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Contents
1 Crusades 1
1.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Eastern Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 First Crusade (10961099) and aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 12th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.4 13th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.5 Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.6 Military orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.7 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.8 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 European campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Northern Crusades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2 Albigensian Crusade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Bosnian Crusade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.4 Reconquista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9.1 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9.2 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
i
ii CONTENTS
6.9.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.9.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter 1
Crusades
1
2 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
ous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of Traditionalists restrict their denition of crusades to
the papacy and the crusades, in one case to the extent the Christian campaigns in the Holy Land, either
that the Pope excommunicated crusaders.[1] Crusaders to assist the Christians there or to liberate Jerusalem
often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders re- and the Holy Sepulcher, during 10951291.[5]
tained control of much captured territory rather than re-
turning it to the Byzantines; During the Peoples Crusade Pluralists use the term crusade of any campaign
thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope.[6] This
the Rhineland massacres; and Constantinople was sacked reects the view of the Roman Catholic Church
during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunication of (including medieval contemporaries such as Saint
Christendom impossible. Bernard of Clairvaux) that every military campaign
given Papal sanction is equally valid as a crusade,
The crusades had a profound impact on Western civil- regardless of its cause, justication, or geographic
isation: they reopened the Mediterranean to commerce location. This broad denition subsumes attacks on
and travel (enabling Genoa and Venice to ourish); con- paganism and heresy, such as the Albigensian Cru-
solidated the collective identity of the Latin Church un- sade, the Northern Crusades and the Hussite Wars,
der papal leadership; and were a wellspring for accounts and wars for political or territorial advantage, such
of heroism, chivalry and piety. These tales consequently as the Aragonese Crusade in Sicily, a crusade de-
galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature. clared by Pope Innocent III against Markward of
The crusades also reinforced the connection between Anweiler in 1202,[7] one against the Stedingers, sev-
Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. eral (declared by several popes) against Emperor
Frederick II and his sons,[8] two crusades against op-
ponents of King Henry III of England,[9] and the
1.1 Terminology Christian re-conquest of Iberia.[10]
Generalists see crusades as any and all holy wars con-
Further information: Historiography of the Crusades nected with the Latin Church and fought in defence
of their faith.
Crusade is not a contemporaneous term: instead the Popularists limit the crusades to only those that were
terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were characterised by popular groundswells of religious
used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was fervour that is, only the First Crusade and perhaps
signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the the Peoples Crusade.[11]
twelfth century was specic terminology developed.[2]
The Oxford English Dictionary links the etymology of Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-
the word crusade to the modern French croisade, Old Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars (urb
French croisee, Provenal crozada, Spanish cruzada, Ital- al-farana) . The term used in modern Ara-
ian/medieval Latin crociata based on the verb to cross, bic, albiyya amalt , lit. "campaigns of the
a being crossed, a crossing or marking with the cross", is a loan translation of the term crusade as used in
cross, a taking the cross. The Middle English equiv- Western historiography.[12]
alents were derived from old French; croiserie in the
13th15th centuries and croisee in the 1517th century.
Croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to 1.2 Eastern Mediterranean
be the leading form till c1760.[3] By convention historians
adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095 but
this does lead to a misleading impression of coherence in 1.2.1 Background
the early Crusades.[2]
Further information: Muslim conquests, Great Seljuk
The Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted Empire, ByzantineSeljuk wars, ArabByzantine wars,
as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Cru- Council of Clermont, and Reconquista
sade of 109599 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. This In the seventh and eighth centuries, Islam was intro-
convention is used by Charles Mills in his History of theduced in the Arabian Peninsula by the Islamic prophet
Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Muhammad and a newly unied polity. This led to a
Land (1820), and is often retained for convenience, even rapid expansion of Arab power, the inuence of which
though it is somewhat arbitrary: The Fifth and Sixth Cru-stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across
sades led by Frederick II may be considered a single cam-Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern
paign, as can the Eight Crusade and Ninth Crusade led by Italy, and the Iberian peninsula, to the Pyrenees.[13][14][15]
Louis IX.[4] Tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the
Usage of the term crusade may dier depending on the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and
author. Giles Constable describes four dierent perspec- waned. For example, the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-
tives among scholars: Amr Allah destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
1.2. EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 3
in Jerusalem, but his successor allowed the Byzantine Main articles: First Crusade, Peoples Crusade, Siege of
Empire to rebuild it.[16] Pilgrimages by Catholics to sa- Jerusalem (1099), Crusade of 1101, Norwegian Crusade,
cred sites were permitted, Christians resident in Mus- Bohemond I of Antioch Wars between Antioch and the
lim territories were given certain legal rights and pro- Byzantine Empire, Siege of Nicaea, Battle of Dorylaeum
tections under Dhimmi status, were allowed to main- (1097), Siege of Antioch, First Crusade: March down the
tain their churches and interfaith marriages were not Mediterranean coast, and Siege of Jerusalem (1099)
uncommon.[17] Cultures and creeds coexisted and com- See also: Persecution of Jews in the First Crusade
peted, but Catholic pilgrims and merchants reported that In 1095 at the Council of Piacenza, Byzantine Em-
the frontier conditions between the Syrian ports and
Jerusalem were increasingly inhospitable.[18]
The Reconquista, the recapture of the Iberian peninsula
from the Muslims, began during the 8th century, reach-
1071
ing its turning point in 1085 when Alfonso VI of Len and 1040
[19]
Castile retook Toledo from Muslim rule. The Byzan-
tine Empire also regained territory at the end of the 10th
century, with Basil II spending most of his half-century
reign in conquest. In Northern Europe, the Germans used
crusading as a method to expand Christianity and their
territories at the expense of the non-Christian Slavs,[20]
and Muslim Sicily was conquered by Norman adventurer
Roger De Hauteville in 1091.[21] The Great Seljuk Empire at its greatest extent (1092)
Europe in this period was immersed in power struggles on
many dierent fronts. In 1054, centuries of attempts by peror Alexios I Komnenos requested military aid from
the Latin Church to assert supremacy over the Patriarchs Pope Urban II to ght the Turks, probably in the form
of the Eastern Empire led to a permanent division in the of mercenary reinforcements. It is likely he exagger-
Christian church called the EastWest Schism.[22] Fol- ated the danger facing the Eastern Empire while mak-
lowing the Gregorian Reform an assertive, reformist pa- ing his appeal.[29] At the Council of Clermont later that
pacy attempted to increase its power and inuence. Be- year, Urban raised the issue again and preached for a cru-
ginning around 1075 and continuing during the First Cru- sade. Historian Paul Everett Pierson asserts that Urban
sade, the Investiture Controversy was a power struggle be- also hoped that aiding the Eastern Church would lead to
tween Church and state in medieval Europe over whether its reunion with the Western under his leadership.[30]
the Catholic Church or the Holy Roman Empire held the Almost immediately thereafter Peter the Hermit began
right to appoint church ocials and other clerics.[23][24] preaching to thousands of mostly poor Christians, whom
Antipope Clement III was an alternative pope for most he led out of Europe in what became known as the
of this period, and Pope Urban spent much of his early Peoples Crusade.[31] Peter had with him a letter he
ponticate in exile from Rome. The result was intense claimed had fallen from heaven instructing Christians to
piety, an interest in religious aairs, and religious pro- seize Jerusalem in anticipation of the apocalypse.[32] In
paganda advocating a just war to reclaim Palestine from addition to the motivations of the landed classes, aca-
the Muslims. The majority view was that non-Christians demic Norman Cohn has identied a "messianism of
could not be forced to accept Christian baptism or be the poor inspired by an expected mass apotheosis at
physically assaulted for having a dierent faith, although Jerusalem.[33] In Germany the Crusaders massacred Jew-
a minority believed that vengeance and forcible conver- ish communities. The Rhineland massacres were the rst
sion were justied for the denial of Christian faith and major outbreak of European antisemitism.[34] In Speyer,
4 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
Worms, Mainz and Cologne the range of anti-Jewish ac- at Dorylaeum. The Normans resisted for hours before
tivity was broad, extending from limited, spontaneous the arrival caused a Turkish withdrawal. After this the
violence to full-scale military attacks.[35] Despite Alex- normadic Seljuks avoided the crusade.[40] The factional-
ios advice to await the nobles, the Peoples Crusade ad- ism amongst the Turks that followed the death of Malik
vanced to Nicaea and fell to a Turkish ambush at the Shah meant they did not provide a united opposition.
