t o tp r e s s u r e .F o r Mach numbers g r e a t e rt h a n 1.6 t h er e v e r s ei st r u e .T h i s
occursbecausethe staticpressure becomes v e r y s m a l l a t h i g h Mach numbers,
26
5
2
StagnationPressure: The pressure o f t h e t e s t medium i s measured w i t h t h e
d i r e c t l yr e f l e c t e di nt h ea c c u r a c yo fc o e f f i c i e n td a t a .I n mostinstances,
q = M2Pm . (2.c.8)
I nt h et r a n s o n i c range,both Pm and !i
S
a r e measured. E r r o r si ne i t h e ra f f e c t
2
Since q+pm ,
= YMP- -
aM , (2.C.9)
aHS a HS
(2.C. IO)
28
I
C
-5 1.0 1.5 2 .o
Mach Number
(2.c.11)
as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2.C.5. From q = 7
Y M 2 Pm :
a
= yMPm -
aM
a
+ -$ M 2 (2.c.12)
1
(2.C.13)
I -
M
(aM/(aPm/Pm)) + I . (2.C. 14)
aM/ (aPJP,) = - -
7M ( 1 +.2M )
2
, (2.C.15)
which upon s u b s t i t u t i o n y i e l d s
(aq/q)/(aPm/Pm) 1 - 2
7 ~ z(M2+5) . (2.C.16)
as f o l l o w s :
30
1
I I
0 I I
05 1.0
Mach er
-2
-3
-4
Figure 2.C.5
I
THE Sli3KLTIVITY OF DYNAMIC PRESSURE
PRESSURE ERROR, TRANSONIC OPERATION
'K) STATIC
31
2
\ Mach Number
-1
-2
-3
-4
(2.C. 18)
= 2 + ( a P /P ) / , ( ~ M / M )
W O D
(2.C. 19)
As shown i nS e c t i o n ll.C.3,
aM/(aPw/Pw) = - -5
7M ( 1 + 2
.2M ) , (2.C.20)
hence
2
(aM/M)/(aP w
/P w 1 = - - ( I + .2M ) - (2.C.21)
7M2
Then
(2.C.22)
or
(2.C.23)
dynamicpressurefrom:
(2.C.24)
33
A t low Mach numbers, o n l y t h e f i r s t t e r m of t h e ' s e r i e s i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d .
cent.
I I .C.2 Temperature
As a fundamental s t a t ep r o p e r t y ,s t r e a m( s t a t i c )t e m p e r a t u r ei so f
s u b s t a n t i a li m p o r t a n c ei ne s t a b l i s h i n gt h ec h a r a c t e r o f t h ef l u i df l o w .
Thus a na c c u r a t ev a l u eo ft e m p e r a t u r ei sr e q u i r e di nw i n dt u n n e lt e s t i n gt o
d e t e r m i n es e v e r a lc o r r e l a t i o np a r a m e t e r sw h i c hd e f i n et h en a t u r eo ft h ef l o w .
The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s t a t i c t e m p e r a t u r e i n a gasstreamconventionally
e s t a b l i s h e dp r o c e d u r e sf o rc o m p u t i n gs t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r e from t h es t a g n a t i o n
s t a g n a t i o n - t o - s t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r ef o r a p e r f e c t gas ( y = 1.4) i n an a d i a b a t i c
34
Mach Number
I I . C. 3 t,iach Number
pressure and e i t h e r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e o r a f t e r - s h o c k ( P i t o t ) s t a g n a t i o np r e s -
(2.C.25)
be d e r i v e d b y o b t a i n i n g t h e p a r t i a l de r i v a t i v e o f t h e above e x p r e s s i o n w i t h
(2. C .27)
T h i se x p r e s s i o n may be n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l i t e d t o o b t a i n
2
aM/(aHS/Hs) = -
7M
( -"45 7 (2.C.28)
pW
or
be
aH/(aPw/Pw)= - -
7M
( 1 + .2M )
2
, (2.C.30)
which i 1 l u s t r a t e s t h a t
":$,;.
. . ..
aM/(aPw/Pw) = - aM/(aHS/Hs) . (2.C.31)
The r e l a t i o n o f s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e b e h i n d a normalshock, H2, t o HS
as aMach number f u n c t i o n i s :
(2.C.32)
(2.C.33)
37
2.4
2 .o
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
f o r M = f ( H S , P,)
0
1 2 3 4 5
Mach Number
-1600
-1300
"200
-1OOO
x lo6 N/m2
-800
-600
-400
-2oc
L
C
1 2 3 4 5
Mach Number
ir r e g u l a r i t i e s o r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s o f a tunnel,
upstream o f t h en o z z l eo rc o n t r a c t i o n . The r e s u l t i n gn o n - u n i f o r m i t yp r o -
c o r r e c t i v ea c t i o n si n c l u d en o z z l ec o n t o u r c o r r e c t i o n s ,i n s t a l l a t i o n of
g e n e r a t ea d d i t i o n a lu n d e s i r a b l ep e r t u r b a t i o n s( R e f . 4).
Because o f t h e a c u t e s e n s i t i v i t y o f c e r t a i n model c o n f i g u r a t i o n s t o
i nt h et e s ts e c t i o n . Probes f o r m e a s u r i n gf l o wa n g u l a r i t ya r ed i s c u s s e di n
Section I I1.E.
40
0.6
0.5
cu
0, 0.2
2
Ed
F
u
0.1
c &
2 3 4 5 6 7
Mach Number
41
I I .C.5 Reynolds Number
The r a t i o o f i n e r t i a l t o v i s c o u s f o r c e s i n t h e t e s t medium i s
number g i v e n by
R/E = -
PU
lJ (2.C.34)
6 P,,H
-( 1
R/I1 = 2.29 x 10
To2
+ .2M )
2, 2, ( 1,.:
I, (2.C.35)
6 HSM
R/E = 2 . 2 9 x 10
TZ ( 1 + .2H 2 ) 1.5
42
Figure 2. C .11 TI& SENSITiVI!iT OF UNIT REYNOLDS NUMBER TO
STATIC PRESSURE EHROR
43
100
x
60
40
20
I I I
1 2 3 4 5
h c h ,Jwnber
44
To = 3UoK
-160
2- \ \
-40
I I I I
I
1 2 3 4 5
Mach Number
45
1 2 3 4 5
Mach Number
46
ll.C.6. Unsteadiness,Turbulence and Noise
Large,continuousflowtunnelsoftenhavesmall-amplitude,low-frequency
r o u t i n et e s t i n gp r o c e d u r e s .
s i t i v et of l o wu n s t e a d i n e s s ,I na d d i t i o n ,f r e e s t r e a mt u r b u l e n c ei n t r o d u c e s
b o u n d a r yl a y e ri n t e r a c t i o n s .
edgetones and/ororgantones,
2. slottedwallswhichgeneratebroad-banddisturbances due t o
47
3. r e v e r b e r a t i o n o f t u n n e lw a l l s ,
5. t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s a l o n g t h e t u n n e l w a l l s ,
6. d i f f u s e rf l o wi n s t a b i l i t y ,
7. compressors i nc o n t i n u o u sw i n dt u n n e l s ,
8. c o n t r o lv a l v e si n blowdown windtunnels,
9. v i b r a t i o no ft u n n e ls i d e w a l l s ,
10. w o r k i n gs e c t i o nc u t o u t s , and
I t i s noted i nt h er e v i e w paper
by
b!estiey
(Ref. 5) t h a t CL buffet
max
onset, t r a n s o n i cd r a gr i s e , b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r a n s i t i o n and separati.on, sk n.
I .
of f r e e - f l i g h tc o n d i t i o n s i n caseswherethis, i st r u e . Our p r e s e n ts t a t e of
m e n t a lo b j e c t i v e o f c u r r e n tr e s e a r c hi nt h i s a r e ai st oo b t a i n
.
a
.
b e t t e ru n d e r -
s t a n d i n g o f t h i s phenomena v i a a s y s t e m a t i c t e s t i n g programwhichusesstandardized
and t e s tp r o c e d u r e s , and
I I
Y
1
WALL HOLE
RESONANCE
JET No'SE
IIC+ "
II
I
51
I I. C , 7 Humidity
The a c c e l e r a t i o n o f a i r f r o m r e s t i n v o l v e s t h e r e d u c t i o n o f s t a t i c
pressure and temperature. Such expanslon t o evenmoderate speeds r e s u l t s
i nt h er a p i da p p r o a c h to water-vaporsaturation.Figure 2.C.17 illustrates
this condltion in terms o f t h e r a t i o o f t h e r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y o f t h e s t r e a m
tothatofairatrest as i n a r e s e r v o i r . The e x t e n t o f t h e e f f e c t o f conden-
sationon aerodynamic t e s t d a t a , and thusthe amount ofcondensationwhich
can be t o l e r a t e d , has n o t been f i r m l ye s t a b li s h e d( R e f . 8). Forexample, the
i n v e s t i g a t i o nr e p o r t e d by N o r t o n ,e ta l . (Ref. 9) i n d i c a t e sv e r y little
d i f f e r e n c ei nd a t ao b t a i n e d on t h e same model i n m o i s t a i r ascompared with
thatobtainedindryair.
52
100
10
Mach Number
Figure 2 .C .17 THE RATIO OF RELATIVE HUM DIY I N THE STREAM TO
IT
RESERVDIR AS A FUNCTION OF MACH NUMBER
53
Assumptions:
Dew Point Temperature = 2 c
Allowable Supercooling = 30 C
Allowable Stream Temperature = -29 c
1 2 3 4
Mach Number
Figure 2 .c .l8 RESERVOIR TEMPERATLTRE: REQUIRED TO AVOID
CONDEXSATION, Ref. IO
54
reduce s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ; whereas, t h eo p p o s i t eo c c u r si ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w .T h i s
e f f e c t has a l s o been s u b s t a n t i a t e db ya n a l y s e sa t AEDC.* These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e
a n e g a t i v e Machnumber g r a d i e n to c c u r s when m o i s t u r e condenses i n supersonic
flow.
s u p e r s o n i cw i n dt u n n e l s .A l t h o u g ht h e s ef a c i l i t i e sh a v ed i f f e r e n to p e r a t i n g
t u r el e v e l sd u r i n gt h ev a r i o u sc y c l e s , i t i sg e n e r a l l ya l l o w a b l et oc o n s i d e r
found t h a t t h e i d e a l r e l a t i o n s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r t h e v e r y l o w t e m p e r a t u r e
R e c e n tt r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e lt e s t so fa i r f o i l s have i n d i c a t e da ne f f e c to f
w i t ht h ee f f e c t so f y on transonic-shock/boundary-layer i n t e r a c t i o n s .T h i si s
a tw h i c hf r e e s t r e a mp r e s s u r ee x i s t s .R e s e a r c ho nt h i s phenomena i sc o n t i n u i n g
a t NASA Ames.
56
1 I .C. References
57
14. Adcock, J e r r y B . , Kilgore,Robert A. an'd
Ray, Edward J., "CryogenicNitrogen
asaTransonic Wind TunnelTest Gas," AlAA Paper 75-143, January 1975.
17. S p r a t l e y , A. B., Thompson, E. R., and Kennedy, T. L.: l'Reynolds Number and
58
111. CALIBRATION PROCEDURES AND lNSTRUMENTATlON
A. S e t t l i n g Chamber Pressure
-
qS = "5 - ps = 1 - (-+,p S
HS HS S
*
The t e r m s " S e t t l i n g chamber"and " s t i l l i n g chamber" a r e usedinterchangeably.
59
should be based on t h e p a r t i c u l a r f a c i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s * and t h e t y p e o f
t e s t sw h i c ha r ec o n d u c t e di nt h a tf a c i l i , t y .
Once t h e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n s e t t l i n g chamber p r e s s u r e a r e j u d g e d t o be
acceptable, i t i s suggested t h a t an a p p r o p r i a t ea v e r a g e be d e f i n e d basedon
measurements i nt h ec e n t r a lp o r t i o no ft h ef l o w .F o r example, i nt h e 16 f t .
TransonicTunnelat NASA L a n g l e y ,f o u rP i t o tp r o b e s have beenmounted inthe
c e n t r a lp o r t i o no ft h ef l o wt od e f i n e anaverage(Ref. 2). I ng e n e r a l ,i n - i t i a l
c a l i b r a t i o n s r e q u i r e more measurements i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a s u i t a b l e average.
However, o n c et h ea v e r a g et o t a lp r e s s u r ei sd e t e r m i n e df o rt h er a n g eo fo p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s , a s i m p l ew a l l mounted tube (or a s t a t i c o r i f i c e ) can be c a l i b r a t e d
torelateits measurements t o t h e average. By f o l l o w i n gt h i sp r o c e d u r e ,r o u t i n e
test,ingcan be accomplishedwithoutanyunnecessaryobstructions in the central
portionoftheflow.
*A number o f s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s have f i x e d - c o n t o u r , s l i d i n g b l o c k n o z z l e s w h i c h
a r er o u t i n e l yo p e r a t e do f fd e s i g n . These n o z z l e sc a nh a v es i g n i f i c a n tt o t a l
pressurelosseswhichcanonly be determined by P i t o t surveys w i t h i n t h e t e s t
section. However, t h ea v e r a g et e s ts e c t i o nt o t a lp r e s s u r ec o u l d be r e l a t e d
t o s t i l l i n g chamber p r e s s u r e v i a c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t s .
A*
T h i s assumes the nose i s f r e e o f b u r r s . F i n i s h i n g o f o r i f i c e s i s b r i e f l y
discussed i n S e c t i o n I 11.0.4.
60
of 0 . 5 will c a p t u r e t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e w i t h a n e r r o r o f 0.56 x 10 q.
-4 For a
given amount o f t u r b u l e n c e , t h e e r r o r d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r r a t i o .
Thisaccuracy i s more than ample f o r most t u n n e l s s i n c e h o t - w i r e measurements
a t AEDC i n t h e s e t t l i n g chamber o ft h e Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel (4T), Ref. 5, 3.
dence.
f:
The problem o f i n t e r n a l geometry changes c a u s i n g b i a s i n g o f measured mean
p r e s s u r e si nf l u c t u a t i n gf l o w si sb r i e f l yd i s c u s s e di nR e f . 3 , p.105.
1II.A. References
4. Becker, H. A. and
Brown, A. P. G.: "Response o f P i t o t Probes i nT u r b u l e n t
Strearns,l'Jour. F l u i d Mech., Vol. 62, P a r t 1 , 8 Jan. 1974.
62
III . B. TOTAL TEMPERATURE
The t o t a l t e m p e r a t u r e i s n o r m a l l y m o n i t o r e d . i n t h e s t i l l i n g chamber d u r i n g
r o u t i n et u n n e lo p e r a t i o n .S i n c et h ed i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt o t a l and s t a t i c tempera-
t u r e i s s m a l la t low v e l o c i t i e s , a shielded,high-recoverythermocoupleprobe
i sn o tu s u a l l yn e c e s s a r y .I nf a c t ,d a t ao b t a i n e d by Stickney(Ref. 1) f o rt h e s e
twotypes o f probes show t h a tt h er e c o v e r yf a c t o r sa r en e a r l yi d e n t i c a l ("0.999)
f o r temperaturesnearambient and M < 0.2. Thus, Pope and Goin(Ref. 2) note
thatin many cases t h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e can bemeasured in the stilling chamber,
w i t hs a t i s f a c t o r ya c c u r a c y , by u s i n g a simplebare-wirethermocouplejunction.
*
A schematic o f t h i s t y p e o f t e m p e r a t u r e p r o b e i s shown i n t h e upper p a r t o f
F i g u r e 3.8.1. Measurements
by Stickney(Ref.1)indicatethatsuchunshielded
temperatureprobeshave amuch shorterresponsetime compared t o more e l a b o r a t e ,
s h i e l d e dp r o b e s .I nt h ec a s eo f blowdown tunnelswheretotaltemperaturecan
v a r yr a p i d l y ,t h i si s an essentialadvantage.Forexample, i f t e s t sa r e con-
ductedatconstantReynolds numbers, t h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e mustbe monitored
c o n t i n u o u s l y s o t h a tt o t a lp r e s s u r e canbe c o n t r o l l e da u t o m a t i c a l l y . Also,
s m a l lw i r et h e r m o c o u p l e sw i t ht i m ec o n s t a n t so ft h eo r d e ro f 0.1 sec. a r e
t y p i c a l l yr e q u i r e d .F o r example, a 0.13 mm (0.005 i n . )d i a m e t e rw i r e has a
*>*:
t i m ec o n s t a n ot 0f . 1s e c i.na i a
rt ambienttemperature and pressure and
a v e l o c i t yo f 19.8 m/sec (65 f t / s e c ) . Whereas, f o r t h e same c o n d i t i o n s , a
0.53 mm (0.021")diameterwire has a 1.0sectimeconstant,e.g.,Ref. 4.
I n response t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e , t h em a j o r it y o f t u n n e lo p e r a t o r si n d i ca ted
they do i n f a c t use thebare-wirethermocouple f o r t o t a l temperature measurements.
E s t i m a t e da c c u r a c i e sv a r i e df r o m +0.56"C t o 2 1 . 1 " C (21F t o2 2 F ) . Based on
t h er e l a t i o n sp r e s e n t e di nS e c t i o n l l . C . 2 , an u n c e r t a i n t yi nt o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e
o f 1 C will cause, a t M = 1 , a maximum u n c e r t a i n t y o f 0.5 p e r c e n t a t a Reynolds num-
berpermeter of 33 m i l l i o n .F o r most t e s t i n g purposes t h i s i s acceptable. However,
f e wt u n n e l s( t r a n s o n i co rs u p e r s o n i c )a p p e a rt o havebeen calibratedfor tempera-
t u r eg r a d i e n t sw h i c h may e x i s t a c r o s s and a l o n gt h ef l o w .
*A c o m p r e h e n s i v ed i s c u s s i o no ft h e r m o c o u p l ep r i n c i p l e s ,c i r c u i t s ,e l e c t r o m o t i v e
f o r c et a b l e s ,s t a b i l i t y and c o m p a t i b i l i t yd a t a ,i n s t a l l a t i o nt e c h n i q u e s ,e t c .
may be found i n Ref. 3.
IA
r. I.
/Two-hole ceramic
holder .229 O.D. x .033 W a l l t
A l l Dimensions In Centimeters
Probe (Ref. 5
AEDC-IWT 1 6 ~
.635 O.D. x .089 Wall
7
v 1.12 R
-.+ 1.27 h
v 30.48
e x i s ti nt u n n e l sw i t h o u ts p e c i a lc o o l i n g o r heatingsystems,this example
i l l u s t r a t e st h ep r o c e d u r er e q u i r e dt oa c c u r a t e l yc a l i b r a t ew i n dt u n n e l tempera-
tures. For r o u t i n et e s t i n g , a singletemperatureprobecan be r e l a t e dt ot h e
average s t i l l i n g chamber t e m p e r a t u r e v i a c a l i b r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e
disturbingeffectsof anunnecessarythermocouplegrid.
.L
65
Additionalinformation on thedesign and c a l i b r a t i o no ft o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e
probescanbefound i n Refs.7-10.Also,Bate(Ref. 1 1 ) has reviewedthe
problem o f e r r o r s i n thermocouple measurements basedon e x p e r i e n c ei nt h e DFVLR
windtunnels i n WestGermany.
66
I
I I I . 6. References
67
1II.C. PITOT PRESSURES
Use o f P i t o t Pressures f o r C a l i b r a t i o n
As d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n II.C.l, when M > 1.6 t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n c a l c u l a t e d
t e s ts e c t i o n Mach number i s l e s s i f t h ec a l c u l a t i o ni s based on P i t o t p r e s s u r e
r a t h e rt h a nf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i cp r e s s u r e . Thus, mostsupersonictunnelshave been
c a l i b r a t e dv i aP i t o tp r o b es u r v e y s and assumingan i s e n t r o p i ce x p a n s i o nf r o m
t h es t i l l i n g chamber. I nt h ep a s t ,i n v e s t i g a t o r s such as Hill (Ref. 1) and Hill,
e ta l . (Ref.2)have r e p o r t e dt h a t measurements i ns m a l l ,s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s
(<0.5 m) o f t h e r a t i o o f t o t a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n t o r e s e r v o i r p r e s -
sure exhibit a range o f 0.998 -
+ 0.003. This type of resul t leads t o t h e con-
elusion t h a t n o n i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n e f f e c t s a r e n e g l i g i b l e a t normaloperating
temperatures and p r e s s u r e si n a properlydesignedsupersonictunnel,i.e., one
i n whichthe empty t u n n e li sf r e eo f shocks. However, l a r g ec o n t i n u o u st u n n e l s
a r eo f t e no p e r a t e da tr e l a t i v e l yh i g hh u m i d i t yl e v e l si no r d e rt oi n c r e a s et h e
o p e r a t i n gt i m ep r i o rt od r y e rs a t u r a t i o n . For example,Maxwell and H a r t l e y
(Ref. 3) found i n t h e AEDC-PWT 165 Tunnel t h a t when t h eh u m i d i t y was 0.002 gm
H20/gm o f d r y a i r , t h e average t o t a l p r e s s u r e o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n was 2 t o 6%
lowerthanthereservoirpressure.Thisloss was reduced 50%by decreasing
t
t u n n e lh u m i d i t yt o 0.001.
?t 2
These r e s u l t s w e r e o b t a i n e d w i t h 2 .o < M < 4.75, 3 .1 Wcm2 < Hs < 9.1 N/cm ,
55 OC < To < 78 OC.
A*
T h i s can be d e t e r m i n e d d u r i n g s e t t l i n g chamber c a l i b r e t i o n ,S e c t i o n 1II.A.
68
heatscanbeused tocalculatethetest-section Machnumber and t o t a
pressure.
Straight Section
Dia .
P i t o t ProbesforFreestreamCalibration
II.' P itot
D i s kn o tp r e s e n t l yC a l i -
bra ted w i t h C, probe d a t a .
1.
2.
,
31 75
Variableangle
Tunnel 16 S
Dimensions In Centimeters
wedge located a t
Scale 4:l Pitot and Static Measuring Transducers are K u l l t e CQL-062-50.
Type, Mounted in Silastimer Compound i n Probe.
d
1-
r
I
.
I
I
t?-"3"
-
-1
Scale 1:l f-
8 d
U
W
d e m o n s t r a t e dt h a tt o t a lp r e s s u r e measurements w i t h t h i s p r o b e will be i n
e r r o r by 0.01q' a t anangle of attack of 1 1 degrees and M , = 0.26 and1.62.
T h i s same accuracy was a t t a i n e d a t a = 2230 , M = -
0.26 and a = +29O, M = 1.62
by i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i a m e t e r r a t i o t o 0;96. The a n g l e o f a t t a c k r a n g e was
increasedeven moreby usinginternal.bevellingtoincreasethediameter
ratioto near one. However, s i n c ef l o wa n g u l a r i t yi n empty t e s ts e c t i o n s
seldomexceeds 1 or 2 degrees, a t u b e w i t h a s t r a i g h t impactopening and a
diameterratioof 0.5, o r more, will p r o v i d e i m p a c t p r e s s u r e s w i t h n e g l i g i b l e
error. (Of course, t h i s assumes theprobe i sf r e eo fb u r r s . )
E f f e c t so fV a r i o u sP a r a m e t e r s on P i t o t Probes
-
Size:
E a r l ye x p e r i m e n t sw i t hP i t o tp r o b e s showed measuredpressures t o be
independent o f probesize, e.g., Ref. 11. Thus, s i z i n gi su s u a l l yg u i d e d
by the size of facility and Machnumber atwhichtheprobeisto be used.
When t o t a lp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t sa r ep r e s e n t , a P i t o t probesenses an impact
pressurecorresponding t o a displacementtowardsthehigherpressure,Ref. 12.
Thiseffect decreases w i t h p r o b es i z e and w i t h i n c r e a s i n a w a l l t h i c k n e s s .
However, Livesey(Ref. 13) foundthat a c o n i c a l nose P i t o t , w i t h a sharp edge
a tt h e opening, isbestfor use i n a t r a n s v e r s ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n ts i n c e it
e x h i b i t s a n e g l i g i b l ed i s p l a c e m e n te r r o r . Butsinceconescannot be used
veryclosetowalls, two dimensionalboundarylayer measurements a r e u s u a l l y
made w i t h P i t o t probeshavingverysmall,flattened-ovalopenings anda
square-cutnose, e.g., Refs. 1 1 and 12.
A n a l y s i so fd a t af o rt h es i m p l e ,c i r c u l a rP i t o tt u b ei n d i c a t e st h e
measured pressure i s independent o f Reynolds number (based on i n s i d e r a d ius
o f theopening) when i t i s g r e a t e rt h a n 100, Ref. 12.
Mach number:
In dry air, the Pitottube has a e n e r a l l y been found t o be i n s e n s i t i v e t o
Machnumber and w i l 1 r e l i a b l yp r o v i d e t h e f r e e s t r e a m s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e a t
subsonic speedsand t h es t a g n a t i o n pressurebehind a normalshock a t super-
son ic speeds.
