Definition and classification

General definition
A hazardous waste has the potential to
cause an unacceptable risk to:

PUBLIC HEALTH

THE ENVIRONMENT

TRP Chapter 2.1 2

 Why definition is difficult

The hazard associated with a waste depends on:

COMPOSITION PHYSICAL FORM

HAZARDOUS WASTE

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
TRP Chapter 2.1 3
 Examples of hazardous waste
definitions: Basel Convention

45 categories of wastes that are presumed to be

hazardous.
PLUS ...

These categories of waste need to exhibit one or

more hazardous characteristics:

flammable, oxidising, poisonous, infectious,

corrosive, ecotoxic

TRP Chapter 2.1 4

 Examples of hazardous waste
definitions: UNEP

Wastes other than radioactive wastes which,

by reason of their chemical activity or toxic,
explosive, corrosive or other characteristics cause
danger or are likely to cause danger to health or the
environment

TRP Chapter 2.1 5

 Examples of hazardous waste
definitions: USA
UNDER US EPA REGULATIONS:

1 The waste is listed in EPA regulations

2 The waste is tested and meets one of the four

characteristics established by EPA:
Ignitable
Corrosive
Reactive
Toxic

3 The waste is declared hazardous by the generator

TRP Chapter 2.1 6
 Examples of hazardous waste
definitions: European Waste Catalogue

A core list of 850 types of waste

Of these, around 420 are classified as

hazardous wastes

These are divided into 19 main categories

TRP Chapter 2.1 7

The objective of definitions

Why define wastes?

To decide whether or not that waste
should be controlled - this is
important for the generator as well as
the regulator
Why create a list?
Clear and simple
No need for testing

TRP Chapter 2.1 8

Different methods of classification
Lists eg Basel Convention Annex I, Basel List A,
EU European Waste Catalogue, US EPA list
Origin eg processes, Basel Convention Annex II
Hazardous characteristics eg toxicity, reactivity,
Basel Convention Annex III
Chemical and physical properties eg inorganic,
organic, oily, sludges
Need to match classification to objectives
No method will suit all cases

TRP Chapter 2.1 9

Methods of waste classification:
by origin

Waste streams eg Basel Convention

Miscellaneous or ubiquitous wastes eg

contaminated soils
dusts
redundant pesticides from agriculture
hospital wastes

TRP Chapter 2.1 10

Example of waste classification
by origin: Basel
The Basel Conventions List of
Hazardous Waste Categories (Y1-Y18)
identifies wastes from specific
processes
eg Y1 Clinical wastes
Y6 Wastes from the production and
use of organic solvents
Y18 Residues from industrial waste
disposal operations

TRP Chapter 2.1 11

 Methods of waste classification:
by hazardous characteristics
Main characteristics:
Toxic Ignitable
Corrosive Reactive

UN Committee on the Transport of Dangerous Goods

by Road or Rail (ADR) lists waste characteristics.
These have been adopted by Basel Convention -
Annex III gives 13 characteristics, based on ADR
rules, including:
Explosive
Flammable
Toxic and eco-toxic
Represented as codes H1-H13
TRP Chapter 2.1 12
 Hazardous characteristics:
Toxicity
Toxic wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested,
inhaled or absorbed through the skin

Examples:
Spent cyanide solutions
Waste pesticides

TRP Chapter 2.1 13

 Hazardous characteristics:
Corrosivity
Acids or alkalis that are capable of dissolving human
flesh and corroding metal such as storage tanks
and drums
pH < 2.0 or pH > 12.5

Examples:
acids from metals cleaning
processes eg ferric chloride
from printed circuit board
manufacture
liquor from steel
TRP Chapter 2.1 14
manufacture
 Hazardous characteristics:
Ignitability
Ignitable wastes:
can create fires under certain conditions
are spontaneously combustible
Flash point < 140oF

