Organizational studies

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Organizational studies, organizational behaviour, and organizational theory is the

systematic study and careful application of knowledge about how people - as individuals
and as groups - act within organizations.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Overview
• 2 History
o 2.1 Specific Contributions
o 2.2 Current state of the field
• 3 Methods used in organizational studies
• 4 Systems framework
• 5 Theories and models of organizational studies
• 6 Organization-focused journals
• 7 See also
• 8 References

• 9 Further reading

[edit] Overview
Organizational Behaviour studies encompasses the study of organizations from multiple
viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook [1] divides these
multiple viewpoints into three perspectives: modern, symbolic, and postmodern. Another
traditional distinction, present especially in American academia, is between the study of
"micro" organizational behavior -- which refers to individual and group dynamics in an
organizational setting -- and "macro" organizational theory which studies whole
organizations, how they adapt, and the strategies and structures that guide them. To this
distinction, some scholars have added an interest in "meso" -- primarily interested in
power, culture, and the networks of individuals and units in organizations -- and "field"
level analysis which study how whole populations of organizations interact. In Europe
these distinctions do exist as well, but are more rarely reflected in departmental divisions.

Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern
organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all modernist
social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some
controversy over the ethics of controlling workers' behaviour. As such, organizational
behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at times been accused of
being the scientific tool of the powerful.[citation needed] Those accusations notwithstanding,
OB can play a major role in organizational development and success.

One of the main goals of organizational theorists is, according to Simms (1994) "to
revitalize organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational
life."[2] An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being
made in theory[3], and is concerned to help managers and administrators.[4]

[edit] History

Kurt Lewin attended the Macy conferences and is commonly identified as the founder of
the movement to study groups scientifically.

The Greek philosopher Plato wrote about the essence of leadership. Aristotle addressed
the topic of persuasive communication. The writings of 16th century Italian philosopher
Niccolò Machiavelli laid the foundation for contemporary work on organizational power
and politics. In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure
based on the division of labour. One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber
wrote about rational organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic leadership.
Soon after, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal setting and
rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920s, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton
Mayo and his colleagues conducted productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne
plant in the United States.

Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies is
generally considered to have begun as an academic discipline with the advent of
scientific management in the 1890s, with Taylorism representing the peak of this
movement. Proponents of scientific management held that rationalizing the organization
with precise sets of instructions and time-motion studies would lead to increased
productivity. Studies of different compensation systems were carried out.
After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis of how
human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the
identification of the Hawthorne Effect. This Human Relations Movement focused on
teams, motivation, and the actualization of the goals of individuals within organizations.

Prominent early scholars included Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Frederick Herzberg,
Abraham Maslow, David McClelland, and Victor Vroom.

The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale logistics
and operations research led to a renewed interest in rationalist approaches to the study of
organizations. Interest grew in theory and methods native to the sciences, including
systems theory, the study of organizations with a complexity theory perspective and
complexity strategy. Influential work was done by Herbert Alexander Simon and James
G. March and the so-called "Carnegie School" of organizational behavior.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology and the
emphasis in academic study was on quantitative research. An explosion of theorizing,
much of it at Stanford University and Carnegie Mellon, produced Bounded Rationality,
Informal Organization, Contingency Theory, Resource Dependence, Institutional Theory,
and Organizational Ecology theories, among many others.

Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and change became an

important part of study. Qualitative methods of study became more acceptable, informed
by anthropology, psychology and sociology. A leading scholar was Karl Weick.

[edit] Specific Contributions

Frederick Winslow Taylor

Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was the first person who attempted to study
human behavior at work using a systematic approach. Taylor studied human
characteristics, social environment, task, physical environment, capacity, speed,
durability, cost and their interaction with each other. His overall objective was to reduce
and/or remove human variability. Taylor worked to achieve his goal of making work
behaviors stable and predictable so that maximum output could be achieved. He relied
strongly upon monetary incentive systems, believing that humans are primarily motivated
by money. He faced some strong criticism, including being accused of telling managers
to treat workers as machines without minds, but his work was very productive and laid
many foundation principles for modern management studies. An enlightening book about
the life of Pratik Bang and his studies is that by Kanigel (1997)[5].

Elton Mayo

Elton Mayo, an Australian national, headed the Hawthorne Studies at Harvard. In his
classic writing in 1931, Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, he advised
managers to deal with emotional needs of employees at work.
Mary Parker Follett

Mary Parker Follett was a pioneer management consultant in the industrial world. As a
writer, she provided analyses on workers as having complex combinations of attitude,
beliefs, and needs. She told managers to motivate employees on their job performance, a
"pull" rather than a "push" strategy.

Douglas McGregor

Douglas McGregor proposed two theories/assumptions, which are very nearly the
opposite of each other, about human nature based on his experience as a management
consultant. His first theory was “Theory X”, which is pessimistic and negative; and
according to McGregor it is how managers traditionally perceive their workers. Then, in
order to help managers replace that theory/assumption, he gave “Theory Y” which takes a
more modern and positive approach. He believed that managers could achieve more if
they start perceiving their employees as self-energized, committed, responsible and
creative beings. By means of his Theory Y, he in fact challenged the traditional theorists
to adopt a developmental approach to their employees. He also wrote a book, The Human
Side of Enterprise, in 1960; this book has become a foundation for the modern view of
employees at work.

[edit] Current state of the field

Organizational behaviour is currently a growing field. Organizational studies departments

generally form part of business schools, although many universities also have industrial
psychology and industrial economics programs.

The field is highly influential in the business world with practitioners like Peter Drucker
and Peter Senge, who turned the academic research into business practices.
Organizational behaviour is becoming more important in the global economy as people
with diverse backgrounds and cultural values have to work together effectively and
efficiently. It is also under increasing criticism as a field for its ethnocentric and pro-
capitalist assumptions (see Critical Management Studies).

During the last 20 years organizational behavior study and practice has developed and
expanded through creating integrations with other domains:

• Anthropology became an interesting prism to understanding firms as

communities, by introducing concepts like Organizational culture, 'organizational
rituals' and 'symbolic acts' enabling new ways to understand organizations as
communities.
• Leadership Understanding: the crucial role of leadership at various level of an
organization in the process of change management.
• Ethics and their importance as pillars of any vision and one of the most important
driving forces in an organization.
[edit] Methods used in organizational studies
A variety of methods are used in organizational studies. They include quantitative
methods found in other social sciences such as multiple regression, non-parametric
statistics, time dependent analysis, and ANOVA. In addition, computer simulation in
organizational studies has a long history in organizational studies. Qualitative methods
are also used, such as ethnography, which involves direct participant observation, single
and multiple case analysis, and other historical methods. In the last fifteen years or so,
there has been greater focus on language, metaphors, and organizational storytelling.

[edit] Systems framework

The systems framework is also fundamental to organizational theory as organizations are
complex dynamic goal-oriented processes. One of the early thinkers in the field was
Alexander Bogdanov, who developed his Tectology, a theory widely considered a
precursor of Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory, aiming to model and design human
organizations. Kurt Lewin was particularly influential in developing the systems
perspective within organizational theory and coined the term "systems of ideology", from
his frustration with behavioural psychologies that became an obstacle to sustainable work
in psychology (see Ash 1992: 198-207). The complexity theory perspective on
organizations is another systems view of organizations.

The systems approach to organizations relies heavily upon achieving negative entropy
through openness and feedback. A systemic view on organizations is transdisciplinary
and integrative. In other words, it transcends the perspectives of individual disciplines,
integrating them on the basis of a common "code", or more exactly, on the basis of the
formal apparatus provided by systems theory. The systems approach gives primacy to the
interrelationships, not to the elements of the system. It is from these dynamic
interrelationships that new properties of the system emerge. In recent years, systems
thinking has been developed to provide techniques for studying systems in holistic ways
to supplement traditional reductionistic methods. In this more recent tradition, systems
theory in organizational studies is considered by some as a humanistic extension of the
natural sciences.

[edit] Theories and models of organizational studies

Decision making

• Mintzberg's managerial roles

• Rational Decision-Making Model
• Scientific management
• Garbage Can Model

Organization structures and dynamics

 • Bureaucracy
• Complexity theory and organizations
• Contingency theory
• Evolutionary Theory and organizations
• Hybrid organisation
• Incentive theory (organization)
• Informal Organization
• Institutional theory
• Merger integration
• Organizational ecology
• Model of Organizational Citizenship behaviour
• Model of organizational justice
• Model of Organizational Misbehaviour
• Resource dependence theory
• Transaction cost
• Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Cultures
• Mintzberg's Organigraph

Personality traits theories

• Big Five personality traits

• Holland's Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Control and stress modelling

• Herzberg's Two factor theory

• Theory X and Theory Y

Motivation in organizations

Motivation the forces either internal or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and
resistance to pursue a certain course of action. According to Baron et al. (2008)[6]:
"Although motivation is a broad and complex concept, organizational scientists have
agreed on its basic characteristics. Drawing from various social sciences, we define
motivation as the set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain human behavior
toward attaining some goal"

There are many different motivation theories such as:

• Attribution theory
• Equity theory
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs
• Incentive theory (psychology)
• Model of emotional labor in organizations
• Frederick Herzberg two-factor theory
[edit] Organization-focused journals
Primary organization-focused journals

• Academy of Management Journal

• Academy of Management Review
• Administrative Science Quarterly
• Journal of Management[7]
• Journal of Management Inquiry[8]
• Journal of Organizational Behavior
• Organization Studies[9]
• Organization. The Critical Journal of Organization, Theory and Society [10]
• Management Communication Quarterly[11]
• Management Science: A Journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the
Management Sciences
• Journal of Management Studies[12]
• Organization Science: A Journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the
Management Sciences
• Strategic Management Journal[13]
• Strategic Organization - SO![14]

Other journals

• Journal of Applied Psychology

• Management Learning Management Learning
• International Journal of Knowledge Culture and Change Management [15]
• Journal of Organizational Change Management [16]*European Management
Review [17]*Anthropology of Work Review [18]
• Research in Organizational behaviour [19]
• Organizational behaviour and Human Decision Processes [20]
• Human Relations
• Journal of Management Development [21]

[edit] See also

• Organization design
• Organization development
• Organizational Dissent
• Organizational engineering