Tu r b u 1ence :
The i n c o m p r e s s i b l ea n a l y s i so f Becker and Brown (Ref. 14) i n d i c a t e st h a t
a circulartubePitotwithsquare-cut nose i s r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o t u r b u -
lence. However, theseauthorssuggestthatthelengthoftheconstantdiameter
74
opening be a tl e a s tt h r e ed i a m e t e r s . The i n t e n t i s t o e l i m i n a t e s u r g i n g o f t h e
flow, in response t o t u r b u l e n c e , and t h u s a s s u r e t h e e x i s t e n c e of stagnation
c o n d i t i o n sp r i o rt o changes i n i n t e r n a l geometry. When. t h e r e s u l t s o f Becker and
Brown a r e viewed i n l i g h t o f t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d byGracey(Ref. lo), which demon-
strates decreasing flow angle sensitivity of Pitot probes w i t h i n c r e a s i n g Mach
number, one may c o n c l u d e t h a t c i r c u l a r t u b e P i t o t probesareunaffected by o
w
l
l e v e l so ft u r b u l e n c e .S i n c et h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi n most empty t u n n e l s i s
lessthan two p e r c e n t ,t h e recommended P i t o t p r o b e s( i . e . ,c i r c u l a rt u b e sw i t h
i n t e r n a l j e x t e r n a ld i a m e t e rr a t i o s > 0.5) can be used w i t h c o n f i d e n c e t o c a l i b r a t e
t r a n s o n i c and supersonicwindtunnels.
75
I I .C. References
76
13. Livesey, J. L.: "The Behavior o f Transverse Cy1 i n d r i c a l and ForwardFacing
TotalPressureProbes i n TransverseTotalPressureGradients,"Jour.Aero.
Sci., Vol. 23, p. 949, Oct. 1956.
77
I I I.D. TEST
SECTION
STATIC PRESSURES
As discussed i n S e c t i o n I I . C . l , measurement o f s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s
fundamental t ot r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n . I t i sc u r r e n t l ys t a n d a r d
o fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ed a t a , measured a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e , i s used t o c a l i b r a t e
a r e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e .i no r d e rt oa v o i di n t e r f e r e n c e , it i s g e n e r a l l y
i nt h ef o r w a r dp o r t i o no ft h et e s ts e c t i o n . Once c a l i b r a t e d ,t h er e f e r e n c e
p r e s s u r ei s used t o c o n t r o l Machnumber d u r i n gr o u t i n eo p e r a t i o n .
h a v i n gt oc o n t e n dw i t he r o s i o na n d / o rc o n t a m i n a t i o no fo r i f i c e s . However,
78
pressuresaregenerallyhigherthanfreestreamstaticpressureatsupersonic Mach
pressure.
s u r e sg e n e r a l l ya g r e ev e r yc l o s e l y . A p o s s i b l ee x c e p t i o nt ot h i sg e n e r a l con-
plenum chamber p r e s s u r eb e l o wt h ec a l i b r a t e d ,e m p t y - t u n n e lv a l u e sa th i g h
e x c e s s i v ei n f l o w from t h e plenum t o t h e t e s t s e c t i o n , b u t v e n t i l a t e d t u n n e l s
f r e e s t r e a mp r e s s u r ed u r i n gr a p i d changes i n model o r i e n t a t i o n .
III.D.l. Transonic
Survey
Pipes
Responses t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n d i c a t e t h a t 31 o u t o f 53 t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
haveusedlongpipes t os u r v e yc e n t e r l i n es t a t i cp r e s s u r e . The r e s u l t s o f t h e
o ft h et e s ts e c t i o n and used t o c a l i b r a t e a r e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e .I nr o u t i n e
t e s t s , a c a l i b r a t e dl e n g t hi ss e l e c t e dw h i c h most c l o s e l y matches t h e l o c a t i o n
and l e n g t h o f a p a r t i c u l a r model. An a l t e r n a t ep r o c e d u r ei st oc o n s t r u c t a
number o f c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e s t o r e l a t e t h e r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e t o s e v e r a l s t a -
t i o n sa l o n gt h ec e n t e r l i n e . By l o c a t i n g t h e aerodynamiccenter o f a model a t
79
I 1 I
a station which has been calibrated, the local Mach number at that station
A
can be used in data reduction. This method is used in transonic tests at
f*
NASA Ames And is considered to be important for measurements o f Mach num-
tests (M < l . 6 ) , the nose o f the model is usually located at one o f the
a n averaae along
(i.e., calibrations of the reference static pressure with
1. The nose of the pipe shouldbe a sma.11 angle cone or ogive and
80
3. I nt h ec a s eo fv e r yl o n gp i p e s ,t h r e eo rf o u rc a b l e ss h o u l db e
4. A l l s u p p o r tc a b l e ss h o u l db ef r e eo fo b s t r u c t i o n s , and a l l t u r n -
buckles and c a b l ea t t a c h m e n tf i x t u r e ss h o u l db el o c a t e db e h i n dt h e
t u n n e lw a l l s .
5. Cablesnearor w i t h i nt h et e s ts e c t i o ns h o u l d be sweptback at
ofthepipelocated,inthetestsectionnearthebeginningofuniformventila-
t h a t no t r a n s o n i c shockpassesover theorifices.
A properly-designed,static-pressuresurveypiperequires no t r a n s o n i c
c a l i b r a t i o nc u r v e
* and s u p p l i e ss i m u l t a n e o u sd a t at h r o u g h o u tt h el e n g t ho f
t h et e s ts e c t i o n .I nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,b o u n d a r yl a y e rg r o w t ho nt h ep i p e
pipe are:
1. sag c a nc a u s et h ep i p et o be i n c l i n e dt ot h ef l o ww h i c h
i n t u r n cancauseerroneous staticpressuredata,
2. v i b r a t i o n caninduceerrors,seeAppendix Ill,
* T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni so f t e ns u s t a i n e d bydemonstrationthat a plotofpipe
measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e v e r s u s plenum chamber pressure i s smooth through
t r a n s o n i c Mach numbers.
**However, as a r u l e o f thumb, t h e b l o c k a g e r a t i o o f t h e p i p e s h o u l d be kept
l e s st h a n 0 . 5 % , Ref. 6.
81
3. disturbancesgeneratedbysupports may i n t r o d u c ee r r o r s , and
l o n gf i x e dp i p e . An example o fs i g n i f i c a n to r i f i c e - i n d u c e de r r o r hasbeen
w i t h M = 0.74.
Pressuresurveypipe;particularly when t h e p r e s s u r e a t a g i v e nt u n n e l
s t a t i o ni so b t a i n e d w i t h o n l y one o r i f i c e . It i s suggested t h a tt u n n e l
o p e r a t o r s , who usesuch p i p e s ,c h e c kt h eo r i f i c ep r o b l e mb yt r a n s l a t i n gt h e
o r more o r i f i c e s t o g e t h e r a t a g i v e ns t a t i o n . A second a l t e r n a t i v e i s
ments a t a g i v e n s t a t i o n w i t h d i f f e r e n t o r i f i c e s . E i t h e r o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s
wouldimprovetheaccuracy o fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ec a l i b r a t i o n s . A l s o , it i s
82
Dimensions In Centimeters
QUADRANT
S T I N GF A I R I N G
25 STATICPRESSURE
HOLES AT :Oa.'076'ID,
5.1 CM SPACING
STATICPRESSUREPROBE MOUNTED
ON CALIBRATION GEAR S T I N G
(FAC I L I T Y FOR TRANSLATI ON ALONG
TUNNELCENTERLINEOVER -229 CM)
Q)
W
I Hole No. 2
P-Pw
Hs-Pn Hole N o . 2
-0.005
-0.010
-127
t
L I
-102 -76
I
I
-51
I
-25 0
I
25
I
P -Pw
Hs-Pw
-0.010 I 1 I i I I I
-178 -127 -102 -76 -51
- -152 -25
x cm, distance downstream from
tunnel datum
used t oc a l i b r a t ec l o s e d - w a l ls u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s . The p i p en o to n l y
fereswiththeexpansionpatternwhichisrequired for u n i f o r m f l o w .
*
A
However,a s t a t i c p i p e hasbeenused quitesuccessfullyfor Mach numbers up
t o two a t AEDC i nt h e Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel(4T),Ref. 7. Forexample, a t
M = 1.6 t h e 2 (I v a r i a t i o n i n measured c e n t e r l i n e Mach numbers was o n l y .007
and a t M = 1.99 was 0.008. Thisapplicationof a s t a t i c p i p e was made pos-
s i b l eb yt h eu n i q u ef e a t u r e so ft h i st u n n e l ,v i z . ,a d j u s t a b l ep o r o s i t y (0-10%),
w a l la n g l e , andplenumpumping.
85
lll.D.2. T r a n s o n i cS t a t i cP r e s s u r eP r o b e s
c a l i b r a t e d ,r e s p o n d e n t st ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r ei n d i c a t e dt h a t such v a r i a t i o n s
a r eo f t e nl a r g e rt h a nl o n g i t u d i n a lv a r i a t i o n sa l o n gt h ec e n t e r l i n e . These
data were o b t a i n e dw i t hc o n v e n t i o n a lp r o b e sw h i c h ,a sd i s c u s s e dl a t e r ,a r e
oftransonicwall-probeinterference,thecalibrationof such v a r i a t i o n s i s
o b v i o u s l yi m p o r t a n t ,p a r t i c u l a r l yf o rt e s t i n g wingedmodels. I nt h ep a s t ,
w a l lp a r a m e t e r sa r es e tt om i n i m i z e Mach number v a r i a t i o n s a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e
a r en e g l i g i b l e .T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni s basedon thecomparisonbetweentwoaverages,
and, i ng e n e r a l , does n o t j u s t i f y t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f n e g l i g i b l e t r a n s v e r s e
mentsas a s t a n d a r dp a r to ft h ec a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r e .F o rt h i sr e a s o n , one o f
theprimaryadvantages o f c o n v e n t i o n a ls t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e s i s m o b i l i t y as
c o n t r a s t e dt ot h el o n g , s t a t i cp r e s s u r e , s u r v e yp i p e .
Q u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t sa l s or e v e a lt h a tt h e most p o p u l a r t r a n s o n i c s t a t i c
pressureprobe i s a 10 deg a p e x - a n g l ec o n e - c y l i n d e rw i t ho r i f i c e sl o c a t e dt e n
o r more c y l i n d e rd i a m e t e r s( c a l i b r e s ) downstream o ft h es h o u l d e r .T h i sc r i t e r i o n
Holdere
,at l (. R e f . 8). These i n v e s t i g a t o r sc o n d u c t e d a s y s t e m a t i ce
, xperi-
36
External Diameter d = O . Z O ~ C M
P
p
po
. Messured static Prusure
= Static prusure mlssured by '40 kbc
-
10
1- dl
b*
[ H = Total Head o f Prcr Sirearn
L,. Distance of stscic holes Dshind smulder
d = Diameter of static tuoe
-
0 5 I5
Figure 3.D.3
-
VARIATION OF STATIC-PRESSURE READING WITH POSITION OF STATIC
HOLES AND NOSE SHAPEA T H 1.6, Ref. 8
which wasassumed t o be t r u e f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c , was o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e l o n g
o g i v a ln o s e and o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d 40 c a l i b r e s downstream.
Highsubsonic (H = 0 . 6 t o 0 . 9 ) d a t ai n d i c a t e p r o b e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a l l y
r e t u r n s t o f r e e s t r e a ml e v e l s( w i t h i n 0.5% o f q) a t l o / d v a l u e s of 4 to 6
c a l i b r e s downstream o f t h e n o s e - c y l i n d e r j u n c t u r e .
However, s i n c et h eo v e r e x p a n s i o na tt h es h o u l d e re x t e n d sf a r t h e r
l o c a t e d 10 or more diametersdownstreamwouldsensefreestreampressurewith
t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t o r s seems t o a g r e e w i t h Gracey.
as a s t a n d a r df o rt r a n s o n i ci n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e ed a t a .A l t h o u g ht h ep u r p o s eo f
p e r t i n e n tt op r o b ed e s i g n and performance.Estabrooksobtaineddataon a 20
a l l o w a c c u r a t e measurements o f f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e
number permeter from 4.5 t o 12.7 mill i o n (1.36 x IO 6 < Re/ft < 3.87 X 106 ).
as M + 1.0, will b e e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n .
88
When t h e same c o n e - c y l i n d e r model was t e s t e d i n t h e AEDC-PWT 1T
c o n c l u d e dt h ed o m i n a n tw a l li n t e r f e r e n c ee f f e c t was r e f l e c t i o n s o f s u p e r -
g i v e nc o n c e r n i n gt o o o
w
l a resistancetoinflowfromthe plenum t o t h e
testsecti,on.Unfortunately,Estrabrooksappeared t o be unaware o f t h e
must
account f o r passage o f a transonic
shock when 0.90 M 1.05. Thus,
i n t e r p r e t e d as s o l e l yw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .F o r example, t h ee x i s t e n c eo f a
boundarylayerseparation,eitherofwhichreducesthepressuregradient
f:
produced by t h e shock. As t h e Mach number i s increased t o one, t h e shock
89
H, 0.950 a - 0.0
0.975 - 0.0
1 .ooo 0 - 0.0
.I
.2
*3
.4
.5
.6
0 2 4 6 8 10
x/d, Distance from Nose i nC a l i b e r s
90
of phenomena may be c l e a r l y seen i n t h e s c t i l l e r e n p h o t o g r a p h s p r e s e n t e d
by Page (Ref. 16) f o r a 14 deg apex cone-cy1 inder with a blockage rat lo
p o r t shocks,providedthere i s no w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .
t r a n s o n l cf l o w . Thus, i no r d e r f o r t h e s es o l u t i o n s t o be a p p l i c a b l e to
interference.
The e x i s t e n c e o f b o u n d a r yl a y e rs e p a r a t i o no nc o n e - c y l i n d e r si n
foundthattheboundarylayerseparatedatthecone-cy1inderjuncture when
t h e cone apex angle was 40 deg or more and tl < 0.85. I ng e n e r a l ,a s cone
downstream o f t h e s h o u l d e r , t h e f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e was a t t a i n e d i n
91
t h e measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e will t e n dt o be higherthanfreestream. The
M =i 1. T h i se f f e c to fb l o c k a g e may a l s o beseen i nt h es c h l i e r e np i c t u r e s
d a t ao f Capone and Coates(Ref. 19) and Couch and Brooks(Ref. 20). For
Here we see the transonic shock move fromx/d = 3.25 a t M = 0.90 back t o x / d 3
92
M = 0.90 0
M = 0.95 0
M = 1.00 0
M = 1.0250
x/d
93
... . . .. .
...." ..
.. ... . .
atthecone-cylinderjuncture and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l a r g e r p o c k e t o f s u p e r -
inordertoavoidretardingtherearward movement o f a t r a n s o n i c s h o c k w i t h
h a v ep e r f o r m e dc a l c u l a t i o n sf o rt r a n s o n i cf l o w sa b o u ta i r f o i l s and axisym-
m e t r i cb o d i e sw h i c hi n c l u d ew i n dt u n n e lw a l l si nt h eb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s . These
I nl i g h to ft h ef o r e g o i n gd i s c u s s i o n ,t h i si m p l i e st h a te i t h e rs l o t t e do r
p e r f o r a t e dw a l l sa c t more l i k e o p e n - j e t s as t h e s i z e o f t r a n s o n i c models i s
increased.This phenomenon i sa p p a r e n t l y a r e s u l to fl a r g e rp o c k e t so fs u p e r -
s o n i cf l o ww h i c hi m p r e s sl o w e rp r e s s u r e sa tt h ew a l l s .T h i si nt u r n draws i n
towardtheopen-jetboundarycondition.
94
A s r e g a r d ss t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b ed e s i g n ,s m a l la n g l e conescan be used
t om i n i m i z es t r e n g t ho ft h et r a n s o n i c shock. I na d d i t i o n ,t h es m a l l e re x -
A separatedboundarylayer i su n d e s i r a b l e because it i n t r o d u c e sd i s t u r b a n c e s
whichareconvecteddownstream a-nd cancause additionalerrorsinstaticpres-
anglecone-cylinderprobehasservedas a convenientcompromisebetweenoptimum
c y l i n d e rp r o b e at * t u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e .I nc o n t r a s t ,t h e 3 deg cone p r o v i d e s
a m o n o t o n i c a l l yi n c r e a s i n gp r e s s u r e and decreasing Mach number throughoutthe
transonicrange.
95
4 HOLES, 0.061 DIAMETER
d = 0.305
(a) CONE-CYLINDER
STATIC HEAD
T I P DIAMETER
-
0g015
DIMENSIONS
ARE tN (XN'TmERS
AM
0'.90 0.b2
-
0.44
-
0.96 0.'98 1.60
1.b2
MR
'' = MACH NUMBER
DEDUCED FROM
PLENUM CHAMBER
0- "
- STAT I C PRESSURE
= M -M 155 cm FROM
H C 6
R e = 15.7 x 10 per meter THROAT.
I I I I I I I
-0.02
(a) '01 CONE-CYLINDER STATIC HEAD = MACHNUMBER
MH DEDUCED FROM
S T A T I C HEAD
+o .02
An
1 1
0.96
I
0.98 1.00
I I
1.02 I PRESSURE
= fl -M
H C 6
R e = 10.6 x 10 per meter
I I I I I I I
-0.02
(b) 3" CONE S T A T I C HEAD
Size:
s i g n i f i c a n t l yf r o mf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i cn e a r M = 1. T h e r e f o r e ,f o ra c c u r a t e
Once t h e p r o b e d i a m e t e r i s s e l e c t e d , a t l e a s t f o u r o r i f i c e s w i th a
o f t h en o s e - c y l i n d e rj u n c t u r e .F i n a l l y ,e r r o r si n d u c e d by o r i f i c e s i z e a r e
discussed i nS e c t i o n lll.D.4.
A
A d d i t i o n a l t r a n s o n i c measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y w i t h a 3 deg c o n i c a l
probearereported by W r i g h t ,e ta l .( R e f . 25).
98
Reynolds .Number:
p r o v i d e dt h ep r o b eb o u n d a r yl a y e ri sa t t a c h e d .
:
Tu r b u 1 ence
a f f e c t e db yt u r b u l e n c e . The d e s i r e dq u a n t i t y 1s t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a s s o -
p r e s s u r eo ft h et u r b u l e n c en o r m a lt o an o r i f i c e . I f t h et u r b u l e n c es c a l ei s
2
-
Pm - Pt = A p ( U + (ut)')+ (3.D. 1)
If t h e o r i f i c e s a r e l o c a t e d so t h e r e a r e no noseand/or supportstem-induced
e r r o r s ,t h e n A = 0. B i s ameasure o ft h ec r o s s f l o w - i n d u c e de r r o ri n measured
Pm -
2
Pt = 2q(Acos
2
a + B s i n a)
99
A specialprobe,designedto measure unsteadycrossflow and f l u c t u a t i n g
t h ed i f f e r e n c ei no r i f i c e arrangement.Additional measurements i n a r o t a t i n g -
i n c l f n e dn o z z l e , a t u r b u l e n tc h a n n e lf l o w , anda r o u n dt u r b u l e n tj e ti n d i c a t e d
-
Yaw:
notethattheyaw-inducedstaticpressureerrorofthistypeofprobeis
dependentonnosegeometryand o r i f i c el o c a t i o n .R i t c h i e( k e f . 10) r e p o r t e d
allowederrorin measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , t h e p e r m i s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n i n f l o w
from thewindward-meridian.Althoughtheseprobes h a v es m a l le r r o r sa t
s t r e a md i r e c t i o n .S i n c et h i si sn o tu s u a l l y known d u r i n gw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a -
100
probe with four or more orificesis preferred. Particularly since the flow
tunnels is less than one degree, the conventional probe will usually have
negligible error due to yaw.* For example, Ritchie (Ref. IO) found a two
degree angle o f attack caused less than 0.2% error in measured static pressure
through-out the transonic Mach number range. (These results were obtained
in the empty tunnel, i.e., not only will model testing results be more represen-
tative of free-flight phenomena, but the tunnel calibration will be more accurate.
by Chevalier (Ref. 30) over a Mach number range of 0.70 to 1.60. Based on
diameters downstream of the orifices will not interfere with static pressure
the transonic speed regime. The required distance for no interference de-
been investigated by Krause and Gettelman (Ref. 31) for M = 0.3 to 0.9.
these .
speeds
* Itis conceivable that a static pressure probe couldbe calibrated for yaw
errors. Static pressure readings could then be corrected for measured flow
angles. However, most tunnels do not have sufficient flow angularity to
warrant this procedure, and few operatorswould consider i t practical.
101
Perhaps t h e most s t r i n g e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r d i s t a n c e between o r i f l c e s
a c t i o nf r o ma f f e c t i n gt h ep r e s s u r e measured a t t h e o r i f i c e s . S i n c e t h e
a c r o s st h eP i t o t shock be k e p tl e s st h a n 3 deg a t i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e
s t a t i c probe, and furthermore,theprobesshould be spaced so t h e l n t e r -
notoriousforinducingcrossflowintheplaneoftherakeathighsubsonic
a l t e r n a t i v ei s recommended: employ a s i n g l e ,s t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e( o r
c o m b i n a t i o nP i t o t - s t a t i cp r o b e * f o r v a l i d a t i n gt h ei s e n t r o p i ce x p a n s i o n
assumption)with a s l e n d e ro g i v a l (L = ad) or v e r ys m a l la n g l ec o n i c a l
n
(x 5 deg)nose anda stingtypesupportwhichsatisfiesthecriteria
suggestedby Gray.
.L
Here i t i s r e l e v a n t t o n o t e B r y e r and Pankhurst (Ref. 27, p. 41) a r e o f t h e
o p i n i o nt h a tc o m b i n a t i o np r o b e sa r ei ng e n e r a ll e s sa c c u r a t et h a ns i n g l e -
purposeinstruments.
102
0.4
0.3
-
p
w -
-P
q 0- m H
0.2 a - 0.90
A - 1.00
0.1
-0.1
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
I /S, DISTANCE FROM O R I F I C E To STRUT SHOULDER
d
0
W Figure 3.D.8 EFFECT OF ORIFICELOCATION U T Z I Z I U G
A DOUBLE- WEDGE SUPFORT STRUT, REF. 32
.. ,. ..- I
.
..
_
..
.
. I _,, , , . . -.
.
I .I,.
Cylindrical
support
104
lll.D.3. SupersonicStaticPressureProbes
section.
indicatethesurfacepressureonthecylinderreturnstofreestreamstatic
Pressuredistributiondata on c o n e - c y l i n d e r - f l a r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a t
averagedpressure i s b e l o wf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i c .F o r a g i v e n yaw a n g l e ,t h e
averagepressuredecreasesfurther as Machnumber i n c r e a s e s .I ng e n e r a l ,
* T h i sd a t ai sa l s op r e s e n t e di nR e f e r e n c e 6.
105
pressure on long cy1 inders, measured approximately 240 deg c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y
from t h e windwardlocation,provides a c l o s ea p p r o x i m a t f o nt of r e e s t r e a m
yaw-induced e r r o r s i n s t a t i c p r e s s u r e .
As discussedpreviously,sincemosttunnelshavesmallflowangularity
t ol o c a t et h e windwardgenerator(highestpressure)andthenrotatingthe
arrangementsaregiven i nF i g . 3.D.9.
i n c l u d e d - a n g l ec o n e .O r i f i c e se n c i r c l et h e 1 deg cone a t t h r e el o c a t i o n s .
"T h i s assumes no o r i f i c e - i n d u c e d e r r o r s .
106
The e r r o r i n measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s r e p o r t e d t o be o f t h e o r d e r o f 0.1%
a r el a r g e enough f o rv i s c o u sc o r r e c t i o n st o be n e g l i g i b l e .T h i se f f e c t canbe
e s t i m a t e db yc a l c u l a t i n gt h ee q u i v a l e n ti n v i s c i dp r e s s u r e from anexpression
lessthan 5.
where -x 3
E M / (Rel /C) 1 /2
0
C Z ( p /p ) (T /T ) , Chapman-Rubesin v i s c o s i t yp a r a m e t e r .
w e w
For a g i v e n c o n f i g u r a t i o n , t h e v i s c o u s i n t e r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t d e c r e a s e s w i t h
c o r r e c t i o n i s judged t o be n e c e s s a r y , t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r may r e f e r , t o
p r e s s u r e f o r v i scous i n t e r a c t i o n and o b t a i n i n g a b e t t e r e s t i m a t e o f t h e
i n v i s c i d ,s t a t i c pressure.
S i n c ec o n e - c y l i n d e rp r o b e sa r er e l a t i v e l yl o n g ,t h e yn o to n l y havesmall
r i g i d i t yb u ta l s o cannotbeused i np r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t s .I na d d i t i o n ,t h e y
a r es e n s i t i v e t o yaw. F o rt h i sr e a s o n ,s h o r t e rs u p e r s o n i cs t a t i cp r e s s u r e
t h ec i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l ya v e r a g e ds u r f a c ep r e s s u r er e m a i n s a constantfraction
of freestreamstaticregardlessof Machnumber or a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e .
i n d i c a t et h en o n c i r c u l a rp r o b e so fS m i t h and 3auer a r e c o m p l e t e l y i n s e n s i t i v e
to flow angles of -
+6 deg.Beyond this angle of attack ranqe,boundary layer
s e p a r a t i o n becomes
a f a c t o r , a n de r r o r si n c r e a s er a p i d l y .S i n c et h e yaw sensi-
reportsfreestreamstaticpressure c a nb ed e t e r m i n e dw i t hh i sc a l i b r a t e dp r o b e
108
downstream o f theshoulder,theseinvestigatorsfoundtheprobe measured
o b t a i n e d f o r z e r o yaw.