Examples:
Waste oils
Used solvents
Organic cleaning materials
Paint wastes
 Hazardous characteristics:
Reactivity
Reactive wastes are unstable under normal conditions
They can cause:
explosions
toxic fumes
gases or vapours

Examples:
Peroxide solutions
Hypochlorite solutions or solids

TRP Chapter 2.1 16

 Hazardous characteristics:
Eco-toxicity
Eco-toxic wastes are harmful or fatal to other
species or to the ecological integrity of their habitats

Examples:
Heavy metals
Detergents
Oils
Soluble salts

TRP Chapter 2.1 17

Methods of waste classification:
by chemical, biological and
physical properties
Inorganic wastes eg acids, alkalis, heavy metals,
cyanides, wastewaters from electroplating

Organic wastes eg pesticides, halogenated and

non-halogenated solvents, PCBs

Oily wastes eg lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids,

contaminted fuel oils

Sludges eg from metal working, painting,

wastewater treatment
TRP Chapter 2.1 18
 Relative composition of
hazardous waste types by region

TRP Chapter 2.1 19

Source: INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANISATION Global waste survey, final report 1995
 Exclusions from control systems
Some wastes may be excluded from the legal
definition of hazardous wastes, and thus not
subject to controls. These vary, but may include:
Hazardous waste from households - outside the controls in
many countries
Small quantity generators - often placed outside the system, at
least initially
Aqueous effluents discharged to sewer or treated on-site -
controlled separately from hazardous wastes in most countries
Sewage sludge - excluded in some countries
Mining wastes - often excluded
Agricultural waste - often excluded
Nuclear waste - always excluded

TRP Chapter 2.1 20

Generation, sources and types
of hazardous wastes

TRP Chapter 2.2 21

 The need for information

Need to identify:
generators
hazardous waste quantities
types
current treatment and disposal methods
 Hazardous waste generators

All industries generate some hazardous waste

The largest quantities come from five sectors:
Chemical and pharmaceutical manufacture
Metals refining
Petroleum and coal products
Metal working and fabrication
Rubber and plastics manufacture

TRP Chapter 2.2 23

Some common wastes and industrial sources

Flammable eg solvents - from chemical manufacturers, laundries

& dry cleaners, metal plating, tanneries, print shops etc

Corrosive eg acids and alkalis - from cleaning & maintenance,

equipment repair, vehicle body shops etc

Reactive eg bleaches and oxidisers - from chemical

manufacturers, laboratories etc

Toxic and eco-toxic eg heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides from

metals manufacturing, photographic processing, pesticide end
users etc

TRP Chapter 2.2 24

 Waste generating industries

Large quantity generators:

> 1000kg /month
eg pharmaceutical companies

Medium quantity generators:

100 - 1000kg/month
eg laboratories, printers

Small quantity generators:

<100kg/month
eg dental surgeries,
photographic processors

TRP Chapter 2.2 25

 Small and medium scale industries

In developing economies, these often

predominate
Typically they have:
low level of technology
unskilled management
unspecialised workers
lack of modernisation
poor environmental performance
SMIs may account for one third of the total
hazardous wastes generated TRP Chapter 2.2 26
 The dirty dozen
tanneries
textile dyeing plants
dyestuff producers
metal working and electroplating shops
foundries
automobile service shops and gas
stations
lead-acid battery manufacturing/recycling
chemical industries/laboratories
paint shops
printers
photographic processors
dry cleaners
TRP Chapter 2.2 27
 Small scale industries in developing
economies 1: Mumbai, India
Problematic small-scale industries in Mumbai
Industrial category Number of industries Observed wastes
Print shops 1600 Inks, caustic soda, bleach,
kerosene
Dyestuff industries 900 Heavy metals
Pharmaceutical formulators 656 Drugs, containers
Electroplating shops 600 Heavy metals
Petrol stations 200 Oil and grease
Textile dying plants 180 Dye, caustic soda, sludges
Leather tanneries 9 Tannin, Chromium,
suspended solids, BOD,
COD, chlorides
Silver refineries * Heavy metals, spent alkali
Car-painting shops * Paints and solvents
Pesticide formulators * Pesticides, containers
Chemical laboratories * Spent chemicals
* Number unknown but observed to be significant sources of hazardous waste
BOD= Biochemical oxygen demand. COD= Chemical oxygen demand.