[edit] References
1. ^ Hatch, M. & Cunliffe, A., 2006
2. ^ Lillian Margaret Simms, Sylvia Anderson Price, Naomi E. Ervin (1994). The
professional practice of nursing administration. p.121.
 3. ^ Fredric M. Jablin, Linda Putnam (2000). The new handbook of organizational
communication: advances in theory. p.146.
4. ^ Michael I. Reed (1985). Redirections in organizational analysis. p.108.
5. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_studies#Further_reading
6. ^ Baron, Robert A., and Greenberg, Jerald. Behavior in organizations – 9th edition.
Pearson Education Inc., New Jersey: 2008. p.248
7. ^ [1]
8. ^ [2]
9. ^ [3]
10. ^ [4]
11. ^ Management Communication Quarterly
12. ^ Journal of Management Studies
13. ^ Strategic Management Journal
14. ^ Strategic Organization - SO
15. ^ International Journal of Knowledge Culture and Change Management
16. ^ Journal of Organizational Change Management
17. ^ European Management Review
18. ^ Anthropology of Work Review
19. ^ Research in Organizational behaviour
20. ^ Organizational behaviour and Human Decision Processes
21. ^ Journal of Management Development

[edit] Further reading

• Ash, M.G. 1992. "Cultural Contexts and Scientific Change in Psychology: Kurt
Lewin in Iowa." American Psychologist, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 198-207.
• Hatch, M.J., "Organization Theory: Modern, symbolic, and postmodern
perspectives." 2nd Ed. Oxford University Press (2006) ISBN 0-19-926021-4.
• Jones, Ishmael, The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence
Culture. New York: Encounter Books (2008) ISBN 978-1594033827.
• Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational Behavior - Concepts, Controversies,
Applications. 4th Ed. Prentice Hall (2004) ISBN 0-13-170901-1.
• Scott, W. Richard. Organizations and Organizing: Rational, Natural, and Open
Systems Perspectives. Pearson Prentice Hall (2007) ISBN 0-13-195893-3.
• Weick, Karl E. The Social Psychology of Organizing 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill
(1979) ISBN 0-07-554808-9.
• Simon, Herbert A. Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making
Processes in Administrative Organizations, 4th ed. 1997, The Free Press.
• Tompkins, Jonathan R. "Organization Theory and Public
Management".Thompson Wadsworth (2005) ISBN 978-0-534-17468-2
• Kanigel, R. (1997). The One Best Way, Frederick Winslow Taylor and the
Enigma of Efficiency. London: Brown and Co.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_studies"

Categories: Organizational studies and human resource management | Organizational
theory
Organizational Behavior

Business Dictionary:

Organizational Behavior
Home > Library > Business & Finance > Business Dictionary

Academic field of study concerned with human behavior in organizations; also called
organizational psychology. It covers topics such as Motivation, Group Dynamics,
leadership, organization structure, decision making, careers, conflict resolution, and
Organizational Development. When this subject is taught in business schools, it is called
organizational behavior; when it is taught in psychology departments, it is called
organizational psychology.

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Small Business Encyclopedia:

Organizational Behavior
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Organizational behavior is an academic discipline concerned with describing,

understanding, predicting, and controlling human behavior in an organizational
environment. Organizational behavior has evolved from early classical management
theories into a complex school of thought—and it continues to change in response to the
dynamic environment and proliferating corporate cultures in which today's businesses
operate. "The task of getting organizations to function effectively is a difficult one,"
wrote David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman in Hackman, Lawler, and Porter's
Perspectives on Behaviors in Organizations. "Understanding one individual's behavior is
a challenging problem in and of itself. A group, made up of different individuals and
multiple relationships among those individuals, is even more complex…. In the fact of
this overwhelming complexity, organizational behavior must be managed. Ultimately the
work of organizations gets done through the behavior of people, individually or
collectively, on their own or in collaboration with technology. Thus, central to the
management task is the management of organizational behavior. To do this, there must be
the capacity to understand the patterns of behavior at individual, group, and organization
levels, to predict what behavior responses will be elicited by different managerial actions,
and finally to use understanding and prediction to achieve control."

The Behavioral Sciences

Organizational behavior scientists study four primary areas of behavioral science:

individual behavior, group behavior, organizational structure, and organizational
processes. They investigate many facets of these areas like personality and perception,
attitudes and job satisfaction, group dynamics, politics and the role of leadership in the
organization, job design, the impact of stress on work, decision-making processes, the
communications chain, and company cultures and climates. They use a variety of
techniques and approaches to evaluate each of these elements and its impact on
individuals, groups, and organizational efficiency and effectiveness. "The behavior
sciences," stated Gibson, Ivancevich, and Donnelly in Organizations: Behavior,
Structure, Processes, "have provided the basic framework and principles for the field of
organizational behavior. Each behavioral science discipline provides a slightly different
focus, analytical framework, and theme for helping managers answer questions about
themselves, nonmanagers, and environmental forces."

In regard to individuals and groups, researchers try to determine why people behave the
way they do.

They have developed a variety of models designed to explain individuals' behavior. They
investigate the factors that influence personality development, including genetic,
situational, environmental, cultural, and social factors. Researchers also examine various
personality types and their impact on business and other organizations. One of the
primary tools utilized by organizational behavior researchers in these and other areas of
study is the job satisfaction study. These tools are used not only to measure job
satisfaction in such tangible areas as pay, benefits, promotional opportunities, and
working conditions, but also to gauge how individual and group behavior patterns
influence corporate culture, both positively and negatively.

Organizational Behavior and Corporate Culture

The terms "corporate culture" and "organizational behavior" are sometimes used
interchangeably, but in reality, there are differences between the two. Corporate culture
encompasses the shared values, attitudes, standards, and beliefs and other characteristics
that define an organization's operating philosophy. Organizational behavior, meanwhile,
can be under-stood in some ways as the academic study of corporate culture and its
various elements, as well as other important components of behavior such as organization
structure and organization processes. Organizational behavior, said Gibson, Ivancevich,
and Donnelly, is "the field of study that draws on theory, methods, and principles from
various disciplines to learn about individual perceptions, values, learning capacities, and
actions while working in groups and within the total organization; analyzing the external
environment's effect on the organization and its human resources, missions, objectives,
and strategies.…Effective managers know what to look for in terms of structure, process,
and culture and how to under-stand what they find. Therefore, managers must develop
diagnostic skills; they must be trained to identify conditions symptomatic of a problem
requiring further attention. Problem indicators include declining profits, declining
quantity or quality of work, increases in absenteeism or tardiness, and negative employee
attitudes. Each of these problems is an issue of organizational behavior."

Further Reading:

Connors, Roger, and Tom Smith. "Benchmarking Cultural Transition." Journal of

Business Strategy. May 2000.

Egan, Gerard. "Cultivate Your Culture." Management Today. April 1994.

Gibson, James L., John M. Ivancevich, and James H. Donnelly Jr. Organizations:
Behavior, Structure, Processes. 8th ed. Boston: Richard D. Irwin, 1994.

Gordon, George G. "Industry Determinants of Organizational Culture." Academy of

Management Review. April 1991.

Hodgetts, Richard M. Organizational Behavior: Theory and Practice. New York:

Macmillan Publishing Company, 1991.

Nijhof, Andre H.J., and Marius M. Rietdijk. "An ABC Analysis of Ethical Organizational
Behavior." Journal of Business Ethics. May 15, 1999.

Phegan, Barry. Developing Your Company Culture: The Joy of Leadership. Context
Press, 1996.

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Introduction to Sociology/Organizational
Behavior
From Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection
< Introduction to Sociology
Jump to: navigation, search
TODO
Per Future Chapters at Introduction to
Sociology table of contents, this module is
yet to be completed.

Organizational Behavior is the study of individual behavior and group dynamics in

organizations.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Flexible Working Conditions

• 2 Diversity in the Workplace
• 3 Job Insecurity
• 4 Personality, Perception, and Attribution
o 4.1 Individual Differences and Organizational Behavior
o 4.2 Social Perception
o 4.3 Personality
o 4.4 Application of Personality Theory in Organizations: The Meyers-
Briggs Type Indicator Instrument
o 4.5 Attribution in Organizations and Managerial Implications: Using
Personality, Perception, and Attribution at Work
• 5 Communication
o 5.1 Interpersonal Communication
 5.1.1 Reflective Listening
o 5.2 Affirming Contact
o 5.3 Paraphrasing the Expressed
o 5.4 Clarifying the Implicit
o 5.5 Reflecting "Core" Feelings
o 5.6 Silence
o 5.7 Eye Contact
o 5.8 One-Way Versus Two-Way Communication
o 5.9 Five Keys To Effective Supervisory Communication
 5.9.1 Expressive Speakers
 5.9.2 Empathetic Listeners
 5.9.3 Persuasive Leaders
 5.9.4 Sensitive to Feelings
 5.9.5 Informative Managers
o 5.10 Barriers and Gateways to Communication
 5.10.1 Physical Separation
 5.10.2 Status Differences
  5.10.3 Gender Differences
 5.10.4 Cultural Diversity
 5.10.5 Language
o 5.11 Defensive and Nondefensive Communication
 5.11.1 Defensive Communication
 5.11.2 Subordinate Defensiveness
 5.11.3 Dominant Defensiveness
 5.11.4 Defensive Tactics
 5.11.5 Nondefensive Communication
o 5.12 Nonverbal Communication
 5.12.1 Proxemics
 5.12.2 Facial and Eye Behavior
 5.12.3 Paralanguage
 5.12.4 How Accurately Do We Decode Nonverbal Cues?
o 5.13 Positive, Healthy Communication
o 5.14 Communication Through New Technologies
 5.14.1 Written communication
 5.14.2 Communication Technologies
• 6 Attitudes, Values, and Ethics
o 6.1 ABC Model of Attitude
o 6.2 How Attitudes Are Formed
o 6.3 Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment
o 6.4 Source, Target, and Message
o 6.5 Instrumental and Terminal Values
o 6.6 Managing in Globalization
o 6.7 Ethical Behavior
• 7 Stress
o 7.1 What is Stress?
o 7.2 The Four Approaches to Stress
o 7.3 The Stress Response
o 7.4 Work Stress
 7.4.1 Four Categories of Work Demands
o 7.5 Non-Work Demands
o 7.6 Stress-Strain Relationships
 7.6.1 Individual Differences in the Stress-Strain Relationships
 7.6.2 Gender Differences
 7.6.3 Type A Behavior Pattern
 7.6.4 Personality Hardiness
 7.6.5 Self-Reliance
o 7.7 Consequences of Stress
o 7.8 Performance and Health Benefits
o 7.9 Individual Distress
o 7.10 Organizational Distress
• 8 Motivation
o 8.1 Expectancy Theory of Motivation
o 8.2 Theory Social Exchange and Equity
 o 8.3 McClelland’s Need Theory
o 8.4 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• 9 The Concept of Power
o 9.1 Symbols of Power
o 9.2 Sharing Power: Empowerment
o 9.3 Political Behavior in Organizations
o 9.4 Effective Power
• 10 Leadership and Followership
o 10.1 Cultural Differences in Leadership
• 11 Conflict and Negotiation
o 11.1 Forms of Conflict in Organizations
o 11.2 Conflict Management Strategies and Techniques
• 12 Career Management
o 12.1 Ways To Manage Conflicts Between Work and Home
o 12.2 The Psychological Contracts
o 12.3 Occupational Excellence
• 13 Organizational Design and Structure
o 13.1 15.1 Key Organizational Design Processes
o 13.2 15.2 Basic Design Dimensions
o 13.3 15.3 Five Structural Configurations
o 13.4 15.4 Contextual Variables
• 14 References