By a d j u s t i n gt h e i rc a l i b r a t i o nf a c t o rt o 0.763, f r e e -
s t r e a ms t a t i cc o u l d be c a l c u l a t e d t o w i t h i n 3 p e r c e n t f o r incidenceangles
a n ys u p e r s o n i cs t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e known t o t h e a u t h o r s . *
As i s w e l l known, t h e o r e t i c a ls o l u t i o n sf o rs u r f a c ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u -
tionsonprobescanassisttheplacementoforifices t o measure f r e e s t r e a m
f e r e n c es o l u t i o n sf o rt h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ,s u p e r s o n i c ,i n v i s c i df l o w sa r e
a v a i l a b l e , e.g.,
Marconi, e ta l . (Ref. 4 5 ) .
F i n a l l y ,t h e use o fm u l t i p l ep r o b e si nr a k e arrangements f o rs u r v e y i n g
s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l si sw e l l known.
Rakes can be s u c c e s s f u l l y employed to
c a l i b r a t es u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s by a p p l y i n g t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a o f Gray, F i g .
* DonaldsonandRichardsonalsofound a c o n v e n t i o n a l ,s i n g l eb o r e ,i n t e r n a l
plenum p r o v i d e d less yaw s e n s i t i v i t y t h a n an a n n u l a r plenum.
109
lll.D.4. O r i f i c e - I n d u c e dS t a t i cP r e s s u r eE r r o r s
E r r o r si ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e measurements,causedby variationsinorifice
r e l e v a n tg e o m e t r i cv a r i a b l e sa r e : (1) h o l ed i a m e t e r , (2) r a t i oo fh o l ed e p t h
t od i a m e t e r , (3) therelativesizeofthecavityortubeconnectingtothe
hole, (4) i n c l i n a t i o no fh o l ea x i sr e l a t i v et ot h es u r f a c en o r m a l , (5) t h e
conditionoftheholeentry, i.e.,whethertheedgesaresquare,rounded,
chamfered, o r have b u r r s .
I d e a l l y ,t h em e a s u r i n gh o l es h o u l d be i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y s m a l l so as t o
caused by f i n i t e - s i z e do r i f i c e sc o n s i s t e do ft h r e ec o n t r i b u t i o n s .F i r s t l y ,
dippingofthestreamlinesintotheorifice causes a d i v e r g e n c e o f s t r e a m -
l i n e sw h i c hr e s u l t si n a higherpressureinsubsonicflow.Secondly,an
cangenerateincreasedpressures.) And f i n a l l y , a P i t o te f f e c to c c u r sa tt h e
s u r et o be t o oh i g h .A l t h o u g ht h es e v e r i t yo ft h e s e phenomena decrease w i t h
h o l es i z e ,R a i n b i r d( R e f . 49) o b s e r v e dt h a th o l e sw i t hd i a m e t e r sl e s st h a n
b u r r s .A l s oi ns h o r td u r a t i o nt u n n e l s ,t h et i m er e q u i r e df o rp r e s s u r e
c o s i t y (p), v i z . ,
110
'meas
- 'true = do ,-
?w )
(3.0.4)
T P
W
In add i t i o n , t h e a c t u a l m a g n i t u d e o f e r r o r s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f anumber of
otherparameters. For example, Shaw (Ref. 47) and Livesey, e t a l . (Ref. 48)
f o u n dt h er e l a t i v ed e p t ho ft h e ,h o l et oa l s o be a s i g n i f i c a n tp a r a m e t e r .I n
general,the measured p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s t o w a r d s t h e t r u e v a l u e a s t h e r a t i o
statlcpressureerror as t h e l e n g t h o f t h e h o l e d e c r e a s e s from 1 . 5 do t o
0 . 5 do.
Shaw
** a l s os y s t e m a t i c a l l ys t u d i e dt h ee f f e c t so fb u r r s and d i s -
w i t hv a r i a t l o n si n smooth h o l es i z e ,i . e . ,t h es o l i dc u r v ei nF i g . 3.0.10.
o f v a r y i n g edges o f an o r i f i c e .I ng e n e r a l ,r o u n d i n go ft h e edges r e s u l t e d
i nh i g h e rp r e s s u r e ; whereas,chamferingproducedsmallnegativeerrors. As
i m e d l a t e l ys e p a r a t eb u ti n s t e a d i s g u i d e di n t ot h eh o l ew i t h a resulting
* S i m i l a r l y ,L i v e s e y ,e ta l .a l s on o t et h a t a c o n t r a c t i o ni nt u b i n gd i a m e t e r
(e do) will cause a higherpressure.
** R a i n b i r d used a f i x e d r a t i o o f h o l e l e n g t h to o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r o f 3.
111
it a l s o a c c e l e r a t e s a l o n g t h e s l o p i n g downstreamedge whichresultsin a
errorsincreasewith Machnumber.
f a i l e dt oi n d i c a t e any e f f e c to ft h i sr a t i o .F u r t h e r m o r e ,N e s t l e r( R e f . 51)
d e m o n s t r a t e do r i f i c e - i n d u c e de r r o r sc o u l dn o t be c o r r e l a t e d by t h e r a t i o of hole
a d d i t i o n arl e s e a r c h .
Q u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t si n d i c a t es t a t i co r i f i c ed i a m e t e r st y p i c a l l yr a n g e
t u n n e lw a l l s .I no r d e rt om i n i m i z es t a t i ch o l ee r r o r s * , i t i s recommended
t
O f course, a flush-mountedpressuretransducer i s p r e f e r a b l e whenever p o s s i b l e .
112
I
0
I
0. 0
0
0 A
d
d
d 0
0
7
W Franklin : M < @ 5
8s
Wallace
W / V
M of Rainbird ' 8 Cone Data
I
t h a t a square-edge o r i f i c e w i t h a diameter o f 0.051 cm (0.020 in.)beadopted
The diameterof a c o n n e c t i n gl i n e ,b e h i n dt h eh o l e ,s h o u l d be r e s t r i c t e d t o
O f c o u r s e ,t h e s el a s tt w oc r i t e r i ap r e s u p p o s ea ni n s t a l l a t i o nw h i c hi s
staticpressuresurveypipe,tubingoftheappropriatesizeis swaged or
w i t ht h eo u t s i d es u r f a c eo ft h ep i p e . Hereagainan orificediameterof
be used to reduceresponsetime.
d e p t ht oo r i f i c ed i a m e t e ro fl e s st h a n one i s n o t o n l y p o s s i b l e b u t i s frequently
laminarflowattheorifices.Althoughtheexistingcorrelationsoforifice
face to 0.25 microns (1011 in.). For example, a 0.318 cm (1/8 in.) diameter
39.4 million per meter. In general, if noise data is available for a given
Benek.and High (Ref. 54) can be used to
facility, the correlation of
in
estimate Reynolds numbers at which boundary layer transition occurs
Since the data of Shaw (Ref. 47) indicate static pressure measurements
be taken to assure a
are very sensitive to burrs, considerable care must
smooth, sharp-edged orifice. This may be done by beginning the hole with
drill bits several sizes smaller than the desired final hole size and
progressively increasing the hole size. Also, short flute drill bits should
be used to minimize flexing and a drill guide (of the same metal) clamped
over the orifice location can be of considerable help. Finally, slower rates
of dri 1 1 feed will produce smaller burrs,and pressurizing the hole, during
final drilling, with compressedair will aid the removal o f burrs. Finishing
o f the orifice can be done with a d r i l l shank and an appropriate polish.
The finished orifice should be inspected for burrs with a microscope, and
for production of
knowledge, no comparative study of different processes
115
lll.D.5. A GeneralPurpose S t a t i cP r e s s u r eP r o b e
As d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n III.D.l, thelong,staticpressuresurveypipe,
t i o n so ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s .T h i sa r r a n g e m e n tn o to n l yp r o v i d e sal a r g e amount
t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t o r s( p r i m a r i l ys m a l l e rf a c i l i t i e s )c o n t i n u et o use
o f i n e x p e n s i v e ,c l a s s i c a lp r o b e si st h e i rm o b i l i t y and theconsequentease
who w i s h t o c o n t i n u e u s i n g t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e , t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o b e d e s i g n i s
a ne f f e c t i v ef i n e n e s sr a t i oo f 12 i s suggested f o r tworeasons:(1)over-
theextentofthesupersonicpocketatsupercritical speedsand t h u sw a l l
noseshape (e.g.,Ref. 1 9 ) ;t h u s ,t h i sd e s i g na l s or e d u c e sw a l li n t e r f e r e n c ea t
supersonic speeds.
It s h o u l d a l s o be n o t e d t h a t t h e n o s ed e s i g ns p e c i f i e sad i s t r i b u t e d
roughness f o r b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r i p p i n g . The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s f e a t u r e i s t o
preventshock-induced,boundarylayerseparation a t a l l speeds. An a d d i t i o n a l
b e n e f i ti sr e d u c e ds e n s i t i v i t yt oR e y n o l d s number.Examples o f aboundarylayer
t r a n s i t i o n s t r i p on t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e may be found i n t h e r e p o r t by R i t c h i e
(Ref.
10). The s i ze o f g r i t and l e n g t h o f s t r i p r e q u i r e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
116
PROBE DIAHETER SHOULO BESELECTEDTOOBTAINATUNNEL
-
BLOCKAGE < 0.005% FOR TRANSONICAPPLICATIONS
-
e D l STR I BUTED ROUGHNESS
LC/+ PATTER&WE3VIWUEDBACKTO
FROM OGIVE-CYLINDERJUNCTURE
30d
A
3
0
'
30'
VIEW VIEW
8-14 B-B VIEW C-C VIEW 0-0
O R I FSI6CI NEOGRLI E
FICES O R I F6
SI C
IN
OEG
R LI FEI C E S
ROTATED 3 0' FROM VIEWA-A ROTATED 30'
60' APART FROM VIEW 8-8
sure ports along the cylinder.* The probe is designed to obtain primary static
pressure data at stations having six orificesin order to average out the
disturbances) back onto the probe. The additional data will aid determination
of where surface pressure equals freestream static. This feature will allow
the probe to be used off centerline where wall interference increases.
interference near Mach one. The effectsof this flare, as we11 as the wall-
via the South-Jameson computer code (Ref.17). I n the Mach number range of
using the computer program of South and Keller (Ref. 2 2 ) . In the case o f
the criteria of Gray (Fig.3 . 0 . 3 ) and avoid wall reflections o f bow shocks.
ij
1I9
13. Gadd, G. E.: "Interactions Between Normal Shock Llaves and Turbulent
Boundary Layers,'' ARC R & t4 No. 3262, Feb. 1961.
17. South, J. C., Jr. and Jameson, A.: "Relaxation Solutions for Inviscid
Axisymmetric Transonic Flow Over Elunt
or Pointed Bodies," Proc. AlAA
Computational Fluid Dynamics Conference, J u l y 1973.
20. Couch, L. M. and Brooks, C. W., Jr.: "Effect of Blockage Ratio on Drag and
Pressure Distributions for Bodies
of Revolution at Transonic Speeds,"
NASA TN 0-7331, NOV. 1973.
21. Nebman, P. A. and Klunker. E. E.: "Numerical Modelina of Tunnel-\.la11 and Body-
Shape Effects on Transonic Flow Over Finite Lifting Wings," Aerodynamic
Analyses Requiring Advanced Computers, Part1 1 , NASA SP-347, Mar. 1975.
22. South, J. C . , Jr. and Keller. J. D.: "Axisymmetric Transonic Flow Including
Wind-Tunnel Wall Effects,'' AerodynamicRnalyses Requiring Advanced Computers,
Part 1 1 , NASA SP-347, Mar. 1975.
23. Sieverdling, C.; Maretto, L.; Lehthaus, F . ; and Lawaczeck: "Design and
Calibration of Four Probes for Use
in the TransonicTurbine Cascade Testlng,"
Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Tech. Note 100, May1974.
120
I
26. Keller, J. D. and Wright, R. H.: "A Numerical Method o f Calculating the
Boundary-Induced Interference in Slotted or Perforated Wind Tunnels o f
Rectangular Cross Section,'' NASA TR R-379, Nov. 1971.
29. Rittenhouse, L. E.: "Transonic Wind Tunnel Results for Five Pressure
Probes Designed to Minimize Static-PressureSensing Errors," AEDC-TDR-62-48,
March 1962.
30. Chevalier, H. L.: "Calibration of the PWT 16-Ft. Transonic Circuit with a
Modified Model Support Systemand Test Section," AEDC TN-60-164,
Aug. 1960.
33. Gray, J. D.: "A Compendium of Flow Measurement Methods and Techniques,"
for a short course
AEDC von Karman Gas Dynamics Facility, Notes prepared
Tenn., Nov. 1973.
at the University of Tennessee Space Institute, Tullhaoma,
121
I
36. Washington, W. D. and Humphrey, J. A.: "Pressure Measurements onFour
Cone-Cy1 i n d e r F l a r e C o n f i g u r a t i o n s a t S u p e r s o n i c Speeds,"RD-TM-69-11
(AD 699 3591, Oct. 1969.
122
48. Livesey, J. L.; Jackson, J. D.; and Southern, C. J.: "The S t a t i cH o l e
E r r o r Problem: An E x p e r i m e n t a lI n v e s t l g a t i o n Holes
o f E r r o r sf o r
o f VaryingDiameters andDepths,'' A i r c r a f t Engr., Yo1 34, Feb. 1962.
N e s t l e r , D. E.: " S t a t i cP r e s s u r eP o r tE r r o r si nH y p e r s o n f cT u r b u l e n t
Flow," A l A A Paper No. 71-270, Mar.1971.
i n s t r u m e n t e dw i t h a v e r ys e n s i t i v ef o r c eb a l a n c e . " A d i s c u s s i o no fp r e s s u r e
probes i s g i v e n f i r s t and i s f o l l o w e d b y a brief description of twoexamples
of thelattertypesof yawmeter.
A r e c e n tr e v i e wo ft h ev a r i o u st y p e so fp r e s s u r ep r o b e s and a d i s c u s s i o n
o ft h ep r o s andcons o f each a r eg i v e n by Bryer and Pankhurst(Ref. 2). These
a u t h o r sc l a s s i f yp r e s s u r ep r o b e yawmeters i n t o two categories:(1)those
c o n s i s t i n go f an arrangement o f open-ended tubes, and ( 2 ) thosehaving a body
w i t hp r e s s u r es e n s i n go r i f i c e s . These may be subdividedintoprobesdesigned
t o measure f l o wa n g l e si n one plane (2-D) o r two(3-D).
III.E.l. D i f f e r e n t i aP
l ressure Yawmeters: 2-D
124
References 3 and 5 c o n t a i n c a l i b r a t i o n r e s u l t s f o r s m a l l t u b e t y p e
yawmeterswhichweredesigned to investigate the flow out of transonic
t u r b i n e cascades and compressors. The o b j e c t i v e o f S i e v e r d i n g , e t a l .
k.
(Ref. 3) was t oi n v e s t i g a t es e v e r a lp r o b eg e o m e t r i e s and arrangementswhich
i
couldbe used t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y measure t o t a l , s t a t i c , and d i r e c t i o n a l
.. .
S i e v e r d l n g ,e ta l .( R e f .3 )a l s ot e s t e dt h ey a m e t e r and needleprobe
c o m b i n a t i o ni nt h es m a l l (135 rnm x 50 mm) V K I High Speed Cascade Tunnel C-2.
Staticpressure measurements a l o n g t h e w a l l of t h i s f a c i l i t y , w i t h and w i t h -
o u tt h ep r o b e s ,i n d i c a t e ds i g n i f i c a n tb l o c k a g e whenMachnumber exceeded 0.30;
whereas,a s i n g l e AGARD needleprobe (12.3O cone and 1.5 mm OD) w i t h a standard
elbowtypesupport (3 mn OD) l o c a t e d 48 probediametersdownstream showed .
n e g l i g i b l eb l o c k a g e . Hence, theseauthorsconclude: i f yawmeter
a (and/or
o t h e rp r o b e s )a r et o be used i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h ep r o b e s and support
A l t h o u g ht h e s ea u t h o r sd i dn o ts t a t et h ei n s i d ed i a m e t e r o f t h et u b i n g ,. t h e
r a t i o o f I . D . t o 0 . 0 . should be keptgreaterthan 0.6 i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e
loss o r change o f s e n s i t i v i t y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f l o w a n g u l a r i t y , e.g., p. 19
o f Ref. 2.
125
0.06
0.05
1J
0.04
a 1- Probe,Ref.3
Combination
S :t
Y
0.03 .
a ,
.\
J 3 Tubes 0.8 mm OD
0.02
2 Tubes 1 .O mm OD
0 I I I I I I I I I
M
Figure 3 . E. 1 . TWO D I MENS I ONAL YA\JMETERS
mechanism_sh.oy.jd
.~ . - .be.c,a!ib_r_ated i n a t u n n e l o f s i z e s i m i l a r t o w h i c h i t i s
... . ~ to
be used. And most i m p o r t a n t l yf o rt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n s ,e x t r e m ec a r e mustbe
taken
. , i n d e s i g n i n g ya.wmeter s u p p o r t s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d i n d u c i n g e x t r a n e o u s
. ...~ "
flowangularity.
The f l o wa n g l es e n s i t i v i t yd a t ao fB u z z e l l( R e f . 5 ) , o b t a i n e dw i t h a combi-
n a t i o nP i t o tp r o b e and yawmeter, i s a l s o shown i n F i g . 3.E.1 f o r M = 0.4, 0.6,
and 0.8. These d a t aw e r eo b t a i n e dw i t h a c o b r a - s t y l e dr a k ew i t ht h r e e cornbina-
tion
*
p r o b e sa l t e r n a t i n gw i t hf o u rs i n g l eP i t o t u b e s .A g a i n ,t h i si n v e s t i g a t o r
f o l l o w e dt h ea c c e p t e dp r a c t i c eo fl o c a t i n gt h ep r o b et o measure anglesnormal to
t h ep l a n eo ft h er a k e . Mach number s e n s i t i v i t y checks i n d i c a t e dn e g l i g i b l e change
i n yawmeter s e n s i t i v i t y f o r 0 . 4 1 5 M 5 0.81. Afterthis was a s c e r t a i n e d ,e i g h t
rakesweretested a t a mean
Mach number of0.6. The r e s u l t i n gs p r e a di nd a t a
a r e shown i nF i g . 3.E.1.
A typicap
l yramid yawmeter i s shown i nF i g . 3.E.2.Here, t h er a t i oo fo r i f i c e
diametertoprobestemdiameter i s 0.16. I ng e n e r a l , i t i s recommended t h a t
t h i sr a t i o be keptlessthan 0.20. An a d d i t i o n a l ,s u g g e s t e dc o n s t r a i n t is
t h a tt h ed i a m e t e ro ft h eo r i f i c e s be no smallerthan 0.508-mm ( 0 . 0 2i n . )i n
.9-
128
-
D = 0.3175crn
,/
/
/
330
&
d = 0.16 D
I
b 1 6 D " I
F l n a l l y ,f o ru s ei nt r a n s o n i cf l o w st h ep r o b e stemshouldextend down-
streamfor a d i s t a n c eo fa tl e a s t 16 diameters. Downstream of t h i s s t a t i o n ,
0
thestemcansafely be enlargedby a IO c o n i c a lf l a r et o mate w i t h t h e a v a i l -
ableprobesupport.Provided a massive,transverseprobesupport i s n o t used,
t h i sd e s i g n wlll a v o i di n t e r f e r e n c e betweenprobe and support a t t r a n s o n i c
speeds.
The o
f
l w a n g l es e n s i t i v i t y , a(AP/HS)/aY, o fc o n i c a l and hemispherical-nose
probeshave been found t o i n c r e a s e w i t h Mach number and reach a maximum ofabout
0.025 a t M - 1.5 (e.9..Ref. IO andRef. 2 ) .F u r t h e ri n c r e a s e si n Mach number
r e s u l ti nd e c r e a s i n gs e n s l t i v i t y .F o r example, d a t af o r a hemispherical yaw-
meter w i t h o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d 45' from thenoseindicate a 50% loss i n s e n s i t i v i t y
a t H = 2.7, Fig. 35 o f Ref. 2. S i m i l a r l y ,t h e o r e t i c a lc a l c u l a t i o n sf o r a 6
0'
c o n i c a ly a m e t e ri n d i c a t e a 70% loss a t M = 3.5, F i g . 3.E.3.
* I f we assume
s i m i l a rb e h a v i o r for thepyramidprobe and a maximum s e n s i t i v i t y o f 0.025, the
s m a l l e s t change inflowanglewhichcan be detected by a pressuremeasuring
system w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n
of 3.45 x N/cmZ (0.005 p s i ) i s
I30
.030 I I I I I I I I I
-I
P
.025
a EXPERIMENTALDATA (Ref. 25
/
,020 \ - CURVE FROM R e f . 10 -I
.005
0
0 I .o 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
MACH
NUMBER
If l e s s - a c c u r a t e , f l o w a n g u l a r i t y measurements a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y and a
simultaneous measurement o f P i t o tp r e s s u r ei sd e s i r e d ,t h e nose o f the
pyramid yawmeter may be t r u n c a t e d a n d a n o r i f i c e p l a c e d i n t h e c e n t e r of the
nose,;: e.g.,Ref. 9. I nt h ec a s eo fs u b s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h i sw o u l dp r o v i d e a
convenientcheck on the u n i f o r m i t yo ft o t a lp r e s s u r e . I n the case o fs u p e r s o n i c
t u n n e l s ,t h i sp e r m i t s Mach
number t o be determinedsimultaneously,e.g.,Refs.
1 4 and 15. Such a p r o b en o to n l ym i n i m i z e sc a l i b r a t i o nt i m eb u t also eliminates
any u n c e r t a i n t y i n l o c a l Mach number a tw h i c hf l o wa n g l e sa r e measured.
I. has a flow a n g l es e n s i t i v i t yw h i c hi sr e l a t i v e l yi n s e n s i t l v et o
extraneous flow v a r i a b l e ss u c h as Reynolds number and turbulence,
4. has
adequate s t r u c t u r a sl t i f f n e s s , and
I no r d e rt or e d u c et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n t I me, most o p e r a t o r sp r e f e rt o
useprobes i n rakes o ra r r a y s . However, H a r t l e y and Nichols(Ref. 16)
c o n d u c t e dt e s t si nt h e A E D C 16T Tunnel w i t h f i v e 7.62 cm (3 i n . )d i a m e t e r
hemispherical yawmetersmountedon a 2.44 m . ( 8 f t ) widerake. The rake
c o n s i s t e do f a 22" ( t o t a l - a n g l e ) wedge w i t h a 7.62 cm ( 3 i n . )w i d e base and
was c e n t e r mountedon a s t i n gs u p p o r t . The yawmetersweremounted0.61 m
(2 f t ) a p a r t w i t h t h e nose locatedapproximatelyfourdiameters ahead o f t h e
l e a d i n g edge o f t h e wedge. The t o t a lw i n d - t u n n e lb l o c k a g eo ft h er a k e was
approximately 1%. These i n v e s t i g a t o r sf o u n dt h a t h er a k ei n d u c e ds i g n i f i c a n t
o u t f l o wt o w a r dt h et i p so ft h er a k e . The i n d u c e df l o wa n g u l a r i t y ,a tt h et i p s
o ft h er a k e ,i n c r e a s e df r o ma b o u t 0 . 5 " a t M = 0.6 t o over 1 " a t M = 1 . 1 . As
Mach number increased f r o m 1 . 1 t o 1.2,theinducedflowangularitydecreased
s h a r p l y and e x h i b i t e d n e a r - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r 1.2 5 M 5 1.5.
A w a l l - m o u n t e ds t r u ts u p p o r t ,w i t ht h e same wedge a n g l e o f 22", was a l s o t e s t e d
and found t o induceevenlargeroutflowfromthe w a l l t o w a r dt h et i p .
133
I
as near-interference-free,flow a n g u l a r i t y measurementsascan be expected i n
a windtunnel.
III.E.3. Hot-Wire/Film
Yameters
Two h o t - w i r e s i n c l i n e d a t a na n g l ew i t hr e s p e c tt oe a c ho t h e r and t h e
mean f l o w havelong been used i n low speed flows t o measure f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
(Ref.17).Three-wireprobeshavealsobeenusedextensively t o simultaneously
measure p i t c h and yaw i nt h r e ed i m e n s i o n a lf l o w s .I nt h ep a s t ,h o t - w i r e s have
n o t been used i nt r a n s o n i cf l o w s becausetheyare so e a s i l yb r o k e n . However,
Hortsman and Rose (Ref. 18) have r e c e n t l yd e m o n s t r a t e dt h a tl o wa s p e c tr a t i o
(,f/d-lOO) tungstenwireprobes can be used i nt r a n s o n i cf l o w sw i t h o u t a
p r o h i b i t i v e breakageproblem.Alsorecently, Johnson
and Rose (Ref. 19) have
r e p o r t e du s i n g an X - a r r a yh o t - w i r et o measureReynolds s t r e s si n a supersonic
boundary l a y e r and i n a shock-wave/boundary-layer i n t e r a c t i o n (Ref. 20).
