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Jeffrey A. Holmes, MD
Attending Physician, Maine Medical Center, Portland, ME;
Peer Reviewers
Abstract David Callaway, MD, MPA
Associate Professor, Emergency Medicine, Carolinas Medical
Hypertonic saline is defined as any crystalloid solution containing Center, Charlotte, NC
more than 0.9% saline. The administration of hypertonic saline has Catherine A. Gogela Carlson, MD
Critical Care Medicine Fellow, Departments of Critical Care
been studied alone as well as in combination with colloid solutions Medicine and Emergency Medicine, University of Pittsburgh
(most commonly dextran). Its many theoretical advantages (includ- Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA
review examines the evidence on the use of hypertonic saline for the
treatment of patients with traumatic brain injury and secondary in-
tracranial hypertension, trauma patients in hemorrhagic shock, and
patients with severe hyponatremia.
Editor-in-Chief Center for Resuscitation Science, Andy Jagoda, MD, FACEP Julie Mayglothling, MD Emanuel P. Rivers, MD, MPH, IOM
Robert T. Arntfield, MD, FACEP, Philadelphia, PA Professor and Chair, Department Assistant Professor, Department Vice Chairman and Director
FRCPC, FCCP of Emergency Medicine, Mount of Emergency Medicine, of Research, Department of
Assistant Professor, Division Lillian L. Emlet, MD, MS, FACEP Sinai School of Medicine; Medical Department of Surgery, Division Emergency Medicine, Senior
of Critical Care, Division of Assistant Professor, Department of Director, Mount Sinai Hospital, New of Trauma/Critical Care, Virginia Staff Attending, Departments of
Emergency Medicine, Western Critical Care Medicine, Department York, NY Commonwealth University, Emergency Medicine and Surgery
University, London, Ontario, of Emergency Medicine, University Richmond, VA (Surgical Critical Care), Henry
Canada of Pittsburgh Medical Center; William A. Knight, IV, MD Ford Hospital, Clinical Professor,
Program Director, EM-CCM Assistant Professor of Emergency Christopher P. Nickson, MBChB, Department of Emergency
Fellowship of the Multidisciplinary Medicine, Assistant Professor MClinEpid, FACEM Medicine and Surgery, Wayne State
Associate Editor Critical Care Training Program, of Neurosurgery, Emergency Senior Registrar, Intensive Care University School of Medicine,
Scott Weingart, MD, FACEP Pittsburgh, PA Medicine Mid-Level Program Unit, Royal Darwin Hospital, Detroit, MI
Associate Professor, Department of Medical Director, University of Darwin, Australia
Emergency Medicine, Mount Sinai Michael A. Gibbs, MD, FACEP Cincinnati College of Medicine, Isaac Tawil, MD, FCCM
School of Medicine; Director of Professor and Chair, Department Cincinnati, OH Jon Rittenberger, MD, MS, FACEP Assistant Professor, Department
Emergency Critical Care, Elmhurst of Emergency Medicine, Carolinas Assistant Professor, Department of Anesthesia and Critical Care /
Hospital Center, New York, NY Medical Center, University of North Haney Mallemat, MD of Emergency Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine,
Carolina School of Medicine, Assistant Professor, Department University of Pittsburgh School Director, Neurosciences ICU,
Chapel Hill, NC of Emergency Medicine, University of Medicine; Attending Physician, University of New Mexico Health
Editorial Board of Maryland School of Medicine, Emergency Medicine and Post Science Center, Albuquerque, NM
Benjamin S. Abella, MD, MPhil, Robert Green, MD, DABEM, Baltimore, MD Cardiac Arrest Services, UPMC
FACEP FRCPC Presbyterian Hospital, Pittsburgh,
Assistant Professor, Department Evie Marcolini, MD, FAAEM PA
Research Editor
Professor, Department of
of Emergency Medicine and Assistant Professor, Department of Amy Sanghvi, MD
Anaesthesia, Division of Critical
Department of Medicine / Emergency Medicine and Critical Department of Emergency
Care Medicine, Department of
Section of Pulmonary Allergy Care, Yale School of Medicine, Medicine, Mount Sinai School of
Emergency Medicine, Dalhousie
and Critical Care, University of New Haven, CT Medicine, New York, NY
University, Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Pennsylvania School of Medicine; Canada
Clinical Research Director,
Case Presentations tions (normal saline or lactated Ringers solution),
a smaller volume of HTS is required to improve
Your shift is just beginning when you are notified that hemodynamic stability in hypotensive patients.11
EMS is bringing in a 20-year-old male patient who was This has many practical advantages for the military
struck by a motor vehicle. As your team assembles, you and for other austere environments that preclude
notify the CT scanner and ask him to keep it open and carrying a large volume of fluid for the purpose of
available. When the patient arrives, you find that he resuscitation.12
has decorticate posturing, a large scalp hematoma, and HTS also has an important role in the treatment
multiple facial fractures. After you intubate him via of severe hyponatremia. While hyponatremia in the
RSI and complete your initial assessment, he is quickly ED is typically chronic and requires no immediate
wheeled over to CT. His head CT shows a large epidural intervention, acute severe hyponatremia can cause
hematoma with 10 mm of midline shift. His abdominal significant morbidity and mortality. Appropriate rec-
CT reveals a splenic laceration with active extravasation. ognition and treatment with HTS can help prevent
You begin your interventions to manage the patients el- devastating sequelae from both the hyponatremia
evated intracranial pressure and arrange transport to the itself and its overaggressive treatment.
