153

APPENDIX 1

REFERENCE VALUES FOR THE CALCULATION OF

ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE

Table A1.1 Values of coefficients AL, BL, CL and DL for 400

T P and h

Gas AL BL CL DL
CO 299180 37.85 -4571.9 -31.1
CO2 56835 66.27 -11634 -200
H 357070 20.79 -7.9 -3.9
H2 326490 40.35 -8085.2 -121
H2O 88923 49.36 -7940.8 -117
N2 31317 37.46 -4559.3 -34.82
O 255120 24.6 -2729.2 13.86
O2 43388 42.27 -6635.4 -55.15
OH 217810 37.36 -5561.4 -44.06
NO 111050 37.81 -2874.8 -15.7
N 326040 17.19 5371.4 64.67
 154

Table A1.2 Values of coefficients AH, BH, CH and DH for 1600

T P and h

Gas AH BH CH DH
CO 309070 39.29 -6201.9 -42.77
CO2 93048 68.58 -16979 -220.4
H 357010 20.79 0 -3.82
H2 461750 46.23 -27649 -176.6
H2 O 154670 60.43 -19212 -204.6
N2 44639 39.32 -6753.4 -50.24
O 298360 23.17 -6910.3 21.81
O2 127010 46.25 -18798 -92.15
OH 298750 42.86 -17695 -92.24
NO 138670 39.92 -7061.8 -33.9
N 486400 26.91 -18159 -20.31

Table A1.3 Hrp and Urp values at 298 K

Heat of
CO2 H2O O2 N2
reaction
Urp (kJ/kmole) 9364 57316 17200 15780

Hrp (kJ/kmole) 6886 54838 14722 13302

 155

APPENDIX 2

DETAILS OF PROPERTIES FOR DIESEL AND

OXYGENATES

DIESEL

Diesel or Diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of fuel oil

(mostly petroleum) that is used as fuel in a diesel engine invented by German
engineer Rudolf Diesel.

Diesel is produced from petroleum as a hydrocarbon mixture by

fractional distillation of crude oil between 250 C and 350 C at atmospheric
pressure.

It is sometimes called petrodiesel (or, less seriously, dinodiesel).

Chemical composition

Petroleum-derived diesel is composed of about 75% saturated

hydrocarbons (primarily paraffins including n, iso, and cycloparaffins), and
25% aromatic hydrocarbons (including naphthalenes and alkylbenzenes).

Chemical Formula

The average chemical formula for common diesel fuel is C12H23,

ranging approximately from C10H20 to C15H28.
 156

Physical Properties of Diesel

1. Diesel is immiscible with water.

2. Petro Diesel is considered to be a fuel oil and is about 18%

denser than gasoline.

3. Diesel typically weighs about 7.1 pounds (lb) per US gallon

(gal) (850 grams per liter (g/l)).

4. Diesel combustion exhaust is a major source of atmospheric

soot and fine particles.

5. Diesel exhaust also contains nanoparticles.

6. Approximate chemical composition of diesel oil is given

below.

Chemical substance Volume percentage

 157

ESTERS

Esters are the derivatives of carboxylic acids (RCOOH)

prepared by the alkylation of carboxylic acids with alcohols.

RCOOH + R OH RCOOR

Some representative examples are given below:

Alcohol Carboxylic acid Ester

Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula
Formic HCOOH Methyl HCOO CH3
acid formate
Methanol CH3OH
Acetic CH3COOH Methyl CH3COO
acid aceate CH3
Formic HCOOH Ethyl HCOO
acid formate CH2CH3
Ethanol CH3CH2OH
Acetic CH3COOH Ethyl CH3COO
acid acetate CH2CH3
Propanol CH3CH2 Acetic CH3COOH Propyl CH3COO
CH2OH acid acetate CH2CH2CH3

They are characterized by the presence of carbonyloxy

functional group ( COO-).

Esters of aliphatic carboxylic acids are generally represented

as RCOOR.
O

R
O R'

Acyl group Alkyloxy group

 158

Esters in general are liquids with characteristic odour.

Esters of aromatic carboxylic acids are represented as

ArCOOR.

Esters of inorganic acids are also known.

Some examples are given below:

Alcohol Inorganic acid Esters of inorganic

acids
Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula
Nitrous acid HNO2 Methyl CH3ONO
nitrite
Nitric acid HNO3 Methyl CH3ONO2
nitrate
Methanol CH3OH
Sulphurous H2SO3 Dimethyl (CH3)2SO3
acid sulphite
Sulphuric H2SO4 Dimethyl (CH3)2SO4
acid sulphate
Nitrous acid HNO2 Ethyl CH3
nitrite CH2ONO
Nitric acid HNO3 Ethyl CH3
nitrate CH2ONO2
Ethanol CH3CH2OH
Sulphurous H2SO3 Diethyl (CH3
acid sulphite CH2)2SO3
Sulphuric H2SO4 Diethyl (CH3
acid sulphate CH2)2SO4
 159

2-ETHOXYETHANOL

Other names for 2-Ethoxyethanol: Cellosolve or ethyl cellosolve or

ethylene glycol ethyl ether or oxitol.

H2
C O CH3
HO C C
H2 H2

2-ethoxyethanol

Properties

Molecular formula : C4H10O2

Molar mass : 90.12 gmol
Density : 0.930 g/cm3
Melting point : -70 C, 203 K, -94 F
Boiling point : 135 C, 408 K, 275 F
Flash point : 44 C
It is a clear, colorless, nearly odorless liquid
It is miscible with water, ethanol, diethyl ether, acetone, and ethyl
acetate.

Preparation: 2-Ethoxyethanol can be manufactured by the reaction

of ethylene oxide with ethanol.

Uses

It is a solvent used widely in commercial and industrial

applications. As with other glycol ethers, 2-ethoxyethanol will dissolve oils,
resins, grease, waxes, nitrocellulose, and lacquers. This is an ideal property as
a multi-purpose cleaner and therefore 2-ethoxyethanol is used in products
such as varnish removers and degreasing solutions.
 160

DIETHYL CARBONATE

Other names for diethyl carbonate: Carbonic Ether; Ethyl

Carbonate

O CH3
H2
C CH2
H3C O O
DIETHYL CARBONATE

Molecular formula : (C2H5)2CO3

Molar mass : 118.13gmol

Vapour Density : 4.1g/cm3

Melting point : -43 C

Boiling point : 126 - 128 C

Flash point : 33 C

Specific gravity : 0.975 g/ cm3

It is a clear, colorless, nearly odorless liquid. It is insoluble in

water, stable under ordinary conditions and it is moisture sensitive.