Battle of Civetot, from which only about 3,000 crusaders Instead Aleppo and Damascus had competing rulers.[41]
escaped.[36] The three month march to Antioch was arduous with
numbers reduced by the attrition of staravation, thirst
and disease, combined with the decision of Baldwin to
leave with 100 knights in order to carve out his own
territory in Edessa.[42] The crusaders embarked on an
eight-month siege of Antioch but lacked the resources
to fully invest the city while the residents lacked the re-
sources to repel the invaders. Eventually, Bohemond per-
suaded a tower guard in the city to open a gate and the
crusaders entered, massacring the inhabitants and pil-
laging the city.[43] Sunni Islam had now recognised the
threat and the sultan of Baghdad sent a relief force led by
the Iraqi general Kerbogha. No assistance was provided
by the Byzantines who had been told by the deserting
Stephen of Blois that the cause was lost. Losing numbers
Route of the First Crusade through Asia through desertion and starvation in the besieged city the
crusaders attempted to negotiate surrender but this was
Both Philip I of France and Emperor Henry IV were rejected by Kerbogha who wanted to destroy them per-
in conict with Urban and did not participate. How- manently. Morale within the city was boosted when Peter
ever, members of the high aristocracy from France, west- Bartholomew claimed to have discovered the Holy Lance.
ern Germany, the Low countries and Italy were drawn Bohemond recognised that the only option now was for
to the venture, commanding their own military contin- open combat and launched a counterattack against the
gents in loose, uid arrangements based bonds of lord- besiegers. Despite superior numbers Kerboghas army,
ship, family, ethnicity and language. Foremost amongst which was divided into factions and surprised by the
these was the elder statesman, Raymond IV, Count of motivation of the Franks, retreated and abandoned the
Toulouse. He was rivalled by the relatively poor but mar- siege.[44] The Crusaders then delayed for months while
tial Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred from they argued over who would have the captured terri-
the Norman community of southern Italy. They were tory. This only ended when news arrived that the Fatimid
joined by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin I Egyptians had taken Jerusalem from the Turks and it be-
of Jerusalem leading a loose conglomerate from Lorraine, came imperative to attack before they could consolidate
Lotharingia and Germany. These ve Princes were piv- their position. Bohemond remained in Antioch, retain-
otal to the campaign which was also joined by a Northern ing the city, despite his pledge that this would return to
French army led by Robert Curthose, Stephen, Count of Byzantine control, while Raymond led the remaining cru-
Blois and Robert II, Count of Flanders.[37] sader army rapidly south along the coast to Jerusalem.[45]
The armies including non-combatants may have con- The Jewish and Muslim inhabitants fought together to
tained as many as 100,000 people, travelled eastward defend Jerusalem, but the crusaders entered the city on
by land to Byzantium where they were cautiously wel- 15 July 1099. They proceeded to massacre the inhab-
comed by the Emperor.[38] Alexius persuaded many of itants and pillage the city.[46] In his Historia Francorum
the princes to pledge allegiance to him and that their rst qui ceperunt Iherusalem, Raymond D'Aguilers exalted ac-
objective should be Nicaea, which Kilij Arslan I had de- tions a modern viewpoint would consider atrocities.[47]
clared the capital of the Sultanate of Rum. Having al- The First Crusade established the rst four crusader
ready destroyed the earlier Peoples Crusade, the over states in the Eastern Mediterranean: the County of
condent Sultan left the city to resolve a territorial dis-
Edessa (10981149), the Principality of Antioch (1098
pute enabling its capture after a Crusader siege and a 1268), the Kingdom of Jerusalem (10991291), and the
Byzantine navel assault. This marked a high point in Latin
County of Tripoli (1104Tripoli was not conquered un-
and Greek co-operation and also the start of Crusader at-
til 1109to 1289). The Armenian Kingdom of Cili-
tempts to take advantage of political and religious dis-cia originated before the Crusades, but it received king-
unity in the Muslim world. Crusader envoys sent to Egyptdom status from Pope Innocent III and later became fully
seeking an alliance.[39] Westernised by the House of Lusignan. According to his-
The Crusades rst experience of the Turkish tactics of torian Jonathan Riley-Smith, these states were the rst ex-
lightly armoured mounted archers was when an advanced amples of Europe overseas. They are generally known
party led by Bohemond and Duke Roberts was ambushed as outremer, from the French outre-mer (overseas in
1.2. EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 5
English).[48][49]
On a popular level, the First Crusade unleashed a wave
of impassioned, pious Catholic furyexpressed in the
massacres of Jews that accompanied the crusades[50] and
the violent treatment of the "schismatic" Orthodox Chris-
tians of the east.[51] A second, less successful crusade
known as the Crusade of 1101 followed in which Turks
led by Kilij Arslan defeated the crusaders in three sepa-
rate battles.[52]
Detail of a miniature of King Philip II of France arriving in the
Eastern Mediterranean (mid 14th century)
1.2.3 12th century
Main articles: Second Crusade, Third Crusade, and Crusade,[62] although no ocial papal bulls were issued
German Crusade authorising new crusades.[63] The Wends were nally de-
Under the papacies of Calixtus II, Honorius II, Eugenius feated in 1162.[64]
Saladin united the enemies of the Crusader States, retook
Jerusalem and won the Battle of Hattinin 1187.[65][66]
According to Benedict of Peterborough, Pope Urban III
died of deep sadness on 19 October 1187 on hearing
of the defeat.[67] His successor, Pope Gregory VIII, is-
sued a papal bull named Audita tremendi that proposed
a further crusade later numbered the third to recapture
Jerusalem. Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor died en
route to Jerusalem, drowning in the Saleph River, and few
of his men reached the Eastern Mediterranean.[68]
In transit to crusade, Richard I of England conquered
Cyprus in 1191 in response to his sister and ancee, who
were travelling separately, being taken captive by the is-
lands ruler, Isaac Komnenos.[69] On arrival in the East,
Richard quarreled with Philip II of France who returned
home, leaving most of his forces behind and Leopold V,
Duke of Austria. Richard recaptured Acre after a long
siege, traveled south along the Mediterranean coast, de-
feated the Muslims near Arsuf and recaptured the port
III and Innocent II smaller scale crusading continued city of Jaa. He twice advanced to within a days march
around the Crusader States in the early 12th century. The of Jerusalem before judging that he lacked the resources
third decade saw campaigns by Fulk V of Anjou, the to successfully capture the City. This marked the end of
Venetians, Conrad III of Germany and the foundation of Richards crusading career and was a calamitous blow to
the Knights Templar.[53] The period also saw the inno- Frankish morale.[70] A three-year truce was negotiated
vation of granting indulgences to those who opposed pa- that allowed Catholics unfettered access to Jerusalem.[71]
pal enemies, and this marked the beginning of politically Illness and politics in England forced Richards depar-
motivated crusades.[54] The loss of Aleppo in 1128 and ture, never to return, but Emperor Heny VI initiated the
Edessa (Urfa) in 1144 to Imad ad-Din Zengi, governor German Crusade to full the promises made by his fa-
of Mosul led to preaching for what subsequently became ther, Frederick. Led by Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz,
known as the Second Crusade.[55][56][57] King Louis VII the army captured the cities of Sidon and Beirut. How-
and Conrad III led armies from France and Germany to ever, most of the crusaders returned to Germany when
Jerusalem and also Damascus without winning any major Henry died.[72]
victories.[58] Bernard of Clairvaux, who had encouraged
the Second Crusade in his preaching, was upset with the
violence and slaughter directed towards the Jewish popu- 1.2.4 13th century
lation of the Rhineland.[59]
Christian princes continued to make gains In the Iberian Fourth Crusade & aftermath
peninsula such as the King of Portugal, Afonso I, retaking
Lisbon and Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona con- Main articles: Fourth Crusade, Latin Empire,
quering the city of Tortosa[60][61] In Northern Europe the Frankokratia, Siege of Constantinople (1203), Siege of
Saxons and Danes fought against Wends in the Wendish Constantinople (1204), Battle of Adrianople (1205), and
6 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
The thirteenth century saw popular outbursts of ecstatic Main articles: Fifth Crusade, Sixth Crusade, Barons
piety in support of the Crusades such as the Childrens Crusade, Siege of Jerusalem (1244), and Seventh Cru-
Crusade in 1212. Large groups of young adults and chil- sade