• 15 External Links

[edit] Flexible Working Conditions

A recent review by the Cochrane Collaboration has found that flexible working
arrangements, such as flextime and telecommuting can have positive effects on health,
but the effects are primarily seen when employees have some control over their new
schedules.[1]

[edit] Diversity in the Workplace

Gender and racial diversity in the workplace actually increases sales revenue, brings
more customers, results in greater market share, and greater relative profits.[2]

[edit] Job Insecurity

Job insecurity has a deleterious effect on social capital and social involvement of
workers.[3] Individuals who have experienced an involuntary job loss (through layoff,
downsizing, etc.), are 35# less likely to be involved in their communities than are
individuals who have never experienced an involuntary job loss.
[edit] Personality, Perception, and Attribution
[edit] Individual Differences and Organizational Behavior

T.A. Judge and R. Ilies links the five factor model of personality in the workplace to the
individual and overall satisfaction in the workplace. The “Big Five” personality traits;
extraversion (assertiveness), agreeableness (cooperative), conscientiousness
(dependable), emotional stability (self-confident), and openness to experience (curious),
make up the basic framework as a model of behavior in the workplace. Judge and Ilies
performed extensive research at the universities of Florida and Iowa finding all the
correlations these five factors have on the overall job satisfaction of a given professional
environment. Although the control factors, methods, and results that Judge and Ilies came
up with were impressive, there are many more studies that have produced varying results.

[edit] Social Perception

Perception is used everyday. Perception is how we, as individuals, asses situations. A

burning stove top is perceived to be hot. Traffic is perceived to be speeding up or slowing
down. People are perceived to be friendly or threatening. Yet when it comes to perceiving
people, there are many more perceptions that are made. These social settings and
environments are what make up social perception. The same settings can be applied to a
smaller scale. This scale can be school, family, or the work force. The work setting can
be one of many challenging social perceptions. From the job interview, to leaving the
company, and everything in between, employers are evaluating their employee’s job
performances, and employees are not only assessing one another, but their employer as
well.

Perhaps the most important part of social perception is the first meeting of a person, or
the first impression. When two people meet for the first time, an instant anchor is
dropped. This is a mental anchor that gives a brief, and very general, view of the new
individual. Clothes that are worn, the way the hair is combed, the way the person stands
or sits, all create the impression a person gets when they are met for the first time. From
this impression, an individual makes instant reactions to whether the person is friendly,
outspoken, quite, etc. It allows one to make a brief judgment on the personality of an
individual. This is necessary in order to be able to interact with people. Although a first
impression does not provide an in depth characterization of an individual, it does allow
one to be able to initially interact with them. This process allows employers in a job
interview to make quick decisions that will either be positive or negative for both the
employer and the employee. Mentally the decision is made in the first few moments of
contact. As time goes on the employer can justify further, with continuous questions, that
the interviewee will be good for the company, or if they employer needs to search for a
new candidates.

First impressions can be slowly swayed over time. It is not easy to change someone’s first
impression, nor is it ever changed much. The anchor can only be pulled in one direction
or another so far, and after much effort, in this case continuous interactions. Familiarity is
the only way to obtain the truest sense of who a person really is. By learning the
personality and tendencies of a person, one can better understand that person’s behaviors
and actions.

[edit] Personality

Each individual has their own unique personality. This personality can show how a
person behaves and reacts to certain situations. There are many different factors to
consider when determining personality, like environment settings and heredity traits. A
person’s personality can also have an effect on self-esteem, which is an individual’s
general feeling of self-worth, as well as self-monitoring, the ability to base behavior on
social cues. Different theories are used today to help measure a person’s personality such
as trait theory, psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory, and integrative approach.

In measuring self-esteem, Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale can be used to help measure the
trait self-esteem of individuals in a given environment or situation. This will help
determine who could have high or low self-esteem and what caused them to have it. “…
persons low in self-esteem are less likely to make effective use of self-protection
strategies, we hypothesized that this strategy of deflecting the threat involved in upward
comparison would be used primarily by persons who are characteristically high in self-
esteem.” (Musssweiler, Gabriel, Bodenhausen, 2000) According to the social comparison
research by Mussweiler, Gabriel, and Bodenhausen, the majority of the individuals tested
used the gender and ethnicity to either separate themselves from another or to use this
factor to help them achieve a higher self esteem, or it could have the opposite effect of
putting down one’s own self-worth. The overall outcome in all situations is that people
will develop different methods to block out unpleasant feelings of being outperformed,
the experience of inferiority.

[edit] Application of Personality Theory in Organizations: The Meyers-

Briggs Type Indicator Instrument

As a follow up to Carl Jung’s theory that every individual is fundamentally different, the
Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator Instrument, the MBTI, measures an individual’s
personality preferences in a variety of organizational settings, including: team building,
management, decision making, leadership, career counseling, and many more. The MBTI
examines four dichotomies: Extroversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition,
Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving. Each dichotomy has an explanation about the
characteristics associated with each type.

The MBTI is based on the Jungian theory of personality; meaning, it can be used in all
populations, including non-clinical settings. Meyers and Briggs, authors of the MBTI,
used Jung’s theory to predict people’s patterns of behavior. “Because the results of the
MBTI are subject to a variety of environmental influences, such as work tasks and
organizational climates and values, interpretations have to be treated with caution and
individually verified” (Michael, 2003). Many people use the MBTI test in a rigid fashion
causing the results to be an inaccurate assessment of people’s personalities. If the
weaknesses of the test were considered, and people would use the test with caution,
adjustments can be made to determine an accurate assessment of any changes in an
individual’s behavior.

[edit] Attribution in Organizations and Managerial Implications: Using

Personality, Perception, and Attribution at Work

The attribution theory explains how individuals pinpoint the causes of their own behavior
and that of other people. There are two sources of “power” that human beings believe are
responsible for the outcome of their own actions. One source is internal; we normally
relate success and elements under our control as an internal attribution. The second
source is external: we normally relate failure and elements out of our control as an
external attribution. Success in the workplace can simultaneously alternate between
internal and external. You might have been prepared and researched for a project and
believed your success was internal. On the other hand, you may believe you were lucky
to have done such a great job on a project, attributing your success to external forces.

Perception of internal and external forces has resulted in the fundamental attribution
error. The fundamental attribution error occurs when one views the bad behavior of
others as internal and their own bad behavior as external. It is much more difficult for
others to see the external forces surrounding the individual conducting the bad behavior,
where as, it is clear to the individual conducting the bad behavior, to relate their own
behavior to their surrounding forces. Managers who acknowledge the personality
differences between themselves and other employees can begin to appreciate those
personality differences and create a more effective communication environment.

[edit] Communication
Everyday, we use communication to express our thoughts and feelings. There are many
different types and styles of communication. From verbal to nonverbal communication
and from face-to-face to electronic, every word said and move made is communicating
different emotions and ideas to those around us.

Caption
[edit] Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal Communication contains four key elements: the communicator, the

receiver, perceptual screens, and the message. The communicator is the person speaking
or sending the message. The receiver is the person listening or receiving the message.
Perceptual screens are window through which we interact with people in the world. They
are the specifics rather: age, race, religion, value, beliefs, etc. These specifics have a large
impact on how to send and receive messages. The message should have two working
components. Perceptual components are the words and concepts used to deliver the
message and the emotional component is the demeanor in which the individual receives
the message. Feedback is also important in communication so the two parties are clear
that they sent and received the same message and that one party is not under the wrong
impression. Language has become increasingly important due to growing global relations
in organizations. Because of language barriers, it is difficult to send and to receive
messages. Data is the information intended to communicate a message to someone and
the information is the data translated in the message already.

[edit] Reflective Listening

Reflective Listening focuses on personal elements of the communication and not the
abstract ideas. Reflective listening should be feeling oriented and responsive. The listener
should show empathy and concern for the person communicating. A good reflective
listener would concentrate on the discussion at hand and worry about the main
components of focus while allowing the speaker to lead you in the communication.
Verbal response is primary in reflective listening and there are four important parts of
verbal response.

[edit] Affirming Contact

When responding to the communicator, making contact is affirming contact. For

example, use simple phrases such as "yes" or "I understand."

[edit] Paraphrasing the Expressed

Paraphrase expressed thoughts and feelings by waiting for the appropriate time to tell
them your thoughts and feelings about them and the message you received.

[edit] Clarifying the Implicit

Clarify implicit thoughts and feelings by assuring your assumptions are correct and you
received the implicit message accurately.

[edit] Reflecting "Core" Feelings

Reflect core feelings with caution knowing that the core feelings could bring new
awareness to the speaker they were not aware prior. When reflecting core feelings, be
precise and assertive without being overly pushy.

[edit] Silence

Long silences may cause awkward feelings for both the communicator and receiver but
shorter silences can be good for both parties to have time to think and sort out what is
going on and what they want to say next.

[edit] Eye Contact

Eye contact can also play a part by letting the other person know you can focused,
listening, and want to communicate with them.

[edit] One-Way Versus Two-Way Communication

These four levels of verbal response will help to insure two-way communication where
both the communicator and the receiver are active in the communication. One-way
communication can be good in the right circumstances. If someone needs to state a lot of
information and a response is not necessary, then one-way would be a good form of
communication.

[edit] Five Keys To Effective Supervisory Communication

[edit] Expressive Speakers

It is important that both managers and supervisors are open communicators. They should
feel comfortable in communicating to others their personal thoughts and feelings in
relation to a subject so their employees, in turn, are fully educated on their total outlook.

[edit] Empathetic Listeners

Active listening is a key trait in many successful supervisors. Included in active listening
are insightful listening skills. In other words, responding to problems brought to their
attention by all individuals for and with which they work. Additionally, it is important the
supervisors react to the worries of the individuals in a timely manner.

[edit] Persuasive Leaders

In order to attain goals, successful supervisors must be persuasive leaders. In other words,
they are much more likely to obtain others to follow their ideas and beliefs if they can
successfully persuade them to do so.
[edit] Sensitive to Feelings

When an employee needs to be corrected, it is important the supervisor does so while

taking into consideration the feelings and esteem of the employee. Sometimes, an
individual will seek correction when they know they have performed less than
adequately; however when employees perform less than adequately and do not seek
correction it is then the employee is trying to “not only preserve their self-images, but
also mange their impressions on others” (Moss). A successful supervisor is both secure
and positive in their feedback; never scolding in public, for public scolding does not
reserve the esteem of the employee. Instead, a successful supervisor will use public areas
in times of praise.