Uses

Diethyl Carbonate is a solvent of both extraction and reaction used

in many industries; pharmaceuticals; agrochemicals; hydrocarbon refinery;
paint and coatings and fragrances; It is used as a methylation and
carbonylation agent in organic synthesis. It can be used as fuel and lube
additive.
 161

ETHERS

Diethyl ether, also known as ether, ethyl ether and ethoxyethane,

is a clear, colorless, and highly flammable liquid with a low boiling point and
a characteristic odor. It is the most common member of a class of chemical
compounds known generically as ethers. It is an isomer of butanol. Diethyl
ether has the formula CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3. It is used as a common solvent
and has been used as a general anesthetic.

Ethers are the substances that possess CO-C bond.

O
C C

They possess the hydrocarbon substituent linked on either side of

the oxygen.

The hydrocarbon substituent may be aliphatic (R-O-R), aromatic

(Ar-O-Ar) or mixed (Ar-O-R) type in nature.

Ethers can be prepared by different methods. One such method is

the Dehydration of alcohols as shown below:
 162

R-OH -O-R + H2O

Alkyl ethers Aryl ethers Aryl alkyl ethers

Dimethyl CH3- O-CH3 Diphenyl ether C6H5-O- Phenyl C6 H5- O-CH3
ether C6H5 methyl
ether
Diethyl CH3 CH2- O- Naphthyl Phenyl C10H9- Phenyl C6 H5- O-
ether CH2CH3 ether O- C6H5 ethyl CH2CH3
ether
Dipropyl CH3 CH2CH2- O- p-Tolyl ether C7H8-O- Phenyl C6 H5- O-
ether CH2CH2CH3 C7H8 propyl CH2CH2CH3
ether
Dibutyl CH3 CH2CH2CH2- Di (2- Cl C6H4- Naphthyl C10H9-O-
ether O- CH2CH2CH2CH3 Chlorophenyl) O- C6H4 ethyl ether CH2CH3
ether Cl

Ethers can be prepared in the laboratory in several different ways:

(a) Dehydration of alcohols

The Dehydration of alcohols affords ethers: 2 R-OH -O-R +

H2O. The dehydration route often requires conditions incompatible with
delicate molecules. Several milder methods exist to produce ethers.

(b) Williamson ether synthesis: Nucleophilic displacement of alkyl

halides by alkoxides affords ethers.

R-ONa + R'-X -O-R' + X-

EPOXIDES: These are cyclic ethers. The first member of this class
is oxirane also called ethylene oxide.
 163

Epoxides are typically prepared by oxidation of alkenes. The most

important epoxide in terms of industrial scale is ethylene oxide, which is
produced by oxidation of ethylene with oxygen.

DIETHYL ETHER

H2 H2
C C
H3C O CH3

Other names for diethyl ether: Ether, Ethyl ether, Ethoxyethane

Preparation: Diethyl ether can be prepared both in laboratories
and on an industrial scale by treating ethanol with sulphuric acid under
suitable conditions.

Properties: Ether is sparingly soluble in water (6.9 g/100 mL). The

diffusion of diethyl ether in air is 0.91810 m2/s (298K 101.325 kPa).

Chemical formula : C4H10O

Molecular weight : 74.12

Boiling Point : 313.54 [K]

Melting Point : 156.57 [K]

Critical Temp. : 487.33 [K]

Critical Pres : 38.15 [Bar]

Critical Vol. : 277.5 [cm3/mol]

Heat of Form : -258.11 [kJ/mol]

Elemental analysis : C = 64.82; H = 13.60; O = 21.59

General uses: It is commonly used as solvent and as a general

anesthetic.
164
165
166
167
 168

APPENDIX 3

A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR COMBUSTION

SIMULATION

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#define pi 3.1415926
long double AL[]={299180,56835,88923,31317,43388};
long double BL[]={37.85,66.27,49.36,37.46,42.27};
long double CL[]={-4571.9,-11634,-7940.8,-4559.3,-6635.4};
long double AH[]={309070,93048,154670,44639,127010};
long double BH[]={39.29,68.58,60.43,39.32,46.25};
long double CH[]={-6201.9,-16979,-19212,-6753.4,-18798};
int RPM = 1500;
long double Hrp = -6261300; heating value of diesel at constant pressure in
kJ/kmol*/
float MOLWP[]={28,44,18,28,32};
float R = 8.314; /* gas constant in KJ/Kmole K */
float Rlit = 0.082060; /* gas constant in litre-atmosphere/Kmole K */
float IVO = 535.5; float IVC = 35.5;
float EVO = 324.5 ; float EVC = 544.5; /* Valve Timing in degree crank angle*/
float calVOL(int i,int j);
float calN(int i);
float calCP(float T);
float calHP(float T);
float calHT(float G[],int o);
float calTRR(int i,float T,float G[]);
void main()
{
clrscr();
int i,j,I,I1,I2,ID,IMX,IBC,ICE,ICB,ICAMAX,JCAMAX;
 169

float b,s,l;
float r,vtotal,vdisp,vtdc,vbdc,vcv,v[800];
float DT,Nx,k,CM,NP,NMO,NM,NA,SUM,PMOLWT,RMOLWT,RMIX;
float pa,p1,p2,p3,p3D,p4,ta,t1,t2,t3,t4,v1,v2,v3,v4;
float Mc,Mh,Mo,y,ycc,ymin,AFR;
float PMAX,PMX,PRMAX,T,Tnew,Cv,n[50];
float CPR,CPP,CVR,KR,KP,Wcomp,Wcomb,Wexp,Wnet;
float GASMAS,PRESS[1800],TEMP[1800],PRR[1800],DELV[1800],G[1800];
float RK1,RK2,RK3,RK4,DELP[1800],FUN[3000];
float Vdel,TPMAX;
long double Qp;
b =0.102; /* bore */
s =0.118; /* stroke */
l =0.231; /* crank length */
r = 17.5; /* compresssion ratio */
pa = 1; /* ambient pressure */
ta = 303; /* ambient air temperature */
vdisp = pi*b*b*s/4;
vbdc = vdisp*r/(r-1);
vtdc = vbdc - vdisp;
printf("Displacement Volume = %f",vdisp);
printf("\n");
printf("Volume at BDC = %f",vbdc);
printf("\n");
printf("Volume at TDC = %f",vtdc);
printf("\n\n\n");
p1 = pa;
t1 = ta;
Nx = 0; /* residual exhaust from previous cycle */
k = 1.4; /* polytropic index */
/* fuel used is diesel .......... C10H22 */
Mc = 10; /* number of moles of carbon */
Mh = 22; /* number of moles of hydrogen */
Mo = 0; /* number of moles of oxygen */
ycc = Mc + 0.25*Mh - 0.5*Mo; /* chemically correct amount of oxygen */
 170

ymin = ycc - 0.5*Mc; /* minimum amount of oxygen required */

y = ycc*1.5; /* 50% of additional air is supplied */
AFR = 4.76*y;

