A Study of Frog Embryo

Dagala, Ned Arnnie

Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Arts and Sciences, Far Eastern University,
Nicanor Reyes Sr., Manila.

Abstract

The three germ layers: Ectoderm, Endoderm and Mesoderm were related to the
development of frog embryo. Each germ layer develops and differentiate into a
specific part and each developed part were derived from the germ layer. The
purpose of this paper is to familiarize the parts and function of frog embryo using
a compound microscope. The objective of this paper is to identify the parts and its
function prior to its development and the result shows that Ectoderm is mostly
responsible for the development of nervous system followed by sense organs.
Endoderm is responsible for the development of the gut that extends from buccal
cavity to the anus and Mesoderm is responsible for the development of urogenital,
circulatory, arterial and venous system. This proves that each germ layer plays a
crucial part in studying the development of frog embryo.

Introduction

This paper were divided into three parts which is the germ layers to study the frog embryo.
Each germ layer developed and forms the different systems of the frog prior to its growth. The
three germs layers: Ectoderm, Endoderm & Mesoderm were the common denominator in the early
development of all vertebrates.

Ectodermal Derivatives of the 10 mm Frog Embryo

The ectoderm is responsible for the development of the nervous system and also the sense
organs and the cartilages. The development of the nervous system starts from the neural tube and
forms Prosencephalon, Mesencephalon, Rhombencephalon and the Spinal cord after four weeks
of development. The Prosencephalon, after one week, will develop to Telencephalon and
Diencephalon. Telencephalon will then form the Neopallium, Corpus Striatum and Archipallium.
The Diencephalon will also form the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Infundibulum, and Epiphysis.
There will be no development of Mesencephalon after two weeks before its development unlike
Prosencephalon that develops into Telencephalon and Diencephalon within two weeks.
Mesencephalon will then form the Superior and Inferior colliculi, Tegmentum, and Cerebral
peduncle after four weeks of its development. Rhombencephalon will form into Metencephalon
and Myelencephalon after one week of its development. Metencephalon will then form the
Cerebellum and Pons after two weeks of development which were also same in Myelencephalon
that forms the Medulla. The Spinal cord have no further development but it will continue to grow
by extending its nerve fibers.

The Sense Organs begins to form upon the development of the brain which is the formation of the
Eyes and Ears. Olfactory organs, responsible for the sense of smell, and the Cartilages mainly the
Chondrocranium and Splanchnocranium also developed.

Endodermal Derivatives of the 10 mm Frog Embryo

The endoderm derivatives include the epithelia of the gut that extends from buccal cavity to
the anus. Developments occurred in Endoderm includes: Branchial Region, Respiratory System,
& Digestive System. The Branchial Region were consist of mesenchyme that were separated from
each other by transverse dimensions of the gut that produce a series of outwardly-directed pockets
on each side called Pharyngeal Pouches. The Respiratory System starts as a ventral diverticulum
which is the Laryngeotracheal Groove and this at this stage the respiratory tract starts as a tube
ventral to the pharynx.

Mesodermal Derivatives of the 10 mm Frog Embryo

Mesoderm is divided into three differentiated parts: Epimere, Mesomere, & Hypomere.
This differentiated parts developed into Urogenital, Circulatory, Venous, & Arterial System. The
dorsal epimere and middle mesomere forms into nephrotome while ventral hypomere forms into
lateral plate mesoderm. Mesoderm is the part that has undergone extensive differentiation that
makes up it three parts.

This exercise was conducted to identify and understand the parts of frog embryo and their
function prior to its development. The objective of this paper is to (1) identify the parts and its
functions of frog embryo and (2) understand each processes that is happening during development.
This paper was focused mainly on the development of frog embryo. A glass slide series of cross
sectioned frog embryo and two compound microscope were used to conduct this observation.

Materials & Methods

The serial cross sections of the frog embryo were viewed under Scanner (4X), sections mainly
Diencephalon, Telencephalon, Heart, Pronephros w/ Spinal Cord & Cloaca/Anus were viewed
under LPO (10X) and every specific part of sections were viewed under HPO (100X) of a
compound microscope. It was drawn and labeled for data gathering purposes.
Results

Series of frog embryo cross section slide where viewed and identified every parts under the
compound microscope. The specific parts of a certain section were also viewed and observed
under LPO. Diencephalon with Optic Cup, Heart, Pronephros with Spinal cord and Cloaca or
Anus were the main parts that was observed.
Figure 1 & 2 shows the different parts of Diencephalon. Figure 3 shows the parts of the heart
(Atrium, Ventricle, Conus, etc.), respiratory system (Gills, etc.) and the auditory vesicle (Utricle
and Saccule). Figure 4 shows some parts of Urogenital (Pronephros), Digestive (Stomach,
Intestine, etc.) and Respiratory System (Lung Bud, etc.) although some parts were not identified
due to the way it was sliced.