Source: ASSOCIATED INDUSTRIAL CONSULTANTS, Case study of hazardous wastes and emissions from
small-scale manufacturing in India, case study prepared for UMP/UNCHS, Nairobi, Kenya, 1992.

TRP Chapter 2.2 28

Small scale industries in developing
economies 2: Harare, Zimbabwe
Metals fabricating, metal products and
engineering 25%
Transport and garaging 20%
Textiles and clothing manufacture 13%
Paper and printing 9%
Chemical industries 6%

TRP Chapter 2.2 29

 Small scale industries in developing
economies 3: Leon, Mexico

Estimated total annual waste load produced by the tanneries of Leon

Estimated total annual waste load produced by the tanneries of Leon
Size Effluent Chromium TDS Flesh Hair
(l/s) (tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes (tonnes)
Cottage 19 73 6574 2320 580
Small-scale 26 103 9247 3264 816
Medium- 104 307 27561 9728 2432
scale
Totals 149 483 43382 15312 3828

TDS: Total dissolved solids

Source: MENDOZA H., Case study of hazardous waste and emissions from small scale and cottage tanneries in urban
areas of Mexico, 1992.

TRP Chapter 2.2 30

Small scale industries in developing
economies 4: Lima, Peru

Textile weaving and dyeing

Tanneries
Clothing and shoe manufacture
Metal products including electroplating
Print shops
Furniture making & wood preserving

TRP Chapter 2.2 31

Some types of waste associated with different
industries

Chemical Vehicle maintenance shops

manufacturers Paint wastes
Chemical process Used oils
wastes Spent solvents
Acids and alkalis Acids and alkalis
Spent solvents
Reactive wastes Furniture and wood
Discarded commercial manufacturing and
chemical products refinishing
Spent solvents
Construction industry Paint wastes
Paint wastes
Spent solvents
Strong acids and bases
TRP Chapter 2.2 32
Non-industrial waste sources

Some examples include:

Used motor oils
Used car batteries
Redundant agricultural pesticides and containers
Surplus paints and solvents
Medical and health care wastes

TRP Chapter 2.2 33

 Health care wastes
Diverse mixture of sources and waste types
doctors surgeries nursing homes
hospitals dental surgeries
clinics veterinary practices

Only a small fraction pose risk - this can be

minimised by:
Classification of wastes into groups which can be
treated similarly
Segregation of wastes - non-risk waste should be
disposed of with municipal waste
Safe storage
Treatment to reduce the pathogen content of waste

TRP Chapter 2.2 34

 Some typical household
hazardous wastes
Vehicle maintenance items eg antifreeze, brake fluid
Cleaning products eg drain cleaners, spot removers, toilet
cleaners, chlorine bleach, oven cleaners
Cosmetics eg nail polish and remover
Fire extinguishers
Pet care products eg Flea collars and sprays
Garden products eg herbicides, lawn chemicals, pesticides
Insecticides and insect repellent
Home care products eg paint and paint stripper, wood stains,
solvents, swimming pool chemicals
Prescription drugs
TRP Chapter 2.2 35
 Average hazardous household waste
composition
USA (1997) Norway (2000)
9kg/hh/ pa 10.3kg/hh/pa
Household maintenance items (paints,
solvents, adhesives) 36.6% 63%
Household batteries 18.6 % *
Cosmetics (inc nail polish & removers) 12.1% -
Cleaners (inc polishes, oven cleaners) 11.5% 3%
Automotive items (mostly motor oil) 10.5% 27%
Garden items (inc pesticides, fertilizers) 4.1% 0.7%
Hobby (pool chemicals, art supplies) 3.4% 0.8%
Pharmaceuticals 3.2% -
Fluorescent tubes, lamps etc - 5.5%
* batteries are collected separately in Norway, at a rate of approx 3kg/hh/pa