[edit] Informative Managers

Successful managers take the time to inform properly all employees in areas related to
their job. Before a manager gives information, however, a successful one will be sure to
sift through the information. As a result, the employee remains informed but not
overwhelmed.

[edit] Barriers and Gateways to Communication

There are five types of barriers of communication. These include Physical Separation,
Status Differences, Gender Differences, Cultural Diversity, and Language.

[edit] Physical Separation

Physical Separation differs with technology but works best face-to-face.

[edit] Status Differences

Status Differences can vary if you are a low-income person talking to someone that looks
wealthy, which occurs in a manager-employee situation.

[edit] Gender Differences

Gender Differences can be difficult because women and men communicate in different
ways.

[edit] Cultural Diversity

Cultural Diversity can be a barrier of communication because other cultures have

different morals and ways of life. In addition, dealing with stereotypes can be completing
as well.
[edit] Language

Languages can be hard to get over if someone is speaking a different language that you
do not understand.

[edit] Defensive and Nondefensive Communication

[edit] Defensive Communication

Defensive communication is that which can be aggressive and attacking or passive and
withdrawing. This form of communication will usually elicit a defensive response.
Defensive communication can create barriers and conflicts within an organization and
make it difficult to accomplish tasks

[edit] Subordinate Defensiveness

Subordinate defensiveness is withdrawing behavior and the attitude of the individual is

commonly "you are right, and I am wrong." These individuals do not accurately show
their thoughts and feelings and can have a low self-esteem. This kind of behavior can
seem passive on the outside; however, the behavior fuels with hostility on the inside.
Passive aggressive behavior for example is a form of defensiveness that begins as
subordinate defensiveness and ends up as dominant defensive.

[edit] Dominant Defensiveness

Dominant defensiveness is an offensive behavior pattern with aggression and attacking

attitudes. For example, people who are higher up on the ladder often want to get their
point across but fail to do it accurately. Instead, they resort to telling people how to
accomplish something with no room for support or advice. The attitude of the individual
is commonly, "I am right and you are wrong."

[edit] Defensive Tactics

To act out the defensive communication, defensive tactics are used. Examples are
labeling, put downs, deception, or hostile jokes. Not only are these defensive tactics but
they will receive defensive responses.

[edit] Nondefensive Communication

Non-defensive communication is an assertive, direct, and powerful form of

communication. It can open communication lines and help achieve goals quickly and
appropriately. This kind of communication shows self-control, helps others to understand
you in working situations, and helps to reduce negative responses. Assertiveness is a key
aspect in non-defensive communication because it is an accurate and informative
statement. Additionally, it is self-affirming and gets your point across without seeming
demanding.

[edit] Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication includes all the elements of communication that do not

involve words or speech. It involves how you move your body, eyes, mouth, the
expressions that you make, and all other ways of communicating without speaking.
Nonverbal communication varies greatly with culture.

[edit] Proxemics

Proxemics deals with our territory, and the space around us. We form barriers and need a
certain amount of space between us and other people in order to feel comfortable. We
will be very close with our loved ones- with whom we have an intimate or personal
relationship. Next, our friends will be farther away, followed by associates and
acquaintances, and finally strangers or the public will be held at the farthest distance.

[edit] Facial and Eye Behavior

Facial and Eye Behavior is how we convey messages or feelings with our face and eyes.
Many times we convey our feelings or true intent through our facial expressions, giving
others cues as to what we are truly thinking or feeling. As humans, we tend to be much
more observant and aware of emotions conveyed through the face than by other means,
such as leg movements and arm movements (Frank and Ekman)

[edit] Paralanguage

Paralanguage are the variations that we put into our speech. For example, talking fast
means we are in a hurry, yelling that we are angry, and using interruptions or
interjections such as “hey” to convey that we want to say something.

[edit] How Accurately Do We Decode Nonverbal Cues?

Through study, general understandings of nonverbal cues were developed and interpreted
with a decent amount of accuracy. Understanding nonverbal cues can be useful and
important in an organization when trying to understand the full meaning of an interaction.
Nonverbal cues are only a portion of the message; one should consider every aspect of
the interaction.

[edit] Positive, Healthy Communication

Communicating head-to-heart dialog and emotional competence is the way to achieve a

positive and healthy communication. When we communicate it is suggested that we try to
be heartfelt it shows well-being and a healthy way to express yourself. When not using
this method one may tend to isolate and be lonely. In the work environment working
together is it important to use positive and healthy communication because when
speaking your ideas, feelings, and emotions it displays positive behaviors. In addition,
this open communication shows a base for trust and truth. When honest it can bring out
the best in the people when working together. When working together talking through
challenging issue, personal or professional. We will be able to have a wider range of
human relationships. “The need to communicate through his or her various formal roles,
the executive has a deeper interpersonal need for communication and relationship that is
seated at the limbic or emotional level of the brain. This deep interpersonal
communication is the target of our coaching model as it reaches beyond the superficial
mask of control, drive, and competition and develops within the executive awareness,
understanding, and management of the emotions that are fundamental to his or her
being”(Quick and Macik-Fray). Finally, in positive and healthy communication is a
display that you are ethical and have integrity.

[edit] Communication Through New Technologies

[edit] Written communication

In written communication, we use letters outside the organization and inside the
organization. We use memos, forms, manuals, and reports, which are important to the
office.

[edit] Communication Technologies

With communication technologies, we have database, electronic mail, voice mail, faxes,
and cell phone. With any organization you will need to use at least one of these on a day-
to-day base, it is fast and easier. Technologies affect our behavior because there is not
any real face-to-face communication and no emotion is involved. It will be hard to have a
relationship that has trust. When using these methods of communication we are able to
say anything.

[edit] Attitudes, Values, and Ethics

[edit] ABC Model of Attitude

An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating an entity with

some degree of favor or disfavor. (dictionary.com) Our attitude affects the way we
behave and react towards people. The ABC model breaks down the meaning of an
attitude in three different components. The components are affect, behavioral intentions,
and cognitions. All of these components greatly affect our attitudes. Affect has to do with
how a person feels. Behavioral intentions are how a person acts, and cognition is how a
person thinks. Attitudes are formed through life lessons, the people around, and personal
experience.
[edit] How Attitudes Are Formed

Cognitive dissonance is the tension that is produced when there is a conflict between
attitudes and behavior. (Dictionary of the English Language) It motivates a person to
change there attitude and behavior. The experimenter pressures or offers a reward to a
person to persuade them to be part of an experiment. An example of this theory is, a
professor persuades a student to be part of an experiment, and offers them twenty dollars.
When the student hesitates the professor says “It will only take a few minutes. The
regular person that does it, is usually reliable. This is the first time she missed the
experiment. If we need you we will call you in advance, and if you can’t make if we
won’t expect you to come.” (Cognitive Dissonance) Their point is to see how much of
and effect they have on a person’s thoughts, opinions, and behavior. [1]

[edit] Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment

Job satisfaction is a very important aspect into the amount of work and time a person is
willing to put into a job. The five measurements to insure job satisfaction are: pay, the
work itself, promotion opportunities, supervision, and coworkers. Different aspects are
more important to different types of people. Managers in an organization can you
different methods to test job satisfaction. Two possible ways are the Job Descriptive
Index (JDI) or the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). There is a common
thought that satisfied employees are more productive workers. Whether satisfied
employees have better performance, or employees with good performance will have
satisfaction, there has been no proven links between the two. There are plenty of high
performers who are not satisfied with their jobs to prove these theories to be true.
Rewards that are contingent on performance can also enhance satisfaction in a job. When
a person goes above and beyond their call of duty to help a coworker out, it can be called
an Organizational Citizenship Behavior (or OCB; see Bommer, Miles, and Grover 2003).
“Social information processing is predicated on the notion that people form ideas based
on information drawn from their immediate environment, and the behavior of coworkers
is a very salient component of an employee’s environment. Therefore, observing frequent
citizenship episodes with in a workgroup is likely to lead to attitudes that such OCB is
normal and appropriate. Consequently, the individual is likely to replicate this ‘normal’
behavior.” This is according to an article in the Journal of Organizational Behavior. This
shows that people learn from their environments. Culture also has a big part to play in job
satisfaction. People from different parts of the world may have a different view on the
importance of work compared to family. In America, people tend to have their jobs as a
central part of their life, as to Koreans who put family first.

[edit] Source, Target, and Message

Organizational commitments are what will influence a person to remain at a job. There
are three different types of organizational commitment: affective, continuance, and
normative. The affective commitment has to do with a person’s loyalty to their place of
work. Continuance commitment is when a person might stay at a job because they have
put so much into it, and feel that they might loose a great deal of investments if they
leave. A normative commitment is when an employee feels obligated to stay with the
company. When an employer involves their employees in decision making, and makes
them feel needed, the chances of them leaving is less than if they did not. Affective and
normative commitment people tend to have a lower absence at work. Employees want to
know that their employers do care about their well being, and that they share their same
values. The best way to make sure that employees are satisfied and committed is to talk
to them, or give them job satisfaction tests, then change things in the organization
accordingly.

[edit] Instrumental and Terminal Values

There are two states of values, Instrumental and Terminal values. Instrumental values are
different behaviors that are used to achieve a goal or end; Honesty, ambition, obedience,
politeness and etcetera. Terminal values would be the end states attained through;
ambition, quality, liberty, prosperity, social respect.

[edit] Managing in Globalization

Just as there are different countries throughout the world, there are many different value
systems. In today’s world, globalization is taking a bigger and bigger role, making it very
important for these different groups to recognize and thoughtfully respect those values of
their customers or associates even though they do not have the same values. Managers
must learn that when working with these adverse values in their company, to avoid pre-
judging the adverse values that they come into contact with throughout the course of their
work. Values are culturally based. In a global society, tolerance is one of the most
important aspects. When tolerance is not thoughtfully recognized it has the potential to
divide societies from one another.

[edit] Ethical Behavior

First, ethics is the concept of having moral values and behaviors. Ethical behavior is
conducting ones self in a way that is common with a certain set of values whether
personal or institutional. Businesses are dependent on their reputations, so when a
company withholds strong ethical values it brings positive results. One effect of ethical
behavior is the retention and attraction of employees. Employee turnover tends to be
lower as well as an increase in applicants resulting in higher qualified employees.
Unethical behavior can hurt a company, so through technology businesses are able to
monitor Internet content.

