Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8

Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

Chapter 8
Open Channel
Design

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 Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

Chapter 8 Amendments Mar 2010

Revision Register
Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date
Rev Section by
No.

1 - Initial Release of 2nd Ed of manual. Steering Mar

Committee 2010

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Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

Table of Contents
8.1 Introduction 8-1
8.1.1 Open Channels 8-1
8.2 General Considerations 8-2
8.3 Local Authority Requirements 8-2
8.4 Fundamentals of Open Channel Flow 8-3
8.4.1 Stream Dynamics 8-3
8.4.2 Assumptions for Analysis 8-4
8.4.3 Fundamental Equations 8-4
8.4.4 Application of Fundamental Equations 8-9
8.4.5 Energy Principles 8-11
8.4.6 Hydraulic Jump 8-14
8.4.7 Hydraulic Drop 8-20
8.5 Erosive Velocities in Natural Streams 8-20
8.6 Backwater 8-20
8.6.1 Tidal Waters 8-21
8.6.2 Downstream Tributary 8-24
8.7 Tailwater Levels 8-24
8.7.1 Tailwater Effects 8-24
8.7.2 Design Tailwater Levels 8-25 8
8.8 Open Channel Design 8-26
8.8.1 Design Methodology 8-26
8.8.2 Channel Transitions 8-29
8.8.3 Energy Losses in Channel Bends 8-30
8.8.4 Superelevation in Channel Bends 8-30
8.9 Grassed Channels 8-31
8.9.1 Normal Grassed Channels 8-31
8.9.2 Reinforced Grassed Channels 8-32
8.10 Channels Lined with Hard Facings 8-33
8.10.1 General 8-33
8.10.2 Riprap and Rock Filled Wire Mattresses / Gabions 8-33

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8.10.3 Concrete Lined Channels 8-36

8.11 Channel Drops 8-36
8.12 Baffle Chutes 8-36

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Department of Transport and Main Roads
Road Drainage Manual
Open Channel Design
8.1 Introduction
Open channels are economical where large
flows are to be carried and space is not
restricted. An example on a newly
constructed, open channel is show in Figure
8.1. They have the advantages of
continuous collection of surface runoff, and
where the system surcharges, general
shallow flow is the most likely outcome
rather than more concentrated flooding at
upstream inlets of the closed drainage
system.
This manual focuses on the analysis and
design of smaller streams and creeks.
Assessment of larger streams, creeks, rivers
and floodplains is complex and should be
referred to Hydraulics Section, Engineering
& Technology Division or a suitably pre-
qualified consultant.
Figure 8.1 - Bare Earth Open Channel
8.1.1 Open Channels
An open channel is defined as a conduit or
conveyance (artificial or natural) in which
water flows with a free surface. A free
surface means that the surface is open to the
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Chapter 8
atmosphere and/or there is no additional
pressure on the flow other than atmospheric
pressure. Flow is caused by gravity and
streams tend to follow the path of least
resistance.
Open channels may be constructed to
specified criteria:
as part of the road drainage system
where space within the road reserve
is sufficient to provide for open
channels;
as diversion channels, especially
where the road is being constructed
generally along the line of a
watercourse and severs one or more
meanders in the stream. Care must
be exercised as shortening of the
stream will increase the gradient and
hence velocity, which may induce
scouring and also prevent the
upstream passage of fish; and/or
from the outlets of culverts or
8
drainage systems.
Creeks and waterways, disturbed by
construction work, need to be left in a way
that the channel will continue to behave in a
hydraulic and ecological manner similar to
that of the undisturbed natural stream. New
open channels must be appropriately
integrated into the surrounding ecological,
visual, social and physical environments.
Department of Environment and Resource
Management and relevant local authorities
should be consulted early in the planning
process as they may have special
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Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

requirements for existing channels which (e) Assessing the need for channel lining,
could be: particularly for erosion resistance,
including vegetation selection and
part of soil conservation programs;
aesthetics. Ensure future
stream rehabilitation or restoration maintainability of lining is considered;
plans;
(f) Calculating flow characteristics.
riparian improvement programs; Design for subcritical flow (refer
part of natural channel design Sections 8.4.5.2 and 8.4.5.3) is
programs; or recommended. In only a small
percentage of natural streams under
other ecologically sustainable
certain conditions, flow is not
programs.
subcritical. Supercritical flow (refer
Sections 8.4.5.2 and 8.4.5.3) with its
8.2 General
highly erosive velocities should be
Considerations
avoided in a design flood except at
Considerations in open channel design channel drops or energy dissipators
include: (refer Chapter 11);

(a) Establishing the ecological (g) Assessing the safety or the

requirements for the channel such as: appropriateness of an open channel in
certain locations, particularly in
determining the specific or generic developed areas;
riparian management requirements;
(h) Providing access for maintenance.
stream bank stability or erosion
guidelines; 8.3 Local Authority
water quality requirements; Requirements
natural channel design requirements;
8 use of the channel by fauna as a
The requirements of local government
should be sought for any significant open
fishway or wildlife corridor. channel design particularly in developed
areas or where the channel forms part of a
(b) Evaluating the most economical route
major drainage system as defined in
consistent with the land use and
Chapter 2.
topography;
There is a need to check the effects of flows
(c) Optimising the slope of the channel.
in excess of the design flood and to
To reduce the velocity, a flatter slope
understand the likely impacts. Where
than that existing may be adopted, by
flooding of property is a possibility, the
introducing drop structures or
effects of a flood in excess of the design
meanders. However, shortening the
flood should be analysed even if there is no
natural channel alignment will increase
local government requirement.
velocities;
Other local government requirements may
(d) Determining the width available for an
include the provision of access /
open channel in the road reserve or
maintenance berms, barrier fencing and
drainage easement;
appropriate warning signs to prevent access