TRP Chapter 2.2 36

Stockpiles of old hazardous wastes

One major problem is the widespread

existence of stockpiles of old hazardous
waste materials such as:
Obsolete pesticides
PCB transformers
Ozone depleting substances
Military stockpiles

TRP Chapter 2.2 37

 Treatment residues

Municipal & industrial treatment

sludge
Incinerator ash
Tank bottoms
Solvent still bottoms
Filter cakes
Leachate

TRP Chapter 2.2 38

Estimated quantities of hazardous wastes
(000 tonnes per year - as reported by Parties to the Basel Convention 1998)

Selected countries:
China 9,896
Czech Republic 3,917 More than 400
Denmark 281 million tonnes
Greece 287 of hazardous
Indonesia 17
Latvia 80
wastes are
Morocco 6,543 generated
The Netherlands 2,926 worldwide
Russian Federation 107,060 each year
Slovakia 1,400 Source: UNEP Geo 2000
Thailand 1,600
UK 4,846
Uzbekistan 26,442
TRP Chapter 2.2 39
Quantifying waste generation:
by measurement
Factory visits/records
Interviews with contractors & suppliers
On - site inspections
Raw materials and product records
Waste disposal records at generating,
treatment & disposal sites
Industry associations
Local government staff/inspectors
Surveys
TRP Chapter 2.2 40
Quantifying waste generation:
Waste audit

Pre-assessment steps
identify staff and resources
define unit operations
identify links between unit operations
Conduct audit
quantify all inputs and outputs
analyse and apply findings

TRP Chapter 2.2 41

 Quantifying waste generation:
by rapid estimation 1
Basic indicators - use economic and social
statistics such as GDP, population
Goal-oriented indicators - used in the context of
policies and enforcement, for example when the
national aim is to achieve certain degree of
hazardous waste minimisation, or to implement
Cleaner Production
Impact indicators and indices - used to identify
impacts from hazardous wastes
Risk indicators - relate to areas of higher risk
for health and/or the environment

TRP Chapter 2.2 42

 Quantifying waste generation:
by rapid estimation 2
Per capita:
100kg/per person/year for industrialised countries with
strong chemical sector
6kg/per person/year for OECD countries with predominantly
agricultural economies
Per unit of GDP:
According to contribution of industry to GDP
According to importance of chemical sector within industry
Per unit of work force
Per number of contaminated sites

TRP Chapter 2.2 43

Hazardous waste generation in OECD
countries

Note: The USA estimate includes large quantities of dilute wastewater not reported in other OECD
countries.
Source: YAKOWITZ H., Waste management: what now? What next? An overview of policies and
practices in the OECD area, 1993
TRP Chapter 2.2 44
 Per capita waste generation (1997)

Source: Secretariat of the Basel Convention (data as reported by the parties) 1999 TRP Chapter 2.2 45
 Waste generation based on Gross
National Product

Source: Secretariat of the Basel Convention (data as reported by the parties) 1999 TRP Chapter 2.2 46
 National surveys
National surveys are:
difficult, as experience shows
useful for raising the profile of hazardous waste
issues
sensitive - generators are anxious about revealing
information

Questionnaires
must be simple, with only a few questions
should be carefully designed, perhaps by
independent specialists
must strike a balance on information sought
must address the specific aims of the survey

TRP Chapter 2.2 47

Environmental impacts and health
risks

TRP Chapter 2.3 48

 Hazard and exposure
Many activities have the potential to result in harm to
health or the environment
Hazardous wastes have properties (eg toxicity,
persistence, flammability) which increase that
potential
Risks :
to human health
to wider environment
at the point of generation
along the chain
Those exposed to the risks include:
manufacturing workers
waste handlers
general public

