CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION OF SHEET METAL FORMING

Sheet metal fabrication is a classification of manufacturing

processes that shape a piece of sheet metal into the desired part through

material removal and/or material deformation. Sheet metal, which acts as

the workpiece in these processes, is one of the most common forms of

raw material stock. The material thickness that classifies a workpiece as

sheet metal is not clearly defined. However, sheet metal is generally

considered to be a piece of stock between 0.006 and 0.25 mm thick. A

piece of metal much thinner is considered to be "foil" and any thicker is referred to as

a "plate". The thickness of a piece of sheet metal is often referred to as its gauge, a

number typically ranging from 3 to 38. A higher gauge indicates a thinner piece of

sheet metal, with exact dimensions that depend on the material. Sheet metal stock is

available in a wide variety of materials, which include the following:

Aluminum
Stainless steel
Brass
Steel
Bronze
Tin
Copper
Titanium
Magnesium
Zinc
Nickel
Sheet metal can be cut, bent, and stretched into a nearly any shape.

Material removal processes can create holes and cutouts in any 2D

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geometric shape. Deformation processes can bend the sheet numerous

times to different angles or stretch the sheet to create complex contours.

The size of sheet metal parts can range from a small washer or bracket, to

midsize enclosures for home appliances, to large airplane wings. These

parts are found in a variety of industries, such as aircraft, automotive,

construction, consumer products, HVAC, and furniture.

Sheet metal fabrication processes can mostly be placed into two

categories - forming and cutting. Forming processes are those in which

the applied force causes the material to plastically deform, but not to fail.

Such processes are able to bend or stretch the sheet into the desired

shape. Cutting processes are those in which the applied force causes the

material to fail and separate, allowing the material to be cut or removed.

Most cutting processes are performed by applying a great enough

shearing force to separate the material, and are therefore sometimes

referred to as shearing processes. Other cutting processes remove

material by using heat or abrasion, instead of shearing forces.

Forming

Bending

Roll forming

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 Spinning

Deep Drawing

Stretch forming

Cutting with shear

Shearing

Blanking

Bending

Cutting without shear

Laser beam cutting

Plasma cutting

Water jet cutting

Sheet metal forming processes are those in which force is applied

to a piece of sheet metal to modify its geometry rather than remove any

material. The applied force stresses the metal beyond its yield strength,

causing the material to plastically deform, but not to fail. By doing so,

the sheet can be bent or stretched into a variety of complex shapes. Sheet

metal forming processes include the following:

Bending is a metal forming process in which a force is applied to a

piece of sheet metal, causing it to bend at an angle and form the desired

shape. A bending operation causes deformation along one axis, but a

sequence of several different operations can be performed to create a

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complex part. Bent parts can be quite small, such as a bracket, or up to 20

feet in length, such as a large enclosure or chassis. A bend can be

characterized by several different parameters, shown in the image below.

1.1 ROLL FORMING

Roll forming, sometimes spelled rollforming, is a metal forming

process in which sheet metal is progressively shaped through a series of

bending operations. The process is performed on a roll forming line in

which the sheet metal stock is fed through a series of roll stations. Each

station has a roller, referred to as a roller die, positioned on both sides of

the sheet. The shape and size of the roller die may be unique to that

station, or several identical roller dies may be used in different positions.

The roller dies may be above and below the sheet, along the sides, at an

angle, etc. As the sheet is forced through the roller dies in each roll

station, it plastically deforms and bends. Each roll station performs one

stage in the complete bending of the sheet to form the desired part. The

roller dies are lubricated to reduce friction between the die and the sheet,

thus reducing the tool wear. Also, lubricant can allow for a higher

production rate, which will also depend on the material thickness,

number of roll stations, and radius of each bend. The roll forming line

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can also include other sheet metal fabrication operations before or after

the roll forming, such as Bendingor shearing.

Fig. 1.1 Roll Forming Line

The roll forming process can be used to form a sheet into a wide

variety of cross-section profiles. An open profile is most common, but a

closed tube-like shape can be created as well. Because the final form is

achieved through a series of bends, the part does not require a uniform or

symmetric cross-section along its length. Roll forming is used to create

very long sheet metal parts with typical widths of 1-20 inches and

thicknesses of 0.004-0.125 inches. However wider and thicker sheets can

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be formed, some up to 5 ft. wide and 0.25 inches thick. The roll forming

process is capable of producing parts with tolerances as tight as 0.005

inches. Typical roll formed parts include panels, tracks, shelving, etc.

These parts are commonly used in industrial and commercial buildings

for roofing, lighting, storage units, and HVAC applications.

1.2 SPINNING

Spinning, sometimes called spin forming, is a metal forming

process used to form cylindrical parts by rotating a piece of sheet metal

while forces are applied to one side. A sheet metal disc is rotated at high

speeds while rollers press the sheet against a tool, called a mandrel, to

form the shape of the desired part. Spun metal parts have a rotationally

symmetric, hollow shape, such as a cylinder, cone, or hemisphere.