dren spontaneously gathered believing their innocence Following Innocent IIIs Fourth Council of the Lateran,
would enable success where their elders had failed. Lit-
tle reliable evidence survives but these events. However,
they provide an indication of how hearts and minds could
be engaged for the cause.[73]
Innocent III also began preaching what became the
Fourth Crusade in 1200, primarily in France, but also
in England and Germany.[74] After gathering in Venice
the crusade was used by Doge Enrico Dandolo and Philip
of Swabia to further their secular ambitions. Dandolos
aim was expand Venices power in the Eastern Mediter-
ranean and Philip intended to restore his exiled nephew,
Alexios IV Angelos, to the throne of Byzantium.[75] The
crusaders were unable to pay the Venetians for a eet
when too few knights arrived in Venice, so they agreed to
divert to Constantinople and share what could be looted
Frederick II (left) meets al-Kamil (right) in a manuscript illumi-
as payment. As collateral the crusaders seized the Chris- nation from Giovanni Villani's Nuova Cronica
tian city of Zara; Innocent was appalled, and excommuni-
cated them.[1] They also conquered Constantinople twice,
after the initial success in taking the city, the original pur- crusading resumed in 1217 against Saladins Ayyubid
pose of the campaign was defeated by the assassination successors in Egypt and Syria for what is classied the
of Alexios IV Angelos. In response the crusaders cap- Fifth Crusade. Led by Andrew II of Hungary and
tured the Constantinople again and this time sacked it, Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, forces drawn mainly from
pillaging churches and killing many citizens. The Fourth Hungary, Germany, Flanders, and Frisia achieved lit-
Crusade never came within 1,000 miles of its objective tle. Leopold and John of Brienne besieged and cap-
of Jerusalem.[76] tured Damietta but an army advancing into Egypt was
compelled to surrender.[79][80] Damietta was returned and
an eight-year truce agreed.[81] Frederick II, Holy Roman
Emperor was excommunicated for breaking treaty obli-
gations with the Pope to crusade. However his marriage
to Isabella II of Jerusalem gave him a claim to the king-
dom of Jerusalem and he nally arrived at Acre in 1228.
Frederick was a most Muslim of Christian monarchs hav-
ing grown up in Sicily, having a Muslim bodyguard and
even a harem. His great diplomatic skills meant that
the Sixth Crusade was largely negotiation supported by
force.[82] A peace treaty was agreed giving Latin Chris-
tians most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory from
The Latin and Byzantine Empires in 1205
Acre, while the Muslims controlled their sacred areas.
In return, an alliance was made with Al-Kamil, Sultan
The Fourth Crusade established a Latin Empire in the of Egypt, against all of his enemies of whatever religion.
east and allowed the partition of Byzantine territory The treaty and suspicions about Fredericks ambitions in
by its participants. The Latin emperor controlled one- the region made him unpopular and was forced to re-
fourth of the Byzantine territory, Venice three-eighths turn to his domains when they were attacked by Pope
(including three-eighths of the city of Constantinople), Gregory IX.[83] While the Empire and Papacy were in
and the remainder was divided among the other cru- conict it often fell to secular leaders to campaign. What
sade leaders. This began the period of Greek history is sometimes known as the Barons Crusade was led by
known as Frankokratia or Latinokratia (Frankish [or Theobald I of Navarre and Richard of Cornwall combin-
Latin] rule), when Catholic Western European nobles ing forceful diplomacy and the playing of rival Ayyubid
primarily from France and Italyestablished states on factions o against each other.[84] This brief renaissance
former Byzantine territory and ruled over the Orthodox for Frankish Jerusalem was illusory, being dependent on
Byzantine Greeks.[77][upper-alpha 1] In the long run, the sole Ayyubid weakness and division following the death of Al-
beneciary was Venice.[78] Kamil.[85]
1.2. EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 7
In 1244 a band of Khwarezmian mercenaries travelling to Byzantium politically through the Treaty of Viterbo. The
Egypt to serve As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus, seem- heirs of Baldwin II of Constantinople and William II
ingly of their own volition, captured Jerusalem en-route Villehardouin married Charles children. If there were
and defeated a combined Christian and Syrian army at no ospring Charles would receive the empire and prin-
the La Forbie.[86] Louis IX, king of France, organised a cipality. Charles executed Conradin, great-grandson of
crusade, classied as the Seventh Crusade to attack Egypt Isabella I of Jerusalem and principal pretender to the
in response, arriving in 1249.[87] This was not a success. throne of Jerusalem, when he seized Sicily from the
Louis was defeated at Mansura and captured as he re- Holy Roman Empire. When he purchased the rights to
treated back to Damietta.[88] Another truce was agreed Jerusalem from Maria of Antioch, the surviving grand-
for a ten-year period and Louis was ransomed. Louis re- child of Queen Isabella, he created a claim to rival that
mained in Syria until 1254 to consolidate the Crusader of Isabellas great grandson, Hugh III of Cyprus. Charles
states.[89] From 1265 to 1271, Baibars drove the Franks planned crusade to restore the Latin Empire alarmed
to a few small coastal outposts.[90] Michael VIII Palailogos. He delayed Charles by begin-
ning negotiations with Pope Gregory X for union of the
Greek and the Latin churches with Charles and Philip of
Courtenay compelled to form a truce with Byzantium.
Michael also provided Genoa with funds to encourage re-
volt in Charles northern Italian territories.[92]
Charles had spent his life trying to amass a Mediterranean Crusades began.[99] The Poor Knights of Christ (Tem-
empire, and he and Louis saw themselves as Gods instru- plars) and their Temple of Solomon were founded around
ments to uphold the papacy.[94] 1119 by a small band of knights who dedicated them-
[100]
One factor in the crusaders decline was the disunity and selves to protecting pilgrims en route to Jerusalem.
conict among Latin Christian interests in the eastern The Hospitallers and the Templars became supranational
Mediterranean. Martin compromised the papacy by sup- organisations as Papal support led to rich donations of
porting Charles of Anjou, and tarnished its spiritual lus- land and revenue across Europe. This in turn led to a
tre with botched secular crusades against Sicily and steady ow of new recruits and the wealth to maintain
Aragon. The collapse of the papacys moral authority multiple fortications across the Outremer. In time this
and the rise of nationalism rang the death knell for cru- developed into autonomous power in the region.[101]
sading, ultimately leading to the Avignon Papacy and the After the fall of Acre the Hospitallers rst relocated
Western Schism. The mainland Crusader states of the to Cyprus, conquered and ruled Rhodes (13091522),
outremer were extinguished with the fall of Tripoli in Malta (15301798) and continue in existence to the
1289 and Acre in 1291.[95] Most remaining Latin Chris- present day. In 1322 the king of France suppressed
tians left for destinations in the Frankokratia or were the Knights Templar, ostensibly for sodomy, magic
killed or enslaved.[96] and heresy, but probably for nancial and political
reasons.[102]
1.2.5 Finance
1.2.7 Legacy
Further information: Islamic contributions to Medieval
Europe, Protestantism and Islam, Reception of Islam in
Early Modern Europe, and Latin translations of the 12th
century
According to Jonathan Riley-Smith the Kingdom of
1.3.4 Reconquista Several crusades were launched during the 14th and
15th centuries to counter the expansion of the Ottoman
Main article: Reconquista Empire. The rst, in 1396, was led by Sigismund
of Luxemburg, king of Hungary; many French nobles
joined Sigismunds forces, including the crusades mili-
In the Iberian peninsula Crusader privileges were given tary leader, John the Fearless (son of the Duke of Bur-
to those aiding the Templars, Hospitallers and the Iberian gundy). Sigismund advised the crusaders to focus on de-
orders that merged with the orders of Calatrava and Santi- fence when they reached the Danube, but they besieged
ago. The papacy declared frequent Iberian crusades and the city of Nicopolis. The Ottomans defeated them in
from 1212 to 1265, and the Christian kingdoms drove the Battle of Nicopolis on 25 September, capturing 3,000
the Muslims back to the Emirate of Granada, which held prisoners.[138] In 1309, as many as 30,000 peasants gath-
out until 1492 when the Muslims and Jews were expelled ered from England, northeastern France and Germany
from the peninsula.[135] proceeded as far as Avignon but disbanded there.[139]
There were many minor crusades, or attempted crusades,
in the context of the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans
1.4 Aftermath in the late 14th to early 15th centuries. A failed cru-
sade against Ottoman Tunisia was undertaken in 1390.