Discussion

Frog embryo forms after the development of gastrula where its three germ layers are
developed. Each germ layer have specific roles to the development of frog embryo where their
cells differentiate (e.g. formation of blood cells) and some tissues undergo a series of induction.
The development of an embryo also include apoptosis or cell death to give way the other
developing parts of an embryo (e.g. ear canal, sinus, nasal cavity, etc.) or simply removing them
after the development to achieve its function (e.g. degrading of web-like structures between the
hand digits) (Herrera A. et. al. 2013).There were many processes involved in a developing embryo
from which all of the developing and developed parts were mainly came from the three germ layers
(N. Senz-Ponce, et. al. 2012).

Ectodermal Derivatives of the 10 mm Frog Embryo

The ectoderm forms the nervous system along with sense organs, olfactory organs and
cartilages. The nervous system start when neurulation or the neural induction starts. It is where the
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Neural crest/tube and its derivatives starts to form. The brain
at this stage consists of five regions: telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon
and myelencephalon. These regions except for mesencephalon came from Prosencephalon
(telencephalon & diencephalon) and Rhombencephalon (metencephalon & myelencephalon). This
five regions will then form the different parts of the brain (Rugh, R 1951).

Telencephalon have
paired structures with
cavity each are called
lateral ventricle. The
lamina terminalis, a
longitudinal groove,
separates the lateral
ventricle into two
cavities. Telencephalon Figure 6a: Series of cross section of frog embryo with complete labels.
is responsible for Source:https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/2/24/Rugh_165.jpg
special sensory that contributes to olfaction because the olfactory cranial nerve is involved.
Anterior choroid plexus is seen at the roof of telencephalon which contributes to the formation of
walls of the lateral ventricles and secretes cerebrospinal fluid (Rugh, R 1951).
 Diencephalon is located
immediately after the
telencephalon. The
epiphysis or pineal body is
a solid small mass located
at the roof of diencephalon
where it functions via
hypothalamus to modulate
sleep and long-term
Figure 6b: Series of cross section of frog embryo with complete labels. reproductive cycles. At
Source:https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/2/24/Rugh_165.jpg the base of the
diencephalon, a median diverticulum appears called infundibulum. The infundibulum will then
become the pituitary gland by enwrapping itself in Rathkes pocket (N. Senz-Ponce, et. al. 2012)
which is an extension of the stomodal ectoderm. The diencephalon is connected to Optic II cranial
nerve which functions as special sensory in vision and is related to the retina of the eye. Optic
chiasma is located posterior to the diencephalon. It is a thickened region of the floor where the
optic nerve enters.

Mesencephalon is sometimes called the midbrain, follows after the diencephalon. This region is
identified by the thickening dorsal and thinning of ventral walls. Aqueduct of Sylvius is a cavity
that is continuous with the third ventricle of the diencephalon (Rugh, R 1951). Optic lobes or
bilobed dorsal thickenings are easily identified in this region. Oculomotor nerves are located at the
floor of the mesencephalon which seems like a fine thread-like structures extending
lateroventrally. Other than oculomotory nerves, it is also connected to trochlear nerve which
involves in motor movements and were related to Superior Oblique muscle of the eye (Herrera A.
et. al. 2013).

Metencephalon consist
only a few sections that
are posterior to the
mesencephalon and
anterior to the posterior
choroid plexus. It is also
connected to trochlear
nerve which is located at
the roof between
mesencephalon and
metencephalon.
Figure 6c: Series of cross section of frog embryo with complete labels.
Trigmental cranial Source:https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/2/24/Rugh_165.jpg
nerve is also involved in
metencephalon and it functions as sensory motor on some parts of the body (Rugh, R 1951).
Myelencephalon or sometimes called the hindbrain is the posterior most region of the brain. It is
characterized by thick walls, thin roof, and presence of posterior choroid plexus hanging on its
roof. Myelencephalon is associated with Abducen (functions as motor), Facial (functions as motor,
sensory, and minor autonomic motor), Auditory (special sensory related to hearing and balance),
Glossopharyngeal (functions as motor, sensory, and minor autonomic motor), Vagus (functions as
motor, sensory, and major autonomic motor), Accessory (minor autonomic motor), and
Hypoglossal (motor) cranial nerves (Rugh, R 1951). In summary, of all the five regions of the
brain the myelencephalon has the most cranial nerves involved in this region.