Examples include cookware, hubcaps, satellite dishes, rocket nose cones,

and musical instruments.

Spinning is typically performed on a manual or CNC lathe and

requires a blank, mandrel, and roller tool. The blank is the disc-shaped

piece of sheet metal that is pre-cut from sheet stock and will be formed

into the part. The mandrel is a solid form of the internal shape of the part,

against which the blank will be pressed. For more complex parts, such as

6
those with reentrant surfaces, multi-piece mandrels can be used. Because

the mandrel does not experience much wear in this process, it can be

made from wood or plastic. However, high volume production typically

utilizes a metal mandrel. The mandrel and blank are clamped together

and secured between the headstock and tailstock of the lathe to be rotated

at high speeds by the spindle. While the blank and mandrel rotate, force

is applied to the sheet by a tool, causing the sheet to bend and form

around the mandrel. The tool may make several passes to complete the

shaping of the sheet. This tool is usually a roller wheel attached to a

lever. Rollers are available in different diameters and thicknesses and are

usually made from steel or brass. The rollers are inexpensive and

experience little wear allowing for low volume production of parts.

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 Fig. 1.2 Spinning Lathe

There are two distinct spinning methods, referred to as

conventional spinning and shear spinning. In conventional spinning, the

roller tool pushes against the blank until it conforms to the contour of the

mandrel. The resulting spun part will have a diameter smaller than the

blank, but will maintain a constant thickness. In shear spinning, the roller

not only bends the blank against the mandrel, it also applies a downward

force while it moves, stretching the material over the mandrel. By doing

so, the outer diameter of the spun part will remain equal to the original

blank diameter, but the thickness of the part walls will be thinner.

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 Fig. 1.3 Conventional Spinning vs. Shear Spinning

1.3 DEEP DRAWING

Deep drawing is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is

stretched into the desired part shape. A tool pushes downward on the

sheet metal, forcing it into a die cavity in the shape of the desired part.

The tensile forces applied to the sheet cause it to plastically deform into a

cup-shaped part. Deep drawn parts are characterized by a depth equal to

more than half of the diameter of the part. These parts can have a variety

of cross sections with straight, tapered, or even curved walls, but

cylindrical or rectangular parts are most common. Deep drawing is most

effective with ductile metals, such as aluminum, brass, copper, and mild

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steel. Examples of parts formed with deep drawing include automotive

bodies and fuel tanks, cans, cups, kitchen sinks, and pots and pans.

The deep drawing process requires a blank, blank holder, punch,

and die. The blank is a piece of sheet metal, typically a disc or rectangle,

which is pre-cut from stock material and will be formed into the part. The

blank is clamped down by the blank holder over the die, which has a

cavity in the external shape of the part. A tool called a punch moves

downward into the blank and draws, or stretches, the material into the die

cavity. The movement of the punch is usually hydraulically powered to

apply enough force to the blank. Both the die and punch experience wear

from the forces applied to the sheet metal and are therefore made from

tool steel or carbon steel. The process of drawing the part sometimes

occurs in a series of operations, called draw reductions. In each step, a

punch forces the part into a different die, stretching the part to a greater

depth each time. After a part is completely drawn, the punch and blank

holder can be raised and the part removed from the die. The portion of

the sheet metal that was clamped under the blank holder may form a

flange around the part that can be trimmed off.

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 Fig. 1.4 Deep Drawing

Fig. 1.5 Deep Drawing Sequence

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1.4 STRETCH FORMING

Stretch forming is a metal forming process in which a piece of

sheet metal is stretched and bent simultaneously over a die in order to

form large contoured parts. Stretch forming is performed on a stretch

press, in which a piece of sheet metal is securely gripped along its edges

by gripping jaws. The gripping jaws are each attached to a carriage that is

pulled by pneumatic or hydraulic force to stretch the sheet. The tooling

used in this process is a stretch form block, called a form die, which is a

solid contoured piece against which the sheet metal will be pressed. The

most common stretch presses are oriented vertically, in which the form

die rests on a press table that can be raised into the sheet by a hydraulic

ram. As the form die is driven into the sheet, which is gripped tightly at

its edges, the tensile forces increase and the sheet plastically deforms into

a new shape. Horizontal stretch presses mount the form die sideways on

a stationary press table, while the gripping jaws pull the sheet

horizontally around the form die.

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 Fig. 1.6 Stretch Forming

Stretch formed parts are typically large and possess large radius

bends. The shapes that can be produced vary from a simple curved

surface to complex non-uniform cross sections. Stretch forming is

capable of shaping parts with very high accuracy and smooth surfaces.

Ductile materials are preferable, the most commonly used being

aluminum, steel, and titanium. Typical stretch formed parts are large

curved panels such as door panels in cars or wing panels on aircraft.

Other stretch formed parts can be found in window frames and

enclosures.