Thus, a l t h o u g h m a t c h i n g t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s o f two o r more w i r e s f o r a c c u r a t e
In a studyoftheeffectsofcontouringslottedwallstoreducetransonic-
w a l l - I n t e r f e r e n c e , Weeks (Ref.23)hasused a h o t - f il m p r o b e f o r a c c u r a t e mea-
surement o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y . T h i s w o r k i n v o l v e d t h e u s e o f a i r f o i l modelswhich
spanned t h e t e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e AFFDL T r i s o n i c Gasdynamics F a c i l i t y . The
required planar measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y wereobtainedwlth a split-film,
22O t o t a l - a n g l e wedge which was manufactured by Thermo Systems, Inc.,according
to an AFFDL design.Thisprobeconsists o f a q u a r t zr o d 0.152 cm (0.06 i n . )i n
d i a m e t e rw i t ht h et i p ground t o a symmetrical wedge. As i n d i c a t e di nF i g . 3.E.4,
therodextendsforward 1.27 cm (0.5 in.)from a0.3175 cm (0.125 in.)diameter
supporttube. A p a i r o f p l a t i n u m f i l m s , 0.102 cm (0.04 in.)long,aredeposited
on each s i d e o f t h e apex o f t h e wedge. Four g o l d - f i l m l e a d s a r e used t o complete
t h e twoseparate anemometer b r i d g e c i r c u i t s . The c a l i b r a t e d yaw s e n s i t i v i t y
of this probe is shown i n F i g . 3.E.4 f o r 0.85 < M < 0.95.
Weeks c l a i m s t h a t
t h i s probe will r e s o l v ef l o wa n g l e st ow i t h i n 42 minutes o f a r c (0.03O). The
primarylimitationisstatedto be p r o b ev i b r a t i o nw h i c h was d e t e r m i n e de x p e r i -
mentally to induce errors 5 0.5 minutes o f arc.
* Reference 21 a l s o d i s c u s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a l i b r a t i o n of a h o t - w i r e i s
s u s c e p t i b l e t o change w i t h t i m e because o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n . T h i s
may r e q u i r e f r e q u e n t c a l i b r a t i o n checks.
** A l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s a r e n o t aware o f any t r a n s i e n t measurements o f f l o w a n g l e s
w i t h a h o t - w i r e / f i l m ,t h e r ei sn oi n h e r e n tr e a s o n why t h i s t y p e o f yawmeter can
n o t be used i n a c o n t i n u o u s - t r a v e r s e mode. Thiswouldprovidetheadvantage of
r e d u c e dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o nt i m e , e.g.,see d i s c u s s i o n o f f o r c eb a l a n c e yawmeters.
135
To Separate Anemometer
D I MENS IONS I N CENT IMETERS Bridge C i r c u i t s
137
t L
DIMENSIONSINCENTIMETERS
14.73
\I' I """""""
1.67 D i a .
7 I
- " - I
"
2-COMPONENTBALANCEINSTALLEDHERE
I
\J ?
20
I
CJ
W
n
-0.12
zU
V
.
I
irr
n W
0 n.
A C
0.3 i0:lO
J
f CNa
-
LL
LL
8 U
~0.08
V
W
0
rr
0
LL
z- 0.1
I
0
k
n
0 0.04
L 5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 .o 1,1 1.2 1.3
140
I l l . E. References
5. B u z z e l l , W. A . : " C a l i b r a t i o nR e s u l t sf o S
r t a t i o n a r yP r e s s u r e Rakes Sensing
Yaw Angle Downstream o f an A x i a l Compressor Stage," ARL TR 75-0104,
A p r i 1 1975.
141
12. Zumwalt, G. W.: "ConicalProbes f o rD e t e r m i n a t i o n of Local Mach
Numbers
and Flow D i r e c t i o n i n S u p e r s o n i c Wing Tunnels," SCTM 355-60(71),
SandlaCorp., Nov. 1960.
142
24. Maxwell, H. andLuchuk, W.: "Evaluation o f a Wedge on a ForceBalance
as aFlowAngle Probe," AEDC-TR-74-110,Feb. 1975.
25.
Raney, D. J . : "Flow D i r e c t i o n Measurements i n Supersonic Wind Tunnels,"
Aero. Res.
Coun. Lond. , Current Papers No. 262, 1956.
27. Luchuk, W.: "Flow Angle Measurements Using a 2-Inch Span Cruciform-Wing
Force Model," presented at 45th Semi-Annual STA meeting,Albuquerque,
N.M., A p r i l 1976 ( r e f e r e n c e dw i t ha u t h o r ' sp e r m i s s i o n ) .
Inthecenteroftransonictestsectionsthefluctuatingpressurecoef-
f i c i e n t ,d e f i n e d as
- <PI>
AC = - x 100 percent,
P q
1 44
6
.OM
.m
F i g . 3.F.1
FREQUENCY
SPECTRA OF N O I S E FROM TURBULENT
A
BOUNDARYLAYER ON A S O L I DW A L L R
, ef. 2
,014
,010
.w1
.ffl
F i g . 3.F.2 NOISE
FREQUENCY
SPECTRA
FOR SOME E X I S T I N G
CONTINUOUSWINDTUNNELSAT HaD= 0.80, R e f . 2
As n o t e d b y H a r t t u i k e r , e t a l . (Ref. 2)
*, flowqual it y can a f . f e c t t h e
r e s u l t s o f t e s t s on: (1)dynamic stability, (2) s t a t i cf o r c e s and moments,
(3) b u f f e t , and (4) f l u t t e r .T e s t so ft h e s eq u a n t i t i e sg e n e r a l l yi n v o l v e
i n c r e a s i n g l yh i g h e rf r e q u e n c i e s I n t h eo r d e rl i s t e d .A p p a r e n t l y ,l i t t l e
work hasbeendone t o measure f l u c t u a t i o n s i n f l o w a n g u l a r i t y and c o r r e l a t e
t h e s ew i t hp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s . However, Mabey (Refs. 5-7) and H a r t t u i k e r ,
etal. (Ref.2)havefoundthe e f f e c t so n model t e s t so fb o t hp r e s s u r e and
incidencefluctuationscan be c o r r e l a t e d by u s i n g a s p e c t r u m f u n c t i o n d e f i n e d
as f o l l o w s :
1 47
a d d i t i o n , when measuring v o r t i c i t y w i t h h o t - w i r e s , h o t - f i l m s , o r an LDV, the
data may a l s o v a r y because o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n f r e q u e n c y response.
The f i r s t measurements o f w a l l p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s b e n e a t h t u r b u l e n t
boundary l a y e r s i n awindtunnel were reported by W i l l m a r t hi n 1956 (Ref.20).
W i l l m a r t h (Ref.21) has recentlyreviewedtheproblemsof dynamic pressure
measurements a t t u n n e l w a l l s and n o t e s t h a t most o f t h e s e measurementshave
been made withflush-mountedtransducers.Hanly(Ref.22) has r e c e n t l ys t u d i e d
the effect of sensor flushness on fluctuating-surface-pressure measurements a t
M = 1.68, 2.0, and 2.5. These t e s t s show spectralpressure measurements a r e
extremelysensitivetoflushnesswithprotrusioncausinggreatererrorthan
submergence. Hanlyconcludesthat more repeatabledata canbe o b t a i n e dw i t h
transducers mounted approximately 0.0254 cm (0.0l"in.).beneathasurface orifice.
Thus, it is r e c m e n d e dt h a ta c o u s t i c measurements a tt u n n e lw a l l sc o n f o r mt o
this criterion.
148
approximately 40 microphonediameters. These i n v e s t i g a t o r ss t a t e d :
"Thisinstallationtechniqueprecludedthe measurement o f p u r e l y n e a r -
field influence of the mostadjacentupstreamholes and a l l o w e d f o r t h e
measurement o f what m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e r a d i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d
averagevalue o f p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a t t h e w a l l s u r f a c e . "
I na d d i t i o nt ot u n n e lw a l l measurements, t u n n e ln o i s ec a l i b r a t i o n sr e q u i r e
dynamic p r e s s u r ed a t an e a rt h ec e n t e ro ft h et e s ts e c t i o n . Some o f t h e f i r s t
such measurements i n a transonictunnelwerereported by C h e v a l i e r and Todd
(Ref.
25). I nt h e s ei n i t i a lt e s t s , dynamic pressuretransducers were mounted
ona wedge, a wingprobe, and an o g i v e - c y l i n d e r .L a t e ra c o u s t i c measurements
i n t h e AEDC-PWT 16T and 165 t u n n e l s wereperformed w i t h condensermicrophones
and s t r a i n gage transducers mounted on a 10 deg included-anglecone,Ref. 10.
I50
1. s k i n - f r i c t i o n gages t od e t e r m i n et r a n s i t i o nR e y n o l d s numbers
and flush-mountedmicrophones t o measure n o i s e l e v e l s onthe
test section centerline,
AlternateAcousticCalibration
-
=-.
Probes
*Credle(Ref. 33) n o t e de a r l i e rt h a tt h et r a v e r s i n gp r o b es u p p o r ts t r u c t u r e
appeared t o g e n e r a t e a d d i t i o n a l n o i s e , basedon comparisons w i t h a c o u s t i c
data obtained on an ogive-cylinder and t h e AEDC 10 deg cone w i t h f l a t s .
151
o f t h e body o f t h e p r o b e with streanwiseandcross-flowvelocityfluctuations.
The p r e s s u r e i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o thediaphragm o f a miniaturecondensormicro-
phone(0.25 dm diam.) i n s i d et h ep r o b e (0.305 cm diam.) throughanannular
s l i t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 diametersdownstreamfromthe t i p o f thebalsa wood,
venose. A 0.318 cm (1/8 i n . )c o l l a ra r o u n dt h ep r o b e , downstream o f t h e
s l t, was c a r e f u l l y p o s i t i o n e d t o make t h e s t e a d y p r e s s u r e a t t h e s l i t e q u a l
t o t h ef r e e - s t r e a ms t a t i cp r e s s u r e when t h e r e i s n oc r o s sf l o w . The probe-
co l a r compensation was checked a t z e r o a n g l e o f a t t a c k i n a flowwithsinu-
so d a l a x i a l v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s and was foundadequate.
nThe u n d e r l i n i n g was i n s e r t e d by t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r s t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e s i z e
o f t h e AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone may i n d u c e e r r o r s i n n o i s e measurements.
153
A U Dimensions in Centimeters
r E m s e d tnnrduccr
A s i m i l a r comparison o f h o t w i r e d a t a w i t h f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r o b e d a t a
hasbeen r e p o r t e d byGrandeand Oates(Ref. 39). However,a 1.78 rnm (0.070 i n . )
diameterstrain gage transducer was employed and d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d f o r
1.1 < M < 2.25. Nondimensionalized power s p e c t r a ld e n s i t i e so b t a i n e di n a
t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r and inthefreestreamwerefoundtoagreeremarkably
155
we1 1. These a u t h o r sc o n c l u d et h a t" t h ef r e q u e n c yr e s p o n s ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
t h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r es e n s o ra r ei d e n t i c a lt ot h o s e of t h eh o tw i r e ,i . e . ,
it c a nb ec o n s i d e r e da ni d e a lp o i n ts e n s o rf o rf l u c t u a t i o n sw i t hs p a t i a ls c a l e s
somewhat largerthantheprobediameter.''
D isadvan tages :
1. c a n n o ts e p a r a t et h et h r e ep o s s i b l ef l o wd i s t u r b a n c e modes o f
entropy,vorticity and p r e s s u r e .
2. cannot deduce w h e t h e rd i s t u r b a n c es o u r c e sa r es t a t i o n a r yo r
movi ng.
1. r e l a t i v e l yi n e x p e n s i v e and o f f - t h e - s h e l f , commercialtransducers
are readi ly available.
2. speedandease o f measurement.
3. s i m p l e rd a t ar e d u c t i o n .
5. h i g hs i g n a lt on o i s er a t i o .
6. reduced i n f l u e n c e o f f l o w p e r t u r b a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f i n i t e
p r o b es i z e (compared w i t h t h e AEDC t r a n s i t i o nc o n e ) .
7. minimum w a l l - p r o b e i n t e r f e r e n c e .
8. e a s i l y moved about t o s u r v e y e n t i r e t e s t s e c t i o n .
I nc o n c l u s i o n ,r e c e n tr e s e a r c hw i t hf l u c t u a t i n gP i t o tp r o b e si n d i c a t e s
theseinstruments may be adequate f o r i n i t i a l c a l i b r a t i o n o f f l o w d i s t u r b a n c e s
i nt r a n s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s .T h i st y p eo f measurement couldserve as
aconvenient and inexpensivestandardto compare tunnelnoiselevels. I t 1s
a l s or e l e v a n tt on o t et h a t Doughertyof thePropulsion Wind Tunnelgroup at
AEDC plansto use af l u c t u a t i n gP i t o tp r o b et om o n i t o rf r e e s t r e a md i s t u r b a n c e
l e v e l sd u r i n gf l i g h tt e s t sw i t ht h e AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone.
1 57
1II.F.
References
6. Habey, D. G . : ' # A nH y p o t h e s i sf o rt h eP r e d i c t i o no fF l i g h tP e n e t r a t i o n of
Wing B u f f e t i n g from Dynamic Testson Wind TunnelModels," RAE TR 70189,
Oct. 1970.
16. Horstman, C. C. and Rose, bl. C.: "Hot Wire Anemometry i nT r a n s o n i c Flow,"
NASA TM X-62495,Dec. 1975.
20. i 1 Imarth, W.
W W. : "Pressure Fluctuations Beneath Turbulent BoundaryLayers,"
AnnualReview o f F l u i d Mechanics,Vol. 7, Annual Review Inc.,Palo Alto,
Cal if., 1975.
159
24. Credle, 0. P. and Shadow,
T. 0.: "Evaluation of t h eO v e r a l l Root-Mean-
Square F l u c t u a t i n g P r e s s u r e L e v e l s i n t h e AEDC PWT 16-Ft.TransonicTunnel ,I'
AEDC-TR-70-7,
Feb.
1970.
160
35. Stainback, P. C. ; Wagner, R. D. ; Owen, F. K. ; andHorstman, C. C. :
"ExperimentalStudies o f HypersonicBoundary-Layer T r a n s i t i o n and
E f f e c t s o f Wind-Tunnel Disturbances," NASA TN D-7453, Mar.1974.
36. Siddon, T. E.: "On t h e Response o f PressureMeasuringInstrumentation
i n Unsteady Flow," UTlAS Rept. No. 136, I n s t i t u t e for AerospaceStudies,
Univ. of Toronto, Jan. 1969.
37. Strasberg, M.: "Measurements o ft h eF l u c t u a t i n gS t a t i c and Total-Head
Pressures i n a Turbulent Wake," DavidTaylor Model Basin Rept. 1779,
(AD 428 7001, Dec. 1963 (a1 so AGARD Rept.464).
161.
.
I
. . , .... . . .. .. ... - .. . .. _.
. .._
A
The current name of this facilityis Calspan.
162
I f the wa 1 1 is solid, the boundary conditionfor no flow through the wall is
wall. -a4
= 0 at solid (3-6.2)
an
-a4
= 0 at open boundary.
ax (3.G.3)
The corrections to measured valueso f model lift and pitching moment, which
result when solving Eq. (3.6.1) with either solid or open-wall boundary conditions,
are discussed in detail by Garner, et al. (Ref. 5). The theoretical results
generally agree with experiments. In order to facilitate applications ofthls
6) has compiled solutions in
type of boundary-induced corrections, Heyson (Ref.
and charts.
the form of curves
In the case of ventilated walls, the boundary conditions become more complex.
In fact, the centralproblem of theoretical analysis of transonic-wall-interference
is selection of the appropriate boundary conditions to use withEq. (3.G.l). This
is still an area of active research,and only a brief review of boundaryconditions
for ventilated tunnels wi 1 1 be given here.
This boundary condition was derivedby assuming the average velocity normal to
(a linearized
the wall is proportional to the pressure drop through the wall
and that the pressure outslde
approximation to viscous flow through the wall),
the wall is equal to freestream static. The value of R, for a given wall, i s
usually determined experimentally by measuring pressure drop and the associated
mass flow througha wall sample (e.g. Ref. 71, i.e. ,
An a p p r o x i m a t e , u n i f o r m b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r s l o t t e d w a l l s was d e r i v e d
byBaldwin, etal. (Ref. 4).
-
a 4
ax
+ K - a20
axan
= 0 aitd e a ls, l o t t e dw a l l (3. G.6)
where K i s r e l a t e d t o s l o t geometry by
K = -
DS
lr
In {CSC (E -wS1 1 ,
DS
and
Ds = d i s t a n c e between s l o c
t enters,
Ws = w i d t ho sf l o t s .
I n anattempt t o account f o rv i s c o u se f f e c t s ,B a l d w i n ,e ta l .s u g g e s t e d
a d d i n gt h ep o r o u sb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o nt o Eq. (3.6.6)and measuring R f o r t h e
slotofinterest.
-
a+
ax
+ K -
&
axan
+ -1 -
Rs
a4
an
= 0 at viscous, slotted wall
(3.6.8)
164
9 - i n c hb y2 1 - i n c hs e c t i o no f a s i d e w a l l o f theGeneral Dynamics 4-footHigh
Speed Wind Tunnel.Datawereobtained for Mach numbers o f 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9
anda corresponding unit Reynolds number range o f 19.7 t o 37.7 mill ion (per
meter),Usingthe measured v a l u e s o f R and t h e r e s u l t s o f 1 i n e a rp e r t u r b a t i o n
t h e o r yo b t a i n e d byLo and O l i v e r( R e f . IO), t h e upwash and stream1inecurva-
turecorrectionsindicatedthewalldidnot have t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an
open j e t . T h i s c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t s w i t h an a i r c r a f t f o r c e model
which,when correctedfor open-boundaryinterference,agreed withdataobtained
I
w i t ht h e same model i nt h eL a n g l e y 8 ' TransonicPressureTunnel(Ref. ll)*. !
The c u r r e n t consensus i s :t h et r u e ,t r a n s o n i c - t u n n e lb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s
a r e dependent on t h el o c a lf l o wc o n d i t i o n sn e a rt h ew a l l .T h i s ,i nt u r n , means
adependence onbothtunneloperatingconditions@theparticular model
configuration, e.g., Newman and Klunker (Ref. 14). Recent e f f o r t st oo b t a i n
improvedboundaryconditionsforfixed(passive)wallconditionsincludethe
s t u d yo fv a r i a t i o n si n R between top and b o t t o mp e r f o r a t e dw a l l s , Ref. 15, and
n o n l i n e a rb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n sf o rw a l l sw i t hn o r m a lh o l e s , Ref. 16, and s l o t t e d
walls, e.g.,Refs. 17 and 18. Of c o u r s e ,t h eb a s i co b j e c t i v eo ft h e s es t u d i e s is
t oa t t a i nd a t ac o r r e c t i o np r o c e d u r e sw h i c h can r e l i a b l y account f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f
real,ventilatedwalls.
111.6.2. Adaptive
Wall
Studies
The d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a p p l y i n g t r a n s o n i c w a l l c o r r e c t i o n s , w h i c h do n o t
reduce to s i m p l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f speed and angle o f a t t a c k , a r e w e l l known.
A l s o , one o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l , l i n e a r t h e o r y of
walleffectsistheimpossibilityofusinguniformporositytosimultaneously
* -
The r e c e n t , s u p e r c r i t i c a l a i r f o i l t e s t s o f E l a c k w e l l and Pounds (Ref. 12)
i n d i c a t et h ea c t u a l boundary c o n d i t i o n s h i f t s t o w a r dt h ef r e e - j e ta sp o r o s i t y
increases,i.e.,thetransonicshock moves f o r w a r d f o r a g i v e n Mach number.
T h i s same t r e n d was alsoobserved asa r e s u l to fi n c r e a s e db l o c k a g ei nt h e
s u p e r c r i t i c a lc o n e - c y l i n d e rt e s t so f Page (Ref. 1 3 ) .
165
eliminatetheeffectsofwallinterferenceonbothnormalforce and p i t c h i n g
moment, Ref. 16.
1. d e t e r m i n et h ew a l lp o r o s i t yw h i c he l i m i n a t e sw a l l
i n t e r f e r e n c ef o r a g i v e ne x t e r n a lp r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o n ,
2. p r o v i d et h ec o r r e c tp r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o no u t s i d e
oftheporouswallfor a givenporositydistribution,
3. d e t e r m i n ew a l lc o n t o u r st oc o n f o r mw i t hf r e e - a i r
stream1 ines, o r
4. c a l c u l a t et h ew a l lc o r r e c t i o n st o be a p p l i e dt ot h e
e x p e r i m e n t a rl e s u l t s .
One o f t h e advantages o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s t h a t it o n l y r e q u i r e s t h e
l i n e a r i z e dp e r t u r b a t i o ne q u a t i o n st o be v a l i d n e a rt h ew a l l .T h i s means t h e
procedure may be v a l i d as long as supersonicpockets do n o t e x t e n d t o t h e
t u n n e lw a l l s . The primaryadvantage o ft h i sp r o c e d u r ei st h a t i t uses d a t a
t oe s t a b l i s ht h ea p p r o p r i a t e boundaryconditions. However, asnoted by F e r r i
and B a r o n t i ,t h ep r i m a r yd i s a d v a n t a g e sa r et h er e q u i r e m e n t sf o r" a c c u r a t e
measurements o f f l o w d e f l e c t i o n s and p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n s a t s e v e r a l a n g u l a r
p o s i t i o n s and a t many s t a t i o n s a l o n g t h e t e s t s e c t i o n . "
I nc o n j u n c t i o nw i t ht h et h e o r yo fF e r r i and Baronti,anexperimentalpro-
gram was begun i n t h e 15" T r i s o n i c Gasdynamics F a c i l i t y a t t h e Air F o r c e F l i g h t
Dynamics Laboratory.SinceStreamlineanglescan bemeasuredmore accurately
away from t h e w a l l , t h e t h e o r y was s u b s e q u e n t l y m o d i f i e d t o u s e f l o w a n g l e s and
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e s measured a t an i n t e r m e d i a t e" m i d f i e l d 1 'l o c a t i o n between t h e
modeland w a l l .F o ra n g u l a r i t y measurements, a new h o t - f i l m , 20 deg-wedge probe
166
was designed and f a b r i c a t e d .C a l i b r a t i o nt e s t s show it t o be capableof
resolving flow angles to within -
+2 minutes o f a r c (Ref.21).Thisprobe,
togetherwith a c o n v e n t i o n a l , cone-cylinder,static-pressure probe,provides
t h ei n p u tr e q u i r e d b yt h eF e r r i and Barontitheory.
still a large
Although the Calspan results are encouraging, there are
cansimilarly
number of problems to overcome before three dimensional models be
tested, i.e., adequate theoretical modelso f 30 transonic flows and porosity
adjustment of all four walls.
*The perforated walls are dividedinto ten segments on the top and eight on the
bottom. The four central segments in the top wall and the two central segments
in the bottom wall are designed to provide a n adjustable porosity with linear
variation in the streamwise direction. Each segment has a separate plenum for
individual control of suction or blowing.
168
Recently, Kemp (Ref. 25) has suggested a h y b r i d scheme. He hasproposed
u s i n gl i m i t e da d a p t i v e - w a l lc o n t r o lt or e d u c ei n t e r f e r e n c et oa n a l y t i c a l l y
, c o r r e c t a b l el e v e l s .I n sumnary, r e d u c t i o no tf r a n s o n i c - w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e and
improveddata-correction methods a r e a r e a s o f a c t i v e r e s e a r c h i n t h e USA, Canada,
and Europe. Considerableprogress i sa n t i c i p a t e di nt h en e a rf u t u r e .
A
The new N a t i o n a l T r a n s o n i c F a c i l i t y a t NASA Langley will have s l o t t e d w a l l s
becausetheygeneratelessnoise and i n t e r f e r e n c e a t s u b s o n i c speeds,Ref. 26.
Parker(Ref. 30) a l s o found s l o t t e d w a l l s , asopposed t op e r f o r a t e dw a l l s ,
p r o v i d e d amore u n i f o r m c e n t e r l i n e Machnumber d i s t r i b u t i o n up t o M
**Tunnelnoise
1.1. -
measurements a r ed i s c u s s e di ng r e a t e rd e t a i li nS e c t i o n I1I.F.