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Department of Transport and Main Roads
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to the channel and a low flow channel to
take a minimum flow.
Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) is
an important aspect of pollution control and
the design of open channels should
consideration these requirements. Chapter
2 outlines the principles of WSUD while
Chapter 7 provides more information and
detail.
8.4 Fundamentals of Open
Channel Flow
8.4.1 Stream Dynamics
It is important to have a basic
understanding of how streams work or
behave to ensure that the planning and
design of drainage infrastructure is
appropriate and will work not only after the
work is completed, but also in the future.
Streams are constantly changing and
responding to external factors and are
therefore dynamic. However, to simplify
analysis and design, streams are generally
considered as static, that is the stream is
divided into small, isolated parts and/or
sections and the flow within the channel is
analysed at a point in time.
8.4.1.1 Streams and Roads
Human interference can easily change /
affect streams and it is critical to understand
that changes can affect stream behaviour
both upstream and downstream.
Typical encroachments that would affect
normal stream flow as related to road
infrastructure are:
roadway embankments;
cross drainage culverts;
floodways; and
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
bridges.
8.4.1.2 Governing Parameters
All streams are governed by the same basic
parameters:
(a) Geological Factors
soil conditions
(b) Hydrological Factors
rainfall
(c) Geometric
channel slope and crossfall
(d) Hydraulic
fluid properties
(e) Vegetation
Native vegetation in channels / along
banks
8.4.1.3 Velocity Distribution
The flow velocities within a stream are not
uniformly distributed across the cross
section. This is due to friction along the
channel bed, banks and free surface.
The velocity of water particles near the bed
and banks (planes of highest friction) is the
8
slowest while the highest velocity is
typically found just below the free surface
in the deepest part of the flow.
Figure 8.4.1.3 illustrates the velocity
distribution across channel flow. To map
water particles of equal velocity, isovels are
drawn (isovels trace equal velocity similar
to contour lines tracing equal ground
height).
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 Department of Transport and Main Roads
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Figure 8.4.1.3 Velocity Distribution
Across the Flow
8.4.1.4 Types and States of Flow
Open channel flow can be described in a
number of ways. The following outlines
the types of flow:
Steady Flow is where the depth of
flow at the same point does not
change over time.
Unsteady Flow is where the depth
of flow at the same point does change
over time.
Uniform Flow is where the depth
of flow is the same at every cross
section along the channel. This is
really only possible when the channel
flow cross section, slope and
8 roughness remain constant.
Non Uniform or Varied Flow - is
where the depth of flow changes
along the length of channel. Varied
flow can be further described as
either rapid or gradual (i.e. in
artificial channels).
The following outlines the states of flow:
Laminar Flow is where the water
particles appear to move in smooth
paths or in very thin sheets (laminas)
over the top of each other. Laminar
flow is very smooth flow and is
rarely seen in the natural
environment.
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Turbulent Flow is where the water
particles move in very irregular
paths. White water rapids are a good
example of turbulent flow.
Open channel flow can be in a variety or
combination of these types and states.
8.4.2 Assumptions for Analysis
Due to the dynamic nature of open channel
flow, it is difficult to model and/or analyse
the flow as it occurs in the natural
environment. Therefore a number of
assumptions are made to enable and
simplify analysis. These assumptions are
considered reasonable and valid in the
context of the analysis and design
procedures described in this manual.
The assumptions made are:
Steady Flow;
Uniform Flow;
Velocity is averaged over the whole
cross section; and
Flow is non-turbulent.
Generally, these assumptions can be applied
to most situations encountered in design.
However, where it is obvious that the
assumptions cannot be applied, the analysis
and/or design should be referred to
Hydraulics Section, Engineering &
Technology Division or a suitably
prequalified consultant.
8.4.3 Fundamental Equations
The most basic equation in the analysis of
open channel flow defines the relationship
between flow rate, velocity and the cross
sectional area of flow and is represented by
the following formula:
Department of Transport and Main Roads
Road Drainage Manual
Q V A
Where:
Q = flow rate (m3/s);
V = average velocity (m/s); and
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2).
This equation also forms the basis of the
theory behind the Continuity Equation.
The theory allows simple analysis over
changes in the channel irrespective of cross
section, slope or roughness. The theory
assumes no addition to or subtraction from
the flow between the 2 sections being
considered (i.e. Q1 = Q2).
The Continuity Equation is:
Q1 V1 A1 V2 A2 Q2
The formula most commonly used for the
calculation of steady, uniform flow in open
channels is Mannings Equation. This
equation is used to determine the velocity
of flow at a specific point in the channel,
and therefore the variables in the equation
must be representative of the point being
assessed.
Mannings Equation is:
2 1
R S 3 2
V Section, Engineering & Technology
n
Where:
V = average velocity (m/s);
R = hydraulic radius (m);
S = slope of energy line (m/m); and
n = Mannings roughness coefficient.
The hydraulic radius is given by:
A For natural channels, a comparison may be
R made with the photographs in Figure
P
Where:
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2);
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
P = wetted perimeter (m).
In determining the hydraulic radius, the
wetted perimeter is defined as the length of
line (normal to the flow) where the water
touches the surface of the ground (channel)
or the perimeter of flow less the surface
(exposed to the atmosphere) length (refer
Figure 8.4.3(a)).
Figure 8.4.3(a) Wetted Perimeter
For natural channels the slope of the energy
line, S, is almost impossible to determine.
Therefore a suitable estimation of S is
required. The slope of the water (flow)
surface, Sw, could be used, however this is
also difficult to determine. The only easily
available slope that can be used to estimate
S is the channel bed, So, provided that the
channel and the bed slope about the point
being assessed is reasonably uniform. If the
channel shape and bed slope is irregular,
Mannings Equation will not give
acceptable results and therefore the analysis 8
/ design should be referred to Hydraulics
Division or a suitably pre-qualified
consultant.
In applying Mannings Equation,
particularly to natural channels, the greatest
difficulty lies in the determination of the
roughness coefficient n. For artificial
channels values of n can be obtained from
Table 8.4.3(a).
8.4.3(b) and values of n in Table 8.4.3(b)
for similar channels. However, for grassed
channels, and where the hydraulic radius
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for the flow is less than 1 m, vegetal appropriate vegetal retardance curve to be
retardance curves (Figures 8A.1 to 8A.5 in used.
Appendix 8A) should be used to determine
n. Table 8.4.3(c) is used to determine the

Table 8.4.3(a) - Mannings n Values for Artificial Channels / Conduits

Type of Structure n

1. Closed Conduits

(a) Concrete pipe 0.013

(b) Corrugated metal pipe or pipe-arch (small corrugation)

(i) plain or unpaved 0.024
(ii) paved invert-full flow
25% circumference paved 0.021
50% circumference paved 0.018
Fully paved 0.012

(c) Structural plate pipe or pipe-arch 0.030-0.033

(d) Monolithic concrete (box culvert) 0.012

(e) Vitrified clay pipe 0.012

2. Open channels - Lined

(a) Concrete - Smooth forms or trowelled 0.012

(b) Bituminous Concrete

(i) Smooth 0.013
(ii) Rough 0.016

3.Open Channels - Excavated (Straight alignment and natural lining)

(a) Earth - uniform section

(i) clean - new to weathered 0.016-0.020

8 (ii) with short grass, few weeds

(iii) in gravelly soil, clean

(b) Earth - uniform section

0.022-0.027
0.022-0.025

(i) no vegetation 0.022-0.025

(ii) grass, some weeds 0.025-0.030
(iii) dense weeds or plants in deep channel 0.030-0.035
(iv) sides clean, gravel bottom 0.025-0.030
(v) sides clean, cobble bottom 0.030-0.040

c) Dragline excavated or dredged

(i) no vegetation 0.028-0.033
(ii) light bush on banks 0.035-0.050

(d) Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut

(i) dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.08-0.12
(ii) clean bottom, brush on sides 0.05-0.08
(iii) same, highest stage of flow 0.07-0.11
(iv) dense brush, high stage 0.10-0.14

Source: Based on Bureau of Public Roads, 1965. Item 1(b) and 1(c) have been added based on values
recommended by Maccaferri in their publications.

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Table 8.4.3(b) - Mannings n Values for Natural Channels

Type of Channel n

Main Channel

1. Fairly Regular Section

(a) Some grass and weeds, little or no brush 0.0300.035
(b) Dense growth of weeds, depth of flow materially greater than weed height 0.0350.05
(c) Some weeds, light brush on banks 0.0350.05
(d) Some weeds, heavy brush on banks 0.050.07
(e) Some weeds, dense willows on banks 0.060.08
(I) Trees within channel with branches submerged at high stage Add 0.01
0.02

2. Irregular Section, with pools, slight channel meander Add 0.01

To (a) to (f) above as applicable 0.02

3. Mountain Streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees and brush
along banks submerged at high stage
(a) Bottom, gravel, shingle and few boulders 0.040.05
(b) Bottom, shingle with large boulders 0.050.07

Adjacent Flood Channels

1. Pasture, no Brush
(a) Short grass 0.0300.035
(b) High grass 0.0350.05

2. Cultivated Areas
(a) No crop 0.030.04
(b) Mature row crops 0.0350.045
(c) Mature field crops 0.040.05

3. Heavy Weeds, Scattered Brush 0.050.07

4. Light Brush and Trees 0.060.08

5. Medium to Dense Brush 0.100.16

6.

7.
Dense Willows, Summer, not bent over by Current

Cleared Land with Tree Stumps (250 to 450 per ha)

0.150.20 8
(a) No sprouts 0.040.05
(b) With heavy growth of sprouts 0.060.08

9. Heavy Stand of Timber, A Few Fallen Trees, Little Undergrowth

(a) Flood depth below branches 0.100.12
(b) Flood depth reaches branches 0.120.16

Major Streams (Surface width at flood stage > 30 m)

Roughness coefficient is usually less than for minor streams of similar description on 0.120.16
account of less effect offered by irregular banks or vegetation on banks. Values of n may
be somewhat reduced. The value of n for large streams of mostly regular section may be
in the range.

Source: Based on Austroads (1994)

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n = 0.03 n = 0.04-0.045

n = 0.05-0.06

n = 0.07 n = 0.08
Notes:
1) Increase in n value with an increase in grass, weeds, shrubs and trees.
2) In general, growth of trees in photographs tends to look denser than when seen on a site
inspection.
3) Except for n = 0.03, roughness is for bank full flood heights and/or floods in upper branches of the
trees.
4) Use photographs with caution. Use in conjunction with Table 8.4.3(b)

Figure 8.4.3(b) - Natural Streams in Queensland

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Table 8.4.3(c) - Guide to the Selection of Vegetal Retardance

Density of stand Average length of Degree of Examples

(see Note 1) vegetations (mm) retardance

Thick Longer than 750 A Rhodes grass in ungrazed scrub soil waterway

Thick 280 to 610 B Wheat 660mm tall in 180mm rows Rhodes grass

B Kikuyu under maximum fertility conditions, long

and green

B African star grass. Lucerne (see Note 2)

Thick 150 to 250 C Most grasses can be hold at this retardance with
mowing or grazing e.g. Rhodes grass, couch
grass, carpet grass, native grasses

Thick 50 to 150 D African star grass, kikuyu or couch grass, all

under heavy grazing

Thick Less than 50 E Mowed lawn. Any grass burned short

Fair Longer than 750 B -

Fair 280 to 610 C Rhodes grass under low fertility conditions

Fair 150 to 250 D African star grass under low fertility conditions.