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Capabilities

Typical Feasible
Shapes: Flat
Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Complex
Thin-walled: Cubic
Part size: Area: Up to 80 ft
Weight: 0.5 oz - 100 lb
Materials: Metals Lead
Alloy Steel Magnesium
Carbon Steel Nickel
Stainless Steel Tin
Aluminum Titanium
Copper Zinc
Surface finish - 32 - 125 in 16 - 250 in
Ra:
Tolerance: 0.01 in. 0.002 in.
Max wall 0.08 - 0.5 in. 0.001 - 1.0 in.
thickness:
Quantity: 1000 - 100000 1 - 1000000
Lead time: Weeks H
Advantages:ur Can form complex shapes
s Many material options
High production rate
Low labor cost
Short lead time possible
Disadvantages: Limited to constant part thickness
Part may require several operations and machines
Large amount of scrap
Applications: Brackets, panels, cans, utensils
Table 1.1 Capabilities

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 Cutting processes are those in which a piece of sheet metal is

separated by applying a great enough force to caused the material to fail.

The most common cutting processes are performed by applying a

shearing force, and are therefore sometimes referred to as shearing

processes. When a great enough shearing force is applied, the shear stress

in the material will exceed the ultimate shear strength and the material

will fail and separate at the cut location. This shearing force is applied by

two tools, one above and one below the sheet. Whether these tools are a

punch and die or upper and lower blades, the tool above the sheet

delivers a quick downward blow to the sheet metal that rests over the

lower tool. A small clearance is present between the edges of the upper

and lower tools, which facilitates the fracture of the material. The size of

this clearance is typically 2-10% of the material thickness and depends

upon several factors, such as the specific shearing process, material, and

sheet thickness.

The effects of shearing on the material change as the cut

progresses and are visible on the edge of the sheared material. When the

punch or blade impacts the sheet, the clearance between the tools allows

the sheet to plastically deform and "rollover" the edge. As the tool

15
penetrates the sheet further, the shearing results in a vertical burnished

zone of material. Finally, the shear stress is too great and the material

fractures at an angle with a small burr formed at the edge. The height of

each of these portions of the cut depends on several factors, including the

sharpness of the tools and the clearance between the tools.

Sheared edge

A variety of cutting processes that utilize shearing forces exist to

separate or remove material from a piece of sheet stock in different ways.

Each process is capable of forming a specific type of cut, some with an

open path to separate a portion of material and some with a closed path to

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cutout and remove that material. By using many of these processes

together, sheet metal parts can be fabricated with cutouts and profiles of

any 2D geometry. Such cutting processes include the following:

Shearing - Separating material into two parts

Blanking - Removing material to use for parts

Conventional blanking

Fine blanking

Punching - Removing material as scrap

Piercing

Slotting

Perforating

Notching

Nibbling

Lancing

Slitting

Parting

Cutoff

Trimming

Shaving

Dinking

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Shearing

As mentioned above, several cutting processes exist that utilize

shearing force to cut sheet metal. However, the term "shearing" by itself

refers to a specific cutting process that produces straight line cuts to

separate a piece of sheet metal. Most commonly, shearing is used to cut a

sheet parallel to an existing edge which is held square, but angled cuts

can be made as well. For this reason, shearing is primarily used to cut

sheet stock into smaller sizes in preparation for other processes. Shearing

has the following capabilities:

Sheet thickness: 0.005-0.25 inches

Tolerance: 0.1 inches (0.005 inches feasible)

Surface finish: 250-1000 in (125-2000 in feasible)

The shearing process is performed on a shear machine, often called

a squaring shear or power shear, that can be operated manually (by hand

or foot) or by hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric power. A typical shear

machine includes a table with support arms to hold the sheet, stops or

guides to secure the sheet, upper and lower straight-edge blades, and a

gauging device to precisely position the sheet. The sheet is placed

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between the upper and lower blade, which are then forced together

against the sheet, cutting the material. In most devices, the lower blade

remains stationary while the upper blade is forced downward. The upper

blade is slightly offset from the lower blade, approximately 5-10% of the

sheet thickness. Also, the upper blade is usually angled so that the cut

progresses from one end to the other, thus reducing the required force.

The blades used in these machines typically have a square edge rather

than a knife-edge and are available in different materials, such as low

alloy steel and high-carbon steel.

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 Shearing

Blanking

Blanking is a cutting process in which a piece of sheet metal is

removed from a larger piece of stock by applying a great enough

shearing force. In this process, the piece removed, called the blank, is not

scrap but rather the desired part. Blanking can be used to cutout parts in

almost any 2D shape, but is most commonly used to cut workpieces with

simple geometries that will be further shaped in subsequent processes.

Often times multiple sheets are blanked in a single operation. Final parts

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that are produced using blanking include gears, jewelry, and watch or

clock components. Blanked parts typically require secondary finishing to

smooth out burrs along the bottom edge.