169
A review of various means f o r measuring boundary layer profiles has been
g i v e n byKennerandHopkins(Ref. 31). These investigatorsobtainedboundary
l a y e r measurementsona supersonictunnelwail (2.4 < HOD,<3.4) with a s i n g l e
t r a v e r s i n g p r o b e ,t h r e ed i f f e r e n tr a k e s , and a 12 deg.wedge with orifices in
theleading edge. The i n t e r e s t e dr e a d e r may c o n s u l t t h i s r e f e r e n c e f o r d e t a i l s
o f boundary layerprobedesigns anda discussionoftheresultsthat can be
expected.Also,Allen(Ref. 32)has g i v e na g e n e r a ld i s c u s s i o no ft h ee f f e c t s
o f Machnumber on P i t o t probe measurement e r r o r s i n t u r b u l e n t boundarylayers.
111.6. References
171
12. Blackwell, J. A., Jr. andPounds, G . A.: "Wind TunnelWallInterference
Effects ona SupercriticalAirfoilatTransonic Speeds,'' Paper No.1,
Proc. A I M 9 t h Aerodynamic TestingConference,June 1976.
24.
173
1II.H. STANDARD
MODELS
174
Mach
one, even i n t h eb e s tv e n t i l a t e dt u n n e l s . Thus, c u r r e n ts t u d i e s of tran-
sonicwallinterferencerequiretheuse of pressuremodels to providethe
necessary data.
lll.H.2. Transonic
Pressure
Models: 2-D
* See
p. 150.
A*
Subsequent t o t h i s work,Binion and Lo (Ref. 15) showed, i n some cases,wall
i n t e r f e r e n c e canovershadow t h e e f f e c t s o f R e y n o l d s number v a r i a t i o n s .
balance and sting. Four different model arrangementswere tested in both tunnels,
viz., the wing by itself, the tall by itself, and the wing with tail mounted close
behind and at a more aft position.
A transonic transport model has been designed and developed at ONERA and
has been offered as a standard for transonic tunnel calibrations. A family
of five different sizeshas been fabricated so that an appropriate s i z e i s
available for even small tunnels. However, only the largest model provides
for measurements of wing pressure distributlons. An equivalent body of
revolution i s also available for thelarge model. A description of the model
geometry may be foundin Reference 19.
177
- .
Two s i z e s o f t h i s model ( l a r g e M 5 and 1/4 s c a l es m a l l e r H3) have r e c e n t l y
been t e s t e d i n t h e AEDC 16T and 4T t u n n e l s and t h e NASA Ames 1 1 - f t t u n n e l as
p a r t o f a c o o p e r a t i v ep r o g r a mw i t h ONERA. The statedpurposes of thisstudy
were ' ' t o p r o v i d e an experimentaldatabase for (1) t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e o r e t i c a l
or e m p i r i c a l w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s and ( 2 ) t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f
guidelinestoallowreasonableselectionofwind-tunnel-to-modelsizeratios
i nt h et r a n s o n i c speed regime.'' The t e s tr e s u l t s and e v a l u a t i o na r er e p o r t e d
by B i n i o n (Ref.19).
An unexpected r e s u l t o f t h e s e t e s t s was t h e o b s e r v e d s e n s i t i v i t y t o R e y n o l d s
number. I nf a c t ,t h e modelswerefound t o bemore s e n s i t i v et o Reynolds number
when boundary l a y e r t r a n s i t i o n was f i x e dt h a nw i t hf r e et r a n s i t i o n .A l s o ,
greatervariationofthedatafromtunnel-to-tunneloccurredwithfixedtransi-
tion. Wing pressuredata from t h e l a r g e r model showed t h e s ed i f f e r e n c e sw e r e
causedby d i f f e r e n c e si n shock-boundarylayerinteractions and t r a i l i n g edge
s e p a r a t i o n .F i n a l l y , even t h o u g hs t a t e - o f - t h e - a r tm a n u f a c t u r i n gt o l e r a n c e s
wereused t of a b r i c a t e ,t h em o d e l s ,t h e r ea p p e a r st o be s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t a i l
incidence between t h e twomodels. Thisprecludedusefulmodel-to-modelcompari-
sons o f p i t c h i n g moment. I n summary, t h e ONERA modelswerefound t o be o v e r l y
s e n s i t i v e t o Reynolds number and t u n n e l f l o w q u a l i t y and e x h i b i t e d i n s u f f i c i e n t
model s i m i l a r i t yf o ra c c u r a t es t u d i e so fw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e . Thus, t h e
objectivesofthesetests were notachieved.
T. W.,
~
178
4. The horizontal tail should be separately ins.trumcnted andgeometrically
similar to the wing.
5. Standardization of instrunentationand sting configuration i s essential.
6. Both model forces and pressure distributionson wings and centerbody
should be measured.
179
1II.H. References
16. Dougherty, N. S., Jr. and Steinle, F. W.: "Transition Reynolds Number
Ccnnpari sons in Several Ma Jor Transonic ,I' AlAA Paper No. 74-627,
Tunnels
July 1974.
17. Dougherty, N. S., Jr.: "Prepared Comment on Cone Transition Reynolds
Number Data Correlation Study,'' AGARD-CP-187, June 1975.
181
111.1. OPTICAL METHODS
111.1.1. Supersonic
Tunnels
In thecase of s u p e r c r i t i c a l f l o w a b o u t a hemisphere-cylinderprobe,the
shadowgraphs o f Hsieh(Ref. 6 ) w e r ev e r yh e l p f u li nd e t e c t i n g boundarylayer
s e p a r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e measuredpressure distributions.
*Most o ft h er e s p o n d e n t st ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r ei n d i c a t e dt h e yr o u t i n e l y used
one or b o t h o f thesetechniques.
182
A t lowsupersonicspeeds,schlierens andshadowgraphs a r ev e r yu s e f u l
in studiesoftheshock-cancellationpropertiesofventilatedwalls, e.g.,
Ref. 7. Also,Dougherty, e ta l . (Ref. 8) h a v ev e r ye f f e c t i v e l y used s c h l i e r e n
photographs t o s t u d y t h e sound f i e l d g e n e r a t e d by p e r f o r a t e d w a l l s when ex-
posed t oh i g h - s u b s o n i cf l o w s .
Newer o p t i c a l methods f o r f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n i n c l u d e l a s e r D o p p l e r
v e l o c i m e t e r s (LDV) , h o l o g r a p h i cv e l o c i m e t e r s (HV) , and h o l o g r a p h i ci n t e r f e r o m e t r y
( H I ) f o rd e n s i t y measurements. The primaryadvantage o f LDV'sandHV's istheir
p o t e n t i a l t o m e a s u r et h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a lf l o wf i e l d sw i t h o u td i s t u r b i n gt h e flow.
As
we have seen, t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s near Mach
one.
The fundamentals o f h o l o g r a p h i c v e l o c i m e t r y a r e r e v i e w e d b y S h o f n e r , e t a l .
(Ref. 9). A verycomprehensivereview ofthe use o f holography i n windtunnel
t e s t i n g hasbeen compiledby Havener (Ref. IO). Progress(up t o 1975) i na u t o -
mating H I d a t ar e d u c t i o n i s reportedby Hannah and
Havener (Ref.11).Since
this is still a developingtechnology,applicationsofholographytoempty-tunnel
c a l i b r a t i o n appears t o be i n t h e f u t u r e .
183
111.1. References
184
1II.J. Humidity Measurements
m o i s t u r ec o n t e n to ft h et u n n e lf l o w 1s t h e r e f o r e an e s s e n t i a l pa r t o f t u n n e l
c a l i b r a t i o n and operation.
humidity(ratioofmoisturepartialpressuretosaturationpressure), dew
p o i n t (or f r o s tp o i n t )t e m p e r a t u r ea ta t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e ,s p e c i f i ch u m i d i t y
t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e ,e x t e n d i n gf r o mt h ev i s u a lo b s e r v a t i o no ff o gi nt h e
p r i n c i p l e s used.
A t r i a l and e r r o r p r o c e d u r e i s r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n i t i a l samplepres-
d e t e r m i n e du s i n ga m b i e n ta st h ef i n a lp r e s s u r e . These i n s t r u m e n t sa r el o wi n
185
and for m o n i t o r i n gt h ea c c u r a c y o f l e s sb a s i ci n s t r u m e n t s . They p r o v i d e o n l y
C o n t i n u o u si n d i c a t i n g and r e c o r d i n gh u m i d i t ys e n s o r si n c l u d et h eD u n m r e
typewhich changes r e s i s t a n c e i n a n o n - l i n e a r f a s h i o n w i t h r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y .
An e l e c t r o l y t i c h u m i d i t y s e n s o r i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e . These sensors u t i l i z e
e l e c t r o l y s i sc u r r e n tt o flow. The e l e c t r o l y t i ci n s t r u m e n ti su s u a l l yc a l i b r a t e d
T h i si n s t r u m e n t ,l i k et h er e s i s t a n c ed e v i c e , canbe c o n f i g u r e dt ob o t hi n d i c a t e
h u m i d i t y and p r o v i d e an e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l f o r an e x t e r n a lr e c o r d i n gd e v i c e .
Dew point t e m p e r a t u r e s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y c o n t r o l l i n g a u t o m a t i c a l l y
thetemperatureofapolishedmetalmirrortothepointthatatrace film o f
c o n d e n s a t i o n( o rf r o s t )i sm a i n t a i n e d .S e v e r a il n s t r u m e n t s based on t h i s
byfeedbackcontrol ofthemirrortemperature,utilizinganopticalsource
reflectrylightfromthecooled mirror t o a p a i r o f p h o t o - d e t e c t o r s f o r m i n g a
186
r e s i s t a n c e - t e m p e r a t u r ed e t e c t o ra t t a c h e dd i r e c t l yt ot h em i r r o r . The dew
o u t p u t may a l s o berecorded,suppliedtothewindtunneldatasystem,etc.
2. Doeblin, E. 0 . : Measurement
Systems; A p p l i c a t i o n and Design, pp. 596-'598,
188
I
p r i n c i p l e so fs t a t i s t i c s and p r o b a b i l i t y .U n f o r t u n a t e l y , eachbranch of
advantage i n e v a l u a t i n g , d e f i n i n g and c o m n u n i c a t i n gc a l i b r a t i o na c c u r a c y .
As a f i r s t s t e p , a d e f i n i t i o n and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f e r r o r s
will be stated.
1V.A. Random E r r o r
Random e r r o r i s f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o by t h ee n g i n e e ri nl e s sp r e c i s et e r m s
as"scatter,""noise,"etc., a l li m p l y i n gt h a tr e p e a t e d measurements do n o t
y i e l dt h e same value.Mostprocessesaresuchthat i f a s u f f i c i e n t l yl a r q e
measured i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e measured v a l u e ,t h er e s u l t i n gp l o t( t h ep r o b a -
bilitydensityfunction) will a p p r o a c ht h ef a m i l i a rb e l l - s h a p e dn o r m a ld i s t r i -
b u t i o nc u r v e .I nt h i sc a s e ,t h ea r i t h m e t i c mean v a l u e ,o r average,
N
-
xi
N (4.A .1)
i=l
o c c u r sa tt h e peak o ft h ec u r v e . When p l o t t e di nn o r m a l i z e df o r m ,t h ea r e a
o r random e r r o r , i s s p e c i f i e d bythestandarddeviation,
(4.A.2)
a =
N-1
i=l
189
if,the distribution is based on a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number o f measurements,
68 p e r c e n t o f t h e measurements will l i e w i t h i n t h e +1 u
range - , 95.4 percent
f o r ec o r r e s p o n d st o measurements w i t h a l a r g e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n , a large
amount o f s c a t t e r , a l a r g e random e r r o r , or a l a c k o f p r e c i s i o n , a l l o f
shouldalways be s p e c i f i e d as 1 u ,2 u , etc.
1V.B. Fixed Error
A second f o r m o f measurement e r r o r i s r e f e r r e d t o a ss y s t e m a t i ce r r o r ,f i x e d
r e c a l i b r a t i o n .S i n c e unknown f i x e de r r o r sa r en o tc o r r e c t a b l e ,u n l e s sd e t e c t e d ,
f l o wc a l i b r a t i o n . The o b j e c t i v es h o u l d be t oe l i m i n a t ea l ll a r g e , unknown
f i x e de r r o r s .
v a l u ei s known. F a c i l i t y - t o - f a c i l i t y comparisonsallowonly an e s t i m a t eo ft h e
probable maximum magnitude o f t h e b i a s . C o r r e c t i o n may b e p o s s i b l e o n l y t o t h e
extentthatthecomparisontestsallowdeterminationof and c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e
cause(orcauses)ofthebias(or a p o r t i o nt h e r e o f ) .
1V.C. Uncertainty
The t o t a l u n c e r t a i n t y i n t e r v a l f o r ameasurement r e p r e s e n t st h el a r g e s t ,
r e a s o n a b l y - e x p e c t e de r r o r( i . e . ,t h et r u ev a l u es h o u l df a l li nt h eu n c e r t a i n t y
estimatedbias.
N a t i o n a l Bureau o f Standardsexpressestheuncertaintyastherangecentered
-
U p + (B+tg5u) (4.C.l)
191
r e a s o n s .A l t h o u g ht h i s example I ss i m p l i f i e d , it canbeextended t oI n c l u d e
othererror terms.
An a d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m i n a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f measurement e r r o r ,
a m p l i t u d ev a r i a t i o n sw i t ht i m e .I na d d i t i o nt oo b t a i n i n g a statistically
1V.D. E r r oPr r o p o g a t i o n
s o u r c e sw o u l di n c l u d et h ep r e c i s i o n( s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n s )o ft h ep r e s s u r e
a f i x e db i a si nt h e absence o f a c a l i b r a t i o n .A n o t h e rf i x e db i a sc o u l d be
(4.D.1)
(4.D .2)
192
where and Bp a r et h ee s t f m a t e du n c e r t a i n t y 1 i m i t sf o rt h er a t i o of
Y
s p e c i f i c h e a t s and f o r t h e s t a t i c p r o b e e r r o r , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
(4.D.3).
as t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h et r a n s d u c e r ,t h ee x c i t a t i o n power supply,the
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o na m p l i f i e r and t h e a n a l o g - t o - d i g i t a l c o n v e r t e r a r e a l l t a k e n
i n t o account.Normally,however,thecalibrationisperformedend-to-end
u t i l i z i n g a l l components so t h a t a l l o f t h e above f a c t o r s a r e t a k e n i n t o
accountand a t t r i b u t e dt ot h ep r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r .
193
IV. Ref erences
2. b e l , P. G . : I n t r o d u c t i o nt oH a t h e m a t i c a lS t a t i s t i c s , pp402-403,John
194
V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
195
weaker t r a n s o n i c s h o c k o n t h e c y l i n d e r and t h u s s m a l l e r d e v i a t i o n s f r o m f r e e -
streamconditions. O f t h ev a r i o u ss t a t i cp r o b ed e s i g n sd e s c r i b e di nr e s p o n s e
tothequestionnaire, a two-degree ( t o t a l - i n c l u d e da n g l e )c o n e was t h e s m a l l e s t .
An a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f e r r o r i n c a l i b r a t i n g t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s is t h e
n e g l e c to fv a r i a t i o n st r a n s v e r s et ot h ef l o w .A l m o s tw i t h o u te x c e p t i o n ,i n
caseswheremeasurements had been made, t,he q u e s t i o n n a i r e s i n d i c a t e d g r e a t e r
Mach number g r a d i e n t so c c u ra c r o s st h ef l o wt h a na l o n gt h et u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e .
T h i s may be most s i g n i f i c a n t . i . n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d r a g d i v e r g e n c e a n d / o r
b u f f e to n s e tf o rt r a n s o n i ca i r c r a f t models. However, t h ep r e s e n ts t a t e - o f - t h e -
a r t o f wind'-tunneltesting i s t o use o f f - c e n t e r l i n e d a t a e x c l u s i v e l y a s a diag-
n o s t i ct o o lt od e t e c tu n a c c e p t a b l yl a r g ev a r i a t i o n s .I nw h i c hc a s en o z z l ea n d / o r
test section configurations are altered.
Themost p o p u l a rf l o w - a n g u l a r i t y - p r o b e sa p p e a rt o be t h e 30-deg-cone f o r
simultaneousmeasurements o f p i t c h and yaw.Wedges o fv a r i o u sa n g l e sa r eo f t e n
used for p l a n a r measurements. I t a p p e a r sf e a s i b l et od e s i g np r o b e so ft h i s
type (i.e., differential-pressure) which can resolve -
flow angles t o +0.01 degree.
( T h i s o b j e c t i v e was proposed i n 1970 bythe ad hoc A i r Force-NASA Committeeon
TransonicTestingTechniques.) The quotedaccuracy for f l o w a n g l e measurements
ranged from 0.01 deg t o 0.04 deg. A spatialvariation o f +1/4 deg was f r e q u e n t l y
mentioned.
The m a j o r i t y o f r e p o r t i n g f a c i l i t i e s do n o t c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r h u m i d i t y .
Inordertoachieve a Machnumber accuracyof 0.001, h u m i d i t y must be monitored
continuously.
I I I II
2. Pressuretransducers mounted on wedges w i t h t h e measurement
surfacealignedwiththe flow.
3. Pressuretransducers mounted o nt h ec y l i n d r i c a lp o r t i o n of
ogive-cylinders. .
4. Pressuretransducers mounted i n P i t o t probes t o measure
f l u c t u a t i o n si nP i t o tp r e s s u r e .
5. Hot-wire and h o t - f i l m measurements.
The m a j o r i t y o f t h e t u n n e l s r e p o r t e d t h a t S c h l i e r e n systemswere of
v a l u ei nd e t e c t i n g unwanted d i s t u r b a n c e si nt h et e s ts e c t i o n . When combined
withhigh speed photography, t h i s method a l s op r o v i d e sd a t a on f l o wu n s t e a d i -
ness.
F i n a l l y ,t h e consensusonfrequency o f w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni st h a t a
tunnelshould be r e c a l i b r a t e d o r a t l e a s t s p o t checkedwhenever:
1. t u n n ecl o n f i g u r a t i o n changes
occur,
2. s i g n i f i c a n ti n s t r u m e n t a t i o nm o d i f i c a t i o n sa r e made,
3. erroneousdata i s b e i n go b t a i n e d ,o r
S t a t i c - p r e s s u r eo r i f i c e ss h o u l da l s o be i n s p e c t e db e f o r er e c a l i b r a t i n g .
197
V.B. TRANSONIC TUNNELS
AH
" "AP < L
H P - M
23
5 + M
198
each w a l l , ahead o ft h e model l o c a t i o n , and averaged with a "piezometerring";
t h i s average i s p r e f e r a b l e t o u s i n g o n l y a singlewallstaticpressure.
Off-centerline measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y a r e s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r s
o fe r r o r s causedby n o z z l ec o n t o u r ,w a l ls e t t i n g s ,s e a l e a k s ,e t c . The most
a c c u r a t e measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y can be o b t a i n e d i n t h e l e a s t amount o f
timewith a p r o b ec o n s i s t i n go f two,orthogonal,symmetricalwings and a f o r c e
balance housed i n a smallcenterbody."
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no g e n e r a l c o n s t r a i n t s e x i s t as t o what a r ea c c e p t a b l e
o f f - c e n t e r l i n ev a r i a t i o n s . Jackson ( A E D C ) has s u g g e s t e dt h ef o l l o w i n gc r i t e r i a
f o r ''good" un i f o r m i t y i n c e n t e r 1 i n e Machnumber :
Inthepast, a criterionforacceptableflowangularityalongthecenterline
has n o t beenneeded because a g i v e n model i s u s u a l l y r u n u p r i g h t and i n v e r t e d
i no r d e rt oe s t a b l i s ht h ee f f e c t i v ea n g l eo fi n c i d e n c e .T h i si s a v a l i d and
*Acceptableaccuracycanalso be o b t a i n e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l , d i f f e r e n t i a l -
pressureprobes,seeSection 1II.E.
199
w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e dt e s t i n gp r a c t i c e ; however, f l o w a n g u l a r i t y i n t h e yaw p l a n e
i sf r e q u e n t l yi g n o r e d . To summarize, standard c r i t e r i a f o r f l o w u n i f o r m i t y
need t o be developed f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e( p r e f e r a b l ys t a n d a r d )m o d e l s in
v a r i o u sk i n d s o f t e s t s , =.g., f o r c e ,b u f f e t ,f l u t t e r ,e t c . These c r i t e r i a
shouldincludestandards for a c c e p t a b l e v a r i a t i o n s i n Machnumber and flow
angularity,both on and o f f - c e n t e r l i n e .
Unsteadydisturbance measurements i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s s h o u l d be a
s t a n d a r dp a r t o f t u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n . Recentuse o fh o t - w i r e si nt h et e s t
s e c t i o n o f a t r a n s o n i ct u n n e la t NASA Ames i n d i c a t e st h e s e may be u s e f u l f o r
u n s t e a d y - f l o wc a l i b r a t i o ni na tl e a s t some t u n n e l s . However, asdynamicpres-
sureincreaseshot-wires become more v u l n e r a b l e t o breakage and p r o b a b l y will
be i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e i n t h e new high-Reynolds-number f a c i 1ities(except in
t h es e t t l i n g chamber). Based on e x t e n s i v ee x p e r i e n c ew i t ht h e AEDC t r a n s i t i o n
cone i n twenty-onemajorwindtunnels oftheUnitedStates andWesternEurope,
t h i sd e v i c e has become an " u n o f f i c i a l " t u n n e l a c o u s t i c c a l i b r a t i o n modeland is
c u r r e n t l yc o n s i d e r e dt o be t h eb e s ta v a i l a b l ed i s t u r b a n c ec a l i b r a t i o ni n s t r u m e n t
However, t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e need f o r a lessexpensiveinstrumentwhich canbe
e a s i l yr e p r o d u c e d and used i n a l l s i z e s o f f a c i l i t i e s . The development o f f l u c t u -
a t i n gP i t o tp r o b e sa p p e a r st o meet t h i s need ( S e c t i o n I 1 I . F ) . T h i st y p e of
instrumentcan be used t o measure c e n t e r l i n e n o i s e and t o c a l i b r a t e w a l l - m o u n t e d ,
dynamic pressuretransducers. A w a l lt r a n s d u c e r ( s )c a nt h e n beusedas a per-
manent m o n i t o ro ft u n n e ln o i s e . The w a l lt r a n s d u c e r ( s )s h o u l d bemounted approxi-
m a t e l y 0.025 cm (0.01 i n . )b e l o wt h ep l a n eo ft h et u n n e l w a l l and, p r e f e r a b l y ,
shouldhave a frequencyresponseoutto 30 kHz. By u s i n g two o r more w a l l -
mounted t r a n s d u c e r s , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f disturbancescan be a s c e r -
t a ined .
A l t h o u g ht h e r ea r e no g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a f o r a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s o f f l o w un-
steadiness, Mabey (RAE) has developed some n o i s eg u i d e l i n e sf o ri n t e r f e r e n c e -
f r e ef l u t t e r and b u f f e tt e s t s( S e c t i o n I I1.F.). The g o a lo ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l ,
n o i s e - r e d u c t i o nr e s e a r c hi st or e d u c eu n s t e a d i n e s st ol e v e l sc h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
t u r b u l e n t boundarylayersonsolidwalls,i.e., < 0.005. AC
P
An accepted measure o f w a v e - c a n c e l l a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f v e n t i l a t e d
wallsistoobtainpressuredistributiondata on a 20 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e r and com-
p a r et h er e s u l t sw i t hw a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e ed a t a . It i s now a p p a r e n tt h a tt h e
200
t r a d i t i o n a la s s u m p t i o n o f a l i n e a r boundary c o n d i t i o n a t v e n t i l a t e d , t r a n s o n i c
w a l l si s erroneous. Thus, t h i se x p l a i n st h ef a i l u r e o f p a s ta t t e m p t s t o theo-
r e t i c a l l yc a l c u l a t et h ee f f e c t s o f w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e on madel t e s t i n g . Measure-
ments o f t e s t - s e c t i o n - w a l l b o u n d a r yl a y e r s ,b o t hw i t h and w i t h o u t models i n s i t u ,
a r eb e i n g made i n e f f o r t s t o g a i n a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of ventilated walls
and t h e i rc r o s s - f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .C u r r e n tr e s e a r c h on t r a n s o n i cw a l li n t e r -
f e r e n c ei sf o c u s i n go nt h r e ea r e a s : ( I ) t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f more exactboundary
conditions, (2) t h e development o f a s e l f - c o r r e c t i n g w i n d t u n n e l w l t h a u t o m a t i c
c o n t r o l of l o n g i t u d i n a l l yv a r y i n gv e n t i l a t i o n , and (3) v a r y i n gw a l lc o n t o u r s
to attain wall-interference-free f l o w aboutmodels.
LaserDopplerVelocimetersare an i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n t o t h e t o o l s a v a i l a b le
f o rw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n . The obviousadvantageofan LDV i s it does n o t
p e r t u r bt h e flow. A t Mach numbers nearone, t h i s i s an importantadvantage. In
addition,an LDV canbeused notonlyfor mean-flow v e l o c i t y measurements b u t
a l s oc a n measure f l o w a n g u l a r i t y and t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s g r e a t e r t h a n a b o u t
one. LDV measurements o f v e l o c i t y and f l o w a n g u l a r i t y a r e c u r r e n t l y o n l y 1/4 t o
115 as a c c u r a t e a s thebestconventionalprobesathighsubsonic and low super-
s o n i c speeds. However, near Mach onean LDV i s expected t op r o v i d es u p e r i o r
data. A t t h i st i m e ,t h e LDV i sn o tb e i n g used t o r o u t i n e l y c a l i b r a t e empty-
tunnels. However, we a n t i c i p a t e suchuse i nt h ef u t u r e .