Main article: Ottoman Wars in Europe After their victory at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the
Further information: Crusade of Nicopolis, Crusade of Ottomans had conquered most of the Balkans, and had
Varna, Alexandrian Crusade, Savoyard Crusade, Hussite reduced the Byzantine inuence to the area immediately
Wars, and European wars of religion surrounding Constantinople, which they later proceeded
Minor crusading eorts lingered into the 14th century; to besiege. In 1393 the Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman
Peter I of Cyprus captured and sacked Alexandria in had lost Nicopolis to the Ottomans. In 1394, Pope Boni-
1365 in what became known as the Alexandrian Crusade; face IX proclaimed a new crusade against the Turks, al-
his motivation was as much commercial as religious.[136] though the Western Schism had split the papacy. The
Louis II led the 1390 Barbary Crusade against Muslim enterprise culminated disastrously at Nicopolis. As the
pirates in North Africa; after a ten-week siege, the cru- Ottomans pressed westwards Sultan Murad II destroyed
saders signed a ten-year truce.[137] the last Papal funded crusade at Varna on the Black Sea
12 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
in 1444 and four years later crushed the last Hungarian tion in the Kingdom of Bohemia and the followers of
expedition.[140] early Czech church reformer Jan Hus, who was burned
John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano organised a at the stake in 1415. Crusades were declared ve times
1456 crusade to lift the siege of Belgrade.[141] neas during that period: in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427, and 1431.
Sylvius and John of Capistrano preached the crusade, the These expeditions forced the Hussite forces, who dis-
princes of the Holy Roman Empire in the diets of Ratis- agreed on many doctrinal points, to unite to drive out the
bon and Frankfurt promised assistance, and a league was invaders. The wars ended in 1436 with the ratication of
formed between Venice, Florence and Milan, but nothing the compromise Compacts of Basel by the Church and
the Hussites.[144]
eventually came of it. In April 1487, Pope Innocent VIII
called for a crusade against the Waldensians of Savoy,
the Piedmont, and the Dauphin in southern France and
northern Italy. The only eorts undertaken were in the 1.5 See also
Dauphin, resulting in little change.[142] Venice was the
only polity to continue to pose a signicant threat to Crusade cycle - Old French cycle of epic poems con-
the Ottomans in the Mediterranean, but it pursued the cerning the First Crusade
crusade mostly for its commercial interests, leading to
the protracted OttomanVenetian Wars, which contin- List of principal Crusaders
ued, with interruptions, until 1718. The nal end of the List of Crusader castles
Crusades as an at least nominal eort of Catholic Eu-
rope against Muslim incursion comes in the 16th century, Art of the Crusades
when the Franco-imperial wars assumed continental pro-
portions. Francis I of France sought allies from all quar- History of the Jews and the Crusades
ters, including with German Protestant princes. In 1536 Miles Christianus (Christian soldier)
Francis entered into one of the capitulations of the Ot-
toman Empire with Suleiman the Magnicent also mak- Religious war
ing common cause with the Sultans North African vassals
ArabByzantine wars (6341050s)
including Hayreddin Barbarossa.[143]
ByzantineOttoman Wars (12651479)
Ottoman Wars in Europe (14531922)
1.6 Footnotes
[1] The Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae is a valuable
record of early-13th-century Byzantine administrative di-
visions (episkepsis) and family estates.
1.7 References
[1] Lock 2006, pp. 158159
[7] Lock 2006, pp. 255256 [45] Asbridge 2012, pp. 146153
[8] Lock 2006, pp. 172180 [46] Tyerman 2006, pp. 156158
[37] Asbridge 2012, pp. 4347 [73] Asbridge 2012, pp. 533535
[38] Hindley 2004, pp. 3031 [74] Tyerman 2006, pp. 502508
[39] Asbridge 2012, pp. 5256 [75] Davies 1997, pp. 359360
[43] Asbridge 2012, pp. 7071 [79] Lock 2006, pp. 168169
[44] Asbridge 2012, pp. 7282 [80] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 179180
14 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
[87] Tyerman 2006, pp. 770775 [123] Housley 2006, pp. 161163
[95] Lock 2006, p. 122 [131] Lock 2006, pp. 104, 221
[97] Riley-Smith 2009, pp. 4344 [133] Lock 2006, pp. 163165
[103] Housley 2006, pp. 152154 [139] Lock 2006, pp. 187188
[104] Levantine. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford [140] Davies 1997, p. 448
University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK
[141] Lock 2006, pp. 202203
public library membership required.)
[142] Lock 2006, p. 204
[105] Krey 2012, pp. 280281
[143] Davies 1997, pp. 544545
[106] Housley 2006, pp. 146147
[144] Lock 2006, pp. 201202
[107] Housley 2006, pp. 147149
Bull, Marcus (1999). Origins. In Riley-Smith, Lambert, Malcolm D. (1977). Medieval Heresy:
Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. Ox- Popular Movements from Bogomil to Hus. Holmes
ford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280312-3. & Meier Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8419-0298-5.
Cantor, Norman F (1958). Church. Kingship, and Lock, Peter (2006). Routledge Companion to the
Lay Investiture in England: 10891135. Princeton Crusades. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-39312-4.
University Press. ISBN 1-4008-7699-0.
Marshall, Christopher (1994). Warfare in the Latin
Caspi-Reiseld, Keren (2002). Women Warriors East, 11921291. Cambridge University Press.
during the Crusades 10951254. In Edington, ISBN 978-0-521-47742-0.
Susan B.; Lambert, Sarah. Gendering the Cru-
sades. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0- Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1988). The Crusades (Sec-
231-12598-7. ond ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
873097-7.
Chazan, Robert (1996). European Jewry and the
First Crusade. U. of California Press. p. 60. ISBN Nicholson, Helen (1997). Women on the Third
978-0-520-91776-7. Retrieved 2016-10-04. Crusade. Journal of Medieval History. 23 (4): 335.
doi:10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4.
Cohn, Norman (1970). The Pursuit of the Millen-
nium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- Nicholson, Helen J. (2001). The Knights Hospitaller.
500456-4. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-0-85115-845-7. Re-
trieved 2016-10-04.
Constable, Giles (2001). The Historiography of the
Crusades. In Laiou, Angeliki E.; Mottahedeh, Roy Nicholson, Helen (2004). The Crusades. Green-
P. The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium wood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32685-
and the Muslim World. Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 122. 1.
ISBN 978-0-88402-277-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202
Davies, Norman (1997). Europe A History. Pim- 04: The Betrayal of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing.
lico. ISBN 0-7126-6633-8. ISBN 1-84908-821-7.
Determann, J. (2008). The Crusades in Arabic Owen, Roy Douglas Davis (1993). Eleanor of
Schoolbooks. Islam and Christian-Muslim Rela- Aquitaine: Queen and Legend. Blackwell Publish-
tions. Routledge. ISSN 0959-6410. ing. ISBN 90-474-3259-2.