The blanking process requires a blanking press, sheet metal stock,

blanking punch, and blanking die. The sheet metal stock is placed over

the die in the blanking press. The die, instead of having a cavity, has a

cutout in the shape of the desired part and must be custom made unless a

standard shape is being formed. Above the sheet, resides the blanking

punch which is a tool in the shape of the desired part. Both the die and

punch are typically made from tool steel or carbide. The hydraulic press

drives the punch downward at high speed into the sheet. A small

clearance, typically 10-20% of the material thickness, exists between the

punch and die. When the punch impacts the sheet, the metal in this

clearance quickly bends and then fractures. The blank which has been

sheared from the stock now falls freely into the gap in the die. This

process is extremely fast, with some blanking presses capable of

performing over 1000 strokes per minute.

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 Blanking

Fine blanking

Fine blanking is a specialized type of blanking in which the blank

is sheared from the sheet stock by applying 3 separate forces. This

technique produces a part with better flatness, a smoother edge with

minimal burrs, and tolerances as tight as 0.0003. As a result, high

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quality parts can be blanked that do not require any secondary operations.

However, the additional equipment and tooling does add to the initial

cost and makes fine blanking better suited to high volume production.

Parts made with fine blanking include automotive parts, electronic

components, cutlery, and power tools.

Most of the equipment and setup for fine blanking is similar to

conventional blanking. The sheet stock is still placed over a blanking die

inside a hydraulic press and a blanking punch will impact the sheet to

remove the blank. As mentioned above, this is done by the application of

3 forces. The first is a downward holding force applied to the top of the

sheet. A clamping system holds a guide plate tightly against the sheet and

is held in place with an impingement ring, sometimes called a stinger,

that surrounds the perimeter of the blanking location. The second force is

applied underneath the sheet, directly opposite the punch, by a "cushion".

This cushion provides a counterforce during the blanking process and

later ejects the blank. These two forces reduce bending of the sheet and

improve the flatness of the blank. The final force is provided by the

blanking punch impacting the sheet and shearing the blank into the die

opening. In fine blanking, the clearance between the punch and the die is

smaller, around 0.001 inches, and the blanking is performed at slower

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speeds. As a result, instead of the material fracturing to free the blank, the

blank flows and is extruded from the sheet, providing a smoother edge.

Fine blanking

Punching

Bendingis a cutting process in which material is removed from a

piece of sheet metal by applying a great enough shearing force.

Bendingis very similar to blanking except that the removed material,

called the slug, is scrap and leaves behind the desired internal feature in

the sheet, such as a hole or slot. Bendingcan be used to produce holes and

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cutouts of various shapes and sizes. The most common punched holes are

simple geometric shapes (circle, square, rectangle, etc.) or combinations

thereof. The edges of these punched features will have some burrs from

being sheared but are of fairly good quality. Secondary finishing

operations are typically performed to attain smoother edges.

The Bendingprocess requires a punch press, sheet metal stock,

punch, and die. The sheet metal stock is positioned between the punch

and die inside the punch press. The die, located underneath the sheet, has

a cutout in the shape of the desired feature. Above the sheet, the press

holds the punch, which is a tool in the shape of the desired feature.

Punches and dies of standard shapes are typically used, but custom

tooling can be made for Bendingcomplex shapes. This tooling, whether

standard or custom, is usually made from tool steel or carbide. The punch

press drives the punch downward at high speed through the sheet and

into the die below. There is a small clearance between the edge of the

punch and the die, causing the material to quickly bend and fracture. The

slug that is punched out of the sheet falls freely through the tapered

opening in the die. This process can be performed on a manual punch

press, but today computer numerical controlled (CNC) punch presses are

most common. A CNC punch press can be hydraulically, pneumatically,

25
or electrically powered and deliver around 600 punches per minute. Also,

many CNC punch presses utilize a turret that can hold up to 100 different

punches which are rotated into position when needed.

Punching

A typical punching operation is one in which a cylindrical punch

tool pierces the sheet metal, forming a single hole. However, a variety of

operations are possible to form different features. These operations

include the following:

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 Piercing - The typical punching

operation, in which a cylindrical punch pierces a

hole into the sheet.

Slotting - A punching operation that

forms rectangular holes in the sheet. Sometimes

described as piercing despite the different shape.

Perforating - Punching a close

arrangement of a large number of holes in a single

operation.

Notching - Punching the edge of a

sheet, forming a notch in the shape of a portion of

the punch.

Nibbling - Punching a series of small

overlapping slits or holes along a path to cutout a

larger contoured shape. This eliminates the need for

a custom punch and die but will require secondary

operations to improve the accuracy and finish of the

feature.

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 Lancing - Creating a partial cut in the

sheet, so that no material is removed. The material

is left attached to be bent and form a shape, such as

a tab, vent, or louver.

Slitting - Cutting straight lines in the

sheet. No scrap material is produced.

Parting - Separating a part from the

remaining sheet, by punching away the material

between parts.