Fair 50 to 150 D -

Fair Less than 50 E -

Notes:
1. Thickness of vegetation has an important bearing on retardance, possibly more important than species.
8
2. Vegetal retardance curves have been based on tests in experimental channels.
3. Values of n = 0.15 plus have been used for fields of standing sugar cane.
4. Refer to Appendix 8A for nomographs using different vegetal retardances.

Source: Based on Soil Conservation Handbook (DPI 1978) and Rouven et al., (1981)

Equation are the Normal Depth and Normal

It is important to understand that the depth
Velocity
and velocity of any given flow in a channel
operating under normal or natural
8.4.4 Application of
conditions is called the Normal Depth and
Fundamental Equations
Normal Velocity. The depth and velocity
of flow as determined using Mannings The primary usage of the fundamental
equations is to determine the basic flow

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characteristics of a given channel. These

characteristics are:
maximum flow capacity of the
channel;
velocity of flow when at maximum
capacity;
depth of flow for a specific
discharge; and
Figure 8.4.4(a) Stage-Discharge Curve
velocity of flow for a specific
discharge. To use the Stage-Discharge curve to
determine the depth of flow for a specific,
To determine these characteristics, a
discharge, plot the required flow rate (Qy)
representative cross section for the channel
onto the left y-axis and extend across the
needs to be chosen as well as channel slope
graph to the flow line and then project
(So) and Mannings n value.
down to x-axis. To determine the velocity
Mannings equation gives the velocity of of this flow, the cross sectional area of the
flow in a channel based on a selected depth flow needs to be calculated using the
of flow (which enables calculation of the determined depth of flow.
cross-sectional area of flow and wetted
However, the Stage-Discharge curve can be
perimeter). To determine the flow rate (Q),
easily modified to include velocity by
for the selected depth of flow and using
plotted the graph using depth of flow for
velocity as determined by Mannings
the x-axis, the flow rate for the left y-axis
equation, use the fundamental equation:
and velocity for right y-axis (refer Figure
Q V . A rewritten as V Q 8.4.4(b)).
A

8 If the selected depth of flow was based on

the maximum capacity of the channel, the
first two characteristics, as listed above,
have now been determined.
To determine the last two characteristics, a
Stage-Discharge curve (also known as a
rating curve) is required. A Stage-
Discharge curve plots the depth of flow
against the flow rate at a particular cross
section along a stream / channel. To plot a
Figure 8.4.4(b) Modified Stage-
Stage-Discharge curve, a series of iterations Discharge Curve
of the above calculations / process is
required, with depths selected from zero to To use the Modified Stage-Discharge curve
maximum capacity. to determine the depth and velocity of flow
for a specific discharge, plot the required
The curve is plotted using depth of flow for flow rate (Qy) onto the left y-axis and
the x-axis and flow rate for the y-axis (refer extend across the graph to the flow line and
Figure 8.4.4(a)).

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then project down to x-axis, to determine
depth, and up / down to velocity line and
then across to the right y-axis to determine
velocity.
The advantages to using a Stage-Discharge
curve is that the curve can be used to
determine the depth and velocity of flows
for several annual recurrences intervals. It
should be noted that the Stage-Discharge
curve is linked to the channel
characteristics. Should the analysis shift to
a different location where channel
parameters are different (slope, shape n-
value and so on), a new Stage-Discharge
curve will be required.
8.4.4.1 Compound Channels
Simple channels are often represented as a
basic trapezoid (refer Figure 8.4.1.3),
assessed using one Mannings n-value
and/or based on one slope. This
methodology is reasonable for simple,
small channels. In reality, the shape of
channels is not a basic trapezoid. They are
compound in shape (refer Figure 8.4.3(a))
with:
high and low banks / possible small
overflow sections;
different n-values for banks and
channel bed; and
potentially different slopes between
main channel and overflow sections.
Assessment of compound channels uses the
same principal and methodology as
described earlier in this section, however
the channel cross section is first divided
into smaller sub-sections.
Figure 8.4.4.1 shows, diagrammatically, a
compound channel divided into two sub-
sections (labelled A & B).
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Figure 8.4.4.1 Compound Channel
Each section is analysed individually using
Mannings Equation to determine flow
velocity based on the parameters (S or So, n,
A and P) specific to the sub-section. It is
important to understand that the wetted
perimeter (P) is determined by the length of
the Water / Channel Boundary for the
sub-section. The wetted perimeter is the
component of the equation where effect of
friction is applied. The Water / Water
boundary, as shown by the red dashed line
in figure 8.4.4.1, is not to be included as the
friction along this boundary is negligible.
Once all sub-sections have been calculated,
the total flow rate can be determined by:
QTotal V A AA VB AB
Review of the calculations shows that each
section has a different average velocity.
While an average velocity can be calculated
using QTotal and the cross sectional area of
the whole channel (AA + AB), the different
8
velocities across the channel represents
reality reasonably well.
8.4.5 Energy Principles
The energy in open channel flow can be
expressed as the total head in metres (m) of
water, which is equal to the sum of the
elevation above a datum (elevation head),
the hydrostatic head and the velocity head.
The elevation head and hydrostatic head are
components collectively known as the static
head.
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In conventional terms, energy has two y are of similar magnitude. While strictly
components: not correct, the terms can be
interchangeable (based on condition) as the
potential energy; and
difference is small, therefore the practice is
kinetic energy. acceptable.
Now, relating conventional terms to the It is important to understand that this
energy within water, potential energy is equation differs slightly from the normal
equal to the static head and kinetic energy is form of the energy equation for open
equal to the velocity head. To illustrate channels, which is:
this, a static body of water such as a lake,
V2
has potential energy while a moving body H ( z d cos )
of water such as a creek, has both potential 2g
energy and kinetic energy. Where:

8.4.5.1 Energy Equation = slope angle of channel bed; and

= coefficient accounting for
The total energy for an open channel
velocity distribution.
section is given by:
Channels assessed by the department for the
V2
H (z d ) installation of cross drainage culverts are
2g relatively flat and therefore is assumed to
Where: be zero.

H = total energy head (m); Referring to Section 8.4.2, it is assumed

that velocity is averaged across cross
z = height of channel bed above
section of flow, therefore, is equal to 1.
some reference datum (m), known as
elevation head; The energy equation is useful when
comparing two sections within a channel.
8 d = depth of flow normal to the
direction of flow (m), known as
Typically, as water flows along a channel,
energy is lost. However, the first law of
hydrostatic head;
thermodynamics tells us that energy can
V = velocity of flow (m/s); and neither be created nor destroyed.
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 Therefore, when comparing the energy
m/s2). between two sections, the relationship can
be expressed as:
The term V
2
within this equation is
2g 2 2
V V
known as the velocity head. ( z1 d 1 ) 1 ( z 2 d 2 ) 2 h L
2g 2g
According to Chow (1959) and Henderson
Where:
(1966), the variable d describes the depth of
flow normal to the direction of flow hL = head loss (m).
(typically perpendicular to channel bed).
This relationship is best illustrated in Figure
The variable y, as used in other equations,
8.4.5.1
describes the vertical depth of flow. Where
channels are relatively flat (So < 18), d and

