Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922

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Applied Acoustics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apacoust

Vehicle interior noise and vibration level assessment through the data
clustering and hybrid classication model
Zulkii Mohd Nopiah a, Ahmad Kadri Junoh b,, Ahmad Kamal Arifn a
a
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 23600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Industrial Mathematics Research Group (IMRG), Institute of Engineering Mathematics, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Vehicle vibration and acoustical comfort are crucial criteria which may attract customers when purchas-
Received 13 September 2013 ing a vehicle. This phenomenon will inuence the performance of the drivers in a way that it will distract
Received in revised form 18 April 2014 their vision which can be stressful to both the driver and passengers. Two identied main sources that
Accepted 11 June 2014
contribute to the generation of vibration are the transmission of the engine and also the tire and road
contact while the car is being driven. As we take into account the factor of tire-road contact, we investi-
gate the correlation that exists between the sound quality from the noise and the changes of the exposed
Keywords:
vibration at particular parts in the cabin. Here the trends signicance levels will be obtained by perform-
Vibration
Sound quality
ing data analysis towards the factor of sound and vibration. Through the results, we have found that the
Vibration dose value exposed vibration inuences the generation of noise that7 is linked with the level of acoustical comfort in
Clustering the cabin. At the end of the study, a model of evaluation method on the experienced sound and exposed
Classication vibration was successfully proposed using the clustering and classication method.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Generally, experienced noise which is generated due to the car
cabin system can potentially affect the drivers emotion and fur-
ther reduces his or her driving concentration [1]. During the driv-
ing the exposure of the vibration may cause relative movement
between the eye retina and the object seen which results in blurred
views. This condition will inuence the visual performance and
will also affect the driving comfort by affecting the driving concen-
tration of driving and further becomes the reason behind road acci-
dents [2]. In order to identify the existing correlation between the
exposed vibrations and the noise in the study, we have considered
the trends for both of the parameters namely the sound quality
metrics and vibration toward the changes of the engine speed.
The strength of correlations that exists among the factors involved
has been considered before a model is provided to assess the level
of sound vibration where it involves both the clustering and classi-
cation method. At the clustering stage, hierarchical clustering was
employed to cluster the generated data according to the categories
of annoyance levels. Since the classication process involves the
process of training, it is necessary to have more data so that the
accuracy of the model can be higher than expected. Hence, Monte
Carlo simulation approach is employed to generate more data
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 0199811552.
based on the existing data trends [3]. Later, a hybrid genetic algo-
rithm neural network (GANN) was used to classify the clustered
data, meanwhile for validating the result, a linear discriminant
analysis (LDA) was employed as an optional algorithm to verify
the classied results.
In general, in the car manufacturing company research has been
actively conducted to improve the level of comfort in the cabin
interior. The sources that are believed to have contributed to the
generation of noise in the interior part of the cabin is normally
caused by whole body exposure to vibration by the driver or pas-
senger while being seated on a vibrating seat or oor, or while
the they are maneuvering the vibrating steering wheel or handling
the handle. Generally, in the vehicles interior, the exposed noise
and vibration directly correspond with the increase or decrease
of the engine speed in direct proportion to the transmission of
the engines rpm. The vibration generated by the engine surface
will produce sounds that are claimed as a noise in the interior of
the cabin. Mainly the identied sources are contributed by the
mechanical vibration and also vibration caused by the process of
combustion.
The noise level which is contributed by internal combustion
engines is inuenced by the engines performance and the engine
speeds. Combustion engine may be classied into two categories
which are inner sources and external sources. Here, the noises
inner sources involve the combustion, pistons strokes, motor

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2014.06.006
0003-682X/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
10 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922
Fig. 1. Principal basicentic axes.
control, driving wheel, dash box and etc. Meanwhile the external
sources are originated from the cooling fan, suction system, motor
surface, exhaust and etc. By referring to previous studies, we have
found that the main sources of vibration in the interior part of the
car cabins system can be categorized into two main elements that
are engine transmission due to acceleration or deceleration, while
the car is being driven and also the vibration contributed by the
tire-road contact [3,4].
In general, at particular engine speeds (rpm) the interaction of
the rolling tires with the road surface contributes to the exposure
of vibration [5]. Besides originated by the rolling tires, the exposed
vibration is also generated due to the structure-borne vibrating
which is randomly spreading to particular locations such as dash
box, tires rim, steering, and door. The generation of vibration also
depends on the road type in the aspect of the roughness of the sur-
face. The rougher the surface, the more vibration is generated in
the cabins interior. Another source of noise and vibration which
is normally confused with the vibration due to rolling tires is the
resonant vibration that is caused by the exhaust system. However
we do not take into account the factor of exhaust system since we
assume that in terms of its contribution to the acoustics, the
exhaust system only gives minor effect to the noise since modern
cars are mostly installed with glass windows or mirrors that can
prevent outside noise.
2. Methodology
2.1. Evaluation of vibration
In this study, we refer to r.m.s acceleration a(t) to evaluate the
magnitude of vibration. The referred standard is BS6841 (British
Standards Institution 1997) because we have found that the
Fig. 2. The process of searching for the closest pair.
standard is quite simple and less ambiguous where it is very famil-
iar with the evaluation towards the whole body vibration [6]. Since
the movement of a car normally involves the shocks and impulsive
velocity changes, the most ideal evaluation method to measure the
vibration level is the vibration dose value (VDV) [7]. This assess-
ment method based on the acceleration employs the integration
of time with the fourth power. Here, the total amount of exposed
vibration is represented by the VDV value where the exposure of
vibration is experienced by a driver or passenger in a particular
duration of time. Therefore we consider VDV (ms1.75) as a mea-
surement of the total amount of vibration that is exposed to
human by considering the whole factors of frequency, magnitude
as well as duration. The equation to represent the VDV value can
be seen in Eq. (1). The measurement of vibration must follow the
procedures that refer to the central coordinated system where
the system is interfacing the human body. The basicentric system
can be illustrated as shown in Fig. 1.
Z 1=4
T
v dv at4 dt 1
0
where v dv vibration dose value (ms1:75 ), a(t) weighted acceler-
ation in frequency, T total time of occurred vibration in second.
2.2. Acoustics level assessment
Generally it is very important for automotive engineers to gain
knowledge about the devices, methods and also the procedures
which can be employed for measuring or evaluating the level of
experienced noise to improve the current state of acoustics level
in the interior part of the cabin. For optimizing the level of acous-
tics, researcher must have the ability to assess the acoustics level
Fig. 3. Multi layers that exist in the neural network.
 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922 11