Cutoff - Separating a part from the

remaining sheet, without producing any scrap. The

punch will produce a cut line that may be straight,

angled, or curved.

Trimming - Punching away excess

material from the perimeter of a part, such as

trimming the flange from a drawn cup.

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 Shaving - Shearing away minimal

material from the edges of a feature or part, using a

small die clearance. Used to improve accuracy or

finish. Tolerances of 0.001 inches are possible.

Dinking - A specialized form of

piercing used for punching soft metals. A hollow

punch, called a dinking die, with beveled, sharpened

edges presses the sheet into a block of wood or soft

metal.

SHEET METAL BENDING

A brake is a metalworking machine that allows the bending of

sheet metal. A cornice brake only allows for simple bends and creases,

while a box-and-pan brake also allows one to form box and pan shapes. [1]

It is also known as a bending machine or bending brake.

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Description

The brake consists of a flat surface onto which the material is

placed, and a clamping bar which will come down and hold the material

firmly during the bend. This clamping action may be manual, automatic

or operated using a foot pedal. The front, gate-like, plate of the machine

is hinged and may be lifted, forcing the material extended over a straight

edge to bend to follow the plate.

The bends can be to any angle up to a practical limit of about 120

degrees, somewhat more in the case of a bar folder. If the area to be bent

is narrow enough, a sharper bend (e.g., for a hem) can be made by

inserting the bend under the clamping bar and lowering it.

Cornice Brake

A cornice brake has a solid clamping bar, the full width of the

machine; thus, it can only make straight bends, the entire width of the

workpiece.

Box-and-Pan Brake

In a box-and-pan brake, the clamping bar includes several

removable blocks, which may be removed and rearranged to permit

30
bending of restricted areas of a piece of sheet metal or of already

partially formed pieces.

After bending, a box or pan form is then completed by screw,

solder, weld, rivet, or other metal fixing process.

Bar Folder

This is a simplified brake, usually much smaller than cornice or

box-and-pan brakes. Typically, a single handle both clamps the

workpiece and makes the bend, in a single motion, but the depth is

usually much less than what a cornice or box-and-pan brake can handle.

Press brake

This is a more complex tool that forms predetermined bends by

clamping the workpiece between a matching punch and die.

Sizes of brakes

Brakes come in sizes suitable for light aluminum or brass for small

boxes and operated by hand, up to industrial sized and counterwighted

hand operated or hydraulic machines suitable for large sheets of steel.

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 CHAPTER 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF BENDING MACHINE

The bending machine is characterized by parameters such as:

Construction

Mechanism of delivering power to the ram (mechanical, electro-

mechanical or hydraulic)

Size of working area

Single or multiple station

Force rating (for example, 20 tons)

The type of tool shop and its capacity (e.g., store revolving type,

capacity 34 tool)

Speed or productivity (typically characterized by the speed of

strokes with a step movement of 25 and 1 mm)

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 Speed of movement without shock (speed-load displacement)

Maximum weight of workpiece

Safety features

Power consumption

The type of software

NEED FOR PROJECT

To achieve mass production

To reduce manpower

To increase the efficiency of the plant

To reduce the work load

To reduce the production cost

To reduce the production time

To reduce the material handling

To reduce the fatigue of workers

To achieve good product quality

Less Maintenance

33
 CHAPTER 3

BENDING MECHANISM

Fig. 3.1 Bending Mechanism

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3.1 BENDING DIAGRAM

Bend line - The straight line on the surface of the sheet, on either

side of the bend, that defines the end of the level flange and the

start of the bend.

Outside mold line - The straight line where the outside surfaces of

the two flanges would meet, were they to continue. This line

defines the edge of a mold that would bound the bent sheet metal.

Flange length - The length of either of the two flanges, extending

from the edge of the sheet to the bend line.

Mold line distance - The distance from either end of the sheet to

the outside mold line.

Setback - The distance from either bend line to the outside mold

line. Also equal to the difference between the mold line distance

and the flange length.

Bend axis - The straight line that defines the center around which

the sheet metal is bent.

Bend length - The length of the bend, measured along the bend

axis.

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 Bend radius - The distance from the bend axis to the inside surface

of the material, between the bend lines. Sometimes specified as the

inside bend radius. The outside bend radius is equal to the inside

bend radius plus the sheet thickness.

Bend angle - The angle of the bend, measured between the bent

flange and its original position, or as the included angle between

perpendicular lines drawn from the bend lines.

Bevel angle - The complimentary angle to the bend angle.

The act of bending results in both tension and compression in the

sheet metal. The outside portion of the sheet will undergo tension and

stretch to a greater length, while the inside portion experiences

compression and shortens. The neutral axis is the boundary line inside

the sheet metal, along which no tension or compression forces are

present. As a result, the length of this axis remains constant. The changes

in length to the outside and inside surfaces can be related to the original

flat length by two parameters, the bend allowance and bend deduction,

which are defined below.