TRP Chapter 2.3 49

 Hazardous properties
Chemical wastes may exhibit and may pose
Toxicity
Health hazard
Corrosivity
Ignitability
Physical hazard
Reactivity
Eco-toxicity Environmental harm

Ubiquitous wastes - small quantities, widespread -

may pose greatest risks in developing economies

TRP Chapter 2.3 50

 Exposure routes 1

Source: Jolley et al Effective and safe waste management, Interfacing Sciences and
Engineering with Monitoring and Risk Analysis, 1992 TRP Chapter 2.3 51
 Exposure routes 2

Direct physical harm

Biological infection
Chemical contamination
Chemical alteration

TRP Chapter 2.3 52

 Minimising risks by good
management
Little evidence of harm to general public health
from well managed wastes

Risks for industrial and waste workers reduced by

proper management procedures and correct use
of protective clothing and equipment

Health risks may be higher :

In countries or regions without modern hazardous waste
management systems
Around old sites with residual contamination of land or
water
For some groups eg children
TRP Chapter 2.3 53
 Evidence of harm

Epidemiological evidence of health effects

is variable
Most evidence is based on toxic effects
from pure chemicals, not waste
Often tests are based on animals, not
humans
Epidemiological evidence of causal links
often weakened by confounding information

TRP Chapter 2.3 54

Public concerns about hazardous
waste

Fear of damage to health

Actual (chronic or acute) health effects
Nuisance from noise, dust, traffic etc
Effects on quality of life
Damage to natural environment
Reduction in property values
Lack of trust in responsible authorities

TRP Chapter 2.3 55

 Public perception of risk
Public concerns are increased by high profile
accidents and rare catastrophes

Most concern is about involuntary risks

Most people over-estimate risks

There is most anxiety about long term exposure

to low concentrations of compounds

Actual risks can be as imprecise as perceived

risks
TRP Chapter 2.3 56
 Occupational exposure
In the absence of proper
management systems and
without the correct protection,
waste workers have been shown
to suffer from elevated levels of:

Respiratory illnesses
Skin infections
Eye infections
Gastric problems
Moving from uncontrolled waste management to a
properly controlled system will greatly reduce
occupational risks
TRP Chapter 2.3 57
 Scavenging
Scavengers:
are widespread in developing economies
may rely on on open dumps for their living
have raised incidence of respiratory illnesses and
skin and eye infections
need an education programme
need good personal hygiene

Scavenging:
should be phased out in the long term
in the short term can pose lower risks by keeping
high-risk wastes out of open dumps

TRP Chapter 2.3 58

 Risk assessment 1
Risk assessment procedures include making
estimates of:

The type of harm associated with a chemical or waste

substance
The degree of certainty of the potential harm
The causal connection between the exposure and the
potential harm
The probability of the exposure and its duration
The combined probabilities of harm and exposure that
determine the magnitude of the risk

The severity of any health or environmental

impact depends on the length of exposure and
the dose or amount of the harmful compound
TRP Chapter 2.3 59
 Risk assessment 2
Conducting risk assessments:
requires specialist skills
is time consuming
Enables comparison of relative risks from:
wastes from different industries
waste treatment and disposal methods
locations and sites

Helps set priorities for:

control measures
expenditure
appropriate technologies

TRP Chapter 2.3 60

Public awareness and
communication

TRP Chapter 2.4 61

Communicating with the public
Different terminology
Public communication
Public information
Stakeholder dialogue
Public consultation
Awareness raising
Public education programmes
Public involvement
Public participation
Same objective
TRP Chapter 2.4 62
Public concerns in general

Fear of damage to health

Effects on quality of life
Damage to natural environment
Lack of trust in responsible authorities

TRP Chapter 2.4 63

Public concerns about a specific
development

Health concerns
Impacts on local amenities
Impacts on property values
Transport impacts
Effects on quality of life
Nuisance from noise, dust etc