201
I
V . C. SUPERSONIC TUNNELS
S i n c et r a n s v e r s eg r a d i e n t si n Mach number a r e t y p i c a l l y l a r g e r t h a n a x i a l
variations, it i s c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o c a l i b r a t e b o t h Mach number and f l o w
a n g u l a r i t yo f f - c e n t e r l i n e . A t l e a s tt h r e ec r o s s - s e c t i o n ss h o u l d be surveyed
neartheforward,center and a f t p o r t i o n s o f t h e u s e a b l e t e s t s e c t i o n . T h i s
type of data can be o b t a i n e d m o s t e a s i l y w i t h P i t o t and s t a t i c proberakes or
a r r a y s mounted on a t r a v e r s i n gs t i n g .T h i sd a t as h o u l d be used t o c a l i b r a t e
a permanent Machnumber probewhichshould be i n s t a l l e d i n s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s
f o rf r e q u e n t ,r o u t i n e checks on c a l i b r a t i o n . :ngeneral, a c a l i b r a t e d Mach
number accuracy o f 0.5 t o 1% i sc o n s i d e r e d good. Industrystandards need t o
be developed which define acceptable flow qual ity for particular kinds of
t e s t i n g , e.g., f o r c e and p r e s s u r e t e s t s o f m i s s i l e s and a i r c r a f t models.
As i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s , c e n t e r l i n e n o i s e measurements shouldbeobtained
and used t o c a l i b r a t e one or more, wail-mounted,dynamic-pressuretransducers.
The AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone i s c u r r e n t l y t h e o n l y f l o w d i s t u r b a n c e c a l i b r a t i o n
devicewhich has been t e s t e d i n a l a r g e number o ft u n n e l s . A smaller and l e s s
e x p e n s i v en o i s ec a l i b r a t i o nd e v i c ei s needed t os e r v e asa standard.Probes
designed to measure f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r e s s u r e s s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h i s
purpose. TraditionaP
l i t o ts u r v e y so ft u n n e l - w a l 1 b o u n d a r yl a y e r sn o to n l y
establishthesize and geometry o f t h e i n v i s c i d f lowbutalsoaidcorrelations
o f f a c i 1 it y n o i s e .
I na d d i t i o nt ok e e p i n gt h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r eh i g h enough t o a v o i d l i q u e -
factionofthetest gas, t h e e f f e c t s o f t y p i c a l l e v e l s o f w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e
t e s t gasshould be c a r e f u l l y c a l i b r a t e d . As i s w e l l known, t h ep r i m a r ye f f e c t
o f watercondensation i s a loss o f t o t a l p r e s s u r e anda riseinstaticpressure.
Also, v a r i o u s o p e r a t o r s haveobserved thatpressuretestsare more s e n s i t i v e t o
h u m i d i t yl e v e l st h a nf o r c et e s t s .
202
APPENDIX I
Introduction
The hot-wire has been a generally accepted standard for measuring fluctua-
tions in wind tunnel flow since the work of Drydenand Kuethe in 1929 (Ref. l),
Its use can be very tedious and thus has often been avoided. However, it has
not been replaced because of its advantages that include: small sensor size,
high frequency response and sensitivity to pressure, vorticity, and entropy
fluctuations. Dr. Kovasznay (Ref. 2) opinioned in 1968 that the hot-wire
has not been replaced by other methods becauseof its unique characteristics.
Furthermore, significant developmentsin hot-wire methodology in the 1970's
indicate continued use of this instrumentin both specialized experiments and
in wind tunnel calibrations.
Reference 3 is a recent textbook on hot-wire technology. References 4
and 5 provide further background and extended lists of references relative to
measurements of fluctuating propertiesin wind tunnels. Reference 2 provides
summaries o f the early history and the technologyup to 1968.
204
Response t o Mean Flow
The s i m u l t a n e o u s r e a c t i o n o f t h e h e a t e d s e n s o r t o d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y and
temperature i s thekeybothtotheadvantages and d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e h o t - w i r e
anemometer approach t o m e a s u r i n gf l o wf l u c t u a t i o n s . I t i s an advantage t o
haveonesensormeasure bothkinematic and thermodynamic f l u c t u a t i o n s .I n
comparison, a l a s e rD o p p l e rv e l o c i m e t e r can o n l y measure t h e f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i -
t i e s and a microphone o rp r e s s u r es e n s o rr e s p o n d so n l yt ot h en e t sound o r
p r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s .S e p a r a t i o no ft h e modes composing t h eo u t p u to ft h e
heatedsensor i sn o ts i m p l e and, i ng e n e r a l ,r e q u i r e s a p r i o r i knowledge o f t h e
f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c sb e i n g sampled.
The c h o i c eo ft e c h n i q u e sf o rs e p a r a t i n gt h e modes of a f l u c t u a t i n g h o t -
w i r es i g n a li s somewhat dependent on t h e Machnumber and Reynolds number o f
t h et e s t . A S i n d i c a t e di nt h e summary curve of Fig. A . I . l , w i r er e s p o n s et o
mean f l o wi sw e l ld e f i n e df o rt h ei n c o m p r e s s i b l e case.Forisothermal, incorn-
p r e s s i b l ef l o w , a h o t - w i r er e s p o n d so n l yt ov e l o c i t y changes. The sensorOut-
put i s w e l l behaved f o rs u p e r s o n i c Mach numbers asindicatedbythelowercurve
Of F i g . A.I.1. The sensoroutput, however i s Mach
number dependentbetween
thesetwobounds f o rt h el o w e rr a n g eo fw i r eR e y n o l d s number.
Testequipmentanddataanalysistechniquesaresufficientlydeveloped to
p e r m i tu s e f u la p p l i c a t i o n sf o rt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n so v e rt h e Mach range o f
i n t e r e s ti nt h i sr e p o r t (0.4 5 3.5). Research t o improveequipment and a n a l y s i s
s h o u l dc o n t i n u eh o w e v e r .I np a r t i c u l a r ,a d d i t i o n a lw o r k needs t o bedone in
t h ea r e a so ft r a n s o n i cf l o wa p p l i c a t i o n s and s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l i n t o i t s
component modes.
205
(Ref. 3)
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
I
1 .o
t
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1 .O
a Rn Nu
1
T
wr
a Rn Ret
a Rn N u t
1
T a R n ~ (I .5)
wr
Tt
=-
2 Asw
1
+-
2
(K - 1 - nt) + rn
t P
1 (sU
s +-
2
- sP) ( I .6j
For supersonic flow (M > 1.2), the heat loss is insensitive to Mach number,
and sensitivity to velocity and density are essentially equal (Refs.3, 6, 8).
:. su = s
P
= s
PU
where the correlation coefficiento f mass flux and temperature is defined by:
Sensor o u t p u t , o b t a i n e d a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s e n s o r t e m p e r a t u r e s , and sensor
s e n s i t i v i t y ,o b t a i n e df r o mc a l i b r a t i o n ,c a np r o v i d es o l u t i o n s f o r t h et h r e e
unknowns <(pu)*>,<Ttc> and RpuT . The normal p r a c t i c e i s t o p l o t d a t a ,
o b t a i n e da ts e v e r a lw i r eo v e r h e a tr a t i o s ,i n modal diagramsasdevelopedby
Kovasznay(Ref. 7) and Morkovin(Ref. 8). A f l u c t u a t i o nd i a g r a mf o rv a r y i n g
degrees o f c o r r e l a t i o n i s g i v e n i n F i g . A.1.2.The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c modal diagrams
o f Kovasznay f o rf l u c t u a t i o n si nv e l o c i t y ,t e m p e r a t u r e , and sound a r e shown i n
Figs. A.1.3, A.1.4, and A.1.5.
Independent f l u c t u a t i o n s w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e f l o w f i e l d a r e t h e v o r t i c i t y
( t u r b u l e n c e ) ,e n t r o p y( t e m p e r a t u r es p o t t i n e s s ) , and p r e s s u r e( n o i s eo r sound)
modes.
The v o r t i c i t y ,e n t r o p y , and p r e s s u r es e n s i t i v i t yc o e f f i c i e n t sa r er e -
l a t e dt ot h e measured d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y , and t o t a l t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s i t i v i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s as f o l l o w s( R e f . 8):
Su + 8 ST (1.10)
t
sU = s P + U S T (1.11)
t
n
-
M
X Su + a (y-1) (l+nxM) ST (I.12)
t
208
//I
-
<E' >
STt
-1 0 1 2 'Tt
0
-I 0 I 2
~l~~~~
A . I . ~ FLUCTUATIONDIAGRAM FOR
SOUND
WAVES THAT ARE
ALMOST MACH
WhVES HAVING
1 PER
CENT
PRESSUREFLUCTUATIONS ( R e f . 7)
.3
.2
0
-1 -.5 0 .5 I
sPusT
F i g u r e A.1.6 FLUCTUATIONDIAGRAM FOR UNCORRELATED MODES AT M = 1 . 7 5 ;
TEMPERATURE SPOTTINESS 0.1 PER CENT;TURBULENTVELOCITY
FLUCTUATIONS 0.2 PER CENT; SOUND WAVES (DETECTABLE) 0.1
PER CENT OF MASS FLOW FLllCTllATIONS. (DOTTEDLINES SHOW
SEPARATE
CONTRIBUTIONS.) ( R e f . 7)
21 0
When thedominate mode i s sound, t h e f o i l c w i n g l s e n t r o p l c r e l a t i o n s
betweenpressure,density and t e m p e r a t u r ea r ea p p r o p r i a t e (Ref. 11):
(1.14)
The r e s u l t a n t h o t - w i r e e q u a t i o n and c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n q u a n t i t i e s
i nt h ef r e e s t r e a ma r eg i v e ni n References 11 and 12.
TransonicFlows
The m d a l diagramapproachcannotbegenerallyappliedforcompressible
subsonicandtransonicflows(seeFig. A.l.1) where t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e
Nusselt number and r e c o v e r y f a c t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o Mach number a r e n o t z e r o ,
and su # s forail o v e r h e a tr a t i o s (Refs. 3 , 8, and IO). Transonicopera-
P
tion at high dynamicpressuresalsoincreasesproblemswithwirebreakage.
21 1
havebeen s y s t e m a t i c a l l y measured i nt r a n s o n i cf l o wb yi n d e p e n d e n t l yv a r y i n g
d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y ( R e f s . 9 and I O ) . These r e s u l t se s t a b l i s ht h a t Sp and
Su a r ea p p r o x i m a t e l ye q u a lf o ra l l Mach numbers (includingthetroublesome
transonicrange) i f t h ew i r eo v e r h e a tr a t i oi sg r e a t e rt h a n 0.5 and t h e w i r e
Reynolds number i sg r e a t e rt h a n 20. O p e r a t i o nw i t h i nt h e s er e s t r i c t i o n sa g a i n
p e r m i t st h eu s eo ft h es i m p l i f i e de x p r e s s i o n o f Eq. (1.7).For many t r a n s o n i c
w i n dt u n n e l st h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r ef l u c t u a t i o n sa r ex g i i g i b l er e l a t i v e to
themass-flux term. In t h i s c a s et h eh o t - w i r ed i r e c t l y senses t h ef l u c t u a -
t i o n s o f themass-flux. I f t h el e v e lo ft e m p e r a t u r ef l u c t u a t i o n Is unknown I n
a f a c i l i t y (such as a
new c r y o o e n i ct u n n e l )t h el e v e l may b ea s c e r t a i n e dw i t h a
sensoroperated a tc o n s t a n tc u r r e n t and neartherecoverytemperature.
R e d u c t i o no fm a s s - f l u x measurements i n a t r a n s o n i c f l o w i n t o i t s e l e m e n t s
requiresfurtherassumptions, e.g., possibleapplicationofthe modal diagrams
o r anindependent measurement w i t h a l a s e rv e l o c i m e t e r ,p r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r or
a s p e c i a l h o t - f i l m geometry.Forboundary-layerflow.thepressurefluctuations
c a ng e n e r a l l yb en e g l e c t e dr e l a t i v e t o v o r t i c i t y .O p e r a t i n gw i t h i nt h e above
d e s c r i b e d w i r e and f l o w domain,boundary layerprofiles of v e l o c i t y . d e n s i t y
and Reynoldsshear s t r e s s weresuccessfullyobtainedinRef.10 for a nominal
Hach number of 0.8. For o p e r a t i o ni nt h et r a n s o n i cf r e e s t r e a m , i t a p p e a r st h a t
t h e p r i n c i p l e of modal diagramscanbe a p p l i e d t o high-Reynolds-number flow
b yo b t a i n i n gd a t aa ts e v e r a lo v e r - h e a tr a t i o s ,a l lb e i n gg r e a t e rt h a n 0.5.
Straightlinefairings OF t h ed a t a ,e x t r a p o l a t e d t o theordinate,wouldthen
provideinformationonthedominate mode a si nt h es u p e r s o n i c case. Another
approach for s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n modes i s t o employ a yet-to-be
defined f i I m sensor t h a t has two (or more) f i l m s and a geometrysuch t h a t one
film responds t o themass-flux and a second f i l m responds t o pressure (geo-
m e t r i c a l l ys h i e l d e d from velocity). An a p p l i c a t i o n o f specialsensorgeometry,
fordirectcorrelation measurements,hasbeen r e p o r t e d for hypersonic,boundary-
l a y e r flow (Ref. 17).
21 2
d a t ar e d u c t i o n .I nt h ef r e e s t r e a mo f many t r a n s o n i c and supersonicwind
t u n n e l st h e sound mode generallydominates, and i n suchcases good agree-
menthasbeen o b t a i n e d between h o t - w i r e and pressuretransducer measure-
ments(Refs. 14and 20). An examplecomparison o f P i t o t and h o t - w i r e
measurements a t M = 5 i s shown i n F i g . A.1.7. F o rd i a g n o s t i c measurements
o f f l o w sw i t hn o i s ed n m i n a t e dd i s t u r b a n c e s , a dynamic pressuretransducer
may sensesuch f l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h much l e s s e f f o r t t h a n a h o t - w i r e system.
A dynamic P i t o t p r e s s u r e s u r v e y may s a t i s f y many w i n d t u n n - 1 c a l i b r a t i o n
requirements.Anotherwidely used C a l i b r a t i o n model i s t h e AEDC developed,
pressure-instrumented IOo cone. (See S e c t i o n 1 I I . F . 1 .).
I n summary, t h eh o t - w i r ec a np r o v i d e more i n f o r m a t i o nt h a n a dynamic
pressuretransducer, e.g., it can d i s t i n g u i s h betweenmoving and f i x e ds o u r c e s
o f sound w i t h a s i n g l e sensor. The w i r e a l s o p r o v i d e s a higherfrequencyre-
sponseand, i ng e n e r a l , has a more omnidirectionalresponsetonoisesources.
The smallersensorof a h o t - w i r e system i s i m p o r t a n t ( i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
frequencyaspect) i f l o c a lf l u c t u a t i n g measurements i n a shock o r boundary
l a y e ra r er e q u i r e d .F u r t h e r ,t h ew i r e / f i l m sensor may be l o c a t e di na r e a s
hidden from t h e v i e w o f a laserDopplervelocimeter.
OtherDataAnalysisTechniques
O t h e rd a t a - r e d u c t i o nt e c h n i q u e sf o rt h ef l u c t u a t i n qs i g n a li n c l u d et i m e
( a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n ) and s p a t i a l( l o c a t i o n and d i r e c t i o n ) c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e
s i g n a l .S p e c t r a la n a l y s i sp r o v i d e st h ee n e r g yc o n t e n ta t eachfrequency.
These techniques and a s s o c i a t e d e l e c t r o n i c equipment a r e f a i r l y common and a r e
described i nt h el i t e r a t u r e . (Suggested r e f e r e n c e si n c l u d e 3 , 12, 14, and 21).
Sensor Choice and C a l i b r a t i o n Reouirements
-+
I
3
-
aTa*nce
smt Oi
-turbulen
-First
I t J
. s u p e r i o rr e s i s t a n c et op a r t i c l e damage,
. s u p e r i o rr e s i s t a n c et os u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a t i o n and s t r a i ng a g i n g ,
. highersensorReynolds numbers ( p a r t i c u l a r l yi m p o r t a n ti nt r a n s o n i c
flow).
Compared to t h e rugged c l a s so ft u n g s t e nw i r es e n s o r ,t h eP l a t i n u m - f i l m
Sensor has comparable c a p a b i l i t i e s i n maximum o v e r h e a tr a t i o (-one) and
frequency response ( - 150K Hz).
*Privatecommunication
Summary o f AdvantagesandDisadvantages o f HotWire System
Advantages
1. Small
sensor
size
2. High
frequency
response
3. Higs
he n s i t i v i t y
4. S e n s i t i v et ob o t hk i n e m a t i c and thermodynamic f l u c t u a t i o n s
5. D i s t i n g u i s h betweenmovingand s t a t i o n a r yn o i s es o u r c e sw i t h a
s i n g l es e n s o r( i nf l o w s where temperaturespottedness i sn e g l i g i b l e )
6. Re1 i a b l e systemsandsensorscommerciallyavailable
D i sadvan tages"
1. P o s s i b l ef r e q u e n tb r e a k a g eo ff i n e - w i r es e n s o r( d u et oa i rl o a d s ,
v i b r a t i o n s ,p a r t i c l e impingement, b u r n o u t o , x i d a t i o na, c c i d e n t se
, tc.)
2. P o s s i b l ef a l s es i g n a (l u s u a l l ya p p a r e n t l d u et os t r a i ng u a g i n g ,c o n t a m i n a -
t i o n ,o rv i b r a t i o no fp r o b e .
5. Analyses o fs i g n a lp a r t i c u l a r l yd i f f i c u l tf o rc o m p r e s s i b l es u b s o n i c
o rt r a n s o n i cf l o w ,u n l e s sr e s t r i c t e dt oh i g h e rR e v n o l d s numbers and
w i r et e m p e r a t u r e s .
f:
Sincetheoriginalwritingofthissection, a r e v i e w o f h o t - w i r e anemometry
by Comte-Bellot has been published(Ref. 27). T h i sr e f e r e n c ep r o v i d e s
a d d i t i o n a ld i s c u s s i o no fp r o b l e ma r e a s .
216
NOMENCLATURE
constants
overheat
parameters, 1/2
a
a
En
En ,
R~
w i r e d iameter
E wire voltage
K2 time-averaged, t o t a lp r e s s u r eb e h i n d a normalshock
h heat-transfer coefficient
I wire current
k d i n Rw/d En
Tw
R w i r el e n g t h
m d Rn p/d Rn Tw
M Mach number
n d En k/d Rn Tw
"X
d i r e c t i o nc o s i n eo f normal t o sound plane
wave f r o n t r e l a t i v e t o f l o w d i r e c t i o n
hd
Nu Nusselt number, -k
staticpressure
resistance
Reynolds number, p u d h
sensor s e n s i t i v i t y c o e f f i c i e n t
temperature
a x i a lv e l o c i t y
exponent i n e q u a t i o n 2
217
a
n recovery factor,
r'T t
U vi scos i ty
P dens i ty
'w r
temperature overheat, CTW - Tr)
Tr
root mean square
Superscripts
( 7 time averaged
Subscripts
e environment
U velocity
W wire
U sound
P dens i ty
PU mass flux
0 entropy
T vorticity
218
A. REFERENCES
1.
18. W. C. Rose:
"The Behavior o f a CompressibleTurbulent BoundaryLayer in
aShock-Wave-Induced AdversePressureGradient,'' NASA TN D-7092, NASA
Ames ResearchCenter,March 1974.
19. w. C. Rose and D. A. Johnson: "Turbulence i n a Shock-Wave Boundary-Layer
Interaction," A l A A Journal,Vol. 13, No. 7, J u l y 1975.
220
25. R. F. Rosenberg: "Some AspectsonHotWire Anemometry Leading t o a
SpecialCalibration Method f o r HotWire Probes," ARL 71-0038, USAF
AerospaceResearchLaboratories,March 1971.
22 1
APPEND I X I I
LASER
DOPPLER
VELOCIMETER
MEASUREMENTS
B a s i cP r i n c i p l e s
222
beam or d i f f e r e n t i a l - D o p p l e r systemmost commonly used for wind tunnel measure-
ments.
The p h o t o m u l t i p l i e rt u b eg e n e r a t e s an e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l a t a frequency
d i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h ev e l o c i t y and i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f r i n g e
spacing,Fig. A.11.4, a c c o r d i n qt ot h er e l a t i o n
( I I .2)
N
N
&
Ream
Collecting
/ i\
L Processor
I
imatomutiplier
Tube (Backscatter Mode)
Electrical
signal
Incident
Light _c c
Time
.
where X i s t h e w a v e l e n g t h o f t h e l a s e r and 0 i s t h e a n g l e between t h e i n t e r -
s e c t i n g beams.
From t h e above r e l a t i o n s :
The measured v e l o c i t y i s t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e p a r t i c l e
which i sn o tn e c e s s a r i l ye q u a lt ot h a t o f t h ef l u i d . The problems o f p a r t i c ' l e
l a g will be d i s c u s s e di n more d e t a i ll a t e ri nt h i ss e c t i o n . The ambiguity
w i t hr e g a r dt of l o wd i r e c t i o n becomes a problem i n t u r b u l e n t f l o w s a t l o w ,
mean-component v e l o c i t y where f l o wr e v e r s a l may be encountered,butcan be
overcome by i n t r o d u c i n g an a c o u s t o - o p t i cm o d u l a t o r( B r a g gc e l l )i n t o one of
t h et w op a r a l l e l a s e r beams. The Bragg c e l li n t r o d u c e s an a c c u r a t e l y known
frequencyshiftinto one o f t h e beams, w h i c hr e s u l t s i n a moving r a t h e rt h a n
a s t a t i o n a r yf r i n g e system.Zero p a r t i c l ev e l o c i t yt h e nc o r r e s p o n d st ot h e
f r e q u e n c ys h i f t ;h i g h e ro rl o w e rv e l o c i t i e sg e n e r a t eh i g h e ro rl o w e ro u t p u t
s i g n a lf r e q u e n c i e s .I nt h i s manner t h ed i r e c t i o n a la m b i g u i t y can be e l i m i n a t e d
and r e v e r s i n gf l o w s can be measured. Formain-stream,empty-test-section
measurements i n a w i n dt u n n e lt h ed i r e c t i o n a la m b i g u i t y will n o tn o r m a l l y be
a problem,buttheBraggcell may s t i l l be u s e f u la th i g hf l o wv e l o c i t i e st o '
where do i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g l a s e r beams a t t h e f o c a l
p o i n t o f t h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n s . The focuseddiameter,do,isrelated t ot h e
initiallaser beam diameter, Do, by
227
(I 1.6)
where F i st h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n sf o c a ll e n g t h .O t h e rr e l a t i o n s may be d e r i v e d
f o rt h ed i m e n s i o n so ft h ep r o b e volume,dependinq upon how t h e " e f f e c t i v e "
geometricboundariesaredefined(Refs. 3 , 10, 1 1 ) . The above e q u a t i o n demon
s t r a t e st h a t a l a r g e ,o r i g i n a l( o r expanded) laser-beamdiameter anda short-
f o c a l - l e n g t hl e n sy i e l dt h e minimum sizemeasuring or probe volume.The focal
l e n g t hi sa l s od e t e r m i n e d by t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s t o t h e
point of the flow where measurements a r e d e s i r e d .
0
8F s i n (F)
- (I 1.8)
TI Do
Nfr = -
4
-
A
(11.10)
TI Do
228
A g a i nn o t et h a tt h e number o f f r i n g e s can be increased by r e d u c i n gt h e
unfocused beam diameter, Do, b u tt h i si nt u r ni n c r e a s e st h ep r o b ed i a m e t e r .
I n c r e a s i n gt h e beam separation, A , f o r a f i x e d t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s f o c a l
length, i s aneffective means o fi n c r e a s i n gt h e number of f r i n g e s .
Based on thepreceedingequations, i t i so fi n t e r e s tt oc a l c u l a t et h e
dimensions o f t h e measuringvolume and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a velocimeter
system.ConsideranArgonlaserwith a wavelength o f 514.5 nm andan input
beam diameter o f 1.5 mm. I f t h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n sf o c a ll e n g t hi s 1.5 m and
t h e beam spacing i s 100 mm, t h e beam a n g l ei s 3.818". From Eq.' (11.6) t h e
focused beam diameter i s 0.65 mm which i s a l s o t h e maximum w i d t h o f t h e p r o b e
volume. The l e n g t ho ft h ep r o b e volume i s , from Eq. (11.5) , 19.7 mm. The
f r i n g es p a c i n g i s 7.7 and t h e maximum number o f r i n g e s i s 84. At a
v e l o c i t y o f 300m/sec., theDopplerfrequency (Eq. ( 1 1 . 1 ) w i l l be 38.96 MHz.