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 Fig. 3.2 Neutral Axis

Neutral axis - The location in the sheet that is neither stretched nor

compressed, and therefore remains at a constant length.

K-factor - The location of the neutral axis in the material,

calculated as the ratio of the distance of the neutral axis (measured

from the inside bend surface) to the material thickness. The K-

factor is dependent upon several factors (material, bending

operation, bend angle, etc.) and is typically greater than 0.25, but

cannot exceed 0.50.

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 Bend allowance - The length of the neutral axis between the bend

lines, or in other words, the arc length of the bend. The bend

allowance added to the flange lengths is equal to the total flat

length.

Bend deduction - Also called the bend compensation, the amount a

piece of material has been stretched by bending. The value equals

the difference between the mold line lengths and the total flat

length.

When bending a piece of sheet metal, the residual stresses in the

material will cause the sheet to spring back slightly after the bending

operation. Due to this elastic recovery, it is necessary to over-bend the

sheet a precise amount to achieve the desired bend radius and bend angle.

The final bend radius will be greater than initially formed and the final

bend angle will be smaller. The ratio of the final bend angle to the initial

bend angle is defined as the springback factor, KS. The amount of

springback depends upon several factors, including the material, bending

operation, and the initial bend angle and bend radius.

38
 Fig. 3.4 Springback

Bending is typically performed on a machine called a press brake,

which can be manually or automatically operated. For this reason, the

bending process is sometimes referred to as press brake forming. Press

brakes are available in a range of sizes (commonly 20-200 tons) in order

to best suit the given application. A press brake contains an upper tool

called the punch and a lower tool called the die, between which the sheet

metal is located. The sheet is carefully positioned over the die and held in

place by the back gauge while the punch lowers and forces the sheet to

bend. In an automatic machine, the punch is forced into the sheet under

the power of a hydraulic ram. The bend angle achieved is determined by

39
the depth to which the punch forces the sheet into the die. This depth is

precisely controlled to achieve the desired bend. Standard tooling is often

used for the punch and die, allowing a low initial cost and suitability for

low volume production. Custom tooling can be used for specialized

bending operations but will add to the cost. The tooling material is

chosen based upon the production quantity, sheet metal material, and

degree of bending. Naturally, a stronger tool is required to endure larger

quantities, harder sheet metal, and severe bending operations. In order of

increasing strength, some common tooling materials include hardwood,

low carbon steel, tool steel, and carbide steel.

40
Press Brake (Open)

Press Brake (Closed)

41
 While using a press brake and standard die sets, there are still a

variety of techniques that can be used to bend the sheet. The most

common method is known as V-bending, in which the punch and die are

"V" shaped. The punch pushes the sheet into the "V" shaped groove in

the V-die, causing it to bend. If the punch does not force the sheet to the

bottom of the die cavity, leaving space or air underneath, it is called "air

bending". As a result, the V-groove must have a sharper angle than the

angle being formed in the sheet. If the punch forces the sheet to the

bottom of the die cavity, it is called "bottoming". This technique allows

for more control over the angle because there is less springback.

However, a higher tonnage press is required. In both techniques, the

width of the "V" shaped groove, or die opening, is typically 6 to 18 times

the sheet thickness. This value is referred to as the die ratio and is equal

to the die opening divided by the sheet thickness.

42
V Bending

In addition to V-bending, another common bending method is wipe

bending, sometimes called edge bending. Wipe bending requires the

sheet to be held against the wipe die by a pressure pad. The punch then

presses against the edge of the sheet that extends beyond the die and pad.

The sheet will bend against the radius of the edge of the wipe die.

43
 Wipe Bending

Design rules

Bend location - A bend should be located where enough

material is present, and preferably with straight edges, for the sheet to be

secured without slipping. The width of this flange should be equal to at

least 4 times the sheet thickness plus the bend radius.

Bend radius

Use a single bend radius for all bends to eliminate additional

tooling or setups

Inside bend radius should equal at least the sheet thickness

44
 Bend direction - Bending hard metals parallel to the rolling

direction of the sheet may lead to fracture. Bending perpendicular to the

rolling direction is recommended.

Any features, such as holes or slots, located too close to a

bend may be distorted. The distance of such features from the bend

should be equal to at least 3 times the sheet thickness plus the bending

radius.

In the case of manual bending, if the design allows, a slot

can be cut along the bend line to reduce the manual force required.

45
 CHAPTER 4

TYPES OF BENDING MACHINE

Sheet Metal Bending Machine

This bending machine is used to bend the sheet of small

thickness Tube Bending Machine

This bending machine is used to bend the tubes or pipes of

various diameter

Mechanical Bending Machine

Mechanical bending machine fall into two distinct types,

depending on the type of clutch or braking system with which they are

equipped. Generally older presses are "full revolution" presses that

require a full revolution of the crankshaft for them to come to a stop. This

is because the braking mechanism depends on a set of raised keys or

"dogs" to fall into matching slots to stop the ram. A full revolution clutch

can only bring the ram to a stop at the same location- top dead center.

