Web-Notes (11)

Thermodynamic
Relationships
Objective
The objective of this module is to develop relationships between various thermodynamic
properties of a pure substance and their role in development of thermodynamic tables for pure
substances.

Motivation and Relevance

The thermodynamic relationships developed in this module provide understanding of how
thermodynamic tables have been developed. Thermodynamic tables provide data that are integral
part of problem solving involving energy transformation process in real life. Also, many
properties, such as coefficient of volume expansion, isentropic bulk modulus and Joule-
Thompson coefficient are introduced, and their role in global warming, isentropic flows and low
temperature refrigeration is explained.

Concepts, Definition and Analysis

Measurable and Immeasurable Properties

Thermodynamic state of a pure substance is determined by any set of two independent
thermodynamic properties such as T, v, P, s, h, u etc. Thermodynamic properties can be
classified into two categories:
a. Ones that can be measured experimentally. Pressure, specific volume, temperature, specific
heats Cp and Cv are examples of experimentally measured properties.
b. Ones that cannot be measured directly and consequently they must be determined in terms of
properties such as P, v, T, Cp, Cv etc. Entropy (s), enthalpy (h), internal energy (u) etc. are
examples of properties that cannot be measured experimentally.
Thermodynamic relations, to be discussed in this module, enable one to relate changes in
entropy, enthalpy and internal energy in terms of experimentally measured quantities.
Thermodynamic tables such as steam tables owe their existence to property relations.

2 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
Results from Calculus
As noted earlier, a thermodynamic relationship between a dependant property, say entropy (s),
and independent properties P and T that characterize a thermodynamic state of a pure substance
can be expressed as

= (, ) 11.1

Unfortunately, the functional form is not known and as a result, the focus is on determination of
entropy change (ds) in terms of temperature and pressure changes (dT and dP). A mathematical
analog of Eq. (11.1) is often expressed as

= (, ) 11.2

Assuming that z is a continuous and differentiable function of x and y, small changes in

dependant variable z can be expressed in the following differential form

= + 11.3

Expressing as M and as N, Eq. (11.3) can be expressed as

= + 11.4

Both M and N are generally also functions of x and y.

Since,
2
=


and
2
=

3 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
It follows that

11.5
=

Other Results
The cyclical rule from calculus can be stated as,

= 11.6

One can also show that

=1

= 11.7a

Equation (11.7a) is referred to here as the upside down is downside up rule.

= 11.7b

This result is known as the chain rule.

Thermodynamic Relations
There are four thermodynamic relations of the type given in Eq. (11.3) that would form the basis
for deriving Maxwells relations later on. Two of these relationships have already been discussed
in web-notes 5 (Eqs. (5.23) and (5.24)). They were referred to as the first and second T-ds
relations
= +
=
Rewriting above equations in forms identical to Eq. (11.3) one gets

4 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
 = 11.8

= + 11.9

Two other relationships can be derived using definitions of Gibbs function (g) and Helmholtzs
function (a), both being thermodynamic properties of a given state.


Differentiation of above equations and use of Eqs. (11.8) and (11.9) yields the remaining
thermodynamic relations. For example, differentiation of the Gibbs function gives
=
Using Eq. (11.9) one gets

11.10
=

Following a similar procedure, using the definition of a, the fourth thermodynamic relation is
obtained

= 11.11

Equation (11.10) plays an important role in phase equilibrium problems. Consider the liquid to
vapor phase transformation (fg) shown in Fig. 11.1.

f g

Figure 11.1 Phase Transformation

5 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
In phase transition both temperature (T) and pressure (P) remain constant (dP = dT = 0). Using
this result in Eq. (11.10) one gets
= 0
Integration of the above equation yields the result
= or,

= 11.12

The property g is also referred to as chemical potential (). This leads to an important result in
phase equilibrium, which states that chemical potential is the same in all phases involved in
phase equilibrium.