Findley, Carter Vaughan (2005). The Turks in Pierson, Paul Everett (2009). The Dynamics of
World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0- Christian Mission: History Through a Missiological
19-516770-8. Perspective. WCIU Press. ISBN 978-0-86585-006-
4. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Hindley, Georey (2004). The Crusades: Islam and
Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy. Pringle, Denys (1999). Architecture in Latin East.
Carrol & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1344-5. In Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of
the Crusades. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
Holt, P. M. (1983). Saladin and His Ad- 280312-3.
mirers: A Biographical Reassessment. Bul-
letin of the School of Oriental and African Stud- Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1973). The Feudal Nobility
ies, University of London. 46 (2): 235 and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 11741277. Archon
239. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00078824. JSTOR Books. ISBN 978-0-208-01348-4.
615389.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1999). Riley-Smith,
Housley, Norman (2006). Contesting the Crusades. Jonathan, ed. The Crusading Movement and Histo-
Blackwell Publishing. ASIN 1405111895. ISBN 1- rians. The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford
4051-1189-5. University Press. ISBN 0-19-280312-3.
Kolbaba, T. M. (2000). The Byzantine Lists: Errors Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005). The Crusades: A
of the Latins. University of Illinois. ISBN 0-252- Short History (Second ed.). Yale University Press.
02558-X. ISBN 0-300-10128-7.
Krey, August C. (2012). The First Crusade: The Ac- Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2009). What Were the Cru-
counts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants. Arx Pub- sades?. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-
lishing. ISBN 978-1-935228-08-0. 22069-0.
16 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
Sinclair, Andrew (1995). Jerusalem: The Endless Maier, Christoph T. (March 2004). The roles
Crusade. Crown Publishers. of women in the crusade movement: a survey.
Journal of Medieval History. 30 (1): 6182.
Slack, Corliss K (2013). Historical Dictionary of
doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2003.12.003.
the Crusades. Scarecrow Press. pp. 10809. ISBN
978-0-8108-7831-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Phillips, Jonathan. Holy Warriors: A Modern His-
Strack, Georg (2012). The Sermon of Urban II tory of the Crusades (2010)
in Clermont and the Tradition of Papal Oratory
(PDF). Medieval Sermon Studies. 56 (30#1): 30 Riley-Smith, Jonathan (ed.) The Oxford Illustrated
45. doi:10.1179/1366069112Z.0000000002. History of the Crusades Paperback, Oxford Univer-
sity Press (2001).
Strayer, Joseph R. (1969). The Crusades of Louis
IX. In Wol, R. L.; Hazard, H. W. The Later Cru- Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The crusades: A history
sades, 11891311. pp. 487521. Retrieved 2016- (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014)
10-04.
Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades (3
Strayer, Joseph Reese (1992). The Albigensian Cru-
vols. 19511954)
sades. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-
06476-2. Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades,
Tyerman, Christopher (2006). Gods War: A New University of Wisconsin Press (6 vols., 19691989;
History of the Crusades. Belknap Press. ISBN 978- online edition (wisc.edu))
0-674-02387-1.
Includes: The rst hundred years
Tyerman, Christopher (2007). The Crusades. Ster-
(2nd ed. 1969); The later Crusades,
ling Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 111. ISBN
11891311 (1969); The fourteenth
978-1-4027-6891-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
and fteenth centuries (1975); The
Vasilev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1952). History art and architecture of the crusader
of the Byzantine Empire: 3241453. University of states (1977); The impact of the
Wisconsin Press. Crusades on the Near East (1985);
The impact of the Crusades on Eu-
Villegas-Aristizabal, L (2009). Anglo-Norman in- rope (1989).
volvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement
of Tortosa, 11481180. Crusades (8): 63129.
Tolan, John; Veinstein, Gilles; Henry, Laurens
Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: (2013). Europe and the Islamic World: A His-
Illuminating the Dark Ages 4001000. Penguin tory. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-
Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311742-1. 14705-5.
1.9. FURTHER READING 17
1.9.1 Historiography
Constable, Giles. The Historiography of the Cru-
sades in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. The Crusades from
the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World
(2001) Extract online.
18
2.3. LIST OF MILITARY ORDERS 19
recognised establishments afterwards. However, some them, like the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights of
persisted longer in its original functions, only later evolv- Saint Thomas, also had charitable purposes and cared for
ing into purely honoric and/or ceremonial chivalric or- the sick and poor. However, they were not purely male
ders with charitable aims in modern times, such as the institutions, as nuns could attach themselves as convents
Sovereign Military Order of Malta and the Order of the of the orders. One signicant feature of the military or-
Holy Sepulchre, both Papal orders of knighthood con- ders is that clerical brothers could be, and indeed often
ferred still today. Notably, the Teutonic Order became were, subordinate to non-ordained brethren.
exclusively monastic except a limited associated confra- In 1818, the orientalist Joseph von Hammer compared
ternity of honorary Knights.
the Catholic military orders, in particular the Knights
Today a Western cultural heritage and legacy, besides Templar, with certain Islamic models such as the Shia
those ocially recognised by the Holy See, parallel hon- Islamic sect of Assassins. In 1820, Jos Antonio Conde
oric institutions of unilateral Catholic adherence exist suggested they were modeled on the ribat, a fortied re-
in continuous or revived forms among a few current and ligious institution which brought together a religious or
former European royal houses. hospital way of life with ghting the enemies of Islam.
These traditions in turn eventually inuenced honoric However popular such views may have become, others
orders of modern states today, including that of secu- have criticised this view, suggesting there were no such
lar republics, such as orders of merit, and other parts of ribats around the Outremer until after the military orders
honour systems and phaleristics. had been founded.
Moreover, it inspired many subsequent modern era sec- Yet, the innovation of the role and function of the military
ular Western cultural phenonomens, such as fraternities, orders has sometimes been obscured by the concentration
or brotherhoods, such as the Freemasonry. on their military exploits in the Holy Land, Prussia, and
the Baltics. In fact, they had extensive holdings and sta
throughout Western Europe. The majority were laymen.
They provided a conduit for cultural and technical innova-
2.1 History tion, for example the introduction of fulling into England
by the Knights Hospitaller, or the banking facilities of the
Already in 1053, for the Battle of Civitate the Knights of Knights Templars.
Saint Peter (Milites Sancti Petri) was founded as a militia Because of the necessity to have a standing army, the mil-
by Pope Leo IX to counter the Normans.[2] itary orders were founded, being adopted as the fourth
The larger threat that would denitively establish the tra- monastic religious vows.
dition, however, came from the east. In response to the
Islamic conquests of the former Byzantine Empire and
Christianity in the Holy Land, numerous Catholic mili-
tary orders were set up following the First Crusade. The
founding of such orders suited the Catholic churchs plan
of channelising the devotion of the European nobility,
and also complemented the Peace and Truce of God.[1]
The foundation of the Knights Templar in 1118 provided
the rst in a series of tightly organised military forces
for the purpose of ghting invading Islamic conquests in 2.3 List of military orders
the Holy Land and in the Iberian Peninsula see the
Reconquista as well as Islamic invaders and pagan
tribes in Eastern Europe.
These are military orders listed chronologically accord-
The rst secularised military order was the Order of Saint ing to their dates of foundation and extinction, sometimes
George, founded in 1326 by the King Charles I of Hun- approximate due to scarce sources, and/or repeated sup-
gary, on which he made all the Hungarian nobility swear pressions by Papal or royal authourities. Their militari-
loyalty to him. The next secular order which is known sation may vary from case to case, the foundation of an
to appear was the Order of the "Knights of the Band", order, its ecclesiastical approval, and occurring on dier-
founded in 1332 by the King Alfonso XI of Castile. Both ent times and for dierent purposes. Presently active in-
orders existed only for about a century.[3] stitutions are listed in consideration with their legitimacy
according to the International Commission on Orders of
Chivalry.
2.2 Purpose They are divided into international and national according
to their adherence, mission, and enrolment, disregarding
The original features of the military orders were the com- the extent of eventual gradual geographical distribution
bination of religious and military ways of life. Some of outside of their region of concern.