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Department of Transport and Main Roads
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8.4.5.2 Specific Energy
Specific Energy (m) is defined as the
energy per unit mass of water at any
section, measured with respect to the
channel bed. The Specific Energy (Es)
equation (which is essentially a sub-
component of the energy equation) is:
V2
Es y
2g
Figure 8.4.5.1 Comparing Energy between Points
Figure 8.4.5.2 - Specific Energy Curve (Source: Franzini & Finnemore (1997))
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
When the depth of flow is plotted against
the specific energy for a given channel
section and discharge (only bed slope
changes from flat to steep), a specific
energy curve is obtained, as shown in
Figure 8.4.5.2. This curve shows that for a
given specific energy (Es), there are two
possible (conjugate) depths called alternate
depths; y1 and y2.
8
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At point C on the curve, the specific energy
is at a minimum and there is only one
depth. The depth corresponding to this
point is known as the critical depth yc. The
corresponding velocity is the critical
velocity (Vc) and the slope is the critical
slope (Sc).
When the depth of flow is greater than the
critical depth, the flow velocity is less than
the critical velocity and is referred to as
subcritical flow. When the depth of flow is
less than critical depth, the flow is
supercritical. Subcritical flow is controlled
by downstream channel conditions, while
supercritical flow results from some
upstream control condition.
8.4.5.3 Froudes Number
Another, simpler method to determine
subcritical / supercritical flow is by
determining the Froude Number (Fr) for the
flow.
Froudes Number is a dimensionless
number, the ratio of inertial forces to
gravitational forces, and defined as:
V
8 Fr
gL
Where:
V = velocity of flow (m/s);
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81
m/s2); and
L = characteristic length (m).
The characteristic length (L) in open
channel flow is equal to the hydraulic
depth, which is defined as the cross
sectional area of flow divided by the
surface width of flow. Using either the
hydraulic depth or flow rate for the stream,
there are two commonly used forms of the
above equation:
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
V
Fr and Fr Q B
B
g A gA
3
Where:
A = cross sectional area of flow
normal to direction of flow (m2);
B = width of flow at surface (m); and
Q = flow rate (m3/s).
These equations are valid for irregular
channel / stream sections.
Froudes Number indicates the state of
flow. Critical Flow occurs when Fr = 1.
When Fr is greater than 1, the flow is
supercritical, and when it is less than 1 the
flow is subcritical. When Fr is close to 1 (>
0.9 but < 1.1) the flow state is unstable and
waves appear on the water surface.
Design is recommended to achieve a
Froude Number less than 0.9 (subcritical
flow).
8.4.6 Hydraulic Jump
A hydraulic jump is an abrupt rise of the
water surface which occurs when flow
changes from supercritical to subcritical in
response to a downstream control
conditional causing a higher tailwater level.
The rapid (and turbulent) rise of water
dissipates energy. The turbulence persists
for some length after the rise before
settling.
The rise and trailing turbulence is called the
roller and is shown between points 1 and
2 on Figure 8.4.6.
The depth, y1 before the hydraulic jump is
called the initial depth, and the depth y2,
after the jump is called sequent depth.
With reference to Figure 8.4.6, the sequent
depth is always lower than the high stage
alternate depth, y2, due to the loss of
Department of Transport and Main Roads
Road Drainage Manual
energy, E, in the turbulence of the
hydraulic jump. Due to this loss of energy,
the solution to hydraulic jump problems
cannot be found using the Specific Energy
curve alone. The principle of momentum
must also be used to develop a Specific
Force or Force Momentum curve as shown
in Figure 8.4.6.
The detailed analysis of hydraulic jumps is
difficult and complex. Full analysis of
jumps should be undertaken by experienced
hydraulic engineers and therefore should be
referred to Hydraulics Section, Engineering
& Technology Division or a suitably pre-
qualified consultant.
However, several models based on accepted
theory, experimentation, laboratory testing
in rectangular channels and observation,
have been developed to approximate key
parameters of hydraulic jumps in irregular
open channels.
These simple methods are considered
reasonable for analysing undular and weak
hydraulic jumps (refer Section 8.4.6.2) and
have been adopted by the department for
general use in analysing hydraulic jumps.
Figure 8.4.6 - Analysis Curves and the Hydraulic Jump
Source: Chow (1959)
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
8.4.6.1 Specific Force
As mentioned above, the solution to
hydraulic jump problems cannot be found
using the Specific Energy curve alone. The
hydraulic jump involves internal energy
losses which cannot be simply evaluated
using the energy equation therefore the use
of the momentum principle is required.
In applying the momentum principle to a
short horizontal reach of a prismatic
channel, the Specific Force can be defined
as:
Q2
F y A
gA
Where:
Q = discharge (m3/s);
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81
m/s2);
A = area of cross section (m2); and
= depth to the centre of gravity to
cross section (m).
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The first term is the momentum of the flow parameters are flow velocity, flow depth
passing though the channel section per unit and Froude Number.
time, per unit weight of water. The second
Using these parameters, the alternate or
is the force per unit weight of water.
sequent depth (y2) can be determined.
An examination of Figure 8.4.6 shows that
Considering;
while water flows at a depth (y1) for a given
discharge (Q) in any channel, there will energy and momentum principles;
always be another depth where the sum of using the initial flow velocity as V1;
the force due to velocity plus the
using the initial flow depth as y1; and
hydrostatic pressure for both depths will be
the same. experiments using a rectangular
channel.
This means that the specific forces of
sections 1 and 2 are equal, provided that the Rectangular Channels
external forces and the weight effect of
The following equation was developed to
water can be ignored. This generally can be
calculate the sequent depth (y2) in a
applied to horizontal channels with small
rectangular channel:
bed slopes (So 10%).
With respect to the rule that there is always
y2 1

y1 2

1 8 Fr2 1
two depths, the exception is at critical depth
(points C & C) where energy is at a OR

1 8F 1
minimum and there is only one depth of
y1
flow. y2 r
2

2
8.4.6.2 Jump Strength Where:

Hydraulic jumps can only form if the Fr V1 (rectangular section)

8 upstream flow is supercritical (i.e. has a
Froude Number greater than 1). As
Froudes Number increases, the strength of
the jump also increases.
Table 8.4.6.2 lists the different types of
jump and their defining characteristics.
This table has been derived from research
studies undertaken in 1955 by the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation (USA).
8.4.6.3 Sequent Depth Horizontal
Channels (SO 10%)
The parameters of the supercritical,
upstream flow before the hydraulic jump
are known / can been determined. These
gy1
This relationship is shown graphically in
Figure 8.4.6.3.
Trapezoidal Channels
The determination of sequent depth (y2) in a
trapezoidal channel of reasonably small bed
slope (So 10%), requires an iterative
solution. However, when applying the
Specific Energy and Specific Force
equations, it is possible to arrange these
equations into a dimensionless form,
allowing solution by means of a table.

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Table 8.4.6.2 Jump Types and Strength

Jump Type Fr Energy Dissipated Characteristics

Undular 1.0 1.7 < 5% Very weak jump; standing waves

Weak 1.7 2.5 5 15% Weak jump; small roller; smooth rise

Oscillating 2.5 4.5 15 45% Unstable avoid

Stable, well defined jump; best design

Steady 4.5 9.0 45 70%
range

Strong > 9.0 70 85% Choppy; very turbulent; intermittent

Table 8.4.6.3 assists the designer with the

calculation of the sequent depth (depth after
the jump). This table has been derived
from the Handbook of Hydraulics, 7th Ed,
1996 by Brater et al. 8
y2 1
1 8 Fr2 1
y1 2

Fr V1 gy1

Fr

Source: Chow (1959)

Figure 8.4.6.3 - Relation between Froude

Number and Depths of Flow in a
Hydraulic Jump

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 Department of Transport and Main Roads
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Table 8.4.6.3 - Sequent Depth for Trapezoidal Channels (So 10%)
8
Source: Brater et al. (1996)
8.4.6.4 Sequent Depth Sloping
Channels (SO > 10%)
While the effect of the weight of water in
the jump is negligible for horizontal
channels (So 10%), it is essential to
consider it in the analysis of hydraulic
jumps in sloping channels (So > 10%).
Thus, the momentum equations for
horizontal channels cannot be applied to
jumps on channels having a bed slope
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
larger than 10%. However the momentum
principle can be used to derive analogous
equations, which will contain an empirical
function that has to be determined
experimentally. This work was undertaken
by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1964) and
the research shows that the depth ratio y2/y1
can be shown as a function of Froude
Number (F1) and Slope (So). The graph of
this function is shown in Figure 8.4.6.4.
Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

y2
y1

V1
Fr1
B
gA

Source: Chow (1959)

Figure 8.4.6.4 - Sequent Depth for Sloping Channels (SO > 10%)

alternate depth y1, the jump will start to

8.4.6.5 Location of Jump

The location of the jump is dependant

move into the mild channel.
8
primarily on the momentum of flow before
and after the jump and can occur either
before or after the trigger situation that
causes the initial supercritical flow to
slow to subcritical flow. For a closer
estimate of the jump position, the length of
the jump should be considered as described
in Section 8.4.6.6 below. Source: Chow (1959)

Figure 8.4.6.5 shows a channel having a Figure 8.4.6.5 Location of a Hydraulic

Jump
break in the bed slope (steep to mild
slope) and two possible locations for the
8.4.6.6 Length of Jump
jump. If the sequent depth y2 is greater than
the alternate depth y1, the jump will occur The length of a hydraulic jump is defined as
in the steep region. If the sequent depth y2 the distance measured from the front face of
is lowered to less than approximately the