In a business, there are individual and organizational influences that affect ethical
behavior. The individual influences are value systems, which is a persons own set of
moral values, locus control, which is a personality trait distinguishable between personal
responsibility and fate or by chance, Machiavellianism, which is another personality trait
where a person will do whatever it takes to get their way, and finally, cognitive moral
development, which is a person stage of maturity. The organizational influences are a
businesses own code of conduct, an ethics committee or officers, training programs, an
ethics communication system, norms amongst the business, modeling, and a rewards and
punishment system.

The individual influences of a company are extremely important for running a business
with ethical behavior. Value systems are vital because ones ethics may be different that
that of the company. This could be a serious conflict of interest. For example is a
dishonest person is presented with a situation to lie for financial reasons will he follow
his own ethical behavior or the organizations? The individual might think why be honest
if honesty doesn’t pay? (A. Bhide & H. H. Stevens, 121) External locus of control where
a individual believes that their actions are a result of an unknown force or chance can be
damaging to ethical behavior because the individual doesn’t accept responsibility like
internal locus control. Machiavellianism is not a standard of ethical behavior because the
main method is being able to manipulate others around you for your own benefit rather
than the organization. Cognitive moral development affects ethical behavior amongst an
organization depending on the level an individual is at. Level 1 or premoral level, the
individual bases their judgments on rewards and punishments. Level 2 is where the
individual follows policy only if it is in their best interests. Level 3, people just perform
to impress those close to them. Level 4 is where the individual starts to realize what the
organization wants from them so they start to contribute in an all around positive way.
Level 5, people are aware that others have different ways of thinking but hold onto their
own. Finally, level 6, an individual will choose their own ethical behavior over a policy
or law.

[edit] Stress
[edit] What is Stress?

Stress does not have an exact meaning. There are many different ways to look at it. Stress
or the response to stress is defined as,” the unconscious preparation to the flight or fight
that a person experiences when faced with any demand” (Peterson 1995). The demand on
your body is known as the stressor. Once the stressor is applied there are many reactions,
psychologically, physically, behaviorally, and organizationally.

[edit] The Four Approaches to Stress

Homeostatic (also known as the medical approach) was researched by Walter B.

Cannon. He determined that our bodies have an emergency response, the flight or fight.
He found that when aroused, the body goes out of homeostasis, the balanced state.

Cognitive Richard Lazarus emphasized that stress was caused by the environment that
the person is in rather than the body itself. He found that people differ greatly in that
respect.

Person Environment Fit approach-Robert Kahn focused on how expectations in a

person’s life and their conflicting roles. The person becomes stressed when they aren’t
able to meet the demands.
Psychoanalytic Harry Levinson took that Freudian approach. He believed that there were
two parts being: #1 Ego-ideal, how they feel about their perfect self. #2 Self image, how
they feel about themselves in respect to their perfect self. If there is any wrong thinking
then there is stress because they feel that they cannot obtain that.

[edit] The Stress Response

What happens to the body when it is stressed? These are the steps that your nervous
system goes through and how your body and mind are involved.

1. Blood from the skin, internal organs, and extremities, is directed to the brain and large
muscles.

2. Your senses are heightened: vision and hearing.

3. Glucose and fatty acids are forced into the bloodstream for energy.

4. The immunes system and digestive system are virtually shut down to provide all the
necessary energy to respond.

[edit] Work Stress

Work stress is caused by demands and pressure from inside and outside the workplace.

[edit] Four Categories of Work Demands

1. Task Demands - the sense of not knowing where the job will lead you and if the
activities and tasks will change. The uncertainty will cause stress: lack of control,
concern of career progress, new technology, time pressures, are just some of the many
that could cause stress.

2. Role demands -role conflict happens when there are inconsistent or difficult
expectations put on the person resulting in:

A. Interole conflict-when there are two or more expectations or separate roles: parent and
employee.

B. Intrarole conflict-more expectations of one role: fast paced and quality work.

C. Person-role conflict-ethics are involved: challenging personal beliefs or principles.

Role ambiguity occurs when a person is confused about their experiences in relation with
the expectations of others.
3. Interpersonal Demands

A. Emotional issues-abrasive personalities, offensive co-workers.

B. Sexual Harassment-directed mostly toward women

C. Poor Leadership-management, lack of experience, poor style, cannot deal with all the
power

4. Physical Demands many environments offer physically demanding jobs and work.

A. Strenuous activity

B. Extreme working conditions

C. Travel

D. Hazardous materials

E. Working in an office-tight quarters, loud, cramped

[edit] Non-Work Demands

Creates stress for work and the other way around creating stress outside of work.

Home Demands Marriage children and other family relationships can add stress and
overload making it a role overload according to the Academy of Management Journal
they state that when this happens this is,” an individual’s lack of personal resources
needed to fulfill commitments obligations or requirements.”

Personal Demands They are demand brought on by the person themselves. When the
person takes on too much outside of work or just brings on too much work.

[edit] Stress-Strain Relationships

[edit] Individual Differences in the Stress-Strain Relationships

Individual differences play an important role in the stress-strain relationships. Different

individuals respond differently to types of stress, there are both eustress (good stress) and
distress (bad stress).
[edit] Gender Differences

Life expectancy for American women is approximately seven years longer than men,
which suggests that women may be more resiliant to stress than men. Research (House,
Landis, and Umberson 1988) has led to the suggestion that women not only respond to
stress in a completely different way than men, they also encounter more stress - and are
able to deal with it better.

[edit] Type A Behavior Pattern

Type A behavior are characteristics of personalities who are more affected by the stress-
strain relationships than other personality types. Type A behavior includes; sense of
urgency, quest for numbers, status insecurity, and aggression and hostility.

[edit] Personality Hardiness

Personality Hardiness is a personality trait that is hesitant to distress and characterized by

commitment, control, and challenge. They are more capable to resist stressful events as
opposed to those who are not hardy. Transformational Coping is an act used by hardy
people that helps to change unhealthy stressful events, into ones that are less harmful to
their life.

[edit] Self-Reliance

Self-reliance is a personality attribute that is an interdependent pattern of behavior related

to how people form and maintain attachments with others. Two insecure patterns of
attachment are counterdependence, and overdependence. Both of these patterns of
attachment are unhealthy, and impair creating healthy relationships with others. Through
self-reliance, individuals are able to gain understanding with themselves, which helps
them in their relation to their coworkers.

[edit] Consequences of Stress

Stress to the average person is usually looked at in a negative light. However, all stress is
not bad stress. There are two very different forms of stress; distress and eustress. Some
people thrive under pressure. That’s because they have figured out how to condition
themselves for “stressful” situations. This conditioning requires recovering energy. When
one practices what they know frequently, they most often perform well on a “stress test”.
Distress and eustress are the consequences of how one responds to and uses the stress that
is applied to them. There are benefits to eustress and there are costs to distress. A healthy
person would exude eustress. The opposite would be true of an unhealthy person. (Loehr
and T. Schwartz 2001)

[edit] Performance and Health Benefits

A person’s overall performance with a any given task will have an optimum. A point
where the individual is most productive while still performing at a comfortable level. In
order to attain this optimum performance a certain level of stress must be applied. Any
amount of stress level leading up to the optimum point would be eustress. Stress that
would cause the person to overload and their productivity to drop would be distress. If a
person is training their body by lifting weights, they can only grow their muscles so fast
before they reach their growing limit. Once past that limit, an injury is bound to take
place.

[edit] Individual Distress

Individual distress manifests in three basic forms known as Psychological disorders,

Medical illnesses, and Behavioral problems. A person’s extreme involvement with their
work could reap an acute individual distress. Work - Related psychological disorders can
lead to depression, burnout, and psychosomatic disorders. Psychosomatic disorders are
physical problems that stem from a psychological root. A person could have a problem
with public speaking; that problem would then be caused by so much stress that the
persons brain would not allow the person to even speak. An individual’s stress can
manifest itself in other more physical manners. Back aches, strokes, heart disease, and
peptic ulcers are just a few ways that surface when too much stress is applied. A person
can also show behavioral problems as a sign of distress. Some examples include
aggression, substance abuse, and accidents. This behavior could be cause by conflicts
with others or with work. It could also be brought on by variables outside of the
workplace. Psychological disorders, medical illnesses, and behavioral problems are
extremely burdensome to the individual. And when not taken care of will result in
organizational distress.

[edit] Organizational Distress

Participation problems, Performance decrements, and compensation awards all have the
ability to have very opposite affects upon an organization. Participation problems such as
absenteeism, tardiness, strikes and work stoppages, and turnover bring serious costs to a
company. Turnover, for example, can help or costs a company in a big way. An
employee is not performing up to par. As a result he is fired and replaced with a more
productive employee. Unfortunately, the new employee was hired on at a higher pay rate
than the previous. The company has the productivity it needs, but at a cost.

[edit] Motivation
[edit] Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The basis of the expectancy theory of motivation is that people desire certain outcomes of
behavior and performance, and that they believe there are relationships between the
effort, performance and outcomes. The key points in the expectancy theory of motivation
are the valence which is the value or importance someone places on a reward. The
expectancy which is the belief that effort leads to performance and instrumentality which
is the belief that performance is related to rewards. These are all important to a person’s
motivation. Motivation problems came from the expectancy theory. The causes are a
disbelief in a relationship between effort and performance, a disbelief in a relationship
between performance and rewards and an overall lack of desire for the offered rewards. If
a problem is with the person’s effort or performance, the persons belief should be
changed. If the problem is with the reward, then the value of the reward or the reward
itself should be changed. “The Expectancy theory has held a major position in the study
of work motivation.” (Van Eerde)

[edit] Theory Social Exchange and Equity

This takes a look at what is behind our behavior, why are we motivated and why do we
act the way we act. When studying behavior, it is important to study exchange. There are
three types of exchange relationships that people have with organizations.

The first type is a committed relationship, such as a club or a religious gathering. It is a

relationship held together by moral obligation. A committed relationship is a high
positive intensity. The second type of relationship, calculated, is a low positive intensity.
These are relationships based on demands and contributions. A prime example would be
business corporations who have a relationship based on their commercial and financial
agreements. Each organization in this type of relationships makes demands. Demands are
placed on the other organization in order to achieve an desired result. However, in most
cases, a demanding organization must also contribute, therefore intertwining the
responsibilities, thus making it a team effort.Finally, the third type of relationship,
alienated, is of high negative intensity.

Within these relationships is inequity. Inequity is roughly defined as a situation when a

person thinks that they are receiving less than they are giving or vise versa. According to
Adams’s theory of Inequity, there are seven approaches to restore equity. 1) alter the
person’s outcomes, 2) alter the person’s inputs, 3) alter the comparison other’s outcomes,
4) alter the comparison other’s inputs, 5) change who is used as a comparison other, 6)
rationalize the inequity, and 7) leave the organizational situation.