Newer presses are often "part revolution" presses equipped with braking

systems identical to the brakes on commercial trucks. When air is

applied, a band-type brake expands and allows the crankshaft to revolve.

When the stopping mechanism is applied the air is bled, causing the

46
clutch to open and the braking system to close, stopping the ram in any

part of its rotation.

Hydraulic Bending Machine

Hydraulic bending machine, which power the ram with a hydraulic

cylinder rather than a flywheel, and are either valve controlled or valve

and feedback controlled. Valve controlled machines usually allow a one

stroke operation allowing the ram to stroke up and down when

commanded. Controlled feedback systems allow the ram to be

proportionally controlled to within fixed points as commanded. This

allows greater control over the stroke of the ram, and increases

Bendingrates as the ram no longer has to complete the traditional full

stroke up and down but can operate within a very short window of stroke.

Automatic Bending Machine

To start a cycle, the CNC controller commands the drives to move

the table along the X and the Y axis to a desired position. Once in

position, the control initiates the Bending sequence and pushes the ram

from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC) through the

material plane. (The terms BDC and TDC go back to older presses with

47
pneumatic or hydraulic clutches. On today's machines BDC/TDC do not

actually exist but are still used for the bottom and top of a stroke).

On its stroke from TDC to BDC, the punch enters the material,

pushing it through the die, obtaining the shape determined by the design

of the punch and die set. The piece of material (slug) cut from the

workpiece is ejected through the die and bolster plate and collected in a

scrap container.[1] The return to TDC signals to the control to begin the

next cycle.

The Bending machine is used for high volume production. Cycle

times are often measured milliseconds. Material yield is measured as a

percentage of parts to waste per sheet processed. CAD/CAM programs

maximize yield by nesting parts in the layout of the sheet.

48
 CHAPTER 5

BENDING TOOLS

A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut

or shape material using a press. Like molds, dies are generally
customized to the item they are used to create. Products made with dies
range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced
technology.

Types of Bending Tools

A bending tool must be decided depending on the shape and severity of

bend. Following are the different types of bending commonly used for
precision sheet metal bending.

"V" Bending
"L" Bending
"U" Bending

V Bending Dies

V Bending dies have the simplest bending die design. The bending
die have the shape of V with an included angle of 90 in most cases. The
bending punch is also in the shape of V, but with a lesser angle than the
die. And in some cases the bending punches may have a relief after a
straight land to a certain length.

49
L Bending Dies

L Bending dies are used for 90 bending. L bending dies can

produce more accurate and consistent parts compared to V bending. This

is due to the presence of spring loaded clamping pads which will hold

sheet metal closer to the bending line and then the bending punch pushes

the sheet metal into the bending die along the bending line. L bending

dies can also be used for bending angles smaller than 90 by providing

suitable punch profiles and by controlling the travel of the punch. We

may need a series of L bending operations to be done in a progressive

metal stamping die to produce complex parts.

Die components

The main components for Die Toolsets are:

Die block - This is the main part that all the other parts are

attached to.

Punch plate - This part holds and supports the different punches in

place.

Blank punch - This part along with the Bending Die produces the

curved part.

50
 Stripper plate - This is used to hold the material down on the

Blank/ Pierce Die and strip the material off the punches.

Pilot - This is used to keep the material being worked on in

position.

Guide / Back gage / Finger stop - These parts are all use to make

sure that the material being worked on always goes in the same

position, within the die, as the last one.

Setting Block - This part is used to control the depth that the punch

does into the die.

Die operations and types

Die operations are often named after the specific type of die that

performs the operation. For example a bending operation is performed by

a bending die. Operations are not limited to one specific die as some dies

may incorporate multiple operation types:

Press with bending die

Bending

The bending operation is the act of bending blanks at a

predetermined angle. An example would be an "L" bracket which is a

straight piece of metal bent at a 90 angle. The main difference between a

51
forming operation and a bending operation is the bending operation

creates a straight line bend (such as a corner in a box) as where a form

operation may create a curved bend (such as the bottom of a drink can).

Blanking

A blanking die produces a flat piece of material by cutting the

desired shape in one operation. The finish part is referred to as a blank.

Generally a blanking die may only cut the outside contour of a part, often

used for parts with no internal features.

Three benefits to die blanking are:

1. Accuracy. A properly sharpened die, with the correct

amount of clearance between the punch and die, will produce a part that

holds close dimensional tolerances in relationship to the parts edges.

2. Appearance. Since the part is blanked in one operation, the

finish edges of the part produces a uniform appearance as opposed to

varying degrees of burnishing from multiple operations.

3. Flatness. Due to the even compression of the blanking

process, the end result is a flat part that may retain a specific level of

flatness for additional manufacturing operations.