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 Department of Transport and Main Roads
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the jump to a point on the surface
immediately downstream of the roller and is
difficult to model and predict. Two
methods to determine the length of jump
are presented here.
Method 1
Observation and measurements have shown
that a good approximation of jump length is
5 times the sequent depth (y2). In most
cases, the jump length is between 4 and 6
times y2.
Method 2
The length of the jump can be determined
from a relationship based on experimental
data prepared by the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation (1964), as shown in Figure
8.4.6.6. This curve was developed
primarily for jumps in rectangular channels
but may also be applied to approximate
undular and weak jumps formed in
trapezoidal channels.
The length determined by either method
should be rounded up to the nearest meter.
As the length of jump indicates the extent
of turbulence, it is therefore the minimum
8 length of channel that should be armoured
against scour / erosion. When determining
the length of jumps in open channels for
armouring purposes, Method 1 is
recommended as it gives a more
conservative answer. Method two should
only be used when in constrained situations.
8.4.6.7 Application of Hydraulic
Jumps
There are many practical applications for
the hydraulic jump. The most practical of
these applications, for the purpose of road
design, is its use as an energy dissipator to
prevent scouring downstream of a hydraulic
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
structure such as a culvert or to prevent
scouring in an open channel.
8.4.7 Hydraulic Drop
The converse of the hydraulic jump, the
hydraulic drop, can also occur due to an
abrupt change in channel slope or cross
section. It can frequently occur near the
entrance to a culvert flowing under inlet
control. (An explanation of culverts
flowing under inlet control is given in
Chapter 9).
8.5 Erosive Velocities in
Natural Streams
Natural streams may be part of an open
channel design or subject to outlet
velocities from drainage structure and
therefore a key design consideration is
ensuring that any design changes to the
flow in the natural stream do not create
erosive situations in the stream.
Erosive velocities in natural stream beds are
shown in Table 8.5 and have been derived
from curves in Neill (1973).
8.6 Backwater
Backwater is the accumulation of water in a
stream that can be caused by:
an obstruction limiting downstream
channel capacity (that causes afflux
in the stream);
tidal flow (refer Section 8.6.1);
a downstream body of water such as
a weir, dam or lake; or
a higher-than-normal flow stage in a
downstream connecting stream (refer
Section 8.6.2).
Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

Source: Chow (1959)

Figure 8.4.6.6 - Length of Hydraulic Jump in Terms of Sequent (y2) in Horizontal Channels

have a level that is increased above normal

Table 8.5 - Erosive Velocities in Natural depth. The cause of backwater can be a
Streams significant distance away from, but still
affect, the site being assessed. Therefore
Stream Bed Type Velocity (m/s) designers should check the downstream
conditions of planned sites or designed
Silt less than 0.3 infrastructure for possible backwater
influence.
Sand Fine less than 0.3
Coarse less than 0.3
Calculating the effect of backwater on
normal stream flows can be difficult and is
beyond the scope of this manual. If it is
8
Gravel 6 mm 0.6 to 0.9
considered that backwater could be
25 mm 1.3 to 1.5 affecting stream flow, advice and/or
100 mm 2.0 to 3.0 assistance should be sought from the
departments Hydraulics Section or a
Clay Soft 0.3 to 0.6 suitably pre-qualified consultant.
Stiff 1.0 to 1.2
Hard 1.5 to 2.0 8.6.1 Tidal Waters

Rocks 150 mm 2.5 to 3.0 Backwater as a result of tidal flow can

300 mm 3.5 to 4.0
The presence of backwater typically causes
an upstream section or body of water to
affect stream flow and in turn drainage
infrastructure design. When determining
backwater effects on tailwater levels for
streams discharging into tidal waters, three
factors may influence the final design level:
tide levels;

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storm surges; and
climate change.
8.6.1.1 Sea and Tide Levels
Tide Tables are published by the
Department of Transport and Main Roads
(previously Queensland Transport) for
various coastal locations in Queensland.
This data is used to estimate backwater and
tailwater levels for drainage designs.
The Mean High Water Spring (MHWS) tide
is often applied as a tailwater level since
this is a reasonable high tide level, but not
overly conservative. Spring tides occur
approximately once a fortnight at full and
new moon. The definition of different tidal
levels is provided in Figure 8.6.1.1,
reproduced from the tide tables.
Storm tides are an increase in ocean levels
above the expected tidal levels caused by
low pressure and wind effects. Storm tides
can occur at any stage of the tidal cycle.
As with other effects, the selection of a
storm tide needs to consider the combined
risk of occurrence of the storm tide and the
8 flood from the waterway. The probability
of a catchment flood at the same time as a
storm tide is the product of the probabilities
of the separate events, resulting in a much
rarer combined recurrence interval than that
of the separate events.
Storm tides have been analysed for
locations around Queensland and levels are
available from the Department of
Environment and Resource Management
(previously Queensland Environmental
Protection Agency) and local authorities.
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
It is important to note that:
mean sea level given for the location
may be different to Australian Height
Datum (AHD) which is the average
mean sea level of 42 locations around
Australia;
tide levels are given at or very close
to the coastline; and
tide levels are often specified in
terms of low water datum.
It is very difficult to estimate the tide level
at a location in a stream some distance from
the coastline. The time for the tide to rise
along the creek and to then flow back in the
opposite direction is one factor. Another is
the existence of local sand bars or raised
areas of the creek bed closer to the mouth
of the stream, which may prevent a tide
from reaching or falling below a certain
level at a particular road crossing. The
transient nature of sand bars adds to the
difficulty in estimating the tidal reach.
Although precise tide levels are not usually
necessary at an upstream road or bridge
crossing, tide levels at the mouth of the
tidal stream are not sufficient to give tide
design parameters at the road or bridge.
The absolute minimum survey requirements
at a road or bridge site are the times and
levels for successive low - high - low tides.
Alternatively successive high - low - high
tide information may be found. The more
tidal cycles measured the better.
This information when compared with tide
levels at the mouth of the creek will allow
experienced hydraulic engineers to predict
approximate design tides such as MHWS
and MLWS (Mean Low Water Springs) at
the project site.
Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

MSL
(Mean Sea-Level) The average level of the sea over a long period (preferably 18.6
years) or the average level which would exist in the absence of tides.
HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide) / LAT (Lowest Astronomical Tide) These are
the highest and lowest levels which can be predicated to occur under average
meteorological conditions and any combination of astronomical conditions. These
levels will not be reached every year. HAT and LAT are not the extreme levels
which can be reached, as storm surges may cause considerably higher and lower
levels to occur.
MHWS (Mean High Water Springs) Long term average of the heights of two
successive high waters during these periods of 24 hours (approximately once a
fortnight) when the range of tide is greatest, at full and new moon.
MLWS (Mean Low Water Springs) The long term average value of two successive
8
low waters over the same periods are defined for MHWN
AHD (Australia Height Datum) This Datum has been adopted by the National Mapping
Council as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping is to be referred.

Figure 8.6.1.1 - Tidal Planes

Storm surges occur as part of major storms

8.6.1.2 Storm Surge
A storm surge is the rise (or fall) of open
coast water levels relative to the normal
water level and is due to the action of wind
stress and atmospheric pressure on the
water surface.
such as cyclones where there are low
atmospheric pressures and the wind blows
over reaches of the ocean.
Some predicted surge heights have been
produced by the Department of
Environment and Resource Management
and this data should be referenced.