There are three types of people when categorizing them into their preferences for equity.
Equity sensitive people prefer an equity ratio equal to their own comparison other. A
benevolent person is content when the equity ration that is less than that of their
comparison other. Lastly, an entitled person is content with a ration that is more than that
of their comparison other.

[edit] McClelland’s Need Theory

McClelland was intrigued by the thought of human needs and the reasons why one is
successful. Before him though, Henry Murray had laid out most of the groundwork and
made lists of motives and manifest needs. (H.A. Murray, 1938). McClellan took those
ideas and organized them into three main categories of learned human behavior, which
were called the manifest needs. The three main needs are the need for achievement, the
need for power, and the need for affiliation. Each need is different for each person and
varies throughout individuals. Sometimes it’s for the better and sometimes for the worse.

The need for achievement is important in the fact that those with a higher need for it will
ultimately become more successful. People with this high need are very concerned with
doing their best work and setting goals to help them get there. If one does not have a high
need for achievement, there is usually a lack in motivation which can be detrimental not
only in the workplace, but also in ones’ personal life as well.

Next is the need for power. McClelland makes a very important distinction between
socialized power and personalized power. Socialized power is normally benefiting to a
group of people, benefiting to others, while personalized power is selfish and can be very
destructive and self-consuming. With that in mind socialized power can be very helpful
in the business area, specifically with managers. When a manager craves socialized
power he is looking out for the benefit of the company and wants everything to be done
correctly and quickly and in turn success is achieved. These type of managers themselves
are also more likely to be promoted when a higher up member of the organization sees
the hard work and influence the manager has made on employees.

Last is the need for affiliation. The need for affiliation mostly deals with interpersonal
relationships. People with a high need for it expect a more personalized relationship with
everyone; such as people sharing their wants needs and feelings while the person will do
the same. This high need can be good in relationships, for example, if there is some type
of conflict between a person with a high need and another, than the person with the high
need if more inclined to work through the problem until it is solved and everything is
good in the relationship. “Managers frequently commented that consistent definitions and
formats are important aids to communication, especially between people in different
organizational units such as divisions or departments.” (McClelland)

[edit] Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg conducted a study that describes the experiences that satisfy and
dissatisfy people in the work place. He wanted to know what motivates people to do well
at work. The two-factors that he found in this study were motivation and hygiene.

He found motivation factors to be things like achievement, responsibility, advancement

and growth. He also described the hygiene factors to be things such as working
conditions, status, technical supervision, policy and administration. The one thing that he
did find in common with the two factors was salary, which makes perfect sense. With the
two-factors combined in the work place it results in four different types of behavior.
When both factors are high there is nothing to complain about and the motivation is very
good. When both factors are low the person becomes very unmotivated and complains
about everything. The two-factors are not always on the high or low at the same time. So,
even if the motivation is high, there may still be a lot of complaining going on and vice
versa (Herzberg).
[edit] The Concept of Power
[edit] Symbols of Power

When thinking about power one doesn't think about what represents power but, in every
organization there are certain symbols of power. Bellow is some ideas of power and
powerless symbols. Also, if someone that wants to over coming powerlessness the person
that has power needs to share the power. The meaning of symbols, include an object or
image that an individual unconsciously uses to represent repressed thoughts, feelings, or
impulses. Power means, the possession of control or command over others. There are two
different approaches associated with symbols of power.

George Bush has power; what that means is that he can call us at anytime of the day and
we will answer. Along with if he wants to meet us and we have a very important
engagement we will drop it and see him. The power symbols are all there too.

One approach

Power

• A person that helps someone else in distress has power

• Giving someone a better procession in the organization constitutes a sign of
power
• A person that can go greater than budget limitations without warning
• A manager acquires raises beyond standards for employee's
• Raise issues for action
• Having information before anyone
• Top manager asking questions to lower level managers, hence The lower manager
has power
• In doing something for someone else, one receives power
Powerless

• Excessively close administration

• Firm loyalty to regulations
• Doing a job themselves and not training an employee to do it
• People that have high profile positions
• Opposes change
• Safeguard their territory
• Focuses on cutting cost
• Penalizing others
• Overbearing others
• Better than communication
• Negative events result in accusations against others

“Making external attribution of negative events, though often considered “self- serving”,
also implies that the attributor is not in control of critical resource. We hypothesized that
making external attributions for negative events will lead to impressions of
powerlessness.” (Lee and Tiedens 2001)

The other approach

Three symbols of power

Michael Korda has ideas of what power looks like; he writes about three of them. Objects
in organizations such as furniture, clocks, watches, cell phones, and pagers are all
symbols of power.

The proposal that he give on "Furniture" is that a manager that has filing cabinets that are
locked, confirm a critical and restricted files in the office. Conference tables that are
rectangular demonstrate that the most important person sits at the head of the table,
instead of a round table. Also, desk size displays the quantity of ones power; most
executives have large expensive desks.

The second approach, he calls it “Time power” what this suggest is that if an executive
and or manager that removes their watch and puts it on your desk face down illustrates
that he or she has their time. As well as managers that do not wear watches shows that no
one will start anything with out them. If we look at this the other way by, a manager
always wears a watch shows that they feel less powerful. Also, a full calendar is proof of
power, along with a planner displayed on the desks.

The third approach is call “Standing by,” what Korda proposes is that cell phones, and
pagers, along with other communicating devises, explains that if a high top person can
inflict on your time at any time of the day has power. In addition people that cause
inconvenience to others; such as doing simple tasks for them.

[edit] Sharing Power: Empowerment

Empowerment is a positive aspect within an organization that promotes shared power. In
order to grasp the complete essence of empowerment, there are four separate necessities
that must be met.

• Meaning suggests that one must have a sense of passion put into their work in
order to feel empowered.
• Competence is a component in the work place that keeps an employee confident
with the ability to do a job well done.
• Self-determination gives employees a certain trust-worthiness to handle the job
independently.
• Impact is a contributing factor that enables the workers to believe that their job
has a meaningful purpose. Without these four dimensions present, one cannot feel
empowered.

Leaders within an organization can play a strong role in encouraging employees to put
empowerment into practice. If leaders want to examine the possibility of an
empowerment based company they need to have confidence in employees. This action
should take place in order to set the bar at a high enough level. Employees should also be
given the opportunities to make decisions. Rules and policies that get in the way of self-
management need to become more lenient for a successful empowerment based
organization. As well, leaders must set goals that can make one feel inspired.

One particular example of an empowered company is run by David Zipper and Peter
Murray. Their organization began as a small painting business in run down areas of
Philadelphia started by the two former economics students in 1999. The idea of the
company is to empower its employees to the point where they own the company
themselves. Since the renowned success of Empowered Painters, Peter Murray was
awarded the Eli Segal Entrepreneurship award, and David Zipper received the Truman
Scholarship.(Natsu, Furuichi, 2000)

Though the idea of empowerment can produce very successful results, the risks involved
can be devastating. It is always safe to keep in mind, when giving up responsibility, there
is a very real possibility of failure.

[edit] Political Behavior in Organizations

Political behavior and organizations doesn't always have to be negative. However, most
the time it is looked upon as such. It has been said that organizations are arenas in which
people have competing interest. It is the manager's responsibility to be effective in
reconcile competing interest. Political behavior refers to actions not officially sanctioned
by an organization that are taken to influence others in order to meet one person's goals.

Many people at the organizations are able to recognize and spot political behavior by
their supervisor and at the top level of organizations. Many organizations encourage
political activity these include unclear goals, autocratic decision making, ambiguous lines
of authority, scarce resources, and uncertainty. Activity is often involved politics which
includes performance appraisal process. Individuals who use power and organizations are
organizational politicians. Political behaviors can way on the negative side when used to
maximize self interest which can lead to being inattentive to the concerns of others. We
the employees feeling as if the workplace are less helpful and more threatening.

Several personal characteristics of effect of political actors; here are four of thirteen.

• Articulate, must be able to clearly communicate ideas

• Popular, must be liked or admired by others at organization
• Extroverted, must be interested in what happens outside of his or her.
• Logical, must be capable of recently

Political organizational politicians can see the difference between ethical and unethical
behavior. They understand that relationships drive the political process and use power
with a sense of responsibility.

Influence tactics

There are three types of influence, upward referring to a boss, downward referring to an
employee and lateral influence which refers to a coworker. Also, there are eight basic
types of influence tactics. The four most frequently used are consultation, rational
persuasion, inspirational appeals, and ingratiation. Consultation, the person seeks your
participation in making a decision or planning how to implement a proposed policy,
strategy, or change. Rational persuasion, the person uses logical arguments and factual
evidence to persuade you that a proposal or requests is viable and likely to result in
attainment of task objectives. Inspirational appeals, the person makes an emotional
request for proposal that arouses enthusiasm by appealing to your values and ideas or by
increasing your confidence that you can do it. Ingratiation, the person seeks to eat you
with a good mood or to think favorably of him or her before asked you to do something.

There's proven evidence that men and women view politics that influence attempt
differently. The intended geopolitics behavior were federally that women do with both
men and women witnessed political behavior they view it more positively if the agent is
of their gender and the target is of the opposite gender. Not all tactics have negative
affects there are some positivist be found. One example would be how small retailers
often have incentive programs read get points for an amount of certain items you sell
during that time. The person who sells the most usually wins a small gift or some type of
bonus. “For example, research has shown that various aspects of performance-appraisal
process itself can influence the mood states of the raters, and in turn, their ratings of
employee.” (Hochwater)

[edit] Effective Power

There is a fine line between using power effectively, over using the power, and being
dependent upon power within an organization. A manager must maintain positive
relationships with everyone involved with the given company yet cannot become
dependent on them; superiors, subordinate, peers, outside suppliers, customer
competitors, unions, regulating agencies, the list goes on. Being overly dependent can
create vulnerabilities, and weaknesses, causing the organization to not run as smooth, or
worse. The entire above list has their own agenda and their own behaviors which it is the
managers job to be able to adapt to them, which may in fact be the cause for dependency
on people on that list. Dependency should not be associated as a negative term;
dependency simply needs to be in moderation. Managers should make sure all involved
subordinates know exactly their roles, so he or she need not use generally ineffective
tactics such as persuasion. Successful managers are sensitive cope with dependence by
being sensitive to, avoiding unnecessary dependence, and establishing power. That power
thus equals plans, organization, good staff, budgets, etc., etc. which good evaluations.
Effective management essentially comes down to the manager feeling a sense of
obligation which trickles all around the company, and there should be a defined trust in
the expertise of the manager, that his decisions are the correct ones.