/* .....................CALCULATION OF AVERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND

GAS CONSTANT .................*/

NMO = 1 + 4.76*y;
NA = p1*calVOL(0,1)*1000/(Rlit*t1);
NM = NA + NA/AFR;
SUM = 0;
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
SUM = SUM + calN(i)*MOLWP[i];
PMOLWT = SUM/calN(5);
RMOLWT = (NA*28.96 + Nx*PMOLWT)/(NA + Nx);
RMIX = R/PMOLWT;
CPR = 27.5 + 0.0057*t1;
CPR = (CPR*NA + Nx*calCP(t1))/(NA + Nx);
KR = CPR/(CPR - R);

/* ................................. CALCULATION OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

CHANGE DURING COMPRESSION STROKE .............. */

IBC = 154; /* Crank angle at which fuel is

injected 26 deg btdc */
GASMAS = (p1*101325*calVOL(0,1))/(RMIX*1000*t1);
CVR = CPR - R;
DT = 0.0001;
TEMP[IBC] = t1 * pow((calVOL(0,1)/calVOL(IBC,1)),(KR-1));
Wcomp = (NA + Nx)*CVR*(TEMP[IBC] - t1);
PRESS[1] = p1;
TEMP[1] = t1;
PRR[1] = 0;
for(i=1;i<=IBC;i++)
{
 171

DELV[i] = calVOL(i+1,1)*1e6 - calVOL(i,1)*1e6;

G[1] = PRESS[i];
G[2] = DT;
G[3] = GASMAS;
G[4] = t1*pow((calVOL(0,1)/calVOL(i,1)),(KR-1));
G[5] = DELV[i]/G[2];
if(i<=IVC)
PRESS[i] = p1;
PRESS[i+1] = PRESS[i]*pow((calVOL(i,1)/calVOL(i+1,1)),KR);
PRESS[i+1] = PRESS[i+1] + calHT(G,1);
PRR[i] = PRESS[i+1] - PRESS[i];
TEMP[i] = t1 * pow((calVOL(0,1)/calVOL(i,1)),(KR-1));
}
FILE *press=fopen("diesel.xls","w");
fprintf(press,"\n\n crank angle\t \t pressure \t\t temperature \n\n");
for(i=1;i<=IBC;i++ )
{
fprintf(press,"%d \t\t%f \t\t %f",i,PRESS[i],TEMP[i]);
fprintf(press,"\n");
}
t2 = t1*pow(r,(KR-1));
p2 = p1*pow(r,KR);
v2 = calVOL(180,1);

/*..................... CALCULATION OF TEMPERATURE AT THE END OF

COMBUSTION ........................*/

CM = NM/NMO + Nx/calN(5);
NP = calN(5)*CM;
Qp = -Hrp - calN(0)*282800;
T = 1500; /* Assumed value for combustion temperature */
iter:
Tnew = T - (calHP(T) - calHP(t2) - Qp)/calCP(T);
if(Tnew-T>0.1)
{
 172

T = Tnew;
goto iter;
}
t3 = Tnew;
p3D = p2*(t3/t2)*NP/(NA + Nx);
p3 = p2;
CPP = calCP(t2);
KP = calCP(t2)/(calCP(t2)-R);
printf("Temperature at the end of combustion = %f\n",Tnew);
printf("P1 = %f\t T1 = %f\n",p1,t1);
printf("P2 = %f\t T2 = %f\n",p2,t2);
printf("P3 = %f\t T3 = %f\n",p3,t3);
printf("Pressure when combustion at constant volume = %f\n",p3D);
getch();

/* .........................ZERO DIMENSIONAL COMBUSTION PROCESS................ */

SUM = 0;
ID = 0;
I = 1;
j = IBC;
iter20:
FUN[I] = 1/(0.00044*pow(PRESS[j],-1.19)*exp(4650/TEMP[j])*6*RPM);
DELV[j] = calVOL(j+1,1)*1e6 - calVOL(j,1)*1e6;
G[1] = PRESS[j];
G[2] = DT;
G[3] = GASMAS;
G[4] = t1*pow((calVOL(180,1)/calVOL(j,1)),(KR-1));
G[5] = DELV[j]/G[2];
PRESS[j+1] = PRESS[j]*pow((calVOL(j,1)/calVOL(j+1,1)),KR);
PRESS[j+1] = PRESS[j+1] + calHT(G,1);
TEMP[j+1] = t1*pow((calVOL(0,1)/calVOL(j+1,1)),(KR-1));
FUN[I+1] = 1/(0.00044*pow(PRESS[j+1],-1.19)*exp(4650/TEMP[j+1])*6*RPM);
SUM = SUM + (FUN[I] + FUN[I+1])/2;
if(SUM>1)
 173

goto iter10;
I = I+1;
j = j+1;
goto iter20;
iter10:
ID = j - IBC;
ICB = IBC + ID;
printf("Delay Period = %d\t ICB = %d\n",ID,ICB);
for(j=IBC;j<=ICB;j++)
{
DELV[j] = calVOL(j+1,1)*1e6 - calVOL(j,1)*1e6;
G[1] = PRESS[j];
G[2] = DT;
G[3] = GASMAS;
G[4] = t1*pow((calVOL(0,1)/calVOL(j,1)),(KR-1));
G[5] = DELV[j]/G[2];
PRESS[j+1] = PRESS[j]*pow((calVOL(j,1)/calVOL(j+1,1)),KR);
PRESS[j+1] = PRESS[j+1] + calHT(G,1);
PRR[j] = PRESS[j+1] - PRESS[j];
TEMP[j+1] = t1*pow((calVOL(0,1)/calVOL(j+1,1)),(KR-1));
}
for(i=IBC+1;i<=ICB;i++ )
{
fprintf(press,"%d \t\t%f \t\t %f",i,PRESS[i],TEMP[i]);
fprintf(press,"\n");
}
CVR = CPR - R;
T = TEMP[j];
Wcomp = (NA + Nx)*CVR*(TEMP[ICB] - t1);
ICE = ICB + 50; /* 50 is the combustion duration */
Wcomb = 0;
j = ICB;
TEMP[j] = TEMP[ICB];
iter40:
G[1] = PRESS[j];
 174