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 Department of Transport and Main Roads
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There is no correlation with tide levels, nor
are there any predictions for wave break
setup and wave runup on the land. These
factors will need consideration for any
design with storm surge as a factor.
Storm surges would need to be considered
with respect to coastal developments, the
protection of coastal roads, route immunity
for evacuation purposes, and for major
coastal drainage designs. Local
government may also have specific
requirements or data in relation to storm
surge.
There is a low likelihood of occurrence of
storm surge coinciding with flood events,
so calculation of design floods does not
need to consider both together, but the two
effects should be considered independently.
8.6.2 Downstream Tributary
If the crossing is located on a stream which
joins another watercourse (larger or
smaller) downstream, other issues need to
be considered.
As the two open channels have different
8 catchment sizes, they will peak at different
times. The combined flow at their junction
needs to be assessed.
In this case, two situations need to be
considered:
(a) Major flood on tributary with
limited flow in the main stream;
and
(b) Major flood on the main stream and
limited flow in the tributary.
Both cases need to be analysed to provide
an understanding of the potential flood
conditions at the road. The risk of
coincidental flooding in the two streams
needs to be considered to determine the
combined risk of flooding. Depending on
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
the relative sizes of the two streams, it may
not be realistic to expect floods to occur
together in the two streams.
8.7 Tailwater Levels
Tailwater level refers to the normal water
level, for a given flow, in a channel
immediately downstream of a drainage
structure. For a proposed culvert, it is the
depth of flow at the culvert outlet, measured
from the water surface in the downstream
channel to the invert of the culvert and the
depth can be significant. Tailwater levels
are an important control on the hydraulic
performance of road drainage structures,
therefore the estimation of tailwater levels
is required for all hydraulic analyses for
bridges and culverts.
Typically, tailwater level is defined by the
downstream channel properties. If the
downstream channel and flow is uniform,
the tailwater level may be determined using
Mannings Equation (refer Section 8.4.3).
If the downstream flow is non-uniform, or
if it is being influenced by backwater, a
more sophisticated analysis by an
experienced hydraulic engineer is required.
In this situation, advice and/or assistance in
this case can be provided the departments
Hydraulics Section or a suitably pre-
qualified consultant.
8.7.1 Tailwater Effects
As previously mentioned, tailwater is an
important aspect required to determine the
hydraulic operation and performance of
drainage structures.
A low tailwater typically means the channel
can drain the stormwater away fairly
quickly / easily. This is common where
drainage channels are less defined with low
banks, allowing the stormwater to spread
Department of Transport and Main Roads
Road Drainage Manual
widely. Drainage structures with low
tailwater levels will most likely be
controlled by inlet conditions and can have
high outlet velocities, therefore erosion can
be an issue. A high tailwater level typically
means the channel does not drain the
stormwater away quickly. This is common
where drainage channels are reasonably
defined with mid-to-high banks, allowing
the channel to contain most stormwater
flows. Drainage structures with high
tailwater will most likely be controlled by
outlet conditions and can have low outlet
velocities, therefore high headwater levels
(afflux) can be an issue.
8.7.2 Design Tailwater Levels
Typically, tailwater levels should be
determined based on an assessment of
channel flow (and flow depths), for a given
discharge, over a significant length of
undisturbed downstream channel. This
assessment is usually commenced at a point
well downstream of the proposed structure
and calculated back / upstream towards the
proposed structure. This assessment is
complex and hydraulic modelling software
is often used.
For the design of most drainage structures
within the scope of this manual, the survey
data gathered in relation to creeks / streams
/ channels is usually limited to the road
environment (constrained by property
boundaries), unless extended downstream
survey was specifically requested.
Using available survey data and assuming
the channel is regular in shape and steady,
uniform flow conditions can be expected,
the tailwater level can be determined using
Mannings formula as follows:
(a) Adopt a stream / channel cross
section just downstream of
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
proposed structure outlet, but
representative of the downstream
channel in general.
(b) Using a series of calculations
(Mannings Equation & Q=A.V),
from no flow to maximum channel
capacity, develop a stage-discharge
curve for the channel.
(c) Using the stage-discharge curve
and design discharge for the
proposed structure, determine flow
depth. This depth is adopted as the
tailwater depth for the proposed
structure analysis.
If the design discharge exceeds the
maximum capacity of the channel, it means
the channel will overflow and the design
discharge (flow) will spread. Review
survey data to see if there are any high
banks or if cross section can be extended to
allow for increased flow depth and if so,
extend stage-discharge curve to incorporate
additional waterway area. If the extended
cross section cannot contain the design
discharge and the spread of flow is
significant (there would be little increase in
flow depth based on design discharge), then
the tailwater level could be set at the level
8
of maximum capacity for the defined
channel. Also, if there is not much of an
outlet channel (flat terrain / low banks) and
the design discharge easily overtops the
banks and/or spread of flow is significant,
then a low tailwater level should be
adopted. Use survey data to produce a wide
flat cross section and then process as above
to determine this low tailwater level. The
old rule-of-thumb to adopt a tailwater
level of barrel height of proposed culvert
is not considered accurate enough and can
result in inappropriate designs.
Furthermore, anecdotal information with
respect to channel flows should be sourced
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 Department of Transport and Main Roads
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from local residents. Theoretical
predictions (proposed tailwater level)
should be checked against the anecdotal
evidence to see if both reasonably agree. If
so, then the level of confidence in
prediction is increased. If not, then further
checks of calculations / gathered
information and so on is required. All
gathered information should be recorded.
8.8 Open Channel Design
The problem most likely to be faced by the
designer of artificial channels is the
determination of a channel cross-section
that will convey the design flow down a
slope producing a velocity which does not
create scour.
8.8.1 Design Methodology
There are two artificial channel types:
hard lined channels; and
vegetated / bare-earth channels.
Each of these channel types has a specific
design methodology to determine the
channel cross section and these are detailed
8 in the following sections.
8.8.1.1 General Considerations
Further to the discussions in Sections 8.9
and 8.10, the following are aspects that
should be considered / established before
the design of the channel commences.
The velocity of flow in open channels is a
key aspect. Channel slope is an important
factor in flow velocity. Generally, flow in
channels is intermittent, and the channel
must be constructed to allow all stormwater
to drain away (no ponding). Therefore the
minimum channel slope (So) for hard lined
channels should not be less than 0.25% and
not be less than 0.5% for vegetated and
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
bare-earth channels. If a self-cleaning
channel is required, designers should
reference Section 2.8 for requirements.
Channel side slopes should be based on the
slope stability of the material the channel is
to be constructed in (channel is shaped
before lining applied or grass grows).
Typically, this will be in the range 1on 1 to
1 on 4. Safe access for maintenance
equipment should also be considered.
Freeboard is the additional height of
channel required above the height of the
design flow. This allows for inaccuracies in
data used in calculation and possible
surcharge due to silt / debris build up and/or
grass growth in the channel because of
delayed maintenance of the channel.
The freeboard to be adopted for open
channels, similar to QUDM (NR&W 2008),
is the greater of the following calculations:
300 mm A;
20% of the flow depth; or
velocity head B of the flow.
A
: Where flooding of adjacent land
and buildings does not represent a
risk, the 300mm requirement can be
reduced to 150mm.
B
: Refer Section 8.4.5.1.
8.8.1.2 Hard Lined Channels
With hard lined or rigid boundary channels,
the design procedure is relatively simple as
potentially erosive velocities are less
important. Therefore, the cost of
excavation and lining are primary factors in
determining the geometry of the channel.
Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

In designing hard lined channels the (b) For best hydraulic section:
following must be initially considered:
by yX 2 y
R
lining
2 y 2 yX b
material (determines 2 2
Mannings n-value).
Based on the proposed channel lining, the and resolve for b as a function of y.
Mannings n-value can be selected from (c) Combining Mannings and Continuity
Table 8.4.3(a). Equations:
2 1
Research and experimentation has found AR 3 S f 2
that the most efficient, hydraulic section is Q
n
when the wetted perimeter (P) is minimised
for a given cross sectional area (A). Where:
Typically, in open channels, this occurs
A = by + Xy2 ; and
when the width of flow is twice the depth of
flow. Therefore the shape of channel that R = y/2
gives the best hydraulic efficiency (also So is used to approximate Sf (Friction
known as best hydraulic section) occurs Slope)
when the hydraulic radius is R
y
2 (d) Substitute b in equation with function
from (b) and solve for y.
Based on this requirement, the most
efficient shape is a semi-circle as it has the (e) With y, calculate b using function from
least wetted perimeter for a given area R (b).
is always equal to y/2 irrespective of Channel geometry can now be determined
dimensions. However the cost and and freeboard added.
difficulty of building semi-circular channels
prohibits their widespread use. Trapezoidal (f) Calculate Froude Number for channel
channels are more commonplace. The most section / flow and together with
efficient trapezoidal shape is the half-
hexagon.
velocity and depth of flow, check that
conditions are acceptable where the 8
designed channel discharges into an
For the design of hard lined channels: existing channel etc.
(a) Determine design discharge (Q), bed
slope (So), Mannings n-value and 8.8.1.3 Vegetated or Bare-earth
channel side slope (X) (refer Figure Channels
8.8.1.2).
Vegetated / bare-earth channels are erodible
boundary channels and the design
procedure is relatively simple, based on the
method of maximum permissible velocity.
This method assumes that the channel will
remain stable provided that the average
velocity of the design flow is below a
Figure 8.8.1.2 Trapezoidal Channel
Section determined threshold value. This method is