20 CHAPTER 2. MILITARY ORDER (MONASTIC SOCIETY)
Order of the Dove, short-lived (one year) and con- Chivalric order
troversial order founded in 1379 by King Juan I of
Order (honour)
Castile
Order of the Knights of Concrdia, founded in 1246 [6] Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem.
by King Ferdinand III of Castile Retrieved 24 January 2015.
2.7. FURTHER READING 21
[7] Robert Ferguson (26 August 2011). The Knights Templar [22] Orders of the Holy Ghost - Catholic Encyclopedia article
and Scotland. History Press Limited. p. 39. ISBN 978-
0-7524-6977-5. [23] Besse, Jean. Bethlehemites. The Catholic Encyclopedia
Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 23
[8] Jochen Burgtorf; Paul F. Crawford; Helen J. Nicholson Jun. 2015
(28 June 2013). The Debate on the Trial of the Templars
(13071314). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 298. ISBN [24] Trollope, Thomas Anthony. An encyclopdia ecclesias-
978-1-4094-8102-7. tica, 1834
[9] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Order of the Knights [25] Pasquale Villari, '"The Medici (1911). Hugh Chisolm,
of Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert ed. The Encyclopaedia Britannica: a dictionary of arts,
Appleton Company. sciences, literature and general information, Volume 18 (11
ed.). New York: Encyclopaedia Britannica. p. 36.
[10] Matthew Anthony Fitzsimons; Jean Bcarud (1969). The
Catholic Church today: Western Europe. University of [26] Woodhouse, Frederick Charles (1879). The military reli-
Notre Dame Press. p. 159. gious orders of the Middle Ages: the Hospitallers, the Tem-
plars, the Teutonic knights, and others. With an appendix
[11] Helen J. Nicholson (1 January 2004). The Crusades. of other orders of knighthood: legendary, honorary, and
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-313- modern. New York: Society for Promoting Christian
32685-1. Knowledge. p. 338. The members followed the rule of St
[12] Jos Vicente de Bragana, The Military Order of Christ Benedict and the Popes granted them the same privileges
and the Papal Croce di Cristo as those enjoyed by the Knights Hospitallers
[13] Martin, pp. 140142. [27] Carmichael, Montgomery (1901). In Tuscany: Tuscan
Towns, Tuscan Types and the Tuscan Tongue. New York:
[14] Note of Clarication from the Secretariat of State. E P Dutton. p. 173. The Order was swept away by the
news.va. Pontical Council for Social Communication. French Revolution but was revived again in a modied
16 October 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2012. Vatican form in 1817. The Italian Revolution once more swept
City,(VIS)- it away beyond hope of revival on 16 November 1859 and
[15] Noonan, Jr., James-Charles (1996). The Church Visible: its Church and property became the property of the State.
The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic Alas that modern Italy should not be a little more tender
Church. Viking. p. 196. ISBN 0-670-86745-4. of the memories of her past glories.
[16] Moeller, Charles. The Military Orders. The Catholic [28] Bernardini, Rodolfo (1990). Il Sacro Militare Ordine di
Encyclopedia Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Santo Stefano Papa e Martire (in Italian). Pisa: Familiare
Company, 1911. 22 Jun. 2015 della Casa Asburgo Lorena.
[17] Anderson, James (1732). Royal genealogies: or, The [29] Cardinale, Hyginus Eugene (1983). Orders of knighthood
genealogical tables of emperors, kings and princes, from awards and the Holy See. Gerrards Cross: Van Duren. p.
Adam to these times; in two parts. London: James Betten- 157. ISBN 978-0-905715-13-1.
ham. pp. ix. Retrieved 9 December 2011. St Michaels
[30] Harro Hp (2004), Jesuit Political Thought: The Society
Wing in Portugal founded by the said King Alphonse 1165
of Jesus and the State, c. 15401630, Cambridge; p. 25
or 1171 after his obtaining a notable Victory over Moors
and Alberto King of Seville in which Battle MICHAEL
the Arch Angel is said to appear on the right Side of
Alphonse and ght against them. This Order is now out 2.7 Further reading
of use. (1732)
[18] Almeida, Gomes Abrunhosa Marques de and Manuel n- Military Orders in Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)
gelo (2007). Precedentes histrico-tericos dos regional-
ismos dos Aores e da Galiza. Santiago de Compostela: Nicholson, Helen J. The Knights Hospitaller (2001).
Univ Santiago de Compostela. p. 187.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. Hospitallers: The History of
[19] Cheke, Marcus (1969). Carlota Joaquina, queen of Por- the Order of St John (1999).
tugal. (Reprinted. ed.). Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Li-
braries Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-8369-5040-3. Morten, Nicholas Edward. The Teutonic Knights in
the Holy Land 1190-1291 (Woodbridge: Boydell
[20] Jenks, George C (1911). Monarchs in Exile, The Book- Press, 2009)
man vol. 32. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co. p. 273.
Burman, Edward (1988). The Templars: Knights of
[21] Sainty, Guy Stair (2006-11-22). Royal Order of Saint
Michael of the Wing. rec.heraldry. Retrieved 2011-01- God. Inner Traditions/Bear.
21. While the Duke of Braganza is the unquestioned heir
Forey, Alan John. The Military Orders: From the
and successor of Dom Miguel, the institution of the Royal
Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. *(Bas-
Brotherhood of St Michael of the Wing is better seen as
a modern memorial revival of the original institution than ingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1992)
any kind of continuation of the Miguelist award.
Chapter 3
For other sieges of the city, see list of sieges of Con- 20,000 people homeless.[7][8]
stantinople. Alexius III nally took oensive action, and led 17 divi-
sions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering
The Siege of Constantinople in 1203 was a Crusader the Crusaders. Alexius IIIs army of about 8,500 men
siege of the capital of the Byzantine Empire, in support of faced the Crusaders 7 divisions (about 3,500 men), but
the deposed emperor Isaac II Angelos and his son Alexios his courage failed, and the Byzantine army returned to the
IV Angelos. It marked the main outcome of the Fourth city without a ght.[9]
Crusade. On 18 July 1203 the Crusaders launched an assault on the
city, and Alexios III immediately ed into Thrace. The
next morning, the Crusaders were surprised to nd that
the citizens had released Isaac II from prison and pro-
3.1 The siege claimed him emperor, despite the fact that he had been
blinded to make him ineligible to rule. The Crusaders
To take the city by force, the Crusaders rst needed forced Isaac II to proclaim his son Alexios IV co-emperor
to cross the Bosphorus. About 200 ships, horse trans- on 1 August, eectively ending the siege.
ports and galleys would undertake to deliver the crusad-
ing army across the narrow strait, where Alexius III had
lined up the Byzantine army in battle formation along
the shore, north of the suburb of Galata. The Crusaders 3.2 After the 1203 siege
knights charged straight out of the horse transports, and
the Byzantine army ed south. The Crusaders followed Following the end of the rst siege of Constantinople in
south, and attacked the Tower of Galata, which held one 1203, on 1 August 1203, the pro-Crusader Alexios An-
end of the chain that blocked access to the Golden Horn. gelos was crowned Emperor Alexios IV of the Byzantine
As they laid siege to the Tower, the Greeks counterat- Empire, who then tried to stabilize the city. But riots
tacked with some initial success. However, when the Cru- between anti-Crusader Greeks and pro-Crusader Latins
saders rallied and the Greeks retreated to the Tower, the broke out later that month and lasted until November,
Crusaders were able to follow the soldiers through the during which most of the populace began to turn against
Gate, and the Tower surrendered.[5] The Golden Horn Emperor Alexios IV.