G[2] = DT;
G[3] = GASMAS;
G[4] = TEMP[j];
G[5] = (calVOL(j+1,1)*1e6 - calVOL(j,1)*1e6)/G[2];
T = TEMP[j];
I2 = 2;
I1 = I2/2;
iter55:
RK1 = I2*calTRR(j,T,G);
RK2 = I2*calTRR((j+I1),(T+0.5*RK1),G);
RK3 = I2*calTRR((j+I1),(T+0.5*RK2),G);
RK4 = I2*calTRR((j+I2),(T+RK3),G);
/* printf("RK1 = %f\t RK2 = %f\t RK3 = %f\t RK4 = %f\n",RK1,RK2,RK3,RK4);*/
j = j+1;
TEMP[j] = T + (RK1 + (RK2 + RK3)*2 + RK4)/6;
PRESS[j] = TEMP[j]*(RMIX*GASMAS*1000)/(calVOL(j,1)*101325);
DELP[j] = PRESS[j-1] - PRESS[j];
PMX = 0.6*p3D;
PRR[j] = fabs(DELP[j])/I2;
PRMAX = 10.00;
if(PRR[j]>PRMAX)
goto iter60;
if(PRESS[j]>PMX)
goto iter60;
Vdel = calVOL(j+1,1)*1e6 - calVOL(j,1)*1e6;
Wcomb = Wcomb + (PRESS[j] + 0.5*DELP[j])*fabs(Vdel)*1e-6*101325;
if(j>ICE)
goto iter50;
goto iter40;
iter60:
j = j - 1;
IMX = j;
T = TEMP[j];
goto iter55;
iter50:
 175

if(j>ICE)
ICE = j - 1;
else
ICE = j;
PMAX = PRESS[ICB];
for(i=ICB;i<=ICE;i++)
{
if((PMAX-PRESS[i])<0)
{
PMAX = PRESS[i];
ICAMAX = i;
}
}
TPMAX = TEMP[ICB];
for(i=ICB;i<=ICE;i++)
{
if((TPMAX-TEMP[i])<0)
{
TPMAX = TEMP[i];
JCAMAX = i;
}
}
printf("Maximum Pressure = %f at crank angle = %d\n",PMAX,ICAMAX);
printf("Maximum Temperature = %f at crank angle =%d\n ",TPMAX,JCAMAX);

/* ................................. CALCULATION OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

CHANGE DURING EXPANSION STROKE .............. */

int IEC;
float TEAC,UPteac,UPt4;
printf("ICE = %d\n",ICE);
IEC = ICE;
TEAC = PRESS[IEC]*calVOL(IEC,1)*1000/(Rlit*NP);
KP = calCP(TEAC)/(calCP(TEAC) - R);
t4 = TEAC*pow((calVOL(IEC,1)/calVOL(EVO,1)),(KP-1));
 176

UPteac = CM*calHP(TEAC) - R*NP*TEAC;

UPt4 = CM*calHP(t4) - R*NP*t4;
Wexp = UPteac - UPt4;
Wnet = Wexp + Wcomb - Wcomp;
for(i=IEC;i<EVO;i++)
{
G[1] = PRESS[i];
G[2] = DT;
G[3] = GASMAS;
G[4] = TEAC*pow((calVOL(IEC,1)/calVOL(i,1)),(KP-1));
G[5] = (calVOL(i,1)*1e6-calVOL(i-1,1)*1e6)/(G[2]);
PRESS[i+1] = PRESS[i]*pow((calVOL(i,1)/calVOL(i+1,1)),KP);
PRESS[i+1] = PRESS[i+1] + calHT(G,1);
PRR[i] = PRESS[i+1] - PRESS[i];
TEMP[i] = TEAC * pow((calVOL(IEC,1)/calVOL(i,1)),(KP-1));
}
/*
printf("Crank ang\t Pressure\t Temperature\n");
for(i=IBC;i<=EVO;i=i+2)
{
printf("%d\t %f\t %f\n",i,PRESS[i],TEMP[i]);
getch();
}
*/
for(i=ICB+1;i<=EVO;i++ )
{
fprintf(press,"%d \t\t%f \t\t %f",i,PRESS[i],TEMP[i]);
fprintf(press,"\n");
}
fclose(press);
printf("Work done during Compression = %f\n",Wcomp);
printf("Work done during Combustion = %f\n",Wcomb);
printf("Work done during expansion = %f\n",Wexp);
printf("Net work done = %f\n",Wnet);
getch();
 177

/*........................................................................................... */
/*SUBROTINE FOR CALCULATION NUMBER OF MOELS OF EACH
ELEMENT IN PRODUCT*/
/*........................................................................................... */
float calN(int i)
{
float Mc,Mh,Mo,y,ycc,ymin,n[10],NPO;
Mc = 10;
Mh = 22;
Mo = 0;
ycc = Mc + 0.25*Mh - 0.5*Mo;
ymin = ycc - 0.5*Mc;
y = ycc*1.5;
if(y>ycc)
{
n[0] = 0;
n[1] = Mc;
n[2] = 0.5*Mh;
n[3] = 3.76*y;
n[4] = y - ycc;
n[5] = n[0]+n[1]+n[2]+n[3]+n[4];
}
else
{
n[0] = 2*(ycc-y);
n[1] = 2*(y-ymin);
n[2] = 0.5*Mh;
n[3] = 3.76*y;
n[4] = 0;
n[5] = n[0]+n[1]+n[2]+n[3]+n[4];
}

return(n[i]);
}
 178

/*........................................................................................... */
/* SUBROTINE FOR THE CALCULATION OF CP */
/*........................................................................................... */

float calCP(float T)
{
int i;
float cp,CT[50],CPT;
CT[-1] = 0.0;
if(T>1600)
{
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
{
cp = calN(i)*(BH[i] + CH[i]/T);
CT[i] = CT[i-1] + cp;
CPT = CT[i];
}
}
else
{
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
{
cp = calN(i)*(BL[i] + CL[i]/T);
CT[i] = CT[i-1] + cp;
CPT = CT[i];
}
}
return(CPT);
}

/*........................................................................................... */
/* SUBROTINE FOR THE CALCULATION OF HP */
/*........................................................................................... */
float calHP(float T)
 179

{
int i;
float ht,HT[50],HPT;
if(T>=1600)
{
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
{
ht = calN(i)*(AH[i] + BH[i]*T + CH[i]*log(T));
HT[i] = HT[i-1] + ht;
HPT = HT[i];
}
}
else
{
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
{
ht = calN(i)*(AL[i] + BL[i]*T + CL[i]*log(T));
HT[i] = HT[i-1] + ht;
HPT = HT[i];
}
}
return(HPT);
}
/*........................................................................................... */
/* SUBROTINE FOR CALCULATION VOLUME AT ANY CRANK ANGLE */
/*........................................................................................... */
float calVOL(int i,int j)
{
float b,s,l;
float r,vdisp,v[800],vd[800];
b = 0.102; /* bore */
s = 0.118; /* stroke */
l = 0.231; /* crank length */
r = 17.5; /* compression ratio */
vdisp = pi*b*b*s/4;
 180