Fig. 4. Example of locations at which the exposed vibration is to be measured.

of large number based on the trends that exist in current data

Table 1
Engine speeds states and the characteristics of the road. [12]. Since the neural network model must be trained with enough
number of data in order to have higher accuracy of results, the num-
Pavement (rpm) Highway (rpm) Stationary (rpm)
ber of data have to be increased using the proposed simulation
1200 1600 1500 technique [13]. Basically, the Monte Carlo simulation is mainly
1500 1900 2000
applied in three different cases which are samples generation based
1600 2500 2500
1800 2800 3000 on the probabilistic distribution, numerical integration and also
1900 3500 optimization. Since our data involve multi-variables of data, there-
fore the use of Multivariate Normal (MVN) distribution is consid-
ered as the most suitable approach for generalizing the univariate
numerically and quantitatively [8]. Normally, a driver or passenger normal distribution that has the probability density function
is only able to evaluate the level of experienced noise by subjective [14,15]. The denition of the generalization for MVN vector random
impression, which is by doing the comparison between two or variables can be explained as follows.
2 3 2 3
more types of noise states [9]. Therefore the acceptance towards x1 Ex1
6 x2 7 6 Ex2 7
the denition of the experienced noise is sometimes contradictory 6 7 6 7
Let x 6 .. 7 2 RN . The expectation of x, Ex 6 . 7 2 RN .
between the passengers. However, in the eld of science and tech- 4 . 5 4 .. 5
nology the criteria that must be considered when it comes to iden- xN ExN
P P
tifying the acoustics level is the amount of the noise that has to be x is the covariance matrix, where x Ex  l  T 2
 x  l
deciphered numerically and quantitatively. In our approach the R NN 
. l is the mean, where l N
 Ex 2 R . The generalization of
measured noises are analyzed using the sound quality software P
MVN, x 2 RN from x until N can be represented by f xjl  ; x
for obtaining certain parameters of the sound quality metric  P 1

 T
xl xl

1
through an objective test [10]. 4 metrics of sound quality were P 1=2 exp  2
.
2pN=2 j j
selected where their change in trends was observed against the
exposed vibration in the cabin interior. Those 4 metrics are loud-
ness (Sone), sharpness [Acum (Z)], roughness (Asper) and uctua-
2.4. Clustering and classication
tion strength (Vacil) [11].
Through this study we divided our algorithms into two stages
2.3. Monte Carlo simulation (i) clustering and (ii) classication in order to assess the level of
sound vibration in the vehicle cabin. This assessment is compul-
For most practical model in neural network, the number of data sory especially due to the fact that we need to identify the comfort
that required will be hundreds or thousands. For complex more level which is experienced by the driver or passenger(s) while they
data may be required, but it would be a rare (even trivial) model are in the car. This is because we believe that to improve the cur-
that required less than a hundred data. Since obtained data through rent structure or part in the cabin we must initially identify the
experiments are smaller than this we really do not have enough level of sound vibration that has been exposed, therefore clustering
information to train the network. The best approach that we can and classication will be the main tools that can be used for that
do is probably to t a linear model (based on linear correlation that purpose. Basically, in our approach, there have been attempts to
exists between factors). Monte Carlo simulation is a probabilistic categorize a group of data based on their trends following a
technique that normally employed to generate random samples required number of categories. This algorithm is simply called

Fig. 5. The difference of roughness of the road surfaces tested: pavement road (left) and highway road (right).
12 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922

Table 2 it is considered as features or also as multiple explanatory vari-

Tires specications. ables. These properties are referred to a few clusters, or in our case
Specication Front portion Back portion classes that refer to the sound vibration level where it is differen-
Type A B tiated into 5 clusters which are 1st: most annoying, 2nd: medium
Model P205/55R P205/55R annoying, 3rd: marginal, 4th: medium pleasant and 5th: most
Nominal section width (mm) 205 205 pleasant. In our approach the tool or method that has been used
Aspect ratio (%) 55 55 for performing the classifying task is considered as a classier
Radius (in.) 1600 1600
Load index 91 V (615 kg) 89 V (580 kg)
where it refers to the mapping process between certain set of data
and particular categories.

the unsupervised clustering procedure where the process aims to

group particular data into certain categories based on the measure-
ment of similarity that exists in the data group. The distance
between instances is used as vectors for computation in the multi-
dimensional space. Contradicting the clustering process, classica-
tion is perhaps, the solution to a problem of identifying certain set
of data which category is located, where the categories are
determined previously by applying the process of training and
learning as the used algorithm. After the analysis, individual
observations are categorized into numerical property sets where
2.4.1. Hierarchical clustering
The employed tool for clustering in our approach is hierarchical
clustering, where it is a statistical method which concentrates on
the homogeneous cluster relatively by considering the characteris-
tics or parameters of values measured [1618]. The initial stage of
the clustering process lies in assigning each item in the set of data
to its own cluster. In this case if we have N number of items this
means that we now have N number of clusters. This is because
each cluster contains only one item. Here, we let the similarities

HAT Accelerometer

Pulse Lapshop Vibration Assessment

Sound Recording

Moving Stationary

Highway Pavement

Sound Quality
Software
Vibration Dose Value

Sound Quality

Regression Analisis of
Data Analysis
Analysis Variance

Hierarchical Clustering
Clustering

Monte Carlo Simulation Multivariate

Classification

Hybrid GANN LDA

Conclusion

Fig. 6. Process ow in our research.