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 Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

not as realistic as shear-based / tractive For the design of vegetated / bare-earth

force methods but is considered reasonable. channels:
A key concern for vegetated channels is (a) Determine design discharge (Q), bed
what happens when the grass cover cannot slope (So), Mannings n-value, channel
be maintained, such as during drought or side slope (X) (refer Figure 8.8.1.2) and
after a bushfire. This aspect should be maximum permissible velocity (Vmax)
considered and if there is a reasonable risk from Table 8.8.1.3. For bare-earth
of occurrence and channel scour is likely / channel design, adopt 0% cover.
not desirable, then design should be
(b) Using the basic equation Q=V.A,
undertaken assuming bare-earth design
determine required waterway area.
values.
AQ
In designing vegetated / bare-earth channels Vmax
the following must be considered:
(c) Combining Mannings and Continuity
the material the channel is to be Equations:
constructed in;
2 1
a suitable grass species for the
AR 3 S o 2
Q
channel (where applicable); and n

an appropriate Mannings n-value. (d) rearrange and solve for wetted

perimeter (P):
A suitable grass species for a stormwater
3
channel should be quick to establish, be self A 5 3 S 12 2

repair, have a relatively short blade length P o

Qn
(< 50 mm), be able to survive short
durations of inundation, be able to
(e) Based on channel geometry, two
withstand proposed design velocities and be
expressions for A and P exist:
native to area. The species should be
8 chosen in consultation with a suitably
qualified landscape architect or
A b yX y ; and

horticulturalist. The reason for choosing a P 2y X 2 1 b

short blade length grass species is primarily Rearrange expression for A to isolate b:
that longer blade length species can reduce
A
flow velocity by increased flow resistance. b yX
This increases flow depth (surcharge) and y
ultimately can cause the channel to break its and substitute back into expression for P:
banks.
A
Table 8.8.1.3, largely derived from Soil P 2y X 2 1 yX
y
Conservation Measures Design Manual
for Queensland (NR&M 2004), gives Now calculate depth of flow (y). Solving
maximum permissible velocities, for use in for y requires rearrangement into the form
design, for consolidated, bare-earth of a quadratic equation.
channels and vegetated channels. ay 2 by c 0

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The general solution of a quadratic equation Table 8.8.1.3 - Maximum Permissible

Velocities (Design) for Consolidated,
is: Bare Channels and Vegetated Channels
b b 2 4ac Channel Permissible velocities (m/s) when
y gradient fraction of stable surface cover
2a is:

Solving a quadratic equation gives 2 roots. % 0.02 0.5 0.7 1.0

Substitute roots (y) into:
A Erosion resistant soils (e.g. Krasnozemsm &
b yX Red Earths)
y
0.5 0.8 1.8 2.4 2.8
and solve for b. Dismiss any negative
1 0.7 1.6 2.1 2.8
solution and adopt the positive (real) 2 0.6 1.4 1.8 2.5
solution for y. 3 0.5 1.3 1.7 2.4
Channel geometry can now be determined 4 1.3 1.6 2.3
and freeboard added. 5 1.2 1.6 2.2
6 1.5 2.1
If there are no real roots to the equation,
8 1.5 2.0
this means that the velocity will never reach 10 1.4 1.9
the maximum permissible for the given 15 1.3 1.8
discharge (Q) and roughness (n), regardless 20 1.3 1.7
of channel dimensions. In this case, use the
best hydraulic section design Easily eroded soils (e.g. Black Earths & fine
surface texture contrast soils)
methodology as detailed in Section 8.8.1.2
for the design of the vegetated channel, but 0.5 0.6 1.3 1.6 2.3
check that the average velocity of the 1 0.5 1.2 1.5 2.1
resultant channel section does not exceed 2 0.5 1.1 1.4 1.9
the maximum permissible velocity. 3 0.4 1.0 1.3 1.8
Calculate Froude Number for channel
section / flow and together with velocity
4
5
1.0
0.9
1.2
1.2
1.7
1.6 8
6 1.1 1.6
and depth of flow, check that conditions are
8 1.1 1.5
acceptable where the designed channel
10 1.1 1.5
discharges into an existing channel etc.
15 1.0 1.4
8.8.2 Channel Transitions 20 0.9 1.3

Changes from one channel cross-section to Notes:

another should be smoothly transitioned as
energy losses occur with the changes.
It is recommended that maximum
contraction rates of about 1 on 1, and
maximum expansion rates of about 1 on 4
be adopted as shown in Figure 8.8.2.
1. Assume the following species under average
conditions will provide the fraction of cover indicated:
- Kikuyu, Pangola and
well maintained Couch species 1.0.
- Rhodes grass, poorly maintained
Couch species - 0.7
- Native species, tussock grasses - 0.5
2. Applies to surface consolidated, but not cultivated

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 Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
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Where:
hb = channel bend head loss (m);
B = channel width (m);

Figure 8.8.2 - Maximum Rates of V = average flow velocity (m/s);

Contraction and Expansion
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81
m/s);
Transition head losses can be calculated
Rc = centreline radius of bend (m).
using the equation:
Results from using this equation should be
V 2 V 2
ht C u 1 2 considered as providing a conservative
2g 2g estimate of head loss.

Where: For bends between 0 and 90 degrees, linear

interpolation is recommended.
ht = transition head loss (m);
Cu = transition energy loss coefficient
Table 8.8.2 - Channel Transition Energy
(dimensionless); Loss Coefficients
V1 = average flow velocity upstream Transition Contraction Expansion
Type
of transition (m/s); Coefficient Coefficient
Cu Cu
V2 = average flow velocity
downstream of transition (m/s).
(i) Gradual 0.1 0.3
Table 8.8.2 gives contraction and expansion channel
coefficients (Cu) for use in this formula. transition

It will be noted that the more abrupt the (ii) Straight 0.3 0.5
transition, the greater the energy loss.
8 The difference in velocity head is always to
through
bridge
transition
be taken as positive even if mathematically
it is negative. In other words a change in
(iii) Square 0.6 0.8
section will always give a head loss.
edged abrupt
transition
8.8.3 Energy Losses in Channel
Bends Source: US Army Corps of Engineers

QUDM (NR&W 2008) gives an equation to

calculate the loss in a bend in an open
channel based on work by Mockmore
(1944). The equation for channel bend
head loss for bends with changes in
direction between 90 to 180 degrees is:
2 B V 2
hb bend and a corresponding dip in water
R
c 2 g
8.8.4 Superelevation in Channel
Bends
Water flowing around a bend in an open
channel may show a superelevation with a
rise in water level on the outside of the
levels on the inside of the bend. The