v[i] = 0;
vd[i] = 0;
v[i] = vdisp*((r/(r-1))- ((1-cos(i*pi/180))/2) + (l/s) - (sqrt((pow((2*l/s),2))- (pow(sin
(i*pi/180),2))))/2);
vd[i] = (vdisp/2) * ((0.5*sin(2*i*pi/180)/(sqrt((pow((2*l/s),2))- (pow(sin
(i*pi/180),2))))) - sin(i*pi/180));
if(j==1)
return(v[i]);
if(j==2)
return(vd[i]);
/*........................................................................................... ..*/
/*SUBROTINE FOR CALCULATION HEAT TRANSFER*/
/*..................................................................................................................... */
float calHT(float G[],int o)
{
float i,j,b,s,r,G1,G2,G3,G4,G5;
float CV,Tw,Patm,SAREA,VEL,T,dP,PMOLWT;
double HC;
b = 0.102;
s = 0.118;
r = 17.5;
j = 0;
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
j = j + calN(i)*MOLWP[i];
PMOLWT = j/calN(5);
G1 = G[1];
G2 = G[2];
G3 = G[3];
G4 = G[4];
G5 = fabs(G[5])*1e-6;
CV = calCP(G4) - R;
Tw = 376;
T = G4;
Patm = G1;
SAREA = pi*b*s*r/(r-1);
 181

VEL = G5/SAREA;
HC = 0.13*pow(b,0.2)*pow((Patm*VEL),0.8)/pow(T,0.5);
dP = G1*HC*SAREA*(Tw-T)*G2*PMOLWT/(G3*CV*T);
if(o==1)
return(fabs(dP));
if(o==2)
return(HC);
}
/*........................................................................................... */
/* SUBROTINE FOR CALCULATION HEAT RELEASE RATE */
/*........................................................................................... */
float calTRR(int j,float T,float G[])
{
int ICB,l,i;
float CVT,FKM,FKG,HR,p1,t1,M;
float RMIX,NA,y,WT,C1,Yx;
float HC,b,s,r,Patm,VEL,GASMAS;
float HTR,SAREA,Tw,DT,VDEL,WTR,TRR,PMOLWT,HV,PRESS[1800];
float COMDUR = 50;
WT = 142; /* Molecuate weight of C10H22 */
p1 = 1.0;
t1 = 303.0;
y = 23.25;
ICB = 171;
Yx = (j - ICB)/COMDUR;
NA = (p1*calVOL(0,1)*1000)/(Rlit*t1);
CVT = calCP(T) - R;
FKM = NA/(4.76*y);
FKG = 0.9*FKM*WT;
HV = -Hrp/WT;
C1 = FKG*HV*1e-3/COMDUR;
M = 0.25;
GASMAS = G[3];
 182

HR =
6.908*(M+1)*pow(C1,M)*pow(fabs(Yx),M)*exp(6.908*pow(fabs(Yx),(M+1)))
;
i = 0;
for(l=0;l<=4;l++)
i = i + calN(l)*MOLWP[l];
PMOLWT = i/calN(5);
RMIX = R/PMOLWT;
b = 0.102;
s = 0.118;
r = 17.5;
SAREA = pi*b*s*r/(r-1);
DT = 0.0001;
Tw = 376;
HC = calHT(G,2);
HTR = fabs(HC)*SAREA*(T - Tw)*DT;
VDEL = calVOL(j+1,1) - calVOL(j,1);
WTR = (GASMAS*RMIX*T)*fabs(VDEL)/(calVOL(j,1));
TRR = (HR+HTR-WTR)*PMOLWT/(GASMAS*CVT);
return(TRR);
}
 183

APPENDIX 4

A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR HEAT TRANSFER

AND HEAT RELEASE

#include<stdlib.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define pi 3.14
main()
{
int i;
float b,l,s,vdisp,Mm,Re,a,Tw,hc,j;
float v[720],r,Tg[720],qht[720]qcht[720],qc[720], q[720];
b=0.102;
s=0.116;
l=0.2311;
r=17.5;
Mm=0.000225;Re=0.04132;
hc=385.37;
a=pi*b*l;

vdisp=pi/4 * pow(b,2)*s;
for(i=0;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
j=(pi/180)*i;
v[i]=vdisp*((r/r-1)-((1-cos(j))/2))+(l/s)-0.5*(sqrt((pow(2*l/s,2)-(pow(sin(j),2)))));
}
 184

for(i=140;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
FILE *2eeft=fopen("2eeft.txt","w");
if(2eeft)
{
for(i=140;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
Tg[i]=(p[i]*100*v[i])/Mm*Re;
fprintf(2eeft,"%f\n",Tg[i]);
}
fclose(2eeft);
}
}
Tw=(376+373)/2;
printf("Tw=%f\n",Tw);
for(i=0;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
FILE *2eefq=fopen("2eefq.txt","w");
if(2eefq)
{
for(i=0;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
qht[i]=hc*a*(Tg[i]-Tw)/1000;
fprintf(2eefq,"qht[%d]=%f\n",i,qht[i]);
}
fclose(2eefq);
}
}
q[0]=0;
printf("q[0]=%f",q[0]);
for(i=0;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
 185

FILE *2eefqt=fopen("2eefqt.txt","w");
if(2eefqt)
{
for(i=5;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
q[i]=q[i-5]+qht[i];
fprintf(2eefqt,"q[%d]=%f\n",i,q[i]);
}
fclose(2eefqt);
}
}
for(i=0;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
FILE *2eefqc1=fopen("2eefqc1.txt","w");
if(2eefqc1)
{
for(i=140;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
qcht[i]=qht[i]+qch[i];
fprintf(2eefqc1,"qcht[%d]=%f\n",i,qcht[i]);
}
fclose(2eefqc1);
}
}
for(i=0;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
FILE *2eefqct1=fopen("2eefqct1.txt","w");
if(2eefqct1)
{
for(i=140;i<=360;i=i+5)
{
qc[i]=q[i]+qt[i];
 186

fprintf(2eefqct1,"qc[%d]=%f\n",i,qc[i]);
}
fclose(2eefqct1);
}
}
getch();
clrscr();
}