[edit] Leadership and Followership

[edit] Cultural Differences in Leadership

With different culture every where, leaders need to be aware of these always so that they
are combatable for what ever organization. Also, for an effective leader one needs to
understand the culture he or she is about to venture into. Here is an example of cultural
differences with diversity. “Cross-cultural researchers and international managers concur
with the view that a diversity of management systems exist across contemporary Europe.
In respect to predicting future developments, Calori and de Woot interviewed 51 chief
executives of 40 large international organizations and concluded,that no advocate of
diversity denied the existence of some common characteristic and no advocate of
European identity denied some degree of diversity. On the basis of such observations, it
would appear that Europeans will have to live with at least some diversity in management
systems in the foreseeable future. Equally important to note is the fact that societal
cultural diversity in Europe remains unquestioned. Indeed, it is frequently perceived to be
preserved as much as possible.” (F. C. Brodback et al)

[edit] Conflict and Negotiation

[edit] Forms of Conflict in Organizations

There are several different forms of conflict that can occur in an organization. These
forms include interorganizational, intergroup/intragroup, and interpersonal/intrapersonal.
One of these forms of conflict is very interesting, intergroup conflict. This is considered
conflict that occurs within a group. This kind of conflict can have positive and negative
outcomes. Some of the positives are increased loyalty and group cooperation. One
negative to this form of conflict is that groups tend to be more competitive than
individuals. When a group is formed, as a whole the group tends to be more hostile than
than just one of the individuals may be alone. There have been two experiments done to
delineate the domain of discontinuity. The first was done by demonstrating its occurrence
in a non-matrix situation. This experiment, when implemented, did not show a significant
difference than a matrix-only situation. The second experiment used an analysis of degree
of noncorrespondence of outcomes. This experiment showed that as noncorrespondence
increased, the rate of competitive responding by groups increased as well. Individuals,
however, did not increase.(Schopler, 2001)

[edit] Conflict Management Strategies and Techniques

Inevitably there will be conflicts surrounding and within an organization and how they
are resolved can have a negative or positive effect.

Ineffective Techniques

Nonaction- This is when people do nothing in hopes that it will someday dissapear.

Secrecy- This is when a certain group of the organization try to hide the problem from the
majority.

Administrative orbiting- This happens when people delay the conflict and tell others not
to worry because it's being worked on.

Due process nonaction- This happens when a problem is too costly, or it will take to
long, or is a big risk.

Character assassination- This action is to diminish an individuals/groups reputation and

often leads to slander.

Effective Techniques

Superordinate goal- This is an organization goal that should be focused on by the

conflicting parties rather than individual goals.

Expanding resources- This is where the conflict is limited resources, so the simple
solution is to provide more.

Changing personnel- This happens when the conflict is pinpointed to an individual

commonly with a low level emotional intelligence.

Changing structure- this is when the organization restructures and creates an integrator
role, which becomes a moderator between the two conflicting parties.

Confronting and negotiating- this is when the parties confront and engage in an open
discussion. there are negotiations in hopes of a mutually agreed upon compromise.

2 major negotiating approaches

1)Distributive bargaining- Approach in which the goals of the parties are in conflict, and
each party seeks to maximize its resources.

2)Integrative negotiation- This is when both parties want the outcome to be a win-win
situation because both parties have wants.(Lewicki)

[edit] Career Management

[edit] Ways To Manage Conflicts Between Work and Home

Chapter seventeen, part six, discusses ways to manage conflicts between work and home.
This section discusses how to manage a dual-career partnership. It talks about how
difficult it is for a couple who both have important career goals, and who have the
responsibility of taking care of children. When things get too hard for those in a dual-
career partnership the text suggest that they ask family, friends, or professional help with
childcare, or any other responsibility that they can not take care of themselves. When
things get really complicated at work and home, like dealing with a mean boss or a sick
child at home, the stress has a big effect on a person when they are at work and at home.
It is very important for people who are in a dual-career partnership to have a flexible
work schedule in order for them to be able to be there for there child when they are sick,
or need to be picked up from school. “We are making it less likely for people to have
families. It is just too punitive. There is no formal childcare. There is no structural
support. It is highly expensive.”(Barnett, (p.2) it is almost impossible for both parents to
manage a good career and to have a family.

[edit] The Psychological Contracts

The psychological contract is an implied agreement between the employee and

organization. The employee expects certain things from the organization like salary and
advancement within the company. And the organization expects things like time and
loyalty to the company. This is not a written contract, they exist between individuals. The
psychological contract is important for newcomers in an organization. They need to work
out something effective in order to make good relationships in the company

[edit] Occupational Excellence

Years ago, many workers were able to begin working at a job at a young age and expect
to remain in that career until retirement. Unfortunately, nowadays it sometimes takes
many jobs until one can settle into a final career. This specified method of “job hunting”
is most commonly referred to as occupational excellence. The text Organizational
Behavior: Foundations, Realities and Challenges defines occupational excellence as
“continually honing skills that can be marketed across organizations.” Businesses used to
from on job histories littered by frequent job hopping, but it can now be considered a part
of an individual’s personal training. According to Lee (1998): “Career professionals
agree that in terms of jobs, there are lots of opportunities worth taking risks for.”
However, one is advised by business professionals to have a specified plan and reason for
job hopping that will lead to a final and fruitful career. By practicing organizational
excellence, one can also help in their company’s organizational empowerment.
Organizational empowerment comes when an organization depends on and gives power
to its employees to help remain competitive by being innovative and creative. When an
employee has experience outside of a company doing a similar task or job, they can offer
possible different methods that can help keep a business both competitive and innovative.

[edit] Organizational Design and Structure

[edit] 15.1 Key Organizational Design Processes

To eliminate confusion and to successfully complete the goals within an organization one
has to us a design process which with bring together tasks, enhanced communication and
superior relationships among employees in departments. Differentiation and Integration
are essential in the foundation of an organizational design process. Differentiation has
many dimensions which permit a decision on how to decide work loads. There are three
different forms of differentiation; horizontal, vertical and spatial horizontal. Large
organizations commonly use methods to create departments and specialized jobs.

Integration is a process in which helps keep a dynamic balance within the organization.
Integration has a vertical line which enables an individual to go up the hierarchical chart
to get answers and find solutions to a problem. Vertical linkages will provide meaning
and understanding to the individual and their job. Management information systems use
vertical linkage between employee and manager to provide faster and more efficient
communication. Information systems can definitely decrease the number of
miscommunications and will allow the organization to focus more strongly on
individuals, groups, departments and divisions to complete their tasks and goals.
Horizontal integration provides links in organizations departments. Integration increases
teams, roles and other integrator positions. Spatial differentiation gives organizations
political and legal advantages within their country. In all horizontal, vertical, and
differentiation are important structures for an organization because it shows the width,
height, and breath or organization needs.

[edit] 15.2 Basic Design Dimensions

There are six basic design dimensions of an organization. This is a way to establish a
level of structural dimensions from high to low and also develops a form of structure that
is desired. One of these six basic designs is formalization. This is basically an employee’s
role that is written down, such as a job description. Second of these six basic designs is
centralization. Centralization is a form decision-making through out an organization.
Third of these six basic designs is specialization. Meaning, when tasks are turned into
separate jobs making job titles spell out the job description. Forth of these six basic
designs is Standardization. When this is used, a job is the same thing everyday with little
change. Fifth of these six basic designs is Complexity. This happens when there are
multiple activities going on within the organization and job force is more complex. Lastly
the six basic designs is hierarchy of authority. Hierarchy of authority is the different
levels of management throughout an organization.

[edit] 15.3 Five Structural Configurations

Organizational Structures are classified in 5 categories that were proposed by Mintzberg.

The 5 Structural configurations propose by Mintzberg are: Simple Structure- centralized
form of organization that emphasizes the upper echelon and direct supervision. Most
small business is run this way. Machine Bureaucracy – a moderately form of organization
that emphasizes the technical staff and standardization of work processes. Professional
Bureaucracy- decentralized form of organization that emphasized the operating core and
standardization of skills. Hospitals are an example. Divisionalized form – moderately
decentralized of organization that emphasizes the middle level and standardization of
outputs. This configuration is composed of divisions that have their organizations
structure. Adhocracy – a selectively decentralized form of organization that emphasizes
the support of staff and mutual adjustment among people.

[edit] 15.4 Contextual Variables

There are four contextual variables in the design process of an organization. The number
of employees is considered to be the size of the organization. Size is an integral part in
design process of an organization. The second variable that is technology is anything an
organization can use to make the outputs of the organization less complicated.
Organizations must be careful with the installation of technology because it usually
increases the complexity of the organization and the difficulty of the task at hand. Third
is every thing outside of the organization is which is considered to be the environment.
Situations where circumstances are directly and indirectly associated with organization
are also considered to environment. Last there are strategy and goals which are the plans
and objectives of the organizational design. No one variable appears to be more important
then the other that but they must all is utilized together in the design of an organization.

[edit] References
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[edit] External Links

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Organizational Behavior

Introduction
Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of
knowledge about how people, individuals, and groups act in
organizations. It does this by taking a s y s t e m a p p r o a c h .
That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in
terms of the whole person, whole group, whole organization,
and whole social system. Its purpose is to build better
relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational
objectives, and social objectives.

As you can see from the definition above, organizational

behavior encompasses a wide range of topics, such as
human behavior, change, leadership, teams, etc. Since many
of these topics are covered elsewhere in the leadership
guide, this paper will focus on a few parts of OB: elements,
models, social systems, OD, work life, action learning, and
change.

Elements of Organizational Behavior

The organization's base rests on management's philosophy,
values, vision and goals. This in turn drives the
organizational culture which is composed of the formal
organization, informal organization, and the social
environment. The culture determines the type of leadership,
communication, and group dynamics within the organization.
The workers perceive this as the quality of work life which
directs their degree of motivation. The final outcome are
performance, individual satisfaction, and personal growth and
development. All these elements combine to build the model
or framework that the organization operates from.

Models of Organizational Behavior

There are four major models or frameworks that
organizations operate out of:

o Autocratic - The basis of this model is power with a

managerial orientation of authority. The employees in turn
are oriented towards obedience and dependence on the
boss. The employee need that is met is subsistence. The
performance result is minimal.

o Custodial - The basis of this model is economic

resources with a managerial orientation of money. The
employees in turn are oriented towards security and benefits
and dependence on the organization. The employee need
that is met is security. The performance result is passive
cooperation.

o Supportive - The basis of this model is leadership with a

managerial orientation of support. The employees in turn are
oriented towards job performance and participation. The
employee need that is met is status and recognition. The
 performance result is awakened drives.

o Collegial - The basis of this model is partnership with a

managerial orientation of teamwork. The employees in turn
are oriented towards responsible behavior and self-
discipline. The employee need that is met is self-
actualization. The performance result is moderate
enthusiasm.

Although there are four separate models, almost no

organization operates exclusively in one. There will usually
be a predominate one, with one or more areas over-lapping
in the other models.