Another result for liquid to vapor phase transition can be obtained by integrating Eq. (11.9) from
the saturated liquid state (f) to the saturated vapor state (g). Since pressure is constant during the
phase transition (dP = 0), Eq. (11.9) reduces to,
= or,

= =

= or,

= 11.13

Equation (11.13) is an important relationship since it enables one to determine sfg from hfg and T.
The quantity hfg is also known as the latent heat of vaporization. As we will discuss later h fg can
be determined from experimentally measured saturation data for the pure substance.

Maxwells Relation
Using thermodynamic relations Eqs. (11.8) - (11.11) and applying Eq. (11.5) to each of these
relations results in four equations that are known as Maxwells relation. This is demonstrated by
using Eq. (11.8). Comparing it to Eq. (11.4) leads to the following equivalence.
=
6 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi
Old Dominion University
 = +
u z, T M, s x, P -N, v y
Applying the above equivalence to Eq. (11.5), one gets the first Maxwells relation.

= 11.14

In a similar manner, the other three thermodynamic relations yield additional three Maxwells
relations

11.15
=

11.16
=

= 11.17

Of the four Maxwells relations, the last two Eqs. (11.16) and (11.17) are more valuable since

they relate entropy derivatives and to derivatives of pressure and volume and

. Both these derivatives are in terms of properties P, v and T that are experimentally

measurable.

Other Relationships
Equations (11.8) and (11.9) can be used to derive additional property relations that are useful in
development of thermodynamic tables. Using the representations u = u (T, v) and s = s (T, v),
one gets

= + = + 11.18

7 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University

Note that the definition of = has been used in the above equation.

= + 11.19

Substituting Eqs. (11.18) and (11.19) in Eq. (11.8) and collecting all dT terms on one side and all
dv terms on the other side one gets

=

Since in the u = u (T, v) and s = s (T, v) formulations, T and v are independent properties, they
can be chosen independently and can be changed independently of one another. For example,
one can locally keep v constant (dv = 0) and only vary temperature (dT 0), or conversely keep
T constant (dT = 0) and vary v (dv 0). This leads to following two relations,

=0

and,

= 0

or,

= 11.20

= +

From the third Maxwells relation,

=


One can obtain an expression for in terms of experimentally measurable quantities.

8 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University

= 11.21

Similarly, using the formulation h = h (T, P) and s = s (T, P), one can express dh and ds as

= + = + 11.22

Note that we have used the definition of = in arriving at Eq. (11.22).

11.23
= +

Substituting Eq. (11.22) and (11.23) in Eq. (11.9) and collecting and separating dT and dP terms,
one gets

= 11.24

Since T and P are independent properties in the h = h (T, P) and s = s (T, P) formulations, one
can argue that it should be possible locally to either keep dT = 0 and dP 0 (T remains constant
and P varies) or keep dP = 0 and dT 0 (P remains constant and T varies). Application of these
two scenarios in Eq. (11.24) leads to,

= 0

or,

= 11.25

and,

9 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University

=0

Using the fourth Maxwells relation,

=


The derivative can be expressed as,

11.26
=

From the relations derived thus far, one can determine changes in internal energy (u 2 u1),
enthalpy (h2 h1) and entropy (s2 s1) in terms of measurable quantities P, v, T, cP, cv and their
derivatives.

= +

Using Eq. (11.21), the above equation can be expressed as,

= +

or,

11.27
= = +

= + = +

Note that Eq. (11.26) has been used in the above equation.

= + 11.28

10 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
For entropy changes we can use both formulations namely s = s (T, v) and s = s (T, P).

= +

= +

Using Maxwells relations, Eqs. (11.16) and (11.17), and Eqs. (11.20) and (11.25), above
equations can be written as

=


=

Integration of the above two equations yields two expressions for (s 2 s1).

11.29
= +

= + 11.30

Equations (11.27)-(11.28) indicate that changes in internal energy, enthalpy and entropy can be
calculated if P, v, T, cP and cv data are available. In order to evaluate pressure and volume
integrals, one must know the P, v, T relation usually referred to as an equation of state. One can
functionally express the equation of state in two forms namely the pressure explicit or volume
explicit.
= , Pressure explicit relation
= , Volume explicit relation
For Eqs. (11.27) and (11.30), the volume explicit equation of state is more appropriate while for
Eqs. (11.28) and (11.29), the pressure explicit equation should be used.