 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922 13

in the aspect of distances between the items become equal with involving the process of mutation and the process of recombina-
the distances between the clusters. Later, the process is continued tion. The GA is executed based on the following procedures:
by looking at the most similar pair, or the closest pair of clusters
that can be combined to be a single cluster (Fig. 2). Next, the sim- (1) Randomly produce initial population l0.
ilarities are calculated between the old cluster and the new cluster (2) Compute an activation function of tness am for each indi-
that have just been obtained. This step can be performed through vidual m in the population at the time lt.
different ways, which are by distinguishing single-link from com- (3) Identify the probability of selection km for each individual m
plete-link and also average-link clustering. Through the single-link at the time lt so that km is in direct proportion with am.
clustering, we take into account the distance between the clusters (4) Produce population lt 1 by selecting an individual from
as the shortest distance between an item in a cluster and any item the population lt for generating the offspring through the
from another cluster. This single-link clustering is also known as genetic operators.
the minimum method. By contrast, through the complete-link (5) Repeat step 2) until the solution has fullled the constraints
clustering we take into account the distance between clusters as in the model.
the longest distance between an item in a cluster and any item
from another cluster. This complete-link clustering is also known
as the maximum method. Meanwhile through the average-link
2.4.2.2. Articial neural network. A model of an articial neural net-
clustering, the distance considered must be equal to the average
work is one type of algorithm which is used for the process of clas-
distance between an item in a cluster and any item from another
sication [26,27]. In order to solve particular computational tasks,
cluster. In our algorithm, we select this single-link method as our
this algorithm manages the signals or information that contains a
employed algorithm. The above processes are repeated until all
lot of simple processing elements known as articial neurons,
items in the data set are clustered into a single cluster with the size
where they are connected with the connector directly. The algo-
of N. The details about the procedures are explained in the algo-
rithm of the neural network is also known as the brain model
rithms pseudo code as below.
which has linked cells of neuron where they inuence the rest of
neurons through the network model. The model depends on the
(1) Initialize each item to be a single cluster.
structure of connection between the neuron cells and also the sig-
(2) If the existing clusters more than one, then do.
nals weight while performing the calculation.
(3) Search for two nearest clusters. The similarity between two
Basically, the algorithm is considered based on the concept that
items is represented by the similarity matrix.
the response of human towards the environmental change is quick
(4) Form an output cluster of the two nearest items by merging
and more adaptive. Therefore, the neural system in human is
them into a single cluster.
employed to biologically resemble the behavior of neuron network
(5) Replace the removed cluster by searching for other items in
in order to simulate the response of human towards those changes.
the data set.
In this system, to model the function, we assume that impulses or
(6) Repeat the above 15 until all of the items have been
signals which are assigned will inuence the strength or value of
considered.
the neurons and these signals will be continuously transferred to
other neurons. Data entry plays the main role to the inputs, while
2.4.2. Hybrid GANN the data are transferred into layers in the network until they are
In our approach, a hybrid genetic algorithm-neural network delivered to particular outputs (Fig. 3). In this algorithm, two main
(GANN) model is employed. The model applies a hybrid approach conditions have raised our concern: a) The network developed must
for classication purpose, where the GA is employed by means of have the ability of being able to be trained with the inputs from the
searching for the features or values that will be made the best sub- data provided and b) The network developed must have the ability
set to train the NN [1921]. The purpose of combining both the GA to generalize the inputs of data which share similarity with the set
and NN in the model is to balance the generated workload that is of training data in aspect of values or even characteristics. The algo-
placed in NN. Here, the GA is employed to select features or values rithm of the neural network can be represented in Eq. (2) and Eq. (3).
that have been provided in the data set where it is differentiated The algorithm of the feed forward neural network that we employed
between a few classes [2224]. This situation expedites the train- aims to rouse human ability to be trained based on the given inputs
ing rate in NN since the time consumed is totally dependent on the
dimensionality of the inputs. Besides, it might help the prediction
Table 3
over the accuracy of NN by eliminating the less useful values from The values of sound quality parameter from measured sounds at stationary condition.
the input vectors.
Engine Read Loudness Sharpness Roughness Fluctuation
speeds (Sone) (Acum) (Asper) strength
2.4.2.1. Genetic algorithm. Genetic algorithm is a computational (rpm) (Vacil)
model which is inspired by the process of evolution. This algorithm 2000 1 9.7 1.120 1.23 0.99
searches for any potential solution to the problem based on a sim- 2000 2 11.2 1.080 1.59 0.77
2000 3 9.8 1.230 1.52 1.11
ple chromosome like a structure of data which apply the process
2000 4 10.9 1.220 1.30 1.97
recombination on these structures to protect critical information. 2500 1 12.6 0.930 1.66 1.31
Usually, the genetic algorithm is assumed as a function of optimi- 2500 2 10.9 0.970 1.25 0.99
zation even though the range of problems which are applied in this 2500 3 12.3 1.300 1.38 1.17
problem are quite wide [25].This algorithm is a semantic rule 2500 4 11.5 1.020 1.23 0.81
3000 1 13.2 0.960 1.52 1.33
which is designed to stimulate the idea of evolution from the
3000 2 13.2 0.920 1.29 0.76
process of natural selection. As a solution for this algorithm it 3000 3 12.8 0.880 1.55 0.92
involves random searching in a specied space. Basically, the GA 3000 4 12.2 1.100 1.22 0.75
is an analogous calculation for an adaptive system. This process 3500 1 20.2 0.820 1.55 0.87
is modeled based on the principle of evolution through the natural 3500 2 21.5 0.670 1.73 0.88
3500 3 17.3 0.830 1.26 1.07
selection, by using individuals from a population that carry out the 3500 4 18.3 0.730 1.52 0.81
process of selection in the changes of variations, due to operations
14 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922

Table 4 Table 6
The values of sound quality parameter from measured sounds on the highway road. The changes of the exposed vibration level over rpm engine at parked condition.