NOTE: PRESSURE VALUES AND OTHER LOSSES ARE READ FROM A

INPUT FILE
 187

APPENDIX 5

CONVERSION CHART FOR K, HSU, FSN AND mg/m3

Hartridge Filter Smoke

K coefficient of
Smoke Units Number Mg / m3 Cal %
light absorption
HSU FSN

0.25 10 1,10 33 6.1

0.27 11 1,20 38 6.5

0.30 12 1,30 42 7.2

0.32 13 1,40 47 7.7

0.35 14 1,48 52 8.4

0.38 15 1,57 57 9.1

0.41 16 1,67 62 9.7

0.43 17 1,75 66 10.2

0.46 18 1,84 71 10.9

0.49 19 1,93 76 11.5

0.52 20 2.02 81 12.2

0.55 21 2.10 86 12.8

0.58 22 2.18 91 13.5

0.61 23 2.26 96 14.1

0.64 24 2.34 101 14.8

0.67 25 2.42 106 15.4

0.70 26 2.50 111 16.1

0.73 27 2.57 117 16.7

0.76 28 2.64 122 17.3

0.80 29 2.71 127 18.1

 188

Hartridge Filter Smoke

K coefficient of
Smoke Units Number Mg / m3 Cal %
light absorption
HSU FSN

0,83 30 2,77 1,33 18.7

0.86 31 2,83 1,38 19.3

0.90 32 2.89 1,44 20.1

0,93 33 2,96 150 20.7

0,97 34 3,02 156 21.5

1,00 35 3,08 162 22.1

1,04 36 3,14 168 22.9

1,07 37 3,20 174 23.5

1,11 38 3,26 181 24.2

1,15 39 3,31 187 25.0

1,19 40 3,37 193 25.7

1,23 41 3,42 199 26.5

1,27 42 3,47 206 27.2

1,31 43 3,53 213 27.9

1,35 44 3,59 220 28.6

1,39 45 3,64 227 29.4

1,43 46 3,70 234 30.1

1,48 47 3,75 241 30.9

1,52 48 3,80 248 31.6

1,57 49 3,86 256 32.5

1,61 50 3,91 264 33.1

1,66 51 3,96 272 34.0

1,71 52 4,01 281 34.8

 189

Hartridge Filter Smoke

K coefficient of
Smoke Units Number Mg / m3 Cal %
light absorption
HSU FSN

1,76 53 4,07 290 35.6

1,81 54 4,12 299 36.4

1,86 55 4,17 308 37.2

1,91 56 4,22 317 38.0

1,96 57 4,27 326 38.7

2,02 58 4,32 335 39.6

2,07 59 4,37 345 40.4

2,13 60 4,42 355 41.3

2,19 61 4,47 365 42.2

2,25 62 4,52 375 43.0

2,31 63 4,57 385 43.9

2,38 64 4,62 395 44.8

2,44 65 4,67 406 45.7

2,51 66 4,72 416 46.6

2,58 67 4,76 428 47.5

2,65 68 4,81 439 48.4

2,72 69 4,86 450 49.3

2,80 70 4,91 462 50.3

2,88 71 4,96 475 51.3

2,96 72 5,01 489 52.3

3,04 73 5,07 501 53.2

3,13 74 5,12 514 54.3

3,22 75 5,17 529 55.3

 190

Hartridge Filter Smoke

K coefficient of
Smoke Units Number Mg / m3 Cal %
light absorption
HSU FSN

3,32 76 5,23 544 56.4

3,42 77 5,28 559 57.5

3,52 78 5,34 575 58.5

3,63 79 5,40 591 59.6

3,74 80 5,45 609 60.7

3,86 81 5,51 626 61.9

3,99 82 5,57 648 63.1

4,12 83 5,65 669 64.3

4,26 84 5,72 691 65.5

4,41 85 5,80 712 66.8

4,57 86 5,87 737 68.1

4,74 87 5,95 760 69.4

4,93 88 6,04 786 70.8

5,13 89 6,13 815 72.3

5,35 90 6,22 844 73.7

(Extracted from MIRA Report No. 1965 / 10, Nuneaton 1965, AG Dodd and Z
Holubecki)

APPENDIX 6
Examiners remarks and corrections carried out
Chapter Foreign Examiner remarks
No.
2 Most of the references provided in
the thesis are either SAE papers or
published before year 2000. More
and better effort should be made to
update the references, for example,
Fuel and Energy and Fuel may (2008), Ramadhas A.S. (2005),
provide very useful information.
3 Page 21: The ratios of 3%, 6% and
9% of oxygenate by weight in
preparing the diesel oxygenate
blends should be justified. It seems
that they are chosen by random.
Page 22: If the physical and
chemical properties of the various
diesel oxygenate blends are
obtained from the literatures,
references for Table3.1 should be
specified clearly.
4 Page 35: It is unreasonable to
neglect dissociation at high
temperature combustion processes.
Page 40: On the one hand, it is
stated that a maximum emission
reduction is obtained for diesel
oxygenate blends having oxygenate
from 1% to 8% by weight. On the
other hand, the ratios of 3%, 6%
and 9% by weight are used. It
seems rather unreasonable to adopt
different ranges.
191
Corrections
carried out
Literature from Energy & fuel
added on ignition delay page:
18. Some other references
included in the text are Wenqiao
Yuan (2005), Wade L.G. Jr.
Pulkrabek W.W.(2006), Marcello
Canova 2005), etc.
The blending levels are
determined such that the blends
cover 0.65% to 4.14% oxygen by
weight with diesel fuel in the
ratios of 3.0, 6.0 and 9.0 percent
by weight. The blending levels are
restricted due to reduction of
calorific value, corrosion and
lubricity problems.. Page: 22.
Literature reference given C.
Mani Natarajan 2001, Page: 23.
(Ganesan V,1996) as complete
combustion is assumed. However,
disassociation losses are
compensated in computing the
values of specific heats, where
temperature is accounted.
Oxygenate is corrected as
oxygen. Page: 41
the three oxygenates 2EE, DEC
and DEE are blended with diesel
fuel in the ratios of 3.0, 6.0 and
9.0 percent by weight to have
oxygen content varying between
0.65% and 4.14%..

Chapter Foreign Examiner remarks
No.
4 Page 53: This is one of the most
curial points requiring major
revision. Description on the
experimental investigation of
pollutant emissions (NOX, HC and
particulates) needs to be presented
in great detail. What do you
measure? What are the instrument
and equipment involved? How to
perform the measurements? How to
handle the data? What are the
accuracy and experimental error?
The description is too brief and I
have the impression that the
experimental investigation is not
conducted in the present study. In
addition, particulate and smoke
emissions should not be directly
related even though smoke is part
of the particulate emissions. As the
particulate emissions are predicted
according to the conversion chart of
the smoke meter manual, accuracy
and reliability of the presented
results are very doubtful. Besides,
what range of particulates you want
to measure?
192
Corrections
carried out
Description of 5 Gas analyzer
given. Page: 55
Emission analyser is also self-
calibrating type. If the calibration
is with in the required time span,
the analyser skips to the leak test to
ensure that there are no air leaks in
the unit. It will not pass to the next
stage until the leak test has passed.
It will automatically perform an
auto zero test whilst warming up,
and at intervals during use to
ensure that the measurement
accuracy is maintained. HC (Non
dispersive infra red analyser) and
NOX values (chemical sensor and
catalytic reaction) are measured in
ppm by volume. CO and CO2
readings (Non dispersive infra red
analyser) are given as percentage
by volume.
Range and accuracy
CO - 0 -10% volume
(accuracy0.01%)
HC - 0-2000ppm
(accuracy 1 ppm)
CO2 - 0-20% volume
(accuracy 0. 1%)
NOX - 0-1000ppm
(accuracy 1 ppm)
 193