Special Case of Ideal Gases

For ideal gases the P, v and T relationship is very simplified and can be expressed as,

11 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
 =
One can show that for ideal gases,

=0

=0

=

and,

=

Substituting these results in Eqs. (11.27)-(11.30), one gets the following simplified expressions,
2
2 1 = 0
1
2
2 1 = 0
1
2
2
2 1 = 0 ln
1 1
2
2
2 1 = 0 + ln
1 1
cp0 and cv0 refer to specific heats of ideal gases and are function of temperature only. Above
equations can be simplified further if one assumes constant specific heats.

11.31
=

11.32
=

= 11.33

= + 11.34

12 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
Clapeyron Equation
This is a very useful equation that describes relationship between pressure and temperature
during the phase change of a pure substance (liquid to vapor or solid to vapor etc.). It also plays a
pivotal role, as we shall see later, in the development of thermodynamic tables. We use here the

third Maxwells relation, Eq. (11.16) because it contains the derivative . Since Maxwells

relations are pointwise, meaning they apply to any given state of a pure substance, we apply it to
point 1, located on pressure line P and inside the saturation region, shown in Fig. 11.2. The

pressure line P + dP is also shown since it would be useful in evaluating the derivative .

T
P + dP

P
2

f 1 3 g

v v
v + dv

Figure 11.2 Derivation of Clapeyron equation

In order to evaluate the derivative a point 2, in a direction that keeps v constant, is selected.

Point 3 is chosen on the constant T line to evaluate .

2 1
= =
2 1
However, 2 = + 2
1 = + 1
2 = + 2
1 = + 1

13 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University

Substituting above equations in the expression for , one gets

= = 11.35

Substituting Eq. (11.16) in Eq. (11.34), following equation is obtained

= 11.36

Since sfg and vfg are functions of only temperature T, the right hand side is a function of

temperature alone. For pure substance in general P = P (T, v). Consequently will also be a

function of T and v. However, in the two phase (saturation) region to which Eq. (11.36) applies,
its left hand side cannot be a function of v since the right hand side is a function of T. This
implies that P in the saturation region can be a function of only T. One can infer this fact from
Fig. 11.2 also.
2 1 +
= = =
2 1
+
This result remains the same even for point 3 with a different value of v. This of course is an
expected result since it is known that in the saturated region P is a function of T.

=

Substituting the result, Tsfg = hfg from Eq. (11.13), the above equation becomes,

= 11.37

Equation (11.37) is known as the Clapeyron equation. It is a very useful thermodynamic relation
since T, P and vfg are measurable quantities, and Eq. (11.37) can be used to determine h fg.

14 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
Although Eq. (11.37) has been derived for the liquid to vapor phase transition, it can also be
applied in the same form to solid to vapor and solid to liquid phase transitions.

Equation (11.37) can be integrated and closed form solutions can be obtained for liquid to vapor
transitions at low pressures.

=

At low pressures, vf << vg, and hence vf can be neglected. Assuming ideal gas behavior for
saturated vapor state g at low pressures, one can use the ideal gas equation
=
where Rv is the gas constant for water vapor. Substituting for v g in the Clapeyron equation, one
gets

=
2
Separating the variables P and T for integration, following equation is obtained

=
2
or,
1
ln =

or,

11.38
=

The above equation indicates that plotting saturation pressure-temperature data on a ln P versus
1/T diagram, the local slope gives a value of (hfg/Rv). this indicates that hfg can be determined
from the saturation pressure-temperature data, as shown in Fig. 11.3.

15 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
 ln P

Slope (-hfg /Rv)

1/T

Figure 11.3 Determination of hfg from saturation pressure-temperature data

Equation (11.38) can be integrated if one assumes h fg to be a constant. This assumption is

reasonable over a small range of temperature.
2 2

ln = 1
1 1

11.39
=

Equation (11.38) can be used to predict saturation pressure P 2 at temperature T2, if saturation
pressure P1 is known at temperature T1.