TRP Chapter 2.4 64

 Need for public
awareness raising in
developing economies

Press cutting from Sunday

Navhind Times, Goa
7 April 2002

TRP Chapter 2.4 65

 Case study: Successful
community action, Taiwan
Proposal in 2001 by EPA to build a 78 hectare disposal site for
industrial waste

Community was concerned that the construction would

damage local economic development
Petition submitted to EPA
saying that residents were
against the establishment of
such a site

EPA agreed not to proceed

without community acceptance

Site was relocated

TRP Chapter 2.4 66

 Case study: Public opposition
to mercury disposal in India
Community concern about a thermometer
factory and scrap yard in a dense urban area

Allegations that mercury-contaminated waste

stored in open, frequented by barefoot,
unprotected workers

Wastes also illegally dumped on

slopes of area officially
designated a sanctuary area
TRP Chapter 2.4 67
 Raising public awareness
Hazardous waste management is itself an
environmental protection measure
Need to raise public awareness and
understanding
Public information campaigns are costly -
they require:
funds
skilled staff
time

TRP Chapter 2.4 68

 Who is the public?
Also known as stakeholders: all of those who
have rights, responsibilities and interests

Everyone but in particular:

Neighbours of waste generating industry
Neighbours of treatment or disposal facility
National and local environmental
campaigning bodies
Local land users eg farmers,
horticulturalists, allotment owners,
gardeners, fishermen, forestry workers
Schools and play groups
Local community and religious groups

TRP Chapter 2.4 69

Specific groups to be informed
Politicians, local and national
Print and broadcast media
Waste generators

TRP Chapter 2.4 70

Why raise publics awareness?
To increase their trust
To provide accurate information
To convey their own responsibilities as
waste generators
To get support for national waste
strategies and especially a hazardous
waste management programme
To get local acceptance of necessary
facilities required by that strategy

TRP Chapter 2.4 71

Another reason to inform the
public

To comply with the Aarhus Convention

UN Convention on access to information,
public participation in decision-making
and access to justice in environmental
matters
Came into force October 2001
To date 19 countries are party to the
convention

TRP Chapter 2.4 72

 Who should undertake public
information and communication?

International bodies eg WHO, UNEP

National governments
Local/regional government
Waste industry

TRP Chapter 2.4 73

How to inform and communicate
with the public?

Use a variety of methods as public is mixed:

Be clear about objectives
Identify audience groups
Identify message(s)

TRP Chapter 2.4 74

 Need for diverse methods
Some methods suited to conveying information
and acquiring stakeholder views, some suited to
dialogue
passive information provision eg posters, leaflets,
newsletters, media/radio, web sites
active seeking of public views eg surveys,
workshops, telephone hot lines
participative forums eg citizens juries, local
advisory groups

Need information appropriate to audience eg non-

technical for layman
Use of Internet increasing
TRP Chapter 2.4 75
 When to involve the public?

When a hazardous waste strategy for the region or

city is being devised

When contracts for hazardous waste collection

and/or disposal are being negotiated

When planning applications are made for waste

treatment and disposal sites

When licensing or operating permits are applied for

AIM: to increase public understanding of the
issues and acceptance of necessary facilities
TRP Chapter 2.4 76
 NIMBY
Some of the acronyms used to describe public
attitudes:
NIMBY = Not In My Back Yard
LULU = Locally Unacceptable Land Use
NIMTOO = Not In My Term Of Office
BANANA = Build Absolutely Nothing Anywhere
Near Anyone
and one used by the public to describe industrys
approach:
CATNIP = Cheapest Available Technology Not
Involving Prosecution
TRP Chapter 2.4 77
 Average costs of different
approaches
Low cost:
Leaflets and posters
Surveys telephone, postal, targeted groups

Medium cost:
Panels and focus groups
Citizens juries

High cost:
Local advisory groups

TRP Chapter 2.4 78

Information for other stakeholders

Different stakeholders need different

information eg industry, policy makers
Sector-specific information targeted at:
major hazardous waste generators
small scale generators
Waste minimisation initiatives

TRP Chapter 2.4 79