Thissystem i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t y p i c a l , b u t i t i l l u s t r a t e sa p p l i c a t i o no ft h e
system r e l a t i o n s h i p sd i s c u s s e dp r e v i o u s l y .
O p t i c a la r r a n g e m e n t st oy i e l ds i m u l t a n e o u s two-componentmeasurements can
be r e a l i z e d by u s i n g two p a i r s o f i n t e r s e c t i n g beams, u s u a l l yw i t ht h ep l a n e
d e f i n e d by t h e second p a i r o f beams normal t ot h a td e f i n e d bythe first
beam p a i r .S e p a r a t i o no ft h e two measurementscan be achieved by s p l i t t i n g
a l a s e r beam i n t o two p a i r s o f beams, each p a i r p o l a r i z e d 90" t o t h e o t h e r .
P o l a r i z e d f i l t e r s on t h e two p h o t o d e t e c t o r sa l l o w each d e t e c t o r t o see o n l y
t h el i g h ts c a t t e r e df r o mt h ef r i n g e s formed by two o ft h ef o u r beams a t t h e
i n t e r s e c t i o np o i n t . Two wavelengths o f l a s e r l i g h t can a l s o be used f o r two
componentmeasurements. The use o f an Argon i o nl a s e r i s p a r t i c u l a r l y con-
v e n i e n tf o rt h i s purposesince t w o s t r o n gc o l o r hands, 488 nm ( b l u e ) and
514.5 nm ( g r e e n )a r ea v a i l a b l e .O p t i c a lf i l t e r sa l l o ws e p a r a t i o n o f the
s c a t t e r e dl i g h t so eachphotodetector sees o n l y t h e l i g h t of interest.
A t h i r d v e l o c i t y component, p a r a l l e l t o t h e b i s e c t o r o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g
beams, can a l s ob e measured simultaneously.Forexample,Orloffand Logan
(Ref. 12) havedescribedan LDV system f o r measuring a l l t h r e e v e l o c i t y
components which employs backscattering and a reference-beam method.
SignalProcessors
spectrumanalyzers
p h o t o nc o r r e l a t o r s
f i l t e r banks
o f r e q u e n c yt r a c k e r s
0 counters
O n l yt h el a s t twotypes o f p r o c e s s o r sp r o d u c ee s s e n t i a l l yr e a l - t i m ev e l o c i t y
i n f o r m a t i o n d i r e c t l y and a r e c u r r e n t l y used f o r m o s tw i n dt u n n e la p p l i c a t i o n s .
Where D o p p l e rs i g n a lt r a c k i n g i s i n t e r r u p t e d bya d r o p - o u t ,t h el a s t
o u t p u tv o l t a g el e v e li sn o r m a l l yp l a c e di n "hold". I f t h es i g n a lr e t u r n s
d u r i n gt h eh o l dp e r i o d ,t r a c k i n gi s resumed. I f t h es i g n a li sn o tr e c a p -
t u r e dd u r i n gt h eh o l dp e r i o d ,t h es e a r c ho r sweepmode isactivateduntil
t h es i g n a li sr e - a c q u i r e d .S i g n a l sc a n be p r o v i d e dt oe x t e r n a ld a t a systems
torecord mean v e l o c i t y and ac o r t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s i g n a l s , e.g.,Ref.
13. Dopplerfrequenciescan bemeasured from 2kHz t o 50 MHz. Velocity
changes over a 200: 1 rangecan be f o l l o w e d , and i n t h e s e a r c h mode t h e
frequencyslewratecan be as h i g h as 400 MHz/ms. D a t a - v a l i d a t i o nf e a t u r e s
a r ea l s on o r m a l l yi n c o r p o r a t e d .F o r example, one s y s t e mr e q u i r e st r a c k i n g
f o r 8 Dopplercycles and h o l d i n g f o r 2 a d d i t i o n a lc y c l e sw i t h o u td r o p - o u ti n
o r d e rt o be considered a v a l i dd a t ap o i n t . Thus, f o rh e a v i l y seeded f l o w s ,
d a t ar a t e s up t o 1 x 106 per second can be processed.
The c o u n t e r o r b u r s t p r o c e s s o r f o r laser-anemometer s i g n a l s a c c u r a t e l y
measures t h et i m er e q u i r e df o r a particleinthe flow t o t r a v e l a c r o s s a
f i x e d number o f f r i n g e s i n t h e measuringvolume,i.e., a known distance.
From these two q u a n t i t i e s , a counterdeterminestheDopplerfrequency and
t h e r e b yt h ep a r t i c l ev e l o c i t y . The counter may be i n h e r e n t l y a d i g i t a l i n -
strument, so d r i f t and c a l i b r a t i o n problemswhich may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
analogprocessors,such as trackers,areavoided.Counterprocessorsare
n o r m a l l yc o n f i g u r e dt oy i e l d a directdigitaloutput.
A c o u n t e rf u n c t i o n s by passing a l a s e rs i g n a lb u r s tt h r o u g h a thresh-
o l dl e v e ld e t e c t o rw h i c h , when t h ea d j u s t a b l ea m p l i t u d e - t h r e s h o l di se x -
ceeded, enables a z e r o - c r o s s i n gd e t e c t o r suchas a Schmidt t r i g g e r . Those
D o p p l e rs i g n a l s above t h ea m p l i t u d e - t h r e s h o l dl e v e la r et h e nc o n v e r t e di n t o
a t r a i n o f square waves, w i t h a f r e q u e n c ye q u a lt ot h eo r i g i a n ls i g n a l
frequency.
Many e l e c t r o n i c f r e q u e n c y - c o u n t e r s f u n c t i o n by c o u n t i n g each c y c l e
ofthe unknown s i g n a l f o r an a c c u r a t e l y - f i x e dt i m ep e r i o d , suchas 0.1,
1.0 or IO seconds.The r e a d i n g sa r et h e nc o n v e r t e dt ot h es i g n a lf r e q u e n c y
23 1
i nh e r t z .S i n c et h e maximum number o f c y c l e s a v a i l a b l e from t h e passage o f
a particleacrossthemeasuring volume o f a LDV i s e x t r e m e l y s m a l l , t h e a c c u -
r a c yo ft h ed i r e c tc o u n t i n gp r o c e d u r ew o u l d be t o t a l l y inadequate. To a v o i d
t h i s problemcounterprocessorsareperiod measurement devices,i.e.,pulses
from an a c c u r a t e , h i g h - f r e q u e n c y o s c i l l a t o r o r c l o c k a r e a c c u m u l a t e d i n a
r e g i s t e rd u r i n gt h et i m ei n t e r v a lc o r r e s p o n d i n gt o a f i x e d number o f p u l s e s
from t h eS c h m i d tt r i g g e r .A l t e r n a t i v e l y ,t h et i m ei n t e r v a l s canbe converted
t ov o l t a g ea m p l i t u d e sw h i c hc a n bemeasured digitally. The t i m er e s o l u t i o n
f o rt h e n periodrangesfrom 2 t o IO x 10-9 seconds,depending upon t h e c l o c k
frequency, e.g., 500 MHz corresponds t o 2 x 10-9 seconds r e s o l u t i o n . The
c o u n t e rp r o c e s s o ra l s on o r m a l l yi n c l u d e sc o m p u t a t i o n a lc a p a b i l i t i e st oc o n v e r t
theperiodinformationintoeitherfrequencyorvelocityunitsfordigital
display. The computationtime i st y p i c a l l y about 1 x I O m 6 sec so t h a t , even
athighvelocities where theDopplerfrequency i s IO t o 20 MHz, t h e t o t a l
a c q u i s i t i o n and c o m p u t a t i o nt i m ef o r one i n d i v i d u a l measurement can be asshort
as 2 t o 3 x 10
-6 sec.
Data a c q u i s i t i o nr a t e so f 100,000 readings/secare
t h e r e f o r et h e o r e t i c a l l yp o s s i b l e( b u tf a rf r o m common) w i t h moderateconcentra-
t i o no fp a r t i c l e s , Ref. 14.
Counterprocessorsincludeseveraldata-validationfeaturestoallowthe
rejectionofnoisebursts,detectthe loss o f a b i t o r c y c l e d u r i n g a process-
i n gc y c l e ,r e j e c ts i g n a l sf r o ml a r g ep a r t i c l e s ,e t c . The primarytechnique
u t i l i z e d t o rejectdata sequences i n which one o r more c y c l e s may be m i s s i n g
( c y c l ea m p l i t u d eb e l o wt h r e s h o l d )c o n s i s t s o f u s i n g two o r m r e r e g i s t e r s . The
c l o c kp u l s e sa r eg a t e di n t ob o t h a h i g h and o
lw r e g i s t e r on t h e f i r s t c y c l e .
The c l o c k p u l s e s t o t h e low r e g i s t e r a r e g a t e d o f f a f t e r NL c y c l e s , w h i l e t h e
h i g hr e g i s t e ra c c u m u l a t e s NH c y c l e s . A comparaterthen computes t h e r a t i o o f
t h e twotimeintervals,whichshould be e q u a l ,t ot h er a t i o NH/NL. If the
e r r o ri sw i t h i np r e - s e tl i m i t s ,t h e measurement i s v a l i d a t e d .
Due t ot h ed i f f e r e n c ei no p e r a t i n gp r i n c i p l e s ,t h ec o u n t e r i s n o tl i m i t e d
byslew r a t eo rt r a c k i n gr a t ep e r f o r m a n c e . The counter i s an extremelywide-
band i n s t r u m e n tw
, h i l et h et r a c k e r i s i n h e r e n t l y narrow-band. Assuming t h e
noisepresent i s b r o a d b a n d ,t h en o i s er e j e c t i o nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h et r a c k e r
i s s u p e r i o rt ot h a to ft h ec o u n t e r . However, s i n c et h et r a c k e ro p e r a t e si n
thefrequency domain, i t i s responsivetoDopplerfrequencyspectrumbroadening
r e s u l t i n gf r o mt h ef i n i t ed u r a t i o no ft h es i g n a lb u r s t .T h i sb r o a d e n i n gi s
s i m i l a rt ot h em o d u l a t i o ns i d e b a n d sg e n e r a t e d when a c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y is
amplitudemodulated. The presence o f m u l t i p l ep a r t i c l e si nt h ep r o b e volume
a l s og e n e r a t e s phase reversalswhichcausespectrumbroadening.Sincethe
s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o na b o u tt h e mean v e l o c i t y i s a measure o f turbulence and i s
r e l a t e dt ot h ec o r r e s p o n d i n gD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c yd e v i a t i o nt h r o u g h Eq. (ll.l),
s p e c t r a lb r o a d e n i n gc a ni n t e r f e r ew i t ht u r b u l e n c e measurements.
-
P a r t i c l e S i z e and D i s t r i b u t i o n E f f e c t s
The s i z e ,s i z ed i s t r i b u t i o n ,c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and p h y s i c a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
ofthe'particlesin a t r a n s o n i co rs u p e r s o n i ct u n n e lf l o wf i e l da r eo fg r e a t
i m p o r t a n c e ,w h e t h e rt h ep a r t i c l e sa r en a t u r a l l yp r e s e n ti nt h ef l o wo rt h e
f l o wi s seeded. I nt h ep r e s e n c eo fv e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t so rt u r b u l e n c e , a signifi-
cantvelocitylag may e x i s t between t h e f l u i d m o t i o n and t h e p a r t i c l e m o t i o n .
Lag e f f e c t s a r e most s i g n i f i c a n t a t h i g hf r e q u e n c i e s and i n r e g i o n s o f r a p i d
fluid acceleration or deceleration, as across a shock o r expansion wave o r
along a streamlineapproaching a s t a g n a t i o np o i n t . These environments,of
i n t e r e s ti nf l o wf i e l ds u r v e y s ,w o u l dn o tn o r m a l l y be encountered i n empty t e s t
s e c t i o n c a l i b r a t i o n measurements, b u t t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e p a r t i c l e s to f o l l o w
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l mean v e l o c i t y p e r t u r b a t i o n s and respond t o low-to-moderate
l e v e l so ft u r b u l e n c ea r eo fi n t e r e s t .
233
The upper limit on p a r t i c l e s i z e i s d e t e r m i n e d by i n e r t i a o r l a g e f f e c t s .
and thelower limit, forhighspeed:flows, may be determinedbythereduced
amount o f 1 i g h t s c a t t e r e d b y t h e p a r t i c l e w h i c h r e s u l t s i n an unacceptably
lowsignal-to-noiseratio.
+ 3 dp2VT& l t d t '
t0
[%d r-7 ' %I+ Fe
234
The f o u r t ht e r m( d e s i g n a t e dt h e "Basset"term)accounts forthedeviationof
t h ef l o wp a t t e r n from steadystate. The Vastterm, Fe, represents body
f o r c e s due t o g r a v i t y , L o r e n t z f o r c e on a charged p a r t i c l e i n an e l e c t r i c
f i e l d ,l a s e rp h o t o np r e s s u r e ,e t c . Base (Ref. 17) reviewsthecomplete
e q u a t i o n as g i v e n byHinzeabovebutemploys a morecomplex expressionfor
drag(Oseen'slaw) t o accommodate h i g h e rr e l a t i v eR e y n o l d s numbers*
( I 1.12)
T h i sd i f f e r e n t i a le q u a t i o n ,w h i c ha g r e e sw i t ht h a tg i v e n by So0 (Ref.
16), may b et r a n s f o r m e di n t ot h es t a n d a r dt r a n s f e rf u n c t i o n form
where S i st h eL a p l a c eo p e r a t o r , a n d T i st h et i m ec o n s t a n td e f i n e d by
P
(11.14)
(11.16)
235
The aboveequations based o n S t o k e s ' l a w a g r e e w i t h t h o s e g i v e n b y F e l l e r
and Meyers(Ref. 18) and o t h e r s . Mazumder, Hoyle and K i r s c h (Ref. 19) and
YantaandGates(Ref. 20) use a t i m e c o n s t a n t e x p r e s s i o n s i m i l a r t o Eq. (II. 14)
e x c e p tt h a t a c o r r e c t i o nt e r mi sa p p l i e dt ot h eS t o k e s 'd r a gc o e f f i c i e n tt o
extend i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o t h e range o f f l o w c o n d i t i o n s where t h e Knudsen
a.
number (Kn = - ) becomes appreciable.Epstein(Ref. 21) d e r i v e d a c o r r e c t i o n
dP
t e r mt oS t o k e s 'l a wf r o mt h ek i n e t i ct h e o r yv i e w p o i n t ,a si sd i s c u s s e db y
HappelandBrenner(Ref. 22), butvariousforms and e m p i r i c a lc o n s t a n t sh a v e
evolved. One o ft h es i m p l e rf o r m s , usedbyYanta and Gates(Ref. 201, results
i n a timeconstantexpressed as
A more d e t a i l e d d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t e x p r e s s i o n f o r l a r g e - d i f f e r e n t i a l Mach
and Reynolds Number i s g i v e n byWalsh(Ref. 23) and i s based onexperimental
data. Walsh(Ref. 24) has
compared r e s u l t so b t a i n e du s i n gS t o k e s d
' r a gc o e f -
ficient equation with morecomplexexpressionswhichaccount f o r a widerange
o f d i f f e r e n t i a l Reynolds and
Mach numbers. Flow f i e l ds t u d i e si n c l u d e d
normalshocks i ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w and v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s u p t o 365 sec".
He concludesthattheuse o f S t o k e s 'l a wg e n e r a l l yy i e l d sc o n s e r v a t i v e
r e s u l t s compared t o t h e more a c c u r a t e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t e x p r e s s i o n s , and i t
o v e r p r e d i c t st h ev e l o c i t yl a gb yl e s st h a n 10% for p a r t i c l ed i a m e t e r sl e s s
than 5 microns and v e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t s up t o 333 sec'l. T h i so v e r p r e d i c t i o n
decreasesasthe i n i t i a l gas v e l o c i t yi n c r e a s e s ,t h ev e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t de-
creases, and t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e decreases.Consideringotheruncertainties,
suchasthe shape o f t h e p a r t i c l e , t h e use o f S t o k e s ' d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t i s
considered t o beadequate for t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y ; t h e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g
l o wd e n s i t yf l o w s f o r which Eq. (11.17) i s recommended.
A c c o r d i n gt o Eq. ( I l . l h ) ,t h ef i d e l i t yw i t hw h i c hp a r t i c l em o t i o nr e p r e -
s e n t sf l u i dm o t i o ni n a specificflowcondition(test gas v i s c o s i t y known) can
beimprovedbyreducingtheparticlediameter and density.Diameterreduction
i sp a r t i c u l a r l ye f f e c t i v es i n c et h et i m ec o n s t a n ti n c r e a s e sa c c o r d i n gt o diame-
t e r squared. As d i s c u s s e dp r e v i o u s l y , however, t h e minimum p a r t i c l ed i a m e t e r
is limited bythe minimum a c c e p t a b l e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o .
To d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s , t h e f r e q u e n c y response
of p a r t i c l e s w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 1 gm/cm3 and diametersrangingfrom 0.5 pm t o
Io pm i s shown i n F i g . A.11.5 f o r Mach one f l o w and a stagnationtemperatureof
40 C e l s i u s( I 0 4 OF). Theseresponsedata c l e a r l yd e m o n s t r a t et h ed e s i r a b i l i t y
ofusing p a r t i c l e s w i t h a diameter of approximately 0 . 5 urn. The timeconstants
for p a r t f c l e s w i t h a dens it y o f 1 gm/cm3 a r e shown i n F i g . A.11.6 as a f u n c t i o n
237
N.
w
0
Mach No. 1.0
T, = 40 Celsius
Pp = 1 g/cc
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.0523
e -
T '
(11.18)
f0.95
P
where f o more than 5%
95 i s t h e upperfrequency
limit w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g
attenuat ion of the particle velocity response to fluid mt i o nI.n
o Fig. A.11.7
t h i sf r e q u e n c y limit i s shown as a f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r andMach
number, a g a i nf o r a p a r t i c l ed e n s i t yo f 1 gm/cm3. I nF i g s . A.11.6 and 7, it
i s d e m o n s t r a t e dt h a td i a m e t e r so ft h eo r d e ro f 1 Urn o rl e s sa r er e q u i r e df o r
measurements up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10kHz, and t h a td i a m e t e r sl e s st h a n 0.5 pm
arenecessarytoextendaccurate measurements t o 100 kHz. These g u i d e l i n e s
a r e o b v i o u s l y dependenton f l o w c o n d i t i o n s and t h e d e f i n i t i o n of anaccept-
a b l e amount o f p a r t i c l e l a g , b u t t h e y a r e i n g e n e r a l agreement w i t h t h e con-
c l u s i o n so fs e v e r a li n v e s t i g a t i o n s , basedupon bothexperimental and a n a l y t i c a l
r e s u l t s .P e d i g o and Stevenson(Ref. 27) s t a t et h a tf o r a p a r t i c l et of o l l o w
transonicflowswithreasonableaccuracy,thediametershould be lessthan
1 vm. Asher(Ref. 1 4 ) , Mazumder, Hoyle and Kirsch(Ref. 19)
and Seasholtz
(Ref. 29) r e a c h s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s f o r r a t h e r w i d e l y v a r y i n g f l o w c o n d i t i o n s .
239
h)
&
0
l x
T
l x
l x
lx 1
30 0.1 1.0 10
Parkj.de Diameter, p m P a r t i c l e Diameter, Pm
The d a t a n o r m a l l y o b t a i n e d w i t h a l a s e rv e l o c i m e t e ri n c l u d et h e mean
v e l o c i t y and t h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi n one, two or t h r e e components. By
s p e c i a la n a l y t i c a lt e c h n i q u e s ,t h es p e c t r u m o f t h et u r b u l e n c ec a na l s o be
derived .
An i n d i v i d u a l measurement o b t a i n e df r o mt h ev e l o c i m e t e r , Ui, i s taken t o
r e p r e s e n tt h e passage o f an i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e t h r o u g h t h e m e a s u r i n g volume
( i n d i v i d u a lr e a l i z a t i o n )s i n c et h i s occu'rence i s t y p i c a l o f high-speedflows and
counter-typeprocessors. The i n d i v i d u a l measurement can d e v i a t ef r o mt h et r u e
mean v e l o c i t y due t o t u r b u l e n c e ,n o i s e andsystem resolution. The a c q u i s i t i o n
o f a l a r g e number o f measurements a r e t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o i m p r o v e t h e
accuracy o f b o t h t h e mean v e l o c i t y and t u r b u l e n c e measurements.
The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n
is
( 1 I. 20)
cu = u ' ; ( I 1.21)
-
where U = U + u ' , a n dt h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi s
U'
7 .
U
24 1
Correction of the measured turbulence velocity for the effects of Doppler
spectral broadening (as occurs witha tracker processor) is discussed, for
example, by George in (Ref. 31)- The correction techniques for this type
of bias are based on the white noise or broad-band characteristics of the
intensity modulation of the Doppler frequency; whereas, the turbulence
is
band-limited.
Flack and Thompson(Ref. 32) have identified ten different biases which
of mean velocity
influence individual-realization, velocimetry measurements
and turbulence. Magnitudes of the individual biases range from less than
0.1% to 31% for the turbulence componentand from 0.1% to about 12% for the
mean velocity component. The larger errors are associated withhigh turbulence
intensities. The largest bias is due to the probability, in a turbulent flow,
that more high velocity particles will be measured than low velocity particles.
This bias occurs because the individual measurements are not randomly
distributed. I f the scattering particles are uniformly distributed in the
flow, the rate at which particles pass through the measuring volumeis weighted
linearly with velocity, Fig. A . 1 1 . 8 . T h i s form o f statistical bias is discussed
by Barnett and Bentley (Ref. 33) and by HcLaughl in and Tiederman (Ref. 34).
N
( I I .22)
U - N
c
-
1
ui
i=l
Barnett and Bentley derive the correction to the biased (arithmetic] meanin
terms of the turbulence intensity as
N
( I 1.23)
242
Biased Average of Individual Measurements
f f
Individual Measurements
The work t o d a t e o n i n d i v i d u a l r e a l i z a t i o n or v e l o c i t y b i a s i n g has a l s o
been r e s t r i c t e d t o c o n s t a n t - d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y - f l u c t u a t i o n f l o w s suchasturbu-
l e n t boundarylayers.Thiswork assumes u n i f o r md e n s i t yo fs c a t t e r i n gp a r t i c l e s .
Furtherstudyis needed o f o t h e r f l o w f i e l d s where theunsteadinessisdominated
byunsteadyshocks,acousticsources,etc.Insuchcases,significantdensity
v a r i a t i o n so c c u r , and d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s may be c o r r e l a t e d .F o r
e m p t y - t e s t - s e c t i o ns u r v e y so f mean v e l o c i t y i n w i n dt u n n e l s ,t u r b u l e n c ei ss u f -
f i c i e n t l y low t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f v e l o c i t y b i a s i n g t o t h e t o t a l measure-
ment e r r o r wouldappear t o be minor.
(11.24)
When Z i s t h e number o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a d e s i r e dc o n f i -
dence l e v e l (1.645, 1.96 and2.58 f o r 90, 95 and 93-percentconfidence 1imits,
"
The c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t s f o r t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y p r o b -
abilitydistribution(the rms t u r b u l e n c e ,u l )i sg i v e n by
22
N = (11.25)
~(Au'/u')~
WhereAu' istheerrorinmagnitudeoftheturbulence, and Z and N a r e a s
previously defined.
244
L
dependingonthedatarate. Some measurements i n t h e AEDC Tunnel 1-T r e q u i r e d
s e v e r a lm i n u t e sp e rs t a t i o n .
c a l i b r a t i o n measurements w i t h i n 22%;where t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of t h e v e l o c i t y
based o nt h et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni ss t a t e dt o be +I%. A l t h o u g ht h ep a r t i c l e s
used t o seed t h e f l o w r a n g e d i n s i z e from 10 t o 15 m i c r o n s ,t h ea u t h o r sd i d
notconsiderparticlelagto be a problem i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n ; a l t h o u g h s i g n i -
ficantlag was p r e s e n t i n t h e f l o w a c c e l e r a t i n g s e c t i o n o f t h e t u n n e l .
The l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r y i e l d s a d i r e c t measurement o f f l o w v e l o c i t y , w h i l e
t h e Mach number i s r e q u i r e d f o r c a l i b r a t i o n o f windtunnels. A second measure-
ment, thestagnationtemperature, i s thereforerequired.Usingtheenergy equa-
t i o n ,t h el o c a ls t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r e canthen .be determinedfromthemeasured
velocity
Where Tw i st h et e s ts e c t i o nt e m p e r a t u r ec o r r e s p o n d i n gt o Vm, To i st h es t a g -
nationtemperature, i st h es p e c i f i ch e a ta tc o n s t a n tp r e s s u r e ,
C R i st h e
P
gas c o n s t a n t , and y i s t h e r a t i o o f s p e c i f i c heats. The l o c a l Mach number
can then be determined from
VW
M = am
"W
"m
( I I .28)
246
Sensitivity coefficients for measurements o f b o t h v e l o c i t y and s t a g n a t i o n
i
Conclusions
Advantages
1. No p r o b eo ro t h e rd e v i c ei n t r o d u c e di n t ot h e flow, i .e ., non-
pertubing.