The first model, autocratic, has its roots in the industrial

revolution. The managers of this type of organization operate
out of McGregor's Theory X. The next three models begin to
build on McGregor's Theory Y. They have each evolved over
a period of time and there is no one "best" model. The
collegial model should not be thought as the last or best
model, but the beginning of a new model or paradigm.

Social Systems, Culture, and

Individualization
A social system is a complex set of human relationships
interacting in many ways. Within an organization, the social
system includes all the people in it and their relationships to
each other and to the outside world. The behavior of one
member can have an impact, either directly or indirectly, on
the behavior of others. Also, the social system does not have
boundaries...it exchanges goods, ideas, culture, etc. with the
environment around it.

Culture is the conventional behavior of a society that

encompasses beliefs, customs, knowledge, and practices. It
influences human behavior, even though it seldom enters
into their conscious thought. People depend on culture as it
gives them stability, security, understanding, and the ability to
respond to a given situation. This is why people fear change.
They fear the system will become unstable, their security will
be lost, they will not understand the new process, and they
will not know how to respond to the new situations.

Individualization is when employees successfully exert

influence on the social system by challenging the culture.

Impact Of Individualization
On A Organization
_______________________________
High | | |
| | |
| | |
| Conformity | Creative |
| | Individualism |
| | |
Socialization |_______________|_______________|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Isolation | Rebellion |
| | |
| | |
Low |_______________|_______________|
Low Individualization High
The chart above (Schein, 1968) shows how individualization
affects different organizations:

o Too little socialization and too little individualization

creates isolation.
o Too high socialization and too little individualization
 creates conformity.
o Too little socialization and too high individualization
creates rebellion.
o While the match that organizations want to create is high
socialization and high individualization for a creative
environment. This is what it takes to survive in a very
competitive environment...having people grow with the
organization, but doing the right thing when others want to
follow the easy path.

This can become quite a balancing act. Individualism favors

individual rights, loosely knit social networks, self respect,
and personal rewards and careers. It becomes look out for
number 1! Socialization or collectivism favors the group,
harmony, and asks "What is best for the organization?"
Organizations need people to challenge, question, and
experiment while still maintaining the culture that binds them
into a social system.

Organization Development
Organization Development (OD) is the systematic application
of behavioral science knowledge at various levels, such as
group, inter-group, organization, etc., to bring about planned
change. Its objectives is a higher quality of work-life,
productivity, adaptability, and effectiveness. It accomplishes
this by changing attitudes, behaviors, values, strategies,
procedures, and structures so that the organization can
adapt to competitive actions, technological advances, and
the fast pace of c h a n g e within the environment.

There are seven characteristics of OD:

1. Humanistic Values: Positive beliefs about the potential
of employees (McGregor's Theory Y).
2. Systems Orientation: All parts of the organization, to
include structure, technology, and people, must work
together.
3. Experiential Learning: The learners' experiences in the
training environment should be the kind of human problems
they encounter at work. The training should NOT be all
theory and lecture.
4. Problem Solving: Problems are identified, data is
gathered, corrective action is taken, progress is assessed,
and adjustments in the problem solving process are made as
needed. This process is known as Action Research.
5. Contingency Orientation: Actions are selected and
adapted to fit the need.
6. Change Agent: Stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate
change.
7. Levels of Interventions: Problems can occur at one or
more level in the organization so the strategy will require one
or more interventions.
Quality of Work Life
Quality of Work Life (QWL) is the favorableness or
unfavorableness of the job environment. Its purpose is to
develop jobs and working conditions that are excellent for
both the employees and the organization. One of the ways of
accomplishing QWL is through job design. Some of the
options available for improving job design are:

o Leave the job as is but employ only people who like the
rigid environment or routine work. Some people do enjoy the
security and task support of these kinds of jobs.
o Leave the job as is, but pay the employees more.
o Mechanize and automate the routine jobs.
o And the area that OD loves - redesign the job.

When redesigning jobs there are two spectrums to follow -

job enlargement and job enrichment. Job enlargement adds
a more variety of tasks and duties to the job so that it is not
as monotonous. This takes in the b r e a d t h of the job. That
is, the number of different tasks that an employee performs.
This can also be accomplished by job rotation.

Job enrichment, on the other hand, adds additional

motivators. It adds d e p t h to the job - more control,
responsibility, and discretion to how the job is performed.
This gives higher order needs to the employee, as opposed
to job enlargement which simply gives more variety. The
chart below (Cunningham & Eberle, 1990) illustrates the
differences:

Job Enrichment and Job Performance

_______________________________
Higher | | |
Order | | Job |
| Job | Enrichment |
| Enrichment | and |
| | Enlargement |
| | |
Accent on |_______________|_______________|
Needs | | |
| | |
| Routine | Job |
| Job | Enlargement |
| | |
Lower | | |
Order |_______________|_______________|
Few Many
Variety of Tasks
The benefits of enriching jobs include:

o Growth of the individual

o Individuals have better job satisfaction
o Self-actualization of the individual
o Better employee performance for the organization
o Organization gets intrinsically motivated employees
 o Less absenteeism, turnover, and grievances for the
organization
o Full use of human resources for society
o Society gains more effective organizations

There are a variety of methods for improving job enrichment

(Hackman and Oldham, 1975):

o Skill Variety: Perform different tasks that require

different skill. This differs from job enlargement which might
require the employee to perform more tasks, but require the
same set of skills.
o Task Identity: Create or perform a complete piece of
work. This gives a sense of completion and responsibility for
the product.
o Task Significant: This is the amount of impact that the
work has on other people as the employee perceives.
o Autonomy: This gives employees discretion and control
over job related decisions.
o Feedback: Information that tells workers how well they
are performing. It can come directly from the job (task
feedback) or verbally form someone else.

For a survey activity, see Hackman & Oldham's Five

Dimensions of Motivating Potential.

Action Learning
An unheralded British academic was invited to try out his
theories in Belgium -- it led to an upturn in the Belgian
economy. "Unless your ideas are ridiculed by experts they
are worth nothing," says the British academic Reg Revans,
creator of action learning [L = P + Q] -- learning occurs
through a combination of programmed knowledge (P) and
the ability to ask insightful questions (Q).

Action learning has been widely used in Europe for

combining formal management training with learning from
experience. A typical program is conducted over a period of 6
to 9 months. Teams of learners with diverse backgrounds
conduct field projects on complex organizational problems
requiring use of skills learned in formal training sessions. The
learning teams then meet periodically with a skilled instructor
to discuss, analyze, and learn from their experiences.

Revans basis his learning method on a theory called "System

Beta," in that the learning process should closely
approximate the "scientific method." The model is cyclical -
you proceed through the steps and when you reach the last
step you relate the analysis to the original hypothesis and if
need be, start the process again. The six steps are:

o Formulate Hypothesis (an idea or concept)

o Design Experiment (consider ways of testing truth or
validity of idea or concept)
o Apply in Practice (put into effect, test of validity or truth)
o Observe Results (collect and process data on outcomes
of test)
o Analyze Results (make sense of data)
o Compare Analysis (relate analysis to original
hypothesis)

Note that you do not always have to enter this process at

step 1, but you do have to complete the process.

Revans suggest that all human learning at the individual level

occurs through this process. Note that it covers what Jim
Stewart (M a n a g i n g C h a n g e T h r o u g h T r a i n i n g
a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , 1991) calls the levels of existence:

o We think - cognitive domain

o We feel - affective domain
o We do - action domain

All three levels are interconnected -- e.g. what we think

influences and is influenced by what we do and feel.

Change
In its simplest form, discontinuity in the work place is
"change."

Our prefrontal cortex is a fast and agile computational device

that is able to hold multiple threads of logic at once so that
we can perform fast calculations. However, it has its limits
with working memory in that it can only hold a handful of
concepts at once, similar to the RAM in a PC. In addition, it
burns lots of high energy glucose (blood sugar), which is
expensive for the body to produce. Thus when given lots of
information, such as when a change is required, it has a
tendency to overload and being directly linked to the
amygdala (the emotional center of the brain) that controls our
fight-or-flight response, it can cause severe physical and
psychological discomfort. (Koch, 2006)

Our prefrontal cortex is marvelous for insight when not

overloaded. But for normal everyday use, our brain prefers to
run off its "hard-drive" -- the basal ganglia, which has a much
larger storage area and stores memories and our habits. In
addition, it sips rather than gulps food (glucose).

When we do something familiar and predictable, our brain is

mainly using the basal ganglia, which is quite comforting to
us. When we use our prefrontal cortex, then we are looking
for fight, flight, or insight. Too much change produces fight or
flight syndromes. As change agents we want to produce
"insight" into our learners so that they are able to apply their
knowledge and skills not just in the classroom, but also on
the job.

And the way to help people come to "insight" is to allow them

to come to their own resolution. These moments of insight or
resolutions are called "epiphanies" -- sudden intuitive leap of
understanding that are quite pleasurable to us and act as
rewards. Thus you have to resist the urge to fill in the entire
picture of change, rather you have to leave enough gaps so
that the learners are allowed to make connections of their
own. Doing too much for the learners can be just as bad, if
not worse, than not doing enough.

Doing all the thinking for learners takes their brains out of
action, which means they will not invest the energy to make
new connections.

Reference
Cunningham, J. B. & Eberle, T. (1990). "A Guide to Job
Enrichment and Redesign," P e r s o n n e l , Feb 1990, p.57 in
Newstrom, J. & Davis, K. (1993). O r g a n i z a t i o n
B e h a v i o r : H u m a n B e h a v i o r a t W o r k . New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Hackman, J. R. & Oldham, G. R. (1975). "Development of the
Job Diagnostic Survey." Journal of Applied Psychology, 60,
pp. 159-70.

Knoster, T., Villa, R., & Thousand, J. (2000). A f r a m e w o r k

f o r t h i n k i n g a b o u t s y s t e m s c h a n g e . In R. Villa & J.
Thousand (Eds.), R e s t r u c t u r i n g f o r c a r i n g a n d
effective education: Piecing the puzzle
t o g e t h e r (pp. 93-128). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes
Publishing Co.

Koch, C. (2006). The New Science of Change. CIO

Magazine, Sep 15, 2006 (pp 54-56). Also available on the
web: http://www.cio.com/archive/091506/change.html

Revans, R. W. (1982). T h e O r i g i n a n d G r o w t h o f
A c t i o n L e a r n i n g . Hunt, England: Chatwell-Bratt, Bickley.

Schein, E. (1968). "Organizational Socialization and the

Profession of Management," I n d u s t r i a l M a n a g e m e n t
R e v i e w , 1968 vol. 9 pp. 1-15 in Newstrom, J. & Davis, K.
(1993). Organization Behavior: Human Behavior at Work.
New York: McGraw-Hi