now lay open to the Crusaders, and the Venetian eet en- On 25 January 1204, the death of co-Emperor Isaac II
tered. set o rioting in Constantinople in which the people de-
On 11 July the Crusaders took positions opposite the posed Alexios IV, who turned to the Crusaders for help
Blachernae palace on the northwest corner of the city. but was imprisoned by the imperial chamberlain, Alex-
Alexios IV was paraded outside the walls, but the citi- ios Doukas, who declared himself Emperor Alexios V on
zens were apathetic, as Alexios III, though a usurper and 5 February. Emperor Alexios V then attempted to ne-
illegitimate in the eyes of the westerners, was an accept- gotiate with the Crusaders for a withdrawal from Byzan-
able emperor for the Byzantine citizens. The siege began tine territory, but they refused to abandon their old treaty
in earnest on 17 July, with four divisions attacking the with Alexios IV. When Alexios V ordered Alexios IVs
land walls, while the Venetian eet attacked the sea walls execution on 8 February, the Crusaders declared war
from the Golden Horn. The Venetians took a section of on Alexios V. In March 1204, the Crusader and Vene-
the wall of about 25 towers, while the Varangian guard tian leadership decided on the outright conquest of Con-
held o the Crusaders[6] on the land wall. The Varangians stantinople, and drew up a formal agreement to divide
shifted to meet the new threat, and the Venetians retreated the Byzantine Empire between them. By the end of
under the screen of re. The re lasted for 3 days and that month, the combined Crusader armies had begun
destroyed about 440 acres (1.8 km2 ) of the city, leaving the 1204 Siege of Constantinople as Emperor Alexios V
22
3.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 23
3.4 References
[1] S. Blondal, The Varangians of Byzantium, 164
24
4.4. SACK OF CONSTANTINOPLE 25
[13] , . . , 1895,
. 359-360
[19] Connolly, Kate (30 June 2004). Pope says sorry for cru-
saders rampage in 1204. The Telegraph. Retrieved 1
January 2017.
For other sieges of the city, see list of sieges of Con- 5.3 Afterwards
stantinople.
By 1247, the Nicaeans had eectively surrounded Con-
The Siege of Constantinople (1235) was a joint stantinople, with only the citys strong walls holding them
Bulgarian-Nicaean siege on the capital of the Latin Em- at bay, and the Battle of Pelagonia in 1258 signaled the
pire. Latin emperor John of Brienne was besieged by the beginning of the end of Latin predominance in Greece.
Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and Tsar Ivan Thus, on July 25, 1261, with most of the Latin troops
Asen II of Bulgaria. The siege remained unsuccessful. away on campaign, the Nicaean general Alexios Strate-
gopoulos[4] found an unguarded entrance to the city, and
entered it with his troops, restoring the Byzantine Empire
for his master, Michael VIII Palaiologos.
5.1 Prelude
5.4 See also
After Robert of Courtenay died in 1228, a new regency
Siege of Constantinople (1203)
under John of Brienne was set up. After the disastrous
Epirote defeat by the Bulgarians at the Battle of Klokot- Siege of Constantinople (1204)
nitsa,[1][2] the Epirote threat to the Latin Empire was re-
Siege of Constantinople (1260)
moved, only to be replaced by Nicaea, which started ac-
quiring territories in Greece. Emperor John III Doukas
Vatatzes of Nicaea concluded an alliance with Bulgaria,
which in 1235 resulted in joint campaign against the Latin 5.5 References
Empire.
[1] Turnovo inscription of Tsar Ivan Asen II in the Holy 40
Martyrs Church in honour of the victory at Klokotnitsa on
9 March 1230
[2] Battle of Klokonista. badley.info. Retrieved 2008-12-
5.2 The siege 29.
[3] John III Ducas Vatatzes. NNDB.com. Retrieved 2009-
In 1235, Angelo Sanudo sent a naval squadron for the 05-18.
defense of Constantinople, where the Emperor John of [4] Nicol (1993), p. 34.
Brienne was being besieged by John III Doukas Vatatzes,
Emperor of Nicaea, and Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. The
joint Bulgarian-Nicaean siege was unsuccessful.[3] The 5.6 Sources
allies retreated in the autumn because of the incoming
winter. Ivan Asen II and Vatatzes agreed to continue the Langdon, John S. (1985). The Forgotten
siege in the next year but the Bulgarian Emperor refused Byzantino-Bulgarian Assault and Siege of Con-
to send troops. With the death of John of Brienne in 1237 stantinople 1235-1236 and the Breakup of the 'En-
the Bulgarians broke the treaty with Vatatzes because of tente Cordiale' Between John III Ducas Vatatzes and
the possibility that Ivan Asen II could become a regent of John Asen II in 1236 as Background to the Gene-
the Latin Empire. sis of the Hohenstaufen-Vatatzes alliance of 1242.
By Angelos further intervention, a truce was signed be- Byzantine Studies in Honor of Milton V. Anastos.
tween the two empires for two years. Malibu. pp. 105136.
28
5.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 29
This article is about the 1456 siege of Belgrade. For cruits were ill-armed, many with only slings and scythes,
other uses, see Siege of Belgrade. but they were highly motivated. The recruits came under
Hunyadis banner, the core of which consisted of smaller
The Siege of Belgrade, or Battle of Belgrade or Siege bands of seasoned mercenaries and a few groups of mi-
nor knights. All in all, Hunyadi managed to build a force
of Nndorfehrvr. occurred from July 422, 1456.
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman of 2530,000 men.
Sultan Mehmed II rallied his resources in order to sub-
jugate the Kingdom of Hungary. His immediate objec-
tive was the border fort of the town of Belgrade (in old 6.2 Siege
Hungarian Nndorfehrvr). John Hunyadi, the Voivode
of Transylvania, who had fought many battles against the
Before Hunyadi could assemble his forces, the army of
Turks in the previous two decades, prepared the defenses
Mehmed II (160,000 men in early accounts, 60-70,000
of the fortress.
according to newer research) arrived at Belgrade. The
The siege eventually escalated into a major battle, during siege began on July 4, 1456. Szilgyi could rely on a
which Hunyadi led a sudden counterattack that overran force of only 5,000-7,000 men in the castle. Mehmed
the Ottoman camp, ultimately compelling the wounded set up his siege on the neck of the headland and started
Mehmed II to lift the siege and retreat. The battle had sig- heavily bombarding the citys walls on June 29. He ar-
nicant consequences, as it stabilized the southern fron- rayed his men in three sections: The Rumelian corps had
tiers of the Kingdom of Hungary for more than half a cen- the majority of his 300 cannons, while his eet of 200
tury and thus considerably delaying the Ottoman advance river war vessels had the rest of them. The Rumelians
in Europe. were arrayed on the right wing and the Anatolian corps
The Pope celebrated the victory as well, as he previously were arrayed on the left. In the middle were the personal
ordered all Catholic kingdoms to pray for the victory of guards of the Sultan, the Janissaries, and his command
the defenders of Belgrade. This led to the noon bell rit- post. The Anatolian corps and the Janissaries were both
ual that is still undertaken in Catholic and old Protestant heavy infantry troops. Mehmed posted his river vessels
churches nowadays. The day of the victory, 22 July, has mainly to the northwest of the city to patrol the marshes
been a memorial day in Hungary ever since.[10] and ensure that the fortress was not reinforced. They also
kept an eye on the Sava river to the southwest to avoid
the infantry from being outanked by Hunyadis army.
The zone from the Danube eastwards was guarded by the
6.1 Preparations Sipahi, the Sultans feudal heavy cavalry corps, to avoid
being outanked on the right.