Ectodermal Derivatives of the 10 mm Frog Embryo

The endoderm derivatives include the epithelia of the gut that extends from buccal cavity
to the anus. Branchial region, respiratory system, and digestive system were formed in the
ectoderm (R Briggs et. al. 1952).

Branchial region is
consist of mesenchyme
that was separated each
by transverse
distentions of the gut
and produces a series of
outwardly-directed
pockets on each side.
Figure 7a: Series of cross section of frog embryo with complete labels. The pharyngeal
Source:https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/thumb/f/f6/Rugh_16
pouches are the
6.jpg/600px-Rugh_166.jpg
evaginations of the
pharynx and are lined down by endoderm (R Briggs et. al. 1952). Pharyngeal grooves or furrows
are ectoderm-lined invagination that are opposite to the pharyngeal pouches. Pharyngeal pouches
are a series of folded ectoderm and gills were also identified in this part. The gills are filaments at
the lateral walls of the visceral arches and are covered by operculum. Thyroid is located at the
primordia at the floor of the pharynx and they appear as darkly pigmented cells and are found
ventral to the hyoid cartilage.

Respiratory system starts

at ventral diverticulum
which is the
laryngeotracheal groove
(R Briggs et. al. 1952).
The respiratory tract starts
as a tube ventral to the
pharynx, at the stage of Figure 7b: Series of cross section of frog embryo with complete labels.
Source:https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/thumb/f/f6/Rugh
ventral diverticulum. _166.jpg/600px-Rugh_166.jpg
Posterior to this part (pharynx) is where trachea located. Trachea is a forked with a wide lumen
that is an unpaired tubular structure. Lung buds are expanded cavities and were located at the
lateral side of trachea. Its attachment (lung buds) is a thread-like structure.

Digestive system of frog

embryos is consists of
buccal cavity where mouth
is also located followed by
esophagus, a ventral
longitudinal tube. Liver,
pancreas, gallbladder and
duodenum. Buccal cavity
is where the digestive
Figure 7c: Series of cross section of frog embryo with complete labels. system starts which is an
Source:https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/thumb/f/f6/Rugh opening at the anterior end
_166.jpg/600px-Rugh_166.jpg
of embryo. Continued
slides after the buccal cavity is the mouth. The mouth is a large structure ventral to the
telencephalon. Pharynx is located at the posterior part of the mouth where it is seen as a large
cavity into which the internal nares located (Herrera A. et. al. 2013). Posterior to the mouth is the
esophagus. Esophagus is a ventral longitudinal tube that leads to stomach and were characterized
by the presence of folds called rugae. At the right side of the stomach is where the liver resides.
The liver is a large organ filled with sinusoids and accompanied by pancreas. Pancreas is a cluster
of cells that exhibit alveolar structure with small ducts in its structure. It is located to the left of the
liver. The small ducts or tubes in pancreas are called pancreatic duct that arises from the pancreas
and joins the common bile duct. Gallbladder is a balloon-like structure at the dorsal wall of the
liver. The bile duct is a tube that appears in the substance of the liver and the small tube from the
liver is the hepatic duct that enters that common bile duct. Duodenum, located at the left side of
the section associated with the pancreas, is a round tube structure (Herrera A. et. al. 2013).
Common bile duct is attached to duodenum and the rest of the small intestines are long coiled
tubes posterior to the duodenum. The cloaca is a tube into which mesonephric ducts empty. Rectum
is in the ventralmost region located by following the tube of cloaca postriad narrowing and moving
toward it. Anus is located outside and also serves as an opening in which wastes are disposed (R
Briggs et. al. 1952).