It was discussed earlier properties h, u and s are not directly measurable and as a result
derivatives of these properties need to be expressed in terms of derivatives of properties P, T and
v and properties cP and cv. We present here a step-by-step procedure to accomplish this objective.

Definitions of Coefficient of Volume Expansion and Isothermal and Isentropic

Compressibility
It should be noted that that the derivatives of a property are also properties of a given state.
Consider the property v which can be expressed as a function of T and P.

16 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
 = ,
The coefficient of volume expansion or volume expansivity expresses changes in volume as
temperature changes.

= 11.40

This thermodynamic property of water is important in estimating rise of ocean levels due to
increase in ocean temperature as a result of global warming.

The isothermal compressibility expresses changes in volume due to changes in pressure.

= 11.41

A negative sign is used because is negative for all known substances. In other words,

raising pressure in a system while keeping temperature constant always leads to decrease in
volume and vice-versa.

Adiabatic or Isentropic Compressibility

For isentropic compressibility we use a somewhat different relationship for property v. It is
expressed as
= ,
The isentropic compressibility in a given state is defined as,

= 11.42

Using instead of v ( = 1/v), one can show that

= 11.43

17 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University

The derivative is related to speed of sound c by the following relationship

= 11.44

A proof of the above relationship (Eq. (11.44)) is given in the web-notes (10). Comparing Eqs.
(11.43) and (11.44), one notes that s is related to the speed of sound in the medium.

= 11.45

Relationship between cp and cv

In an earlier section, a relationship between cp and cv was derived for ideal gases. It can be stated
as
=
This equation is very useful since it allows calculation of specific heat cP if cv has been measured
and vice-versa. For non-ideal pure substances, the relationship is more complex but it can be
derived using property relations discussed so far. In order to derive the general relationship for
cP - cv we use two relations for entropy changes that were derived earlier (Eqs. (11.29) and
(11.30))

11.46
=

11.46
= 11.47

11.47
Subtracting Eq. (11.47) from Eq. (11.46), one gets

=
11.48
=
+

18 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi 11.47

Old Dominion University
However one can express T = T (P, v) as,

= + 11.49

11.47
Substituting Eq. (11.49) in Eq. (11.48) and collecting dP and dv terms separately, one gets

=

11.50

++ +

11.47

Since P and v have been chosen as independent properties, one can either choose dP = 0 and dv
0 (P does no vary but v varies) or dP 0 and dv = 0 (P varies but v does not vary). This leads to
the following two equations,

= 11.51

11.47
+ = 11.52

11.47
One can use either one of the equations to determine (cP - cv). Using Eq. (11.51), one can express

= = 11.53

Note that we have used Eq. (11.7a) in the above relation. 11.47
Using the cyclical rule (Eq. (11.6)) for P, v and T, one gets

= 1

19 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University

Solving for one gets,

11.54
= =

11.47
Substituting Eq. (11.54) in Eq. (11.53) we get,

11.55
=

11.47
2
Note that since T > 0, > 0 and is always less than zero,

> 0 or, > .

Using the relationships mentioned in Eqs. (11.40) and (11.41) cP cv can be expressed in
terms of properties P and T.

= 11.56

11.47
One can easily show that for ideal gases, Pv = RT, Eq. (11.55) or Eq. (11.56) reduces to the
result, = .

Definition of Joule-Thompson Coefficient ()

Joule-Thompson coefficient () is a thermodynamic property which is defined as follows:

11.57

This is an important property for throttling process in low temperature refrigeration. The sign of
11.47
(positive or negative) would determine if temperature during the throttling process will drop or
rise. This is shown in Fig. 11.4 and 11.5.

20 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
 T > 0 (temperature
rise)
Heating

Figure 11.4 Throttle valve (dP < 0), < 0

T < 0 (temperature
drop)
Refrigeration

Figure 11.5 Throttle valve (dP < 0), > 0

Since the derivative contains h in the subscript, it would be preferrable to express it in

terms of derivatives of P, v and T that do not contain h, u and s. this type of derivative can be
evaluated by using the cyclical rule involving h, T and P.