Chapter Foreign Examiner remarks Corrections

No. carried out
4 Page 56: It is rather unusual to Gas analyser uses NDIR principle
present CO in % by volume instead and measures CO in % by volume
of ppm. Page 55

5 Page 69: As shown from Figure 5.6, Fig. 5.6 compares the simulated
the premixed combustion value of pressure for Diesel and
advancement in using diesel blends. Title of figure corrected.
oxygenate blends is not significant Page: 73

Page 81 and 84: As the particulate Explained in Page: 97

emissions are predicted according to
the conversion chart of the smoke
meter manual, a significant
drawback is obtained. Comparing
figures 5.15 (a) and 5.15 (a), smoke
and particulate emissions appear to
have the same pattern and it may not
be correct. A good explanation is
certainly required.
With the addition of oxygenates
the trend for HC and CO is
decreasing where as the trend is
increasing in NOx emissions at
any particular load. When the load
is increased emissions are also
increasing due more fuel injected.

Page 86: The formula given by Blair Formula given Page: 94

including all boundary conditions
should be presented. In addition,
results obtained at 90% load do not
show an overall reduction in HC
emissions.
 194

Chapter Foreign Examiner remarks Corrections

No.
5 Page 87, 89 and 92: It is directly
related to what I have pointed out
previously (Page 53), a significant
drawback is observed here.
Comparing Figures 5.17(a), 5.18(a)
and 5.20(a), HC, NOX and CO
emissions appear to have very similar
patterns and such coincidence is
rather unusual. A good justification is
definitely needed.
carried out
Explained in Page: 97
With the addition of oxygenates
the trend for HC and CO is
decreasing where as the trend is
increasing in NOx emissions at
any particular load. When the load
is increased emissions are also
increased due more fuel injected

Page 89 and 91: As temperature plays Figure drawn 5.25(b) Pages:

a significant role in NOX emissions, it
100&101.Even though the peak
is certainly useful to establish some temperature is reduced with
relationships between Figure 5.19 oxygenates addition, the average
Peak Temperature with Figure temperature is high due better
5.18(a) NOX Emissions. combustion resulting in higher
NOX emissions
Page 124: Summary of the discussion Summary is detailed & quantified.
is too brief. Some statements such as Pages: 141-145 The performance
..Performance of all the three of oxygenates at 6.0% blending
oxygenates is found to be good are level is summarized as shown
not appropriate to be used in the below. 2-Ethoxy ethanol
summary of a PhD Thesis, instead, reduced smoke emissions by
quantitative statements are more
0.55 FSN and particulate
preferred.
emissions by 0.35 g/k W-hr at
60% load
Page 125: Section 5.3: Findings is Validation part is added. Page:
not yet completed. The proposed 146. The validation of m values
Equation (5.1) should not be and the model is discussed and
presented here if validation is not yet shown in Figures 5.1 to 5.20.
performed. Perhaps, it may better be
presented in the Appendix
 195

Chapter Foreign Examiner remarks Corrections

No.
Page 126: All statements made in
the section Conclusions must be
supported by facts and evidence. I
do not recall any investigation made
in the present study to examine the
loss of lubricity and increased
corrosion.
carried out
Conclusions modified. Page: 147
The smoke intensity is found to be
reduced more than 30% to 40% in
9.0% blending level of
2-Ethoxy ethanol and Diethyl
carbonate. 25 to 30% for diethyl
ether in 9.0% and 20% to 30% for
6.0% blending and 15 to 20% for
3.0% blending of all oxygenates

Page 128 and 129: Again, I do not Conclusions modified. Page: 147
recall any investigation made in the Other properties of the blending
present study to examine the compounds like cetane number
influences of Solubility, and sulphur content also have a
stability, flash point, lubricity say in smoke reduction.
and biodegradability on smoke
reduction, and the vibration and
noise reduction abilities of the
diesel oxygenate blends. It is not
acceptable to have empty statements
in the concluding section.

6 In addition, there are several typo- Typo-mistakes corrected as

mistakes found and have been shown.
marked in the draft. Certainly, they
are required to be amended. Besides,
I have made some comments on
pages xviii, 24, 25, 30, 32, 37, 82,
98 and 112, which should also be
considered.
 196

Chapter Indian Examiner remarks Corrections

No. carried out
1 It suggests that chapter 3 includes Corrected- Page:4
Simulation model for oxygenated Chapter 3 discusses various
diesel combustion and the experimental properties of oxygenates and
setup, error analysis etc. which is not blends and Chapter 4 deals
correct. Please refer to Ch.3 with simulation model for
oxygenate diesel combustion
Table 1.1 is neither referred in section Table 1.1 removed. Page:4
1.1, nor it is really required anywhere
therefore it may be deleted
2 Literature review should have Literature sub divided.
been broken into many sub-sections Page: 6 as 2.1
rather than discussing every paper EXPERIMENTAL
monotonously. This chapter needs to be INVESTIGATION -
recognized. The chapter should have EMISSION
been discussed as per the contents of etc
Table 2.1.
3 Table 3.3a and 3.3b represent the The properties are tested in
properties evaluated in the lab. It will Italab Private Limited,
be worthwhile to provide the equipment Chennai, Page 27.
used, procedure followed briefly and Sample test certificates
the experimental error analysis of all attached. Pages 164-167
these data points in the thesis.
P26; Last line: What was the duration Page: 28. The test standards
of the test? Please define Considerable followed for this are BIS:
Period. There has to be a comparison 10003-1981 specification
with baseline diesel fuelled engine, for performance requirements
which is missing in the thesis. Nowhere for CI engines for automotive
the thesis talks about the possible purposes. After running this
adverse effects of the oxygenated fuels engine for a period of 4 hours,
and why they have not picked up in last * Oxygenates are 10 to 25
100 years inspite of their benefits being times costlier than diesel.
demonstrated time and again. * Heating values are lower
than diesel.
* Corrosive at when the
blending level exceeds 20%
Page 29.