Mesodermal Derivatives of the 10 mm Frog Embryo

Mesoderm forms the Urogenital, Circulatory, Venous and Arterial System. Mesoderm is
similar to the germ layers where it is divided into three parts but in neurula part only. Before the
mesoderm formed and differentiated it was divided into three: epimere, middle mesomere
(nephrostome) and ventral hypomere (lateral plate mesoderm).These parts undergo extensive
differentiation (A. Tokmakov, et. al. 2011).
Urogenital system has two recognizable parts: mesonephros and gonadal ridge (A. Tokmakov, et.
al. 2011). Mesonephros is consists of coiled tubes called mesonephric tubules that drain the coelom
via duct called nephrostome. Mesonephric duct is located lateral to the aorta and posterior to the
duct are expansive masses called glomi that were located to the dorsal aorta. The posterior vena
cava is seen at the ventral aorta where the coelom was also seen. The gonadal ridge is a dark mass
located ventral to the posterior vena cava and hangs into the coelom. The primordial germ cells
are round cells with conspicuous nuclei (A. Tokmakov, et. al. 2011) and they came from the yolk
endoderm that migrates to the dorsal mesentery.

The Circulatory System was consist of a heart, arteries and veins. The heart is found ventral to the
pharynx which is a small round mass because it is not yet fully formed. Posteriad to the position
of the heart is the conus arteriosus, also called bulbus arteriosus. It is a round double-walled
structure that leads anteriorly into the ventral aortae (short blood vessels). The large thick walled
compartment that is found posterior from the conus arteriosus is called ventricle and the thin walled
chamber dorsal to the ventricle is called atrium (A. Tokmakov, et. al. 2011). The boat shaped
chamber into which the systematic veins empty is called sinus venosus.

Venous System was

consist of Cardinal and
Hepatic system. The
venous system develops in
varios stages of the
embryogenesis. The
cardinal system is consist
of symmetric paired
cranial and cardinal veins
draining into the sinus
horns via short common Figure 7d: Series of cross section of frog embryo with complete labels.
cardinal veins. A series of Source:https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/thumb/f/f6/Rugh
_166.jpg/600px-Rugh_166.jpg
successive venous
networks take part in the formation of the definitive venous system. Each predominates
temporarily, then regresses, and remains only partly in the final system. The cranial cardinal
system drains the head, neck and thoracic limbs, and forms the cranial vena cava. The caudal
cardinal veins mostly degenerate after being superseded by the supracardinal and subcardinal veins
(A. Tokmakov, et. al. 2011). The right subcardinal vein forms the most caudal part of the caudal
vena cavainto which the left cardinal vein will then drain. The supracardinal veins contribute to
form the azygos veins. The Hepatic system is related to the digestive system since the blood vessels
are incorporated to liver posterior to pancreas. The hepatic veins are vessels within the substance
of the liver that empty into the post cava anteriorly. The blood vessel that is located between the
pancreas and the liver is called the hepatic portal (Herrera A. et. al. 2013).
The Arterial System is consist of Efferent and Afferent branchial arteries. Efferent branchial
arteries were behind the level of the diencephalon proceeding posteriad level to the series of
visceral arches. Masses of tissue between pouches that were derived from sclerotome and neural
crest are the aortic arches which were located within visceral arches. The internal carotid was
located lateral to the infundibulum. The second, third and fourth brancial artery were located at
fourth, fifth and sixth visceral archs in order (A. Tokmakov, et. al. 2011). The afferent branchial
arteries were located at the level of the conus arteriosus and proceeding posteriad towards the
visceral arches. The primitive aorta consists of a ventral and a dorsal segment that are continuous
through the first aortic arch. The two ventral aortas fuse to form the unpaired ventral aorta. The
two dorsal aortas fuse to form the midline descending aorta. When pharyngeal or branchial arches
are formed, six paired aortic arches developed between the ventral and dorsal aorta. The aortic
arches and the cranial parts of the ventral and dorsal aorta gives rise to the cranial portions of the
arterial system. The caudal elements of the arterial system develop from the segmental arteries
which arise from the caudal part of the descending aorta. The descending aorta gives rise to the
dorsal, lateral and ventral segmental arteries which supply blood for the organs developing in each
segment.

Conclusion

The growth of frog embryo is divided into three parts that are simultaneously developing and
these are ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. Each germ layer developed into different parts of
the embryos body according to what germ layer it is. Ectoderm is mostly responsible for the
development of nervous system followed by sense organs. Endoderm is responsible for the
development of the gut that extends from buccal cavity to the anus and Mesoderm is responsible
for the development of urogenital, circulatory, arterial and venous system. Each germ layer are
important prior to its development and every tissue or cell communicate to each other to determine
what to develop (induction). As every organs starts to function, they help the developing process
of the embryo (e.g. the pumping of heart that provides oxygen to the embryo). This proves that
each germ layer plays a crucial part in studying the development of frog embryo.

References

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Classic

The author has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate.