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x
P(t)
x
L
u(x,t)
Fig. Schematic view of elastic bar undergoing axial motions
u
In the FBD, P ( x, t ) = A( x ) = A E is the axial force at a
x
cross section of the bar, and f ( x, t ) is a distributed axial force per
unit length,
x
u(x,t)
Fig. Free body diagram of small piece of elastic bar
2 u
x Fx = m ax = ( A x ) t 2 (2)
2 u
( A x ) 2 = P( x +x , t ) P( x , t ) + f ( x , t ) x (3)
t
P
As x 0 P( x +x ,t ) P( x ,t ) + x (4a)
x
2 u P
A 2 = + f( x,t ) (4)
t x
u
And replacing P ( x, t ) = A E
x
2 u u
A 2 = A E + f( x,t ) (5)
t x x
PDE (5) describes the axial motions of an elastic bar. For its
solution, one needs appropriate boundary conditions (BC), which
are of two types
(a) essential, u=u* , a specified value, at x=x* for all
times,
u
(b) natural, P(x*,t) = A E specified
x x = x*
u
If P=0, then the natural BC is a free end, i.e. =0
x x = x*
Note: PDE (5) and its BCs can be derived from the Hamiltonian
principle using the definitions for kinetic (T) and potential (V)
energies.
L 2 L 2
1 u 1 u
T = A dx; V = E A dx (6)
20 t 20 x
2 u u
A 2 = AE (7)
t x x
2 u 2u
= ( x ) v( t ) = (x ) v(t ) (10)
E t 2
x 2
E
v( t ) E (x )
= (11)
v( t ) ( x )
v( t ) E (x )
= = 2
v( t ) ( x )
Hence, the PDE is converted into two ordinary differential
equations (ODEs), i.e.
v( t ) + 2 v = 0
(x ) + 2 ( x ) = 0
(12)
where =
E (13)
u
At x=L, = 0 = (L )v( t ) (L ) = 0 t (16)
x x=L
cos ( L ) = 0 (19)
which has an infinite number of solutions, i.e.
3 5 2n 1
L = , , ,...., = , n =1,2,.....
2 2 2 2
And hence the roots of Eq. (19) are
n =
( 2n 1) (20)
n =1,2,.....
2 L
( 2k 1) E
1/ 2
k = ; k =1,2,..... (21)
2 L
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
i.e. 1 = E , 2 = 3 E , 3 = 5 E ....
2 L 2 L 2 L
(x) 1
1.571
=
4.712 1
0.5
7.854 L
10.996
Function (x)
0.5
1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Fig. Natural modes shapes (x) for elastic bar with fixed end-free end
u( x ,t ) = ( x ) k v ( t ) k =
k
(23a)
k =1
( x )k Ck cos(k t ) +S k sin (k t )
u( x ,t ) = sin ( k x ) Ck cos(k t ) +S k sin (k t ) (23b)
k =1
and velocity:
u( x ,t ) = sin ( k x ) k Ck sin(k t ) +S k cos (k t ) (24)
k =1
u( x ,0) = U ( x ) = sin ( k x ) Ck
k =1
(25)
u( x ,0) = U ( x ) = k sin ( k x ) S k
k =1
(x ) + k2 ( x ) = 0
k k k =1,2... (26)
i+ i2 i = 0 & j + j2 j = 0
( dx ) + ( dx ) = 0
2
j i i j i
0 0
L L
( dx ) + ( dx ) = 0
2
i j j i j (27)
0 0
L L
i dx = ( j i x =0 j i dx
x= L
0
j
0
(28)
And recall the boundary conditions for the fixed end-free end bar
( j x =0 = 0 & ( i ]x = L = 0 (29)
substituting i = i
E one obtains:
L L
( A dx ) = ( E A j i dx )
2
i j i (30a)
0 0
L L
2j ( A i j dx ) = ( E A i j dx ) (30b)
0 0
( 2
j i
2
) ( A ) dx = 0 i j (31)
0
And since i j , it follows that
L L
( A ) dx = 0 & ( E A ) dx = 0
0
i j
0
i j i j =1,2,.... (32)
( E A ) dx i i
= i = 0L
i
2
(33)
i
( A ) dx
0
i i
( A mU ( x ) ) dx = Ck ( A m k ) dx
L L
0
k =1
0
And since
L m when m = k
( A m k ) dx = 0 (34)
0
when m k
Then if follow that
( A U ( x ) ) dx
L
Cm =
0 m
, (35)
m =1,2,...
m
And similarly
( A U ( x ) ) dx
L
Sm =
0 m
, (36)
m =1,2,...
m m
0
( 2
)
E A d m dx dx (37)
This concludes the procedure to obtain the full solution for the
vibrations of a bar, i.e.
u( x ,t ) = ( x )k Ck cos(k t ) +S k sin (k t ) (23)
k =1
u
At x=0, v( t ) (0)
= 0 = (0) = 0 t
x x =0
u
At x=L, = 0 = (L )v( t ) (L ) = 0 t
x x=L
= 0 S x = 0 and
Hence, from the characteristic equation (0)
( x ) = Cx cos ( x )
At x=L, (L ) = 0 = C x sin ( L ) = 0
sin ( L ) = 0
which has an infinite number of solutions, i.e.
L = 0, , 2 ,3 ,...., = n , n =0,1,2.....
n = n n = 0,1,2,.....
L
And since =
E , the natural frequencies of the free end-
free end bar are
k = k ; k = 0,1,2,.....
L
(x) 1
0
= 3.142
1
0.5
L
6.283
Function (x)
0.5
1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Fig. Natural modes shapes (x) for elastic bar with both ends free. First
mode is rigid body (null natural frequency)
At x=L, u( L , t ) = 0 = ( L ) v( t ) ( L ) = 0
At x=L, ( L ) = 0 = sin ( L ) = 0
sin ( L ) = 0
which has an infinite number of solutions, i.e.
L = , 2 ,3 ,...., = n , n =0,1,2.....
n = n n =1,2,.....
L
And since =
E , the natural frequencies of the free end-
free end bar are
E
1/ 2
k = k ; k =1,2,.....
L
(x) 1
3.142
= 6.283
1
0.5
L
9.425
Function (x)
0.5
1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Fig. Natural modes shapes (x) for elastic bar with both ends fixed.
y f(x,t)
v(x,t) P(t)
x
L
x
f(x,t)
S(x,t) S(x+x,t)
M(x,t) x
M(x+x,t)
v(x,t)
Fig. Free body diagram of small piece of elastic beam
S 2 v
x Fx = m ax = S S + x x + f( x,t ) = ( A x ) t 2 (38)
2 v S
In the limit as x 0 : ( A ) 2 = f ( x ,t ) (39)
t x
M
In the limit as x 0 : = S ( x ,t ) (41)
x
2 v 2 M
( A ) 2 = f ( x ,t ) 2 (42)
t x
If the slope ( v
x ) remains small, then the beam curvature
2
=
v
is 1
x2
. From Eulers beam theory:
EI 2 v
M= =EI 2 (43)
x
2 v 2 2 v
( A ) 2 = f ( x ,t ) 2 E I 2 (44)
t x x
Essential BCs:
- specified displacement, v = v*
- specified slope, ( v
x ) = *
Natural BCs:
2 v
- specified moment, M = M* = E I 2
x x*
2 v
- specified shear force, S = S* = EI 2
x x x
*
v
Fixed end (cantilever): v = 0 & =0
x
x*
2v
Pinned end v = 0 & M = 0 =0
x2
x*
Free end
2v 3v
x* M =0 &S = 0 =0& =0
x2 x3
Note: PDE (44) and its BCs can be derived from the Hamiltonian
principle using the definitions for kinetic (T) and potential (V)
energies of an elastic beam
L 2 L 2
1 v 1 2 v
T = A dx; V = E I 2 dx (45)
20 t 20 x
2 v 2 2 v
( A) 2 = 2 E I 2 (46)
t x x
E I d ( x ) E I 1 d ( x )
4 4
v(t )
( x )v ( t ) = v = = 2
A d x4 v A ( x ) d x 4
Above, the LHS is only a function of time, while the RHS is only a
function of spatial coordinate x. This is possible only if both are
d 4
v ( t ) + v=0 &
2
4
2 = 0 (48)
dx
A
where 2 = 2 (49)
EI
1
The solution of ODE iv 2 = 0 = iv 4 = 0 is = c e kx with
characteristic equation k = 0
4 2
= C1 + C3
(0)
At x=L, v( L , t ) = 0 = ( L ) v ( t ) ( L ) = 0 t
( L ) = 0 = C2 sin ( L ) + C4 sinh ( L )
= 0 = (L ) v( t ) (L ) = 0
2
M x= L = v
x2
(53.b)
(L ) = 0 = C2 sin ( L ) + C4 sinh ( L )
( x ) = C2 sin ( x ) (54)
i
where sin ( L ) = 0 when i = , i =1,2.... (55)
L
i = = 2
2 ; i =1,2... (56)
A L A
i
(x) 1
3.142
= 6.283
1
0.5
L
9.425
Function (x)
0
i := i
L
0.5
1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Fig. Natural mode shapes (x) for elastic beam with both ends pinned.
v( x ,t ) = sin ( k x ) Ck cos(k t ) +S k sin (k t ) (58)
k =1
and velocity:
v( x ,t ) = sin ( k x ) k Ck sin(k t ) +S k cos (k t ) (59)
k =1
v( x ,0) = V( x ) = sin ( k x ) Ck
k =1
(60)
v( x ,0) = V( x ) = k sin ( k x ) S k
k =1
RECALL:
( x ) = C1cos ( x ) + C2 sin ( x ) + C3cosh ( x ) + C4 sinh ( x )
= C sin ( x ) + C cos ( x ) + C sinh ( x ) + C cosh ( x )
1 2 3 4
x=0 x=L
At x=L
= 0 = (L ) v( t ) (L ) = 0
2
M x= L = v
x2
(61.c)
= 0 = (L ) v( t ) (L ) = 0
3
S x= L = v
x3
(61.d)
(x) 2 1.875
= 4.694
1
7.855 L
1
Function (x)
0.734
0
_ = 1.018
0.999
1
2
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Fig. Natural mode shapes (x) for cantilever beam (fixed-free ends)
iv k2 = 0
k k k =1,2... (65)
A
where k4 = k2 = k2
E I
L
i for i = j
( E A
i ) dx =j
0 for i j
(66a)
0
i for i = j
L
0 ( Ai j ) dx = 0 for i j (66b)
i 0
( E A (i)
2
) dx
i = = L
2
(67)
i
( A ) dx
2
i
0
Where i , i are the ith mode equivalent stiffness and mass
coefficients.
2
Demonstration with integration by parts (twice).
v( x ,0) = V( x ) = k Ck ; v( x ,0) = V( x ) = kk S k (68)
k =1 k =1
( A V ) dx
L
Cm =
0 m ( x)
, (69a)
m =1,2,...
m
And similarly
( A V ) dx
L
Sm =
0 m ( x)
, (69b)
m =1,2,...
m m
This concludes the procedure to obtain the full solution for the
lateral vibrations of a beam, i.e.
v( x ,t ) = ( x )k Ck cos(k t ) +S k sin (k t ) (70)
k =1
2 v 2 2 v
( A ) 2 = f ( x ,t ) 2 E I 2 (44)
t x x
v( x ,t ) = ( x )k q( t )k (71)
k =1
f ( x ,t ) = ( x )k Q( t )k (72)
k =1
where
( A f ( x ,t ) ) dx
L
Qm =
0 m
, (73)
m =1,2,...
m
A
k =1
k qk k Qk + E I kiv qk = 0 (74)
A q
k =1
k Qk + E I k2 qk k = 0
A
Lastly, recall that k = ; then k E I = A , and
2 2 2 2
EI
write (75) as
Qk
qk + k2 qk =
A ; k =1,2,.... (76)
x=0 x=L
v( t ) (0)
= 0 = (0) = 0
2
At x=0 M = v
x2
= C1 + C3 (a)
(0)
v ( t ) (0)
S x =0 = v x3 = 0 = (0) = 0
3
= C2 + C4 (b)
(0)
At x=L
= 0 = (L ) v( t ) (L ) = 0
2
M x= L = v
x2
(61.c)
cosh ( i L ) cos ( i L )
where i = (63)
sinh ( i L ) sin ( i L )
and
(x) 3 4.73
= 7.853
1
2 10.996 L
1
Function (x)
0.983
0
_ = 1.001
1
1
2
3
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Fig. Elastic natural mode shapes (x) for beam with free ends)