Engine Read Loudness Sharpness Roughness Fluctuation Eng. Read Floor Dash box Steering Door Gear box
speeds (Sone) (Acum) (Asper) strength speed (ms1.75) (ms1.75) (ms1.75) (ms1.75) (ms1.75) (ms1.75)
(rpm) (Vacil) (rpm)
1600 1 22.8 0.830 1.66 1.30 2000 1 0.0164 0.0212 0.0134 0.0118 0.0113
1600 2 18.1 0.790 1.72 0.78 2 0.0180 0.0198 0.0225 0.0191 0.0170
1600 3 19.9 1.020 1.51 1.99 3 0.0165 0.0198 0.0197 0.0158 0.0156
1600 4 23.6 0.801 1.82 2.57 4 0.0141 0.0274 0.0223 0.0110 0.0116
1900 1 25.0 0.720 1.83 1.56
2500 1 0.0295 0.0225 0.0146 0.0103 0.0104
1900 2 23.7 0.820 1.67 1.67
2 0.0220 0.0187 0.0175 0.0188 0.0148
1900 3 22.2 0.900 1.28 0.92
3 0.0201 0.0206 0.0190 0.0157 0.0134
1900 4 28.0 0.680 1.91 1.62
4 0.0249 0.0191 0.0212 0.0223 0.0148
2500 1 31.1 0.690 1.89 1.67
2500 2 30.2 0.620 1.92 0.78 3000 1 0.0245 0.0441 0.0463 0.0175 0.0257
2500 3 33.9 0.550 1.97 0.56 2 0.0243 0.0398 0.0450 0.0170 0.0226
2500 4 23.8 0.820 1.72 2.98 3 0.0326 0.0366 0.0398 0.0151 0.0331
2800 1 35.2 0.620 2.02 0.57 4 0.0223 0.0352 0.0337 0.0147 0.0251
2800 2 32.8 0.720 1.98 1.87 3500 1 0.0278 0.0461 0.0702 0.0230 0.0343
2800 3 33.1 0.930 1.89 2.55 2 0.0334 0.0424 0.0656 0.0222 0.0367
2800 4 22.1 1.190 1.79 2.89 3 0.0238 0.0391 0.0579 0.0273 0.0382
4 0.0270 0.0374 0.0614 0.0283 0.0412

Table 5
The values of sound quality parameter from measured sounds on the paved road. Table 7
The changes of exposed vibration level over rpm engine on highway road.
Engine Read Loudness Sharpness Roughness Fluctuation
speeds (Sone) (Acum) (Asper) strength Eng. Read Floor Dash Steering Door Gear box
(rpm) (Vacil) speed (ms1.75) (ms1.75) box (ms1.75) (ms1.75) (ms1.75)
(rpm) (ms1.75)
1200 1 21.6 0.97 2.03 1.43
1200 2 26.2 0.91 2.11 1.62 1600 1 0.3627 1.9948 2.2620 2.0811 1.5084
1200 3 19.6 1.03 1.92 0.89 2 0.3273 2.6445 2.5960 2.6745 2.1573
1200 4 23.0 1.01 1.97 1.30 3 0.3183 1.5479 2.3619 2.0271 1.5150
1500 1 28.8 1.10 1.98 1.22 4 0.3657 1.9306 2.5134 2.6612 2.1196
1500 2 30.2 0.98 2.15 1.43
1900 1 0.3573 2.9174 3.1374 3.2434 2.6562
1500 3 31.1 0.89 2.45 0.99
2 0.3628 3.0036 3.1535 2.8462 2.5912
1500 4 29.1 0.92 2.26 1.83
3 0.3484 2.8971 3.0289 2.8491 2.6054
1600 1 31.2 0.99 2.34 0.88
4 0.4115 2.8769 3.0902 3.6301 2.5646
1600 2 33.2 0.97 2.35 0.91
1600 3 31.5 0.87 2.21 2.11 2500 1 0.5727 5.8991 5.9703 6.6510 5.3817
1600 4 36.2 1.04 2.46 1.90 2 0.5601 3.3312 5.6447 6.5384 2.6097
1800 1 36.7 0.93 2.40 1.03 3 0.6221 5.3510 5.8451 3.1028 5.2907
1800 2 35.2 0.84 2.46 0.94 4 0.4490 5.7839 5.5321 3.0923 2.6066
1800 3 33.8 0.91 2.51 0.88 2800 1 0.7509 6.7397 6.5431 7.0733 6.1270
1800 4 32.4 1.11 2.31 2.35 2 0.6431 5.4925 3.6425 5.5333 4.7418
1900 1 44.3 0.94 2.53 1.65 3 0.6612 5.3960 6.4777 5.5246 6.1784
1900 2 41.3 0.87 2.48 1.23 4 0.4367 6.4556 3.5867 6.9302 4.6726
1900 3 45.2 1.11 2.56 0.93
1900 4 43.6 0.83 2.67 1.87
features related to certain data are provided , hence the LDA comes
into the picture by forming a linear combination of these data to
produce the maximum mean of values of difference between clas-
that reach the brain [2830]. Basically, the algorithm developed is
ses required [33]. The LDA approach aims to maximize the separa-
based on the particular value of weight, seeking to measure the level
bility between classes through two methods of classication,
of strength of the connection between the neurons.
which are (1) 1st method-scatter matrix within the class and
net x1 w2 x2 w2 ::: xn wn 2 others and (2) 2nd method scatter matrix between classes. These
two methods can be represented by following Eqs. (4)(8). The goal
y f net f x1 w1 x2 w2 ::: xn wn 3 of the model can be divided into two approaches which are maxi-
mizing the measurement between classes and minimizing the
y f net : Activation function measurement within the class. To maximize the separability of
the class, the LDA keeps variance from all classes to be roughly
where net aggregators unit, xn nth entry of signal input constant. The generalized eigenvector for the LDA can be repre-
n 1; 2; 3; . . . ; n, wn nth weight input (n 1; 2; 3; . . . ; n. sented by Eq. (9) below.
X
K X
2.4.3. Linear discriminant analysis Sw pk 4
In order to verify our previous classier results, we used the Lin- k1 k
ear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) as a second option. This algorithm
X
K
is employed since it is able to handle problems easily where the Sb lk  ~
pk ~ l~
lk  ~
l t
5
frequencies within class are unequal and the performance had also k1
been tested on provided data at random [31,32]. The main task of
the LDA is searching for the vectors which make the best discrimi- X 1 X kN