Chapter Indian Examiner remarks
No.
4 Figure 4.2 is very poorly drawn and
poorly labeled schematic diagram of the
experimental setup and need
improvement
P50: It is not clear as to how the data is
taken every 1 crank angle degree (CAD)
without using a high precision shaft
encoder? Has it been used? If yes, please
provide details in the thesis. If no, please
explain how the measurement of
pressure-crank angle diagram is done
accurately without any signal for crank
angle degrees.
P53: This chapter provides details of
smoke meter and its working principle
however there are no details of exhaust
gas analyzer. It is important to provide
the specifications of the emission
measurement system, range, accuracy,
measurement principle and repeatability.
It is also important to note that portable
5-gas analyzer does not provide reliable
readings especially for NOX
measurement and it is good only as
Garage equipment rather than
equipment required for Research and
Development.
197
Corrections
carried out
Fig. 4.2 replaced. Page: 42
At every 1
interval, the PC based engine-
indicating system, measures
the cylinder pressure for all
the four strokes. Thus, 720
angle and pressure values are
collected. Figure 4.2.
Explained in Page: 55
HC (Non dispersive infra red
analyser) and NOX values
(chemical sensor and catalytic
reaction) are measured in ppm
by volume. CO and CO2
readings (Non dispersive infra
red analyser) are given as
percentage by volume.
 198

Chapter Indian Examiner remarks Corrections

No. carried out
5 P64: How can you conclude that the Explained Page: 82
experimental results and simulation The simulated values are
results are similar. One can clearly see higher as the model is a
a difference of at least 7-8 bars in peak basic one with zero
cylinder pressure and visibly different dimensional single zone
shapes of the curves. This is definitely a combustion configurations.
WRONG conclusion based on figure This model computes the
5.1 5.4. It shows that there are glaring heat release values with the
loopholes in the simulation model, assumptions that all fuel
which is too simplistic to capture the injected in to the cylinder is
complexities of engine combustion completely burned
process. The chemical kinetics software instantaneously having no
Chemkin should have been used to unburned or partially
incorporate the chemical kinetics of burned zone.
combustion of the three oxygenated
fuels in order to get superior and more
reliable results. Why only 30% load is
chosen for model validation w.r.t.
experimental data (Figure 5.15.4). It is
a normal practice to validate the model
at idling, partial load and full load to
verify that the model is predicting
results well over the entire load range
of the engine.
P71: Figure 5.8 shows variations (with Explained in Page: 82
errors of upto 5 bars) between the
experimental and simulation results. However the mass fraction
Figures 5.5 5.7 show simulation of fuel burned is determined
results where the difference in peak based on Wiebes
cylinder pressure is of the order of 1-3 combustion model and the
bar, which is lower than the errors in values of m are
earlier mentioned figures. This could be determined based on
well within the statistical error rather oxygen content and
than any actual difference in chemical structure of the
combustion behavior. This needs to be oxygenate. This show a
explained scientifically. Same path for further research in
observation is also valid for figures 5.9 modeling oxygenated diesel
5.14. combustion.
 199

Chapter Indian Examiner remarks Corrections

No. carried out
5 Section 5.1.In the name of model Rate of heat release diagrams
validation, validation is done only by included for model validation
using P-theta diagram. The current Pages 82 to 85
practice is to use Rate of Heat
Release diagrams also for model
validation.
Section 5.2. Table 5.4 / Figure 5.16: The particulate levels are
The particulates have been reported obtained from the conversion
in g/kw-hr whereas there is no chart of the smoke meter
description of a Partial dilution manual (ULX900 HSU
tunnel / full flow dilution tunnel manual) and on switching to
being used in the chapter 4. These particulate mode the readings
equipments are essential for such are displayed in mg/m3. The
measurements. Please explain how conversion chart scales
these measurements are made without include compensation for the
these equipments. temperature of the smoke.
Another observation about the Page 54.
emission measurements in general is
that NOX and Particulate are the
pollutants of main concern from CI
engines, CO and HC are emitted in
very small quantities due to large A/F
ratio combustion therefore these
species are largely insignificant.
Figure 5.18: There is no clear cut The temperature effect on
trend of NOX increase / decrease with NOX emissions is clearly
increasing oxygen content of the fuel. shown in Fig. 5.25(b). At
Similarly there is not a very clear 45% and 60%loads the trend
trend for particulate (figure 5.17). is closer to 30% load. .
There are several outliers. Please Pages 100-101
explain scientific reason behind this
behavior of these fuels.
Figure 5.23: The thermal efficiency Thermal efficiency of the
curves are very low for the kind of engine is low as the engine is
engine being used. This suggests that old. However the engine is
the engines are not properly tuned. tuned for maximum
performance.
Page 107
Figure 5.24 5.33: All the curves Motoring curve shown.
should also have been shown with a Pages 114 121
motoring curve for a better
appreciation of the combustion.
 200

Chapter Indian Examiner remarks Corrections

No. carried out
5 Figure 5.34; 5.43: The ROHR Rate of Heat release diagrams
diagrams show that the heat release corrected. Page 129 133
(combustion) starts at -20 CAD and
continues beyond 160 CAD
suggesting that combustion duration
is more than 200 CAD. In any CI
engine, combustion lasts between 30
90 CAD depending on load (Ref: J
B Heywood). The ROHR curve shape
is also not correct. Please check your
algorithm of converting pressure data
into ROHR data. This needs to be
corrected. Please look at the typical
ROHR curve shapes in any research
paper and compare the one provided
in the thesis.

5 Overall, combustion analysis includes Discussion on cumulative

analysis of P-Theta, dP/dTheta and heat release, net heat release,
ROHR diagrams. A detailed combustion efficiency added.
combustion analysis should have Pages 135 140
included more analysis of the
combustion data such as cumulative
heat release, 5%, 90% mass burn
rates and durations, ignition delay
period, combustion duration
calculations etc., which are
completely missing from this doctoral
thesis. The base data is required for
this analysis is already available.
Only careful analysis of this data is
required followed by presentation in
graphs and one can get volumes of
new information available about the
combustion taking place with the
oxygenated fuels. Clearly, one is
required to do a few more
calculations carefully and
meticulously in order to get these
results and is expected from a thesis
submitted for the award of a doctoral
degree.

Chapter
No. Indian Examiner remarks
- P.164: References: There are several Mistakes in references
mistakes in references. Please pickup corrected Page: 198
any journals Author Guidelines and
do the referencing carefully
according to it following a uniform
style and provide complete
referencing information.
5 Simulation is normally carried out for
predicting results which can not be
attained by experiments. In this
thesis, a model has been made,
validated with the experimental
results and the simulation and
experimental results of Pressure-
crank angle diagrams have been
compared at several places. The
model has however not been used for
any purpose, which can not be served
by experiments therefore defeating
the whole exercise / effort of
modeling. It is required to do some
further analysis using computer
simulation model developed in this
research, which can not be possibly
done using experiments and than
include those results in the thesis in
order to be able to justify the effort
involved in modeling.
201
Corrections
carried out
The basic idea behind
developing this model is to
test the oxygenates for
higher blending levels.
Higher blending levels of
oxygenates has many
limitations such as reduction
of heating value, loss of
lubricity, corrosion of
engine components etc.
Despite such limitations
oxygenates affect highly the
smoke and particulate
emissions. They also affect
HC, CO and NOX emissions
beside some improvement
in brake thermal efficiency.
Before actually testing the
oxygenates in an engine,
simulation model shall be
used for evaluating the
oxygenates. Page - 39