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Department of Transport and Main Roads
Road Drainage Manual
maximum difference in these water levels is
termed the superelevation (not to be
confused with the percentage
superelevation in geometric road design).
The superelevation should be considered
when a flood level is reported at a bend (the
exact location needing to be defined), or
where it is essential that the design flow
does not exit from a man made channel at
the outside edge of a bend.
QUDM (NR&W 2008) gives the following
equation to calculate the superelevation:
R V 2 To function well, grassed channels
hsup 2 log e o
Ri 2 g
Where:
hsup = superelevation of the water
surface across the channel (level
difference) (m);
V = average flow velocity (m/s);
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81
m/s);
Ro= outside radius of bend (m);
Ri = inner radius of bend (m).
8.9 Grassed Channels
This section provides the guidelines for
channels that will use grass as a protective
lining. Designers should refer to Chapter 7
of this manual for further guidelines when
an open channel (such as a swale) is to also
be used for environmental reasons.
8.9.1 Normal Grassed Channels
The cross section shapes generally used for
grassed channels are trapezoidal (most
common), parabolic, or triangular. Flat side
slopes of absolute maximum steepness 1 on
4 and desirable maximum 1 on 6 should be
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
used where space permits to assist in
minimising maintenance costs.
The maximum permissible velocity of flow
in a grass channel is the velocity which, if
maintained for a reasonable length of time,
will not cause erosion. Permissible
velocities for different vegetal covers,
channel slopes, and soil conditions are
given in Table 8.8.1.3.
The minimum non-silting velocity is
uncertain. As a general rule the channel
velocity should not fall below 0.5 m/s.
normally have slopes of from 0.2 to 0.6
percent. Where natural topography is
steeper than the desired slope of the
channel, drop structures / channel drops
(refer Section 8.11) should be considered.
Sharp curves which affect the flow in the
channel should not be used. In general,
curves should be such that the minimum
radius at the centre line is equal to about
three times the width of the top of the
design flow.
Research by the United States Soil
Conservation Service (USSCS) has found
that, for a particular channel lined with a 8
certain species of grass of a definite length,
the value of n varies with the product of the
mean velocity of flow V (m/s) and the
hydraulic radius R (m). The relationship is
a characteristic of the vegetation and is the
same for most common sections used.
The vegetation characteristics were defined
by five degrees of retardance (A to E)
depending on the grass species and length.
A channel lined with a grass having a high
retardance (A), such as 750 mm long
Rhodes grass, has its flow severely
restricted by the grass, while any grass less
than 50 mm long, retardance (E), has little
effect on the flow. The relationship
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 Department of Transport and Main Roads
Road Drainage Manual
between grass species, length and
retardance is given in Table 8.4.3(c).
The original USSCS curves for degree of
retardance D and E have been replaced in
this Manual by curves based on work by
Rouven et al. (1981) who found that the
original curves were not acceptable for
short, stiff vegetation on slopes smaller than
5%.
The use of erosion control cut-off walls at
regular intervals in a grassed channel is
desirable. Such cut-off walls will safeguard
a channel from serious erosion prior to the
grass becoming established or immediately
after a fire. These walls are usually of
unreinforced concrete or rock masonry,
approximately 200 mm wide and from 450
mm to 600 mm deep, extending across the
entire bed of the channel conforming to its
shape. Where the banks of the channel may
erode, these walls should extend up the
banks to the design water surface.
The designer needs to consider the impact
of these walls on the conveyance of the
channel and hence flood levels.
8 8.9.2 Reinforced Grassed
Channels
The use of reinforced grass (or turf) in
channel design provides the benefits of
significantly increased allowable flow
velocities, however, these products also
come with disadvantages, including:
possible public safety problems
resulting from high flow velocities;
maintenance personnel may not be
aware of the existence of the grass
reinforcing and normal grading
operations can result in costly
damage to the reinforcing mats;
damage by grass fires;
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
degradation of habitat of ground-
dwelling wildlife in a bushland
environment,
die-off of grass owing to high
sediment deposition (reinforced grass
or turf can only be installed once the
contributing catchment is stable); and
loss of topsoil in the future when the
channel is removed, rebuilt,
reconditioned or relocated (the
reinforced grass and its enclosed
topsoil will likely need to be
removed from the site, thus
preventing the reuse of the topsoil).
The latter point can be a major concern in
areas where there is limited topsoil, which
includes most of Queensland.
There are several proprietary types of
reinforced grass which are termed a form
of geotextile protection in the U.S.A.
Some tests of relatively small flows
indicate resistance to erosion for flows up
to 5 m/s. Caution should be exercised
before adopting design velocities of this
magnitude; the duration and depths of flow
on the actual job site will also need to be
considered.
The reinforced grass may be considered an
intermediate type of lining between
conventional grass and hard / impermeable
linings. Values of Mannings n for these
linings can be found in Table 8.4.3(a).
Example:
Section 3 (b) (ii) n value range 0.025
0.030 say use n = 0.028 for
conventional grass
Section 2 (a) n = 0.012 for hard /
impermeable
Average for reinforced grass n =
0.020
Department of Transport and Main Roads
Road Drainage Manual
8.10 Channels Lined with
Hard Facings
8.10.1 General
These channels are typically lined with
concrete, riprap or rock mattresses / gabions
and are highly resistant to erosion. Design
velocities may be as high as 5 m/s, much
higher than those for grassed channels.
Smaller cross-sections than those for
grassed channels are possible to take the
same discharges, as side slopes of 1 on 1
are practical. Channels with hard facings
should be considered where the width is
limited within the road environment.
Other considerations for channels with hard
faced linings include the provision of:
contraction and expansion joints to
minimise the risk of cracking and
seepage and potential undermining;
step irons (or similar device), for
access / safety reasons, where the
channel side slope is steeper than 1
on 2 and the channel depth exceeds
0.9 m;
pressure relief weep holes in
impermeable linings both within the
channel invert and within the channel
side slopes. Weep holes should be
90 mm diameter at 1.8 m maximum
centres (depends on detailed design
(structural) requirements);
lateral protection against surface
flows undermining the side slopes.
A minimum hard faced strip of width
0.45 m on both sides at the top of the
channel is recommended;
cut-off walls at the ends of the bed
and side linings. These should have
a minimum depth of 0.5 m; and
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
possible requirements for an energy
dissipator at the end of the lined
channel section to manage the
expected high flow velocities.
8.10.2 Riprap and Rock Filled
Wire Mattresses / Gabions
Riprap is a conventional protection used to
prevent channel bed and bank damage
upstream and downstream of hydraulic
structures, at bends, at bridges and in other
channel areas where erosion potential exist.
The thickness of the riprap should be not
less than 1.5 times the largest diameter of
rock. Figure 8.10.2(b) shows the
relationship between bed velocity and rock
diameter (Rouven et al., 1981). When
using Figure 8.10.2(b), bed velocity can be
taken as approximately 0.7 times the
average channel velocity.
Rock filled wire mattresses or gabions may
also be used to line the channel bank or bed
as shown in Figure 8.10.2(a). Smaller sized
rocks can be used because the wire basket
surrounding the rock in the mattress or
gabion tends to make the mass act as a unit
while retaining flexibility. Beside
providing protection against scour, rock
8
filled gabions are useful as drops with
either vertical or stepped faces. At drops,
the gabions should be keyed into both
banks, and a downstream cut-off wall
should be considered. Design and
construction of gabion protection should be
in accordance with manufacturers
recommendations / specifications.
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 Department of Transport and Main Roads
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Figure 8.10.2(a) Channel Lined with
Rock Filled Wire Mattresses.
8.10.2.1 Open Channel Lined with
Riprap
When using riprap or rock filled wire
mattresses over erodible underlying
materials an appropriate geotextile fabric
should be placed under and behind the
riprap, rock filled wire mattresses, or
gabions to prevent erosion and water piping
through the gabion.
8 Some of the in-service problems associated
with rock filled wire mattresses and gabions
are listed below:
Vegetation Problems: In some
locations, such as South East
Queensland, rock filled wire baskets
have been known to quickly vegetate
with both native and non-native
weeds and vines. These vines can
then migrate into the surrounding
bushland causing problems to native
trees;
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Erosion: When used on the outside
of channel bends, rock filled
mattresses and gabions effectively
form a hydraulically smooth
surface. This smooth surface
causes high flow velocities to occur
immediately adjacent the wire
baskets. These high flow velocities
can then result in increased bed
erosion at the base of the gabion wall
(causing foundation problems), or
bank erosion immediately
downstream of the gabion protected
bank;
Vegetation Cover: In some
installations, long-term stability is
best achieved by having the gabion
and mattress structures covered with
vegetation. When this form of bank
stabilisation is placed under a wide-
span bridge, light and rainfall
restrictions can limit or prevent
vegetation cover, thus resulting in a
reduction of the expected life span of
the structure; and
Damage by Sediment: In channels
that transport large quantities of
coarse, bed-load sediment, the
expected design life of gabion and
rock mattress structures can be
reduced due to damage to both the
plastic and galvanised wire coatings.
Site specific designs need to be completed
for every gabion or mattress application
using design recommendations from the
suppliers of proprietary products.
Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

Figure 8.10.2(b) - Relationship between Bed Velocity and Rock Diameter

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 Department of Transport and Main Roads
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8.10.3 Concrete Lined Channels
Concrete linings must be protected from
hydrostatic uplift forces which can be
created by a high water table after the flow
in the channel has dropped. A free draining
perforated subsoil drainage pipe may be
required in large channels. In small
channels, weepholes and porous backfill
may be adequate.
Where undermining along the top of the
lining is a risk, a cut-off lip or wall should
be provided. In long lengths of lining,
expansion joints are required.
Care should be taken in the design of
channels required to carry supercritical flow
to ensure that:
curves are avoided if possible;
channels are free of obstructions
which may cause oscillatory waves to
extend down the remaining length of
the channels and into culverts;
pipes entering a channel are cut off
flush with the lining;
expansion joints are dowelled to
8 prevent differential movement
between segments of the lining,
which could otherwise allow high
velocity flow to enter the joints and
cause uplift; and
unintended hydraulic jumps do not
form.
Channels designed for supercritical flow
require a smooth surface which is provided
by concrete lining. The thickness of lining
and type of reinforcement required should
be determined in consultation with the
departments Bridge Design Section or a
suitably pre-qualified structural consultant.
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Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Where channels are large enough, they
should generally be accessible to vehicles
for maintenance in which case the lining of
the base of the channel should be designed
for the appropriate vehicular loading and
soil conditions.
8.11 Channel Drops
The use of channel drops, waterfalls or
scour checks may permit flatter channel
slopes to be employed. It is generally
desirable to use several low-head drops
rather than fewer higher drops for safety
reasons. However, it is often more difficult
to control the hydraulics of low drops.
While vertical drops should generally be
avoided to minimise safety concerns and
erosion control problems, they may have to
be used in some circumstances. Also,
depending on tailwater conditions,
supercritical flow often occurs on the apron
of the drop and as a result, either a
hydraulic jump or submerged jet will
usually form downstream.
The use and design of channel drops are to
be referred to Hydraulics Section,
Engineering & Technology Division or a
suitably pre-qualified consultant.
8.12 Baffle Chutes
Baffle chutes (Figure 8.12) are a
satisfactory method of dissipating the
energy of flow in a channel where the slope
is steep. They require no tailwater to be
effective.
The use and design of baffle chutes are to
be referred to Hydraulics Section,
Engineering & Technology Division or a
suitably pre-qualified consultant.
Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 8
Road Drainage Manual Open Channel Design

Figure 8.12 Diagram of a Baffle Chute

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