nants between classes in the underlying space. As a background ~

xi;k  ~ lk t
lk ~xi;k  ~ 6
Nk i1
information, in this algorithm a number of independent values or k
 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922 15

Nk Sb ~
/l kk Sw ~
/l 9
pk PK 7
l1 N l
where ~xi;k - ith sample of class k, Sb scatter matrix between classes,
P
1 XN k Sw scatter matrix within class, k class k covariance matrix, ~ lk
lk
~ ~
x
i1 i;k
8 class k vectors mean, l all vectors mean, K number of classes,
~
Nk
Nk number of samples in class k, kk constant.

Table 8 3. Experiment
The changes of exposed vibration level over rpm engine on paved road.

Eng. Read Floor Dash Steering Door Gear box Noise is measured at two states-parked (stationary) and driving
speed (ms1.75) (ms1.75) box (ms1.75) (ms1.75) (ms1.75) (non-stationary) conditions. The parameters of particular sound
(rpm) (ms1.75) quality metrics are obtained after the results have been analyzed
1200 1 0.6228 1.3634 1.4296 1.8407 1.1566 from the measurements. The measurement is conducted according
2 0.7076 1.7658 1.6711 1.9777 1.3174 to the sound frequencies and sound amplitudes to obtain a certain
3 0.6141 1.4020 1.3981 1.7597 1.2921
sound quality metric using Binaural Head and Torso (HAT). The
4 0.6906 1.7709 1.7963 1.8889 1.5166
level of vibration was evaluated through the measurement of
1500 1 0.8283 1.3682 1.6278 1.9220 1.2139
vibration exposed at the locations that are believed as common
2 0.8853 1.5134 1.5874 1.7091 1.3382
3 0.9255 1.8460 1.6179 1.9783 1.8257 dominant sources of vibration in interior part of a cabin. In our
4 0.8377 1.5643 1.9777 1.6999 1.4197 case, the vibration level is measured at a few locations. The loca-
1600 1 0.7329 4.3136 5.6874 4.6504 3.3791 tions were the front car oor (next to the driver), gear box, steering
2 0.8002 5.0571 6.1637 4.8604 3.5874 box, front door (driver side), dash box and back side door (drivers
3 0.7177 4.2641 5.5797 4.0345 4.4715 side). Since the data measurements need to be conducted under 3
4 0.9038 4.5963 5.8350 4.7552 3.4968 conditions [2,11]:
1800 1 1.0243 5.0115 5.5425 6.7601 3.8579
2 1.3573 6.4361 7.4921 6.4525 5.1676  Stationary-without any effect of tire excitation with the road
3 0.9960 4.5788 5.8000 6.7877 4.0383
4 0.9152 6.2364 6.9817 6.4987 5.3105
surface.
 Moving on highway moderately affected with the roughness
1900 1 1.3631 5.7156 6.7099 5.4818 4.3531
2 1.0392 7.0326 7.6870 7.1089 5.1568
of the road surface.
3 1.4986 6.3399 6.2553 6.8448 4.4064  Moving on pavements strongly affected with the roughness of
4 1.1661 6.0921 7.2179 7.1089 4.8853 road surface.

Fig. 7. Distribution of exposed vibration at all locations in all conditions.

16 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922

Therefore the measurements of noise and vibration are per-
formed against the changes of engine speeds (rpm). The measure-
ment is dependent on the engine speeds since the measurement
that is based on velocity (km h1) is only practical while the car
is in motion (on highway and paved roads). Conversely, if the car
is stationary or under (parked) condition, the measurement based
on distance is not practical since the tires do not roll on the road
(without any tire-road excitation factor). Another reason that we
have considered is that the noise that is contributed due to engine
transmission is only minor since the car tested is well-covered by
the glasses. We also believe that the interaction of the rolling tires
with the road surface is the major contributor for interior noise to
occur [5].
3.1. Test method
Sound quality was measured in the tested vehicle which is an
Automatic Proton Perdana V6. Bruel & Kjaer portable and multi-
channel PULSE type3560D were used as equipment to measure
the sound quality. To record the noise B&K Head & Torso (HAT)
type 2100 was located on the left hand-sides front seat that is next
to the driver. Basically, HAT has two channels: right and left

Fig. 8. Comparison of the exposed vibration between locations on highway (left) and pavement road (right).