= 1

or,

= = 11.58

11.47

Since = and = (Eq. (11.26)), can be expressed as,

= 11.59

One can also show that for an ideal gas (Pv = RT), = 0. From Eq. (11.58), since
11.47 > 0,

must be zero. One can conclude that h must be a function of T only.

21 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
Evaluation of in Terms of Measurable Quantities

In order to illustrate the step-by-step procedure introduced earlier, we have chosen as an

example. Using the step 1, we eliminate h from the above derivative by invoking the
thermodynamic relation given in Eq. (11.9),
= +

From the above equation, can be obtained.

= +


Invoking step 2, one of the Maxwell's relation (here Eq. (11.16)) enables elimination of .

or,

= + 11.60

11.47
The mission is accomplished since the right hand side of Eq. (11.60) contains derivatives
involving only P, v and T. In order to express above result in terms of P and T, one can apply

the cyclical rule to express in terms of P and T.

= 1

or,
1
=
=

= = 11.61

11.47
Substituting Eq. (11.61) in Eq. (11.60), following result is obtained

22 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University 11.62

= =

For the special case of an ideal gas (Pv = RT), one can show that P = 1/T. As a result for an
ideal gas, Eq. (11.62) becomes

=0

This indicates that h is a function of T only.

Equations of State
As pointed out earlier, calculation of properties such as u, h and s require an equation of state
that describes P-v-T data of the pure substance in consideration. Dozens of equations of state
have been proposed, ranging from simple ones such as the ideal gas equation to more complex
ones involving numerous empirical constants. We summarize here four equations of state.

1. Ideal gas equation of state

This equation has been introduced earlier and is very useful for situations where ideal gas
behavior is prevalent (z1).
=

2. Van der Waal equation of state

11.63
=

27 2 2
where, = 64 and = 8 11.47

The symbols Pc and Tc represent critical pressure and temperature of pure substances.

The Van der Waal equation is an improvement over ideal gas equation of state since it can
account, although in a limited manner, for non-ideal gas behavior (z 1). It does so by
incorporating the effect of volume occupied by molecules through constant b, and effect of

23 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
intermolecular forces through constant a. In ideal gas model, the molecules are assumed to be
points with zero volume (b = 0) and assumed to be not affected by intermolecular forces due to
neighboring molecules (a = 0). It should be noted that at higher density or pressure, predictions
from Van der Waal equation deviate significantly from observed (experimental) values.

3. Redlich-Kwong (R-K) equation

The R-K equation of state is an improvement over the Van der Waal equation of state. It is still
not accurate enough to be used for generating thermodynamic tables. It can be expressed in the
form of molar specific volume as follows.

11.64
=

11.47
Equations (11.63) and (11.64) are pressure explicit equations of state of the form P = P (T, v).

4. Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR) equation of state

This is an empirical equation of state with 8 empirical constants.

= + + +
11.65

+ +

11.47
A0, B0, C0, a, b, , c and are empirical constants that depend on the nature of the pure
substance.

The Lee-Kesler equation of state is also a pressure explicit equation of state that contains 12
empirical constants, and is considerably more complex than the BWR equation of state.

5. Non-ideal equation of state and principle of corresponding states

For many applications, a non-ideal gas equation of the form given below has been employed.

24 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
 11.66
= =

11.47
where z is the compressibility factor. This equation reduces to the ideal gas equation when z
approaches unity (z1).

Since for pure substances, v = v (T, P), z can be expressed as

, 11.67
= = , ,

11.47
For a given pure substance R is constant and hence z becomes

11.68
= ,

11.47
Equation (11.68) states that z is a thermodynamic property of a given state because it depends
only on state variables T and P. Although Eq. (11.67) or (11.68) is applicable for a given pure
substance if the functional relationship between z and P and T is known, it poses a problem
because there are thousands of pure substances in the real world for which a functional
relationship would be needed for each substance. It has been observed that if pressure and
temperature are expressed as follows,

= =

the Eq. (11.67) can be expressed, although approximately, as

11.69
= ,
Equation (11.69) is referred to as the generalized z equation. It states that regardless of the nature
11.47 on
of the pure substance the z depends on only two variables P r and Tr instead of z dependence
three variables namely P, T and R. Equation (11.69) is also known in the literature as the
principle of corresponding states.