At the end of 1455, John Hunyadi began preparations for When Hunyadi was informed of this, he was in the south
the defence of Belgrade. At his own expense, he provi- of Hungary recruiting additional light cavalry troops for
sioned and armed the fortress with a strong garrison under the army, with which he would intend to lift the siege.
the command of his brother-in-law Mihly Szilgyi and Although relatively few, his fellow nobles were willing to
his own eldest son Lszl. Hunyadi then proceeded to provide manpower, and the peasants were more than will-
form a relief army and an additional eet of two hundred ing to do so. Cardinal Capistrano had been sent to Hun-
corvettes. The barons feared Hunyadis growing power gary by the Vatican both to preach against heretics and to
more than the Ottoman threat and left him entirely to his preach a crusade against the Ottomans. Capistrano man-
own devices. aged to raise a large, albeit poorly trained and equipped,
An Italian Franciscan friar allied to Hunyadi, Giovanni peasant army, with which he advanced towards Belgrade.
da Capistrano, preached a crusade to attract peasants and Capistrano and Hunyadi traveled together though com-
local countryside landlords to Hunyadis cause. The re- manding the army separately. Both of them had gathered
30
6.3. BATTLE 31
6.4 Aftermath Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every European
church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers
to pray for the defenders of the city.[12][13] The practice of
However, the Hungarians paid dearly for this victory. the noon bell is traditionally attributed to the international
Plague broke out in the camp, from which John Hunyadi commemoration of the victory at Belgrade and to the or-
himself died three weeks later (August 11, 1456). He der of Pope Callixtus III, since in many countries (like
was buried in the Cathedral of Gyulafehrvr (now Alba England and the Spanish Kingdoms) news of the victory
Iulia), the capital of Transylvania. arrived before the order, and the ringing of the church
As the design of the fortress had proved its merits dur- bells at noon was thus transformed into a commemora-
ing the siege, some additional reinforcements were made tion of the victory.[14][15][16] The Pope didn't withdraw
by the Hungarians. The weaker eastern walls, where the order, and Catholic and the older Protestant churches
the Ottomans broke through into the upper town were still ring the noon bell to this day.[13][15][16][17]
6.7. LITERATURE 33
6.6 Legacy
them executed.[19] The Sultan later came into conict Hungary: Society of the Hungarian Quarterly. pp. 79
with Stephen III of Moldavia, resulting in an even worse 90. On July 22, 1456, John Hunyadi won a decisive vic-
defeat at Battle of Vaslui and later a pyrrhic victory at the tory at Belgrade over the armies of Sultan Mehmed II.
Battle of Valea Alb. Hunyadis featcarried out with a small standing army
combined with peasants rallied to ght the indel by the
A ctional account from the viewpoint of a Christian Franciscan friar St John of Capistrano had the eect of
mercenary is Christian Cameron, Tom Swan and the Siege putting an end to Ottoman attempts on Hungary and West-
of Belgrade (Orion,2014-2016). ern Europe for the next seventy years. The bells ringing
at noon throughout Christendom are, to this day, a daily
commemoration of John Hunyadis victory.
6.8 References [15] http://www.hungarianhistory.com/lib/hunyadi/hu01.htm
[16] http://nq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/CLXVII/sep08/
[1] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
171-d
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 177. ISBN 978-0871691613. [17] Kerny, Terzia (2008). The Renaissance - Four Times
Over. Exhibitions Commemorating Matthiass Accession
[2] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant, to the Throne. The Hungarian Quarterly. Budapest,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of Hungary: Society of the Hungarian Quarterly. pp. 7990.
Julius III. p. 177. ISBN 978-0871691613. On July 22, 1456, John Hunyadi won a decisive victory at
[3] Stanford J. Shaw (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire Belgrade over the armies of Sultan Mehmed II. Hunyadis
and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The featcarried out with a small standing army combined
Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. p. with peasants rallied to ght the indel by the Franciscan
63. ISBN 978-0521291637. friar St John of Capistrano had the eect of putting an
end to Ottoman attempts on Hungary and Western Europe
[4] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant, for the next seventy years, and is considered to have been
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of one of the most momentous victories in Hungarian mili-
Julius III. p. 174. ISBN 978-0871691613. tary history. The bells ringing at noon throughout Chris-
tendom are, to this day, a daily commemoration of John
[5] Andrew Ayton; Leslie Price (1998). The Military Revo- Hunyadis victory.
lution from a Medieval Perspective. The Medieval Mili-
tary Revolution: State, Society and Military Change in Me- [18] Imre Lukinich: A History of Hungary in Biographical
dieval and Early Modern Society. London, England: I.B. Sketches (page: 109.)
Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-353-1. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
[19] Radu R Florescu; Raymond T. McNally (1989). Dracula,
[6] John Julius Norwich (1982). A History of Venice. Lecture Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times. p. 80.
notes in mathematics 1358. New York, United States: Al- ISBN 978-0316286558.
fred B. Knopf. p. 269. ISBN 0-679-72197-5.
[7] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant, 6.8.1 Bibliography
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 175. ISBN 978-0871691613. Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Lev-
ant, 1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the
[8] Norman Housley (1992). The Later Crusades, 1274-
Reign of Julius III. ISBN 978-0871691613.
1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (First ed.). p. 104. ISBN
978-0198221364. Stanford J. Shaw (1976). History of the Ottoman
Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the
[9] Tom R. Kovach (1992). The 1456 Siege of Belgrade. Mil-
itary History, August 1996, Vol. 13, Issue 3. p. 34. Re- Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire
trieved March 6, 2015. 1280-1808. ISBN 978-0521291637.
[10] Anniversary of 1456 victory over Ottomans becomes Andrew Ayton; Leslie Price (1998). The Me-
memorial day politics.hu dieval Military Revolution: State, Society and Mili-
tary Change in Medieval and Early Modern Society.
[11] Friedrich W.D. Brie (2012). The Brut; Or, the Chronicles London, England: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-353-
of England. p. 524. ISBN 978-1407773421. 1. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
[12] Thomas Henry Dyer (1861). The history of modern Eu- John Julius Norwich (1982). A History of Venice.
rope: From the fall of Constantinople. J. Murray. p. 85. Lecture notes in mathematics 1358. New York,
[13] Istvn Lzr: Hungary: A Brief History (see in Chapter United States: Alfred B. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-
6) 72197-5.
[14] Kerny, Terzia (2008). The Renaissance - Four Times Norman Housley (1992). The Later Crusades,
Over. Exhibitions Commemorating Matthiass Accession 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (First ed.).
to the Throne. The Hungarian Quarterly. Budapest, ISBN 978-0198221364.
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38 CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)
FiftyFiveHundred, Jeremyhanna1012345, JeremiahY, Vladimere putin on the ground, 5050500a, My Chemistry romantic, LordCalle, Mc-
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Jim, Jonas III PhD in math, Notapotatoe, JonathonTordilla and Anonymous: 2018
6.9.2 Images
File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark
File:311St.Georgs_Ritterorden_Einsetzung_durch_Papst_Paul_II.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
a/ab/311St.Georgs_Ritterorden_Einsetzung_durch_Papst_Paul_II.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Klagenfurt, Krntner
Landesmuseum. eingescannt aus: Alois Niedersttter: 1400 - 1522:das Jahrhundert der Mitte: an der Wende vom
Mittelalter zur Neuzeit, aus der Reihe sterreichische Geschichte, Wien 1996, ISBN 3-8000-3532-4 Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
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cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/ILLUMIN.ASP?Size=mid&IllID=43733 Orig-
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style='vertical-align: top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/
132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_
%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='512' data-le-height='174' /></a>iThe source
code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.
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Original artist: Jimmy44
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height='30' style='vertical-align: top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%
29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_
SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='512' data-le-height='174' /></a>iThe
source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.
wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FArmoiries_Hongrie_ancien.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.
Original artist: Odejea
File:Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Jerusalem.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Arms_of_the_
Kingdom_of_Jerusalem.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:Bellapais Kloster - Refektorium Wappen 1a Jerusalem.jpg Original
artist: Heralder Cross by User:Katepanomegas
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tributors: Transferred from fr.wikipedia to Commons by Bloody-libu using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Jaume at French Wikipedia
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commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='512' data-le-height='174' /></a>iThe source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FBlason_Empire_
Latin_de_Constantinople.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.
Original artist: Jimmy44
File:Byzantine_Constantinople-en.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Byzantine_Constantinople-en.
png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cplakidas
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//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/user:Gabr-es' class='extiw' title='en:user:Gabr-es'>Gabr-</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:
Gabr-el#top' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:Gabr-el'>el</a>
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Chevalier_lgion_d'honneur.jpg Original artist: Chevalier_lgion_d'honneur.jpg: Rpublique franaise
File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Bulgarian_Empire.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Coat_of_
Arms_of_the_Bulgarian_Empire.PNG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Self-made, based on a historical image, published in
History of Bulgaria, volume 4 The Bulgarian people under Ottoman rule (from XV to the beginning of the XVII century)", Publishing
house of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Soa, 1983, page 58 (in Bulgarian). Original artist: Bulgarian Herald
40 CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)