Fig. 9. The trends of sound quality metrics over exposed vibration at stationary condition.
 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922
channels, but to standardize the measurement we must choose the
data from either the right or the left channel. Normally, the outputs
from the right channel and the outputs from left channel may pos-
sibly produce slight differences between the values. Therefore in
our case, we choose the data from the right channel even though
we also may get the averages between two values as data inputs.
The vibration detector B&K isotron accelerometer Model 751-100
was installed and located at front oor at the same site with HAT
and other locations (Fig. 4). To measure the noise, B&K Pulse Lab-
shop software was used. Later, to analyze the noise to obtain the
value of sound quality metrics Bruel & Kjaer Sound Quality Type
7698 software was used. The level vibration is evaluated based
on the vibration dose value that can be obtained through formula
(1). In our case, the measurement reading of vibration at all points:
car oor, dash box, steering, door and gear box (Fig. 4) must be
recorded.
The measurement of noise and vibration had been conducted at
both conditions, parked and driving. The reference for the engines
rpm is shown in Table 1. Besides the parked condition, the mea-
surements were also done while the car was being driven. Two
types of roads have different types of road surface. This is because
the roughness of the road surface will affect the vibration exposed
in the cabin interior, which is aligned with the generation of the
different levels of noise. Fig. 5 below shows the tested road charac-
teristics. In addition, different types of tire tread will potentially
produce different levels of noise in the cabin thus it is crucial for
us to acknowledge the combination of tires that we used in the test
[34]. The combination of tires used by the Perdana V6 shows differ-
ent types of tires at both front and back of the car. The specica-
tions are shown in Table 2.
Fig. 10. The trends of sound quality metrics over exposed vibration on the highway road.
17
The recording time was 10 s for every trial in the measurement.
The tests were run by two members; the driver and the notebook
computer handler. The task of the driver is to drive the car by
focusing on the direction and maintaining the specic rpm which
is predetermined and scheduled in Table 1. Meanwhile the task
of the notebook computer handler is to operate the B&K Pulse Lap-
shop software to record the noise and vibration occurring in every
trial during the test. As a reminder, at certain engine speed, each
measurement has to be repeated 3 times (4 times including the
rst trial) in order to obtain more reliable data. Details of the
research procedure are illustrated in Fig. 6.
4. Results
The measurement results for sound quality metrics are shown
in Tables 35. Based on the results we have found that the values
of loudness metrics increase with the increase of the rpm engine
either at parked or driving condition. Contradicting with the loud-
ness metric, the sharpness metric values decrease with the
increase of of the engines rpm. However, there is no special trend
observed with regards to the changes of the roughness metric and
uctuation strength metric against the rpm. The results of the
exposed vibration which are represented by the VDV values in
Tables 68 are displayed in Fig. 7. The locations of the exposed
vibration are divided by a few areas such as the car oor and other
parts (Fig. 4). These tables are referred to observe the existing cor-
relation between the exposed vibration and rpm of the engine.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to study the varia-
tions that exist in the results between the conditions (Fig. 8). Later
18 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922

Fig. 11. The trends of sound quality metrics over exposed vibration on the pavement road.

Table 9
The level of correlation strength between sound qualities and exposed vibration.

Vibration dose value (ms1.75) Loudness (Sone) Sharpness (Acum) Roughness (Asper) Fluctuation strength (Vacil)

R2 P R2 P R2 P R2 P

Stationary Floor 53.3 6 0:05 68.5 6 0:05 28.6 6 0:05 12.7 0.122
Dash box 60.8 6 0:05 26.9 6 0:05 9.6 0.223 2.2 0.582
Steering 86.0 6 0:05 63.3 6 0:05 16.1 0.123 9.1 0.255
Door 22.9 6 0:05 20.8 6 0:05 5.0 0.207 23.2 0.057
Gear box 76.1 6 0:05 62.3 6 0:05 16.1 0.123 16.0 0.125
Highway Floor 87.7 6 0:05 19.0 0.092 62.8 6 0:05 3.1 0.518
Dash box 39.5 6 0:05 0.5 0.802 33.9 6 0:05 2.2 0.580
Steering 62.2 6 0:05 15.3 0.132 38.7 6 0:05 0.9 0.730
Door 39.2 6 0:05 0.7 0.762 22.2 0.006 0.01 0.922
Gear box 63.3 6 0:05 3.0 0.522 22.7 0.005 0.01 0.939
Pavement Floor 72.2 6 0:05 1.5 0.602 60.1 6 0:05 1.2 0.629
Dash box 68.8 6 0:05 2.9 0.276 63.2 6 0:05 0.2 0.803
Steering 63.6 6 0:05 2.3 0.378 62.0 6 0:05 0.9 0.690
Door 65.3 6 0:05 3.1 0.261 65.2 6 0:05 0.1 0.922
Gear box 60.2 6 0:05 5.3 0.331 59.0 6 0:05 2.3 0.519

R2 coefcient of determination value in unit of (%) and P p-value.

we plotted Figs. 911 in order to illustrate the existing trends of
the sound quality metrics and exposed vibration towards the
changes of the rpm of the engine.
Based on the results of ANOVA, it shows that the dominant loca-
tions that generate higher level of vibration are the cars dash box,
steering, door and gear box. From the results, we have also found
that not all of the locations or parts in the cabin constantly vibrate
with the rpm engine changes. These few parts are vibrating ran-
domly following the force which is affected by the vehicle body.
To identify which parameter of sound quality metric and which
location is signicantly correspond with the changes of the rpm,
we refer to the following criteria:
(i) The existing correlation between a particular parameter of
sound quality metric or the level of vibration towards the
rpm must be strong. In this case, the signicance level will
be measured based on the regression value where the
r-square must be larger than 50%.
 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922 19