25 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
Thermodynamic Tables from P-v-T-cP data
Using the thermodynamic relationships developed thus far, we will illustrate how enthalpy,
internal energy and entropy, properties that defy direct measurement, can be calculated and
tabulated in thermodynamic tables. We shall apply it to the liquid to vapor transformation and
will assume that following data for the pure substance under consideration has been
experimentally obtained.
1. Saturation pressure data, Psat = Psat (T).
2. P-v-T data in the superheated region.
3. Saturated liquid specific volume data, vf = vf (T).
4. Critical pressure and temperature
5. Low pressure (ideal gas) specific heat data for the vapor phase, c P0 = cP0 (T).

From the P-v-T data an equation of state, either in the pressure explicit P = P (v, T) or the
volume explicit v = v (T, P) form, can be obtained. Also, it is noted that since property relations
yield results for enthalpy, energy and entropy changes, a datum value of h, u and s at a selected
state has to be specified. Generally the datum value for h and s for water at saturation liquid
point (f) at T = 0.1C is arbitrarily taken as zero. This is shown in Fig. 11.6.
T
isobar

f g 9 8 7

f g 6 5 4

T = 0.1C
f g 1 2 3

Figure 11.6 Calculation of properties h, u and s

The value of hf and sf at T = 0.1C (triple point of water) is taken as zero (sf = 0; hf = 0). We
assume that a volume explicit equation of a state, v = v (P, T) is available, created from the P-v-T
data. The calculation of numerical values of h, u and s starts with point f for T = 0.1C, the triple
point of water. We shall illustrate the procedure using property enthalpy. Using the Clapeyron
equation one can determine hfg from the following equation.
26 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi
Old Dominion University

=
( )
or,

= ( ) 11.70


Properties vf and vg are measured quantities, and is obtained by differentiation of the

11.47
saturation pressure temperature data. The enthalpy at point g is known from relation,

= + 11.71

11.47
Note that hf has been assigned at datum value of zero at this temperature. Enthalpy at state 2 is
determined from Eq.(11.26) , derived earlier.
2 2

2 = + [( )]

Since T2 = Tg , the above equation gives the value of h2

= + [( )] 11.72

11.47
The integral in Eq. (11.72) can be numerically evaluated by employing the equation of state
v = v (T, P).

The h values at all intermediate point can be determined by repeated use of Eq. (11.26), until
point 3 on the low pressure line is reached. The enthalpy value at 3 is given by
3

3 = 2 + [( )]
2
Along the pressure line P3 , the ideal gas behavior prevails. As a result, enthalpy values at points
4 and 7(higher temperature value) can be obtained as follows.

27 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University
 11.73
=

= 11.74
11.47

11.47
Now the process is reversed in direction, and enthalpy h5, h6, g and f and h8 , h9 ,g and f can be
obtained in a manner described earlier.

The internal energy values at any point can be obtained from the relation,

= 11.75

The entropy values can be determined in the following way, starting at the f point at11.47
triple point
temperature for water (sf = 0). Using Eq. (11.13) , sg can be obtained as follows.

= + = + 11.76

11.47
To determine entropy s1, we use Eq. (11.29) derived earlier, and apply it between state point g
and 1.

= + + 11.77

The first integral is zero, since T 1 = Tg. 11.47

The entropy value at point 1 can be determined by using equation of state v = v (T, P). The rest
of the procedure for generating entropy at other points is similar to the one used for enthalpy.
The entropy s4 can be determined from entropy s3 using ideal gas behavior simplification.

28 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University

=
11.78

Generalized Compressibility Chart 11.47

For those pure substances for which thermodynamic tables are not readily available, the
generalized compressibility chart z = z (Pr, Tr) offers an alternative for obtaining data. This is
illustrated through Fig. 11.7

Z Tr = s
Z = 1.0

Tr const

1.0 Pr

Figure 11.7 Generalized compressibility chart

The application of the generalized compressibility chart is discussed in some details in the
module thermodynamic Tables.

29 Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi

Old Dominion University