2. P r o v i d e sd i r e c t ,l i n e a r measurement o fv e l o c it y and ve l o c i t y f l u c t u a -
ti ns;no calibrationrequired.
3. Ab l i t y t o measure r e v e r s i n g f l o w s .
4. Ab l i t y t o separate mean and f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n t o components.
5. Po n t measurements can be approached by p r o p e r c o n t r o l o f m e a s u r i n g
vo ume.
6. Ca be r e a l i z e d as an i n h e r e n t l yd i g i t a li n s t r u m e n t .
-
D isadvantages
1. Complex, expensiveequipmentrequired
2. Measurement o f h i g h - v e l o c i t y f l o w s i n l a r g e t u n n e l s w i t h an a i r t e s t
medium p r e s e n t ss p e c i a lp r o b l e m sw i t hr e g a r dt os i n g l e - t o - n o i s er a t i o ,
frequencyresponse, and s e n s i t i v i t y o f equipment t o t u n n e l v i b r a t i o n ,
temperature,etc.
3. Furtherdevelopment needed t o i m p r o v es i g n a lp r o c e s s o r ,p a r t i c u l a r l y
withregardtodatavalidationfeatures,rejection of l a r g e p a r t i c l e s ,
etc.
4. Light-scattering particles of size needed for good s i g n a l may n o t
followflowinregionsofrapidvelocity change.
5. Signal-to-noise ratio may p r e c l u d e a c c u r a t e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y
measurements a t lowlevels,i.e., 0.1 t o 1.0 percent.
6. Current accuracy attainable is not as good as w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l
techniques.
7. Takes e x c e s s i v e t i m e t o make t h e s u r v e y s r e q u i r e d f o r w i n d t u n n e l
calibration.
247
.WO
.018
,016 To = 3UK
I
.014
.012
.010
--
"
aTo
1/OK
0.08
.006
0.04
.002
0
0 1 2 3 4
Mach No.
Figure A. I I -9 SENSITIVITY COEFFICIENTS FOR
DETERMINATION OF MACH NUMBER
FROM VELOCITY AND STAGNATION
248 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
Nomenclature
aaD sf trreaeecaomuvsetliocc i t y
specificheatatconstantpressure
=P
i n i t i a l diameter o f l a s e r beam
DO
d0 diameter o f l a s e r beams a t t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s
d particle. diameter
P
F f o c a ll e n g t ho ft k a n s m i t t i n gl e n s
fd
Dopp 1 er frequency , Hz
frequency a t which p a r t i c l e m o t i o n i s a t t e n u a t e d 5% r e l a t i v e t o s t e a d y
fo. 95 s t a t es i n u s o i d a lf l u i dm o t i o n
m
Knudsen number
R mean f r e e p a t h
l e n g t h o f measuringvolume
llV
M Machnumber
N sample s i z e
S Lap1
opera
ace tor
stagnationtemperature
TO
249
t i m e c o n s t a n t d e f i n l n g p a r t i c l e response to v a r i a t i o n s i n f l u i d o
l
fw :
TP v e l o c i t y , seconds
. .
To3 freestream
temperature
t time,seconds
U v e l o c i t y component n o m 1 to f r i n g e p a t t e r n and t o b i s e c t o r o f
theangleformedby two I n t e r s e c t i n g l a s e r beams
-U mean v e l o c i t y
- mean v e l o c i t y , c o r r e c t e d for v e l o c i t y b i a s
uC
U' rms t u r b u l e n c e v e l o c i t y
Au I error i n magnitude o f t u r b u l e n c e v e l o c i t y
V gas o
f
lw v e l o c i t y
9
V particle velocity
P
"" f fees t ream ve 1oc it y
2 number o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a d e s i r e d c o n f i d e n c e
l e v e l (Eq. I I .24).
-
Greek
Y r a t i o of s p e c i f f c h e a t s
A beam s e p a r a t i o n d i s t a n c e a t t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g o p t i c s
f r i n g es p a c i n gi nm e a s u r i n g volume
bf
x wavelength o f l a s e r l i g h t
v i s c o s i t y o f gas
density of gas
density of particle
pP
a standard deviation of v e l o c i t y p r o b a b i l i t y - d i s t r i b u t i o n - f u n c t i o n
250
.-;
. .
phase angle, degrees ..
. .. .
I
25 1
I
REFERENCES
a.
A E D C - ~ ~ - 7 -11 65,
, .
13. Fridman,
J. D. Young, R. M.; Seavey, R. E. and O r l o f f , K. L.: "Modular
HighAccuracyTrackers f o r DualChannel LaserDopplerVelocimeter,''Pro-.
ceedings o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota Symposium onLaser Anemometry, 1975.
14. Asher,J. A.: "LaserVelocimeter SystemDevelopmentand Testinq."
Progress i nA s t r o n a u t i c s and Aeronautics, V.34 pp 141-166, Massachusetts
I n s t i t u t e o f Technology, 1974.
15- Hfnze, J. D.: T_u_rbglence,- A n . - I n t r o d u c t i o n t o i t s Mechanismand Theory,
pp. 354-355, McGraw H i 1 1, New York, 1959.
18. F e l l e r , W.
W. andMeyers, J. F.: "Development of a C o n t r o l l a b l e P a r t i c l e
Generator f o r LV Seeding i n Hypersonic Wind Tunnels,"Proceedingsof
Minnesota Symposium onLaser Anemometry, U n I v e r s i t y o f Mfnnesota, 1975.
23 - Walsh, M. J.,
Speed Flows,"
"Drag C o e f f I c i e n tE q u a t i o n s for Small P a r t i c l e si nH i g h
A I A A Journal, V 13, No. 11, Flov., 1575.
253
29 Seasholtz, R. G., "Laser Doppler Velocimeter Measurementsin a Turbine
Stator Cascade Facility," Proceedings of the Second International Work-
shop on Laser Doppler Velocimetry, Purdue University,1974.
30 Yanta, W. J . , "Laser Doppler Velocimeter Measurementso f Turbulence
Properties of a Mach 3 Turbulent Boundary Layer,'' Proceedings of the
Second International Workshop on Laser Velocimetry, Purdue University,
1974.
31. George, W. K., "The Measurement of Turbulence Intensities Using Real-Time
Laser Doppler Velocimetry," Proceedingsof the Second International Work-
shop on Laser Velocimetry, Purdue University,1974.
32. Flack, R.D. and Thompson, H. D., "The LVD's Potential in Understanding
Turbulent Structure,'' Proceedings of the Minnesota Symposiumon Laser
Anemometry, University of Minnesota, 1975.
Proceedings o f
254
APPENDIX 1 1 1
EFFECTS OF VIBRATION OF A CYLINDRICAL PROBE
ON STATIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
I Intheprocessofcollectingmaterialforwritingabout mean s t a t i c
pressure measurements, t h eq u e s t i o na r o s e as t o how measured datawouldbe
a f f e c t e db yv i b r a t i o no f a probe. The problem o f e r r o r i n measured pressure
causedbyunsteadycross-flow has been previouslyconsideredbySiddon
(Ref. 1). The f o l l o w i n gd i s c u s s i o ni st a k e nf r o mt h i sr e f e r e n c e .
4 = Vn (r + r)
d2
COS n.
1
p (r, n, t ) - Pt(t) = "
2
p (vn2 - v
r
- v 2, +
n
p a4
at
where,
P ( t )i st h ep r e s s u r ew h i c hw o u l d have o c c u r r e da t r = 0 i nt h e absence o f
t
theprobe ( i . e . ,t h e' t r u e 'p r e s s u r e ) . A t t h es u r f a c eo ft h ep r o b e ( r = d/2) ,
t h ep r e s s u r ee q u a t i o n becomes:
P (Tl,t) - Pt(d = -
1 (1 - 4 Sin2n ) + p t n d Cos n - (111.1)
2 P 'n
The f i r s t t e r mo nt h er i g h t hand s i d ei sr e c o g n i z e d as t h ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u -
t i o nf o rs t e a d yp o t e n t i a lf l o w . The second t e r ma r i s e sf r o mu n s t e a d i n e s s .
For a p r e s s u r ep r o b ew h i c hr e g i s t e r st h ee x a c tc i r c u m f e r e n t i a la v e r a g e of
P(n,t), (e.g.,by means o f a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s l i t ) t h e e r r o r will be:
P,(t) - Pt(t) = - $P vn 2 Y
I nt h i si d e a ls i t u a t i o nt h ep a r to ft h ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o na s s o c i a t e d
withtheaccelerationterm Vn does n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e r r o r .
R o u g h l ys p e a k i n g ,t h ec o e f f i c i e n t K ( < 1 )r e p r e s e n t st h ef r a c t i o n a li n a c c u r a c y
o ft h ea v e r a g eo v e r P(n). I f we regard Vn as s i n u s o i d a l ,t h e \in e r r o r becomes
i n c r e a s i n g l yi m p o r t a n w
t i t hf r e q u e n c y (in - wVn). N e v e r t h e l e s s ,f o r a 0.318
cm ( 1 / 8i n . )d i a m e t e rp r o b ew i t h an averaginginaccuracy o f 5% and V 3.05
n
m/sec (10 f t / s e c ) , K p i n d i s lessthan 5% of t h e V n e r r o r a t 100 Hz.
P(0, t ) - P (t) =
t
T1 p Vn
2
(t) + p \ip(t)d. ( I 11.2)
-
P,(O) -
-
P
t
= -
2 T
1 T
V 2(t) dt +
O n
T
0
i n ( t d) t , ( I 11.3)
where T = p e r i o d o f o s c i l l a t i o n .
256
Since we have previously established thatit i s desirable to measure mean
static pressure to within 6.89 N/m2 (0.001 psi), the amplitude of pipe
-
Pm - Pt = 6.89 N/m 2
oscillation wi 1 1 be calculated for the case .
Hence, if the pipe oscillation is represented by
then '8
' . Vn = b = Aw coswt
in = D = -AU
2 srnwt.
2 2
a*. 6.89 = - 2wt) d t - P A w (111.4)
It may be noted from Eq. ( 1 11-41 that the required amplitude increases as
frequency decreases. For the particular case ofw = 21rf = 2 0 0 ~and
5 2 2 4
p = 1.71 N sec2/m4 (0.00332 lbf sec /ft ) [Po = 2.41 x 10 N/m (35 psia),
T = 311K (560"R), M = 11, the amplitude required for significant pressure
0
error is
A.III REFERENCES
Faci 1i t y
4' T r i s o n l c
Organlratlon
& ion
Locat M
Re/m x
@ H -
1.0
Productlon Testlng
Began
B 1owdown
24.6 - 60.7
26" Transonic
Farm1nadale.N.Y. 31 - 92 0.66 m Octagon 1957
16-Inch
.Supersonic W
ETH Zurich,
Swltz.
0 - 0.95
I . 2-2 (2.5) 7 - 7.5 Cont . 10.40 m s q . I 1935
( F i r s t . Cont. S.W.1
High Speed WT
NLR Amsterdam,
Hol land - .37 3.5 - 19 Cont. 1.6 x 2.0 m2 1959
Continuous
Supersonic WT II
nsert.5-1.2
1.2 -
5.8
(H = 1.2)
30 50 - Bd
Run Tlme
10.27 x 0.27 m
2
I 1960
Pilot WT II
0 - 1.0 14.1 Cont. 10.55 x 0.42 m21 I 1956
v m uIe
2
Supersonic WT II
1.2 - 4.0 21 - 54 Bd 1.2 x 1.2 m
n . s Y 1 . 7 nl2 1963
Supersonlc
Tunnel No. 1
U.S. Army
Aberdeen, Md. 1.25 - 5.0
(M = 1.25)
h - 71 Cont . 0.38 x 0.33 m
2
1956
T r l s o n l c G.F. USAF-FDL
10.3 - 1.2 - 0.38 x 0.38 m:
WPAB, Ohio 1.5 - 4.76 3.3 27 Cont.
0.61 x 0.61 m N.A.
Mach 3 Hi-Re USAF - ARL
2.97 - 3.0: 33 - 359 Bd .
WPAFB , Ohio 1970
Sandia Albuquer- 0.305 x2
12" T r ison i c
que, N.M.
0.5 - 2.5 16.4 Bd
0.305 m 1956
8' x 6' SwT NASA Lewis R.C.
Cleveland,Ohio
o.36 - 2.1 15
I Organlzatlon I Re/m x
I Production Testlng
Faci I i t v Location I M @ M = 1.0 Tvne,. Cross-Sect ion Began
I .2 m HSWT BAC 2
Preston, Eng. 0.4 - 4.0 21 - 74 1.22 x 1.22 m 1960
i d
2
30" x 16" NAE
S u c t l a n W . T . d a ,
0.4 - 2.0 15.1 Suction 0.76 x 0.41 m 1952
Tr i sonic 2
1964
t3lowdown Wf
II
0.1 - 4.4 Bd
1.52 x 1.52 m
HRN-PDT II
0.15 - 0.95 - Bd 0.38 x 1.52 m
2
1969
l / 3 m Trans. NASA Langley Res
0.05 - 1.2 13.45 - 341 Cont. 0.34 m Octagon 1974
Cryoqenic Tun. Ctr.Hampton, Va.
High Speed
7 ' x IO' Tun.
II
On2 - ( M = 0.9)
11.8 - 16.1 Cont. 2.0 x 2.92 m
2
1946
2
1.37 x 1.37 m 1948
6" x 28" 2
Transonic Wl
I'
0.3 - 1.20 32.8 - 98.4 Bd 15.2 x 72.4cm 1974
,
Transon ic (1.05-2.53) air '4.88 m x 4.88m
DynamicsTun. II
0 - 1.2 (8.04-19.7)Freon Cont. i 0.61 m corner 1960
8 ' Transonic
Pressure Tun.
II
0.2 - 1.3 1.3 - 15.3 Cont. '2.16 x 2.16 rn
2
1952
2 ' Trisonic
High Speed
4 Northrop
Hawthorne, Ca. 11.5
P i c a t i n n y Arsen-
0.20
0.2
-
-
- 1.3
3.0
0.76
7 0.28
(M = 0.6)
- 49 Bd 0.61 m sq. 1962
Productlon Testing
TY Pe Cross-Section Began
2
Bd 0.42 x 0.41 m N.A.
2
Bd 0.71 x 0.51 m 1973
7
lndraft 10.2 x 12.7 cm" 1956
Polysonic \-IT
Tunnel A ryz;
kcDonnel1-Doug 1as
U I S . Mo.
,G;:z
ac.AEDC/ARO
1
Ludwi eg 2
P i l o t HlRT
be
Tu !18*6x23*2 cm 1N.A. (Research Only)
Transon i c echn ion 1 Induction 0.8 x 0.6 m2 1968
30 cm WT i
I Bd 0 . 3 0 m Sa. 1960
40 x 50 cm S W l I 2
1 0.4 x 0.5 m 1968
ockwel I I n t .
? 3 k n ic
1 Sequndo. Ca. 2.13 I Bd m SQ. 1958
SWr I Cont.
"
0.69x0.76
. . ,.. .
m2
" .. . .
1959
APPENnlX I V : FACILITIES RESPONDING TO
OUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE I
Bd 0.305x0.406m2 1964
1956
WRE Salisbury, 0.4 - 1.0
3.3 - o.38 2 Cont. 0.38x0.38 m 1957
15-lnch SWT s. Aust. 1.4 - 2.8
(M = 2.8)
s3 Bd W l
I1
2.8 - 5.0
16.4 - 65.6 Bd 17.8x15.2 cm
2
1966
I I 1
ARLMe1 bourne, 2
3.28 - 6.56 Cont. 0.81x0.53 m 1957
2
wT
Transon ic WT V o l v oT r o l l h a t t e n
Aust.
Sweden
o,5
0.4 -- 1.5
1.4
23 - b9 Bd 0.5x0.5 m 1952
2
WT9 II
1.4 - 3.2 (M = 1.5)
29 -
55
Bd 0.5 x0.5 m 1962
6.7
12 -
-
16.5
23.5
32
Cont.
Cont.
Cont.
4.11x4.18 m
3.35 m
0.61 rn Sq.
Sq.
1956
1956
1951
Injector-Driw In 0 - 1.0,
Transonic W l II
1.2. 1.4
16.7 - 167 Con t 15.24 crn Dia. Pilot Model
9' x 7' Super
sonic WT
II
1.55 - 2.5
(M = 2.0)
7 - 71.7 Cont. 2.74 x 2.13 rn2 1956
8 ' x 7' Super
sonic WT
I1
2.45 - 3.5 (M = 2.5)
3 - . 17.
. , .. . . . . Con t .
2.44 x 2.13 rn2
- .. .. . - 1956
APPENDIX IV: FACILITIES RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE I
Organitat ion
Faci 1 i t y & Locat ion
61 x 61 Super-NASA Ames RC Mof-
sonic WT f eFt ti e l d , Ca.
1 ' x 3 ' Super- II
CWT
1
NSWC Hyper- II
sonic Tunnel
Aero.Res.lnst.
Tunnel FFA-Sb (FFA)Stockholrn,Sb
Transon ic Tun-
II
I
n e l FFA-HT I
Tr isonic Tonne;
II
=FA-TVM 500
II
Tunnel FFA-S5
8 X 6-Ft TWT II
DFVLR
x TWT
Gottingen,W.Ger.
APPENDIX IV: FACILITIS RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE I
Production Testing
Began
:ross-Section
I
I
0 . 6 rn Sq. 1966
0.5 rn Sq.(M>I
0.6x0.34 rn2
0.25-0.50 m
0.81 m D l a . 1970
APPENO I X IV (Cont Id)
TABLE I I : TEST
SECTION
CHARACTERISTICS
Venting of Plenum
Facllf t y Cross-Section Porosltv WallAnqle Chamber
1.27cm, 90 SW 20% sw
NAL (India) 1.22 m Sq. Perforated lot o -2O EJector Flaps
300 Top & Bot. 6%TsB
GAC (NY) 0.66 m Octagon
~
Slotted
~~
I 12% & 6% 0. oso -Ejector Flaps
2 Slotted ,
NLR (PT) 0.55 x 0.42 m
(T & B) 0.525 cm, 5.25 cm ' l O % T &B 0.22O Flxed Ejector Slots
2
NLR (SST) 1.2 x 1.2 m
U . S . Army 2
0.38x0.33 m Sol i d
(SSTl)
WPAFB (TGF) 0.38 x 0.38 mL ~ 4 - 12% O0 'EJectorFlaps
I
t-
WPAFB (M3HR)
Sand i a (TWT)
20.3 x 20.3cm2
0.305 x 0.305 m2
I
I
Solid
2.44 x 1.83 m2
3.05 x 3.05 m2
2
-"--Perforated 2.54 cm,
Sol i d I
30' ' 6% O0
I
~
Aux i 1 i a r y Pumps
Venting o f Plenum
Fac i Wall Anqle Chamber
2 Perforated 20.5%
NAE (2DT) 0.38 X 1-52 m 1.27cm, 90' O0 Vent Inq to Atm.
(T B) T E B
9RA (TWT) 2.44 x 2.74 m2 P e r f o r a t e d cm,
1.27 '
0
9 22.5% O0 9ux i 1 i a r y Pumps
O0 E j e c t o r F 1 aps
0.5'
2 Slotted
Volvo (WTl) 0.5 x 0.5 m
(T G B) ? 4%T&B 0.21O E l e c t o rF l a p s
I I I
(TWT)
2.44 x 3*66 Slotted 7.45 cm,70.41 cm 11% 3.5% - O0 Ejector Flaps
tJithinsertsTdB 47.31 cm SW
Lockheed (TWT)
p;fleTscorner
1.22x1.22 m2 Perforated
'*''
cm* 'O0 22% '-0.75' A u x i l i a r y Pumps
2.16 x 2.16 mz
-
Slotted
Slotted
p .62 cm, 1.95 rn
3-6% T&E
'0 -
0,083'
0.75'
SW
Auxi I i a r y Pumps
Tapered fromzero
no - o-,,h~TFR F i x e d E j e c t o r S l o t s
Ejector Flaps or
LRC(1/3mTCT) 0.34 m Octagon Slotted to 1.727 cm 14 cm 0-125; 0.083' Vent Ins t o Atm.
2.0 x 2 . 9 2 m Slotted 4.60 cm, 73.03 cm 4.8% A u x i l i a r y Pumps &
LRC
(HST) O0
TF.R Ejector Flaps
LRC (6" TWT) 15.2 x 72.4 cm2 Slotted 3.476 cm, 3.81 cm 12.5% O0 F i x e dS l o t s
TL R
Slotted 3.318 x 2.54 cm,
NC ( 2 l TWT) 0.61 m Sq. Holes 1.91 cm 10% -2/3' t o +lo E j e c t o r F l a p s
'
Venting of Plenum
Faci 1 i t y Cross-Section Wall Type Mal 1 Anqle C harnber
2
L-G (CFF) 0.71 x 0.51 m Perforated 0.635 cm, 30' 0- 10% 0.25' T&B E j e c t o rF l a p s
MD (PSWT) 1.22 m Sq. Perforated 0.953 cm, 90' 25 -0.75' to Oo Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
I I -
Sol i d
AEDC (Tunnel
0.305 m Sq. Sol i d
ol
AEDC ( P i l o t 2 E j e c t o r F l a p s and/
H I RT) 18.6 x 23.2 cm Perforated .305 cm, 3
0' 0- 10% O0 o r Exhaust t o A t m .
Techn i o n
(TIWT)
0.8 x 0.6 rn
2
Perforated .635 cm, YOo 1 21% TbB I +0.5' I E j e cF
t ol a
r ps
Techn ion
n0.3 m Sq. Sol i d
Techn ion
2 Sol i d
&haAm" 0.4 x 0.5 m
RI ( T U ) 2.13 m Sq. Perforated 0.635 cm, 90 19.7% O0 E j e c t o r F I.aps
A u x i l i a r y Pumps E
Perforated 1.27 cm, 90 22.7% O0 to 0*670 V e n t i n g t o Atm.
Perforated
2
JPL (SWT) 0.51 x 0.46 m Sol i d
APPENDIX IV (Cont'd)
TABLE I t : TEST
SECTION
CHARACTERISTICS
Venting o f Plenum
Faci 1 1 t y Cross-Section
Solid 1 0.86'
FFA-SS 0.46 x 0.48 m2 Slotted 0.21 cm, 5.3 cm 4% T&B 0.15' Ejector Flaps
v
RAE(8Ix6' TWT) 2.44 x 1.83 m2 -0.2' t o 0.45' A u x i l i a r y Pumps
Perforatedl 1 cm, 3
0
' 1 6% 0' t o 0.5'
Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
DFVLR
(HGK)
0.25 - 0.50 m
so, id
x 0.30 .m
NASA Marshal 1 Varies 1-1 0::
0.81 m D i a . Perf. 1.27 cm, 30' along a x i s
00 Ejector Flaps
(HRNTT)
1. Rmort No. 2. Gobwnmmr Accr*on No. 3. Rripient's cltabg No.
NASA CR-2920
4. Title rd Subtitle 5. Rem13 Date
-
T.D. Reed, T.C. Pope and J.M. Cooksey
. 10. Work Unit
I
No.
9. M a m i n QOrp.nilrtion Narm ud
Vought Corporation
Ad&-
16. Abstraa
-
State-of-the art instrumentation and procedures for calibrating transonic (0.6 C M < 1.4) and
supersonic (M 5 3.5) wind tunnels are reviewed and evaluated. Major emphasis is given to
transonic tunnels. Background information was obtained via a literature search, personal contacts
and a questionnaire which was sent to 106 domestic and foreign facilities. Completed question-
naires were received for 88 tunnels dnd included government, industry and university-owned
facilities.
Continuous, blowdown and intermittent tunnels are considered. The required measurements of
pressure, temperature, flow angularity, noise and humidity are discussed, and the effects of
measurement uncertainties are summarized. Included is a comprehensive review of instrumentation
currently used to calibrate empty-tunnel flow conditions. The recent results of relevant research
are noted and reconmendations for achieving improved data accuracy are made where appropriate. lt
is concluded, for general testing purposes, that satisfactory calibration measurements can be
achieved in both transonic and supersonic tunnels. The goal of calibrating transonic tunnels to
within 0.001 in centerline Mach number appears to be feasible with existing instrumentation.
provided correct calibration procedures are carefully followed. A comparable accuracy can be
achieved off-centerline with carefully designed, conventional probes, except near Mach 1. In the
range 0.95 M < 1.05, the laser Doppler velocimeter appears to offer the most promise for improved
calibration accuracy off-centerline.
With regard to procedures. tunnel operators are cautioned to: (1) verify by measurements that
expansions from a settling chamber to a test section are indeed isentropic, and (2) obtain calibra-
tions over the entire range of reynolds number and humidity levels. Also, it is suggested that
calibration data should include off-centerline measurements of Mach number and flow angularity.
Finally, three problem areas for transonic tunnels are identified and discussed, viz. (1) the
lack of standard criteria for flow uniformity and unsteadiness, (2) the undesirable noise
generated by ventilated walls, and (3) wall interference.
-
I
Wind tunnels, Calibration, Testing
I
I
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-
UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED 287 $9.25 -
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