nearest Level 1 trauma center. As you hear the helicopter This issue of EMCC examines the evidence sup-
landing, you notice that the patients pupils have become porting the use of HTS for the treatment of patients
asymmetric. You ask yourself, Which would be better to with TBI with elevated ICP, trauma patients in hemor-
control the patients intracranial hypertension: mannitol rhagic shock, and patients with severe hyponatremia.
or hypertonic saline?
A short time later, EMS wheels a first-time marathon Critical Appraisal Of The Literature
runner into the critical care bay. She was witnessed to
have collapsed at mile 22 with seizure-like activity of 1 A literature search was performed using Ovid MED-
minute duration. She is currently postictal with a normal LINE, PubMed, and EMBASE from 1990 to the
fingerstick blood glucose. Her vital signs are as follows: present. The area of focus was the use of HTS in the
heart rate of 118 beats per minute, respiratory rate of 24 treatment of TBI, hypovolemic shock, and severe hy-
breaths per minute, blood pressure of 138/90 mm Hg, ponatremia. Search terms included hypertonic saline,
rectal temperature of 38.3C, and oxygen saturation of traumatic brain injury, intracranial hypertension, shock,
98% on a nonrebreather mask. You wonder if she might hypovolemic shock, hemorrhagic shock, and hyponatre-
have suffered a heat stroke. Her temperature is elevated mia. Over 300 articles were retrieved and provided
but not enough to cause a seizure. Besides her contin- background for further literature review. The Co-
ued altered mental status, she has an otherwise normal chrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Eastern As-
exam. You send her off to the CT scanner to look for acute sociation for the Surgery of Trauma (EAST) Guide-
intracranial pathology. As her scan is completed and the lines, Western Trauma Association (WEST) Guide-
results are confirmed by the radiologist as unremarkable, lines, American College of Emergency Physicians
the lab calls back with a critical value: her serum sodium Clinical Policies, National Neurotrauma Society,
is 109 mEq/L. The nurse calls out to you from the scan- National Brain Trauma Foundation, Neurosurgical
ner, Doc, shes seizing again! Society of America, Annals of Emergency Medicines
Evidence-Based Emergency Medicine reviews, and
Introduction National Guideline Clearinghouse (www.guideline.
gov) were also searched. All HTS solutions were
Hypertonic saline (HTS), which is defined as any incorporated, with solutions ranging from 1.6% to
crystalloid solution containing more than 0.9% 30%, including those mixed with colloids.
saline, has a potentially important role in the treat- The literature on the use of HTS for resuscita-
ment of several life-threatening conditions seen tion of trauma patients is difficult to interpret due to
in the emergency department (ED). With respect several confounding variables. For instance, studies
to the trauma patient, HTS has unique properties
that may make it an ideal resuscitative fluid for the
most common causes of traumatic death: central
nervous system injury, exsanguination, and organ Table 1. The Causes Of Death Following
failure.1 (See Table 1.) It has been shown to reduce Trauma1
intracranial pressure (ICP) in patients with trau- Acute Early Late
matic brain injury (TBI) and may have an immu- (< 2 d) (3-7 d) (> 7 d)
nomodulatory effect that further reduces neuronal Central nervous system 40% 64% 39%
damage and multiple-organ failure.2-7 HTS may
Blood loss 55% 9% 0%
also improve hemodynamics and microcirculation,
resulting in improved resuscitation in hemorrhagic Multiple organ dysfunction 1% 18% 61%
shock.8-10 Compared to traditional crystalloid solu- Other 4% 8% 0%
water
water
Adaptation. Over the ensuing few days, brain cells pump out osmoles, first potas-
sium and sodium salts and then organic osmoles, establishing a new osmotic
equilibrium across the plasma membrane and reducing the edema as water
Osmoles moves out of the cells.
water
water
Overly aggressive therapy with hypertonic saline after adaptation has occurred
water raises the serum sodium level to the point that the extracellular fluid is more con-
centrated than the intracellular fluid, drawing more water out of the brain cells and
water
causing the syndrome of osmotic demyelination.
water
H 20 2000 mL H 20
exposed to excess sodium
b. Cellular injury after adaptation to Send Us Your
acute hyponatremia when the neurons
are hyperosmolar and are subsequently
exposed to excess sodium
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EMCC Has
demonstrate medical decision-making based on the strongest clinical
evidence; (2) cost-effectively diagnose and treat the most critical ED
presentations; and (3) describe the most common medicolegal pitfalls
for each topic covered.