Table 10 be made as input variables in the next model, we will only select
The characteristics of the comfort levels. the metric that has fullled both of the aforementioned criteria
Cluster Categorys name Level of comfort at all conditions either at parked condition or driving condition.
5 Most pleasant Extremely comfortable By looking into the correlations that exist between both param-
4 Medium pleasant Quite comfortable eters of sound quality and the vibration dose values, we may dene
3 Marginal Moderately disturbing the strength of the correlation through the linear, quadratic and
2 Medium Intrusive and slightly disturbing cubic regression models. However, in our case we have employed
annoying
1 Most annoying Extremely intrusive and emotionally
the linear regression model only to determine the level of signi-
disturbing cance of the existing correlation between both factors. This is
because potential tools that will be employed afterwards are linear
classiers that are able to classify these data to a number of groups.
(ii) The p-value has to be small which is less than 0.05. By referring to the results from the regression analysis, we have
found that certain parameters of the sound quality metrics corre-
After the regression analysis was conducted we observed the spond with certain levels of exposed vibration at particular parts.
patterns of the trend that exist towards the changes of the sound Because the vibration level was measured at various locations,
quality metrics over the rpm engines at particular parts. Later to we only select the data which are signicant and reliable in terms

Table 11
The clustering results according to comfort levels.

Engine speeds (rpm) Read Loudness (Sone) Vibration Dos value (ms1.75) Cluster Condition
Floor Steering Gearbox
Stationary 2000 1 9.7 0.01637 0.01322 0.01134 5 Most pleasant
2000 2 11.2 0.01802 0.02228 0.01700 5 Most pleasant
2000 3 9.8 0.01626 0.01970 0.01556 5 Most pleasant
2000 4 10.9 0.01212 0.02227 0.01155 5 Most pleasant
2500 1 12.6 0.02929 0.01261 0.01035 5 Most pleasant
2500 2 10.9 0.02196 0.01728 0.01279 5 Most pleasant
2500 3 12.3 0.02006 0.01896 0.01338 5 Most pleasant
2500 4 11.5 0.02285 0.02115 0.01283 5 Most pleasant
3000 1 13.2 0.02225 0.02633 0.02567 5 Most pleasant
3000 2 13.2 0.02232 0.02299 0.02261 5 Most pleasant
3000 3 12.8 0.03263 0.03976 0.03313 5 Most pleasant
3000 4 12.2 0.02225 0.03372 0.02508 5 Most pleasant
3500 1 20.2 0.02777 0.07017 0.03233 5 Most pleasant
3500 2 21.5 0.03320 0.06562 0.03672 5 Most pleasant
3500 3 17.3 0.02376 0.05792 0.03818 5 Most pleasant
3500 4 18.3 0.02698 0.06121 0.02115 5 Most pleasant
Highway road 1600 1 22.8 0.36274 2.26202 1.50822 4 Medium pleasant
1600 2 18.1 0.32733 2.59602 2.15733 4 Medium pleasant
1600 3 19.9 0.31826 2.36192 1.51296 4 Medium pleasant
1600 4 23.6 0.36570 2.51321 2.11956 4 Medium pleasant
1900 1 25.0 0.35725 3.13723 2.65616 4 Medium pleasant
1900 2 23.7 0.36282 3.15354 2.59115 4 Medium pleasant
1900 3 22.2 0.32824 3.02890 2.60521 4 Medium pleasant
1900 4 28.0 0.21151 3.09016 2.56259 4 Medium pleasant
2500 1 31.1 0.57267 5.97032 5.38170 2 Medium Annoying
2500 2 30.2 0.56009 5.62273 2.60965 4 Medium pleasant
2500 3 33.9 0.62214 5.82509 5.29073 2 Medium Annoying
2500 4 23.8 0.22903 5.53213 2.60661 4 Medium pleasant
2800 1 35.2 0.75087 6.52312 6.12696 2 Medium Annoying
2800 2 32.8 0.62314 3.62253 2.72179 2 Medium Annoying
2800 3 33.1 0.66116 6.27771 6.17823 2 Medium Annoying
2800 4 22.1 0.23673 3.58669 2.67258 4 Medium pleasant
Pavement road 1200 1 21.6 0.62280 1.22963 1.15655 3 Marginal
1200 2 26.2 0.70762 1.67107 1.31722 3 Marginal
1200 3 19.6 0.61214 1.39814 1.29214 3 Marginal
1200 4 23.0 0.69060 1.79626 1.51660 2 Medium annoying
1500 1 28.8 0.82831 1.62779 1.21394 3 Marginal
1500 2 30.2 0.88533 1.58722 1.33823 3 Marginal
1500 3 31.1 0.92553 1.61791 1.82572 3 Marginal
1500 4 29.1 0.83766 1.97774 1.21971 3 Marginal
1600 1 31.2 0.73289 5.68740 3.37906 2 Medium annoying
1600 2 33.2 0.80019 6.16366 3.58736 2 Medium annoying
1600 3 31.5 0.71772 5.57967 2.27152 2 Medium annoying
1600 4 36.2 0.90376 5.83297 3.29682 2 Medium annoying
1800 1 36.7 1.02225 5.52254 3.85794 2 Medium annoying
1800 2 35.2 1.35731 7.29212 5.16762 1 Most annoying
1800 3 33.8 0.99601 5.79998 2.03833 2 Medium annoying
1800 4 32.2 0.91521 6.98168 5.31054 2 Medium annoying
1900 1 22.3 1.36313 6.70988 2.35306 1 Most annoying
1900 2 21.3 1.03922 7.68700 5.15683 1 Most annoying
1900 3 25.2 1.29860 6.25526 2.20623 1 Most annoying
1900 4 23.6 1.16609 7.21785 2.88530 1 Most annoying
20 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922

Fig. 12. The correlation between the loudness parameter and vibration at particular parts according to the clusters.

of having a strong correlation between generated sound quality Table 12

and exposed vibration. This can be referred through the indicators The accuracys result (%) for each trial.
of p-value (Table 9). Thus, the selected factors are the loudness Trial (nth) Hybrid GANN LDA Trial (nth) Hybrid GANN LDA
metrics and the exposed vibration at the oor, steering and gear
1 92.7 97.7 11 83.2 93.1
box. In order to evaluate the level of sound vibration that is expe- 2 96.6 96.8 12 90.2 97.2
rienced in the cabin, these four factors have been made as inputs in 3 72.9 93.0 13 72.8 97.9
the clustering model so that we are able to divide them into 5 2 76.8 97.5 12 80.3 96.5
annoyance levels, as stated in Table 10. Later, the results from 5 86.1 97.7 15 95.1 93.2
6 82.1 96.5 16 82.7 97.5
the clustering process have to be simulated for generating more 7 95.8 93.3 17 85.5 97.6
data following the clusters that were determined previously. This 8 86.6 97.5 18 86.0 96.2
is because the classication process that needs to be performed 9 82.6 97.6 19 95.1 93.2
in the next stage requires enough number of data in order to obtain 10 83.9 96.2 20 96.7 97.5
higher accuracies. In our case, we had generated more data ran-
domly by employing the multivariate normal distribution of the
Monte Carlo simulation. taking into account both of noise and vibration inputs. This is a
As mentioned previously, from the measurement of sound qual- novel approach instead of jurys evaluation since the exposure of
ity we establish that a certain parameter increases or decreases these phenomenon is normally subjective and difcult to be evalu-
with the changes of the engine rpm. From results of the ANOVA ated. Therefore the assessment is performed by dividing the level of
we discover that the oor is the only location that has less vibration noise and vibration into a few categories as shown in Table 10.
exposure compared to other parts. Even though the level of vibra- Based on the results we also learn that the algorithm is able to
tion is measured at various parts in the cabin we have noted that nd the correlation that exists between the loudness parameter
only a few areas are signicant points for the exposure of vibration, with the vibration exposed at certain parts investigated. After the
where we only choose the data that are linked with the factor of results were simulated for generating more data (Fig. 12), the clas-
parameter loudness, oor, steering and also gear box to be applied sication processes performed have produced higher accuracy of
in the clustering and classication processes. This phenomenon can the results as displayed in Table 12 and Fig. 13. In the classication
be seen through the regression analysis results. The clustering process we used two types of classiers namely hybrid GANN and
results are displayed in Table 11. Based on observed results we LDA. For each model the algorithm was trained for 20 trials. The
found that the exposure of noise and vibration are successfully proposed hybrid GANN was evaluated on 5000 databases for train-
clustered using hierarchical clustering based on comfort levels by ing and 2500 for testing in the model. Meanwhile for the LDA
 Z.M. Nopiah et al. / Applied Acoustics 87 (2015) 922
Fig. 13. Distribution of the accuracys results.
model, the trained databases were 5000. The databases were
obtained through the random simulation based on the previous
results of the clustering process. Based on the results we have
found that both models are efcient enough for data classication
since the output accuracies that we obtained from each trial were
higher than 70%. However if we compare both models, the perfor-
mance of the LDA was better than the hybrid GANN as conrmed
by the accuracy rates in Table 12.
5. Conclusion
Based on results of the regression analysis and analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA), we have proven that the main contributor for the
generation of noise and vibration in the interior cabin is the exci-
tation factor due to the tire interaction with the road surface.
Meanwhile, from the results we also understand that the rough-
ness of the road surface will give some signicant effects to the
exposed vibration and at the same time will inuence the genera-
tion of noise in the cabin. In this case, for recognizing which loca-
tion that signicantly corresponds with the rpm engine changes, it
is compulsory to employ the statistical data analysis as had been
performed in the previous section. Thus, for designing the best
structure of a cabin we may take into account the factors above
since we believe that these factors are closely related to the control
of the acoustics level in the cabins interior.
The proposed algorithm of the hierarchical clustering and both
algorithms of the hybrid GANN and LDA are able to cluster and
classify efciently the level of sound vibration based on the data-
base provided. By referring to the trends of experienced noise
and vibration, the proposed models have been able to differentiate
the comfort level between the groups in terms of the sound vibra-
tion into 5 clusters which are most pleasant, medium pleasant,
marginal, medium annoying and most annoying.
This approach does not serve as the best method to assess the
level of noise and vibration. Subjective evaluation is still consid-
ered to be the best way to evaluate the environment of the interior
noise in the cabin [2,9]. However, instead of the subjective evalua-
tion, the approach that we have applied in this study can be
employed as an optional method to evaluate the level of sound
and vibration that is commonly exposed in the vehicle cabin with-
out having to conduct jury evaluation. Therefore, we may exclude
the jury evaluation since it applies the concept of human assess-
ment that is normally inuenced by biasness and errors, as the test
is being carried out. Besides, the second optional method of the
LDA algorithm has successfully localized the annoyance state
towards the sound vibration experienced by using the input data-
base of sound and vibration. By looking at the results in Table 12
21
and Fig. 13, we may conclude that the LDA algorithm is more ef-
cient as compared to the previous hybrid GANN since the formers
accuracy rates are shown to be higher.
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