52
Broaching

The process of removing material through the use of multiple

cutting teeth, with each tooth cutting behind the other. A broaching die is

often used to remove material from parts that are too thick for shaving.

Bulging

A bulging die expands the closed end of tube through the use of

two types of bulging dies. Similar to the way a chefs hat bulges out at the

top from the cylindrical band around the chefs head.

1. Bulging fluid dies: Uses water or oil as a vehicle to expand

the part.

2. Bulging rubber dies: Uses a rubber pad or block under

pressure to move the wall of a workpiece.

Coining

It is similar to forming with the main difference being that a

coining die may form completely different features on either face of the

blank, these features being transferred from the face of the punch or die

respectively. The coining die and punch flow the metal by squeezing the

blank within a confined area, instead of bending the blank. For example:

an Olympic medal that was formed from a coining die may have a flat

53
surface on the back and a raised feature on the front. If the medal was

formed (or embossed), the surface on the back would be the reverse

image of the front.

Compound operations:

Compound dies perform multiple operations on the part. The

compound operation is the act of implementing more than one operation

during the press cycle.

Compound die:

A type of die that has the die block (matrix) mounted on a punch

plate with perforators in the upper die with the inner punch mounted in

the lower die set. An inverted type of blanking die that punches upwards,

leaving the part sitting on the lower punch (after being shed from the

upper matrix on the press return stroke) instead of blanking the part

through. A compound die allows the cutting of internal and external part

features on a single press stroke.

Curling: The curling operation is used to roll the material into a curved

shape. A door hinge is an example of a part created by a curling die.

54
Cut off: Cut off dies are used to cut off excess material from a finished

end of a part or to cut off a predetermined length of material strip for

additional operations.

Extruding: Extruding is the act of severely deforming blanks of metal

called slugs into finished parts such as an aluminum I-beam. Extrusion

dies use extremely high pressure from the punch to squeeze the metal out

into the desired form. The difference between cold forming and extrusion

is extruded parts do not take shape of the punch.

Forming: Forming dies bend the blank along a curved surface..

Cold forming (cold heading): Cold forming is similar to extruding in

that it squeezes the blank material but cold forming uses the punch and

the die to create the desired form, extruding does not.

Roll Forming Stand

55
 Roll forming: a continuous bending operation in which

sheet or strip metal is gradually formed in tandem sets of rollers until the

desired cross-sectional configuration is obtained. Roll forming is ideal

for producing parts with long lengths or in large quantities.

Horning: A horning die provides an arbor or horn which the

parts are place for secondary operations.

Hydroforming: Forming of tubular part from simpler tubes

with high water pressure.

Pancake die: A Pancake die is a simple type of

manufacturing die that performs blanking and/or piercing. While many

dies perform complex procedures simultaneously, a pancake die may

only perform one simple procedure with the finished product being

removed by hand.

Piercing: The piercing operation is used to pierce holes in

stampings.

Progressive die: Progressive dies provide different stations

for operations to be performed. A common practice is to move the

material through the die so it is progressively modified at each station

until the final operation ejects a finished part.

56
 Shaving: The shaving operation removes a small amount of

material from the edges of the part to improve the edges finish or part

accuracy. (Compare to Trimming).

Side cam die: Side cams transform vertical motion from the

press ram into horizontal or angular motion.

Sub press operation: Sub-press dies blank and/or form

small watch, clock, and instrument parts.

Swaging: Swaging (necking) is the process of "necking

down" a feature on a part. Swaging is the opposite of bulging as it

reduces the size of the part. The end of a shell casing that captures the

bullet is an example of swaging.

Trimming: Trimming dies cut away excess or unwanted

irregular features from a part, they are usually the last operation

performed.

Steel-rule die

Steel-rule dies, also known as cookie-cutter dies, are used to

cut sheet metal and softer webs, such as plastics, wood, cork, felt, fabrics,

and cardboard. The cutting surface of the die is the edge of hardened

steel strips, known as steel rule. These steel rules are usually located

57
using saw-cut grooves in plywood. The mating die can be a flat pieces of

hardwood or steel, a male shape that matches the workpiece profile, or it

can have a matching groove that allows the rule to nest into. Rubber

strips are wedged in with the steel rule to act as the stripper plate; the

rubber compresses on the down-stroke and on the up-stroke it pushes the

workpiece out of the die. The main advantage of steel-rule dies is the low

cost to make them, as compared to solid dies; however, they are not as

robust as solid dies, so they usually only used for short production runs.

Rotary die

In the broadest sense, a rotary die is a circular shaped die that may

be used in any manufacturing field. However, it most commonly refers to

circular shaped dies used to process soft webs, such as paper and

cardboard. Two dies are used, one has cutting and creasing rules, while

the other acts as the anvil. Rotary dies are faster than flat dies, but not as

accurate.

Wire pulling

Wire-making dies have a hole through the middle of them. A wire

or rod of steel, copper, other metals, or alloy enters into one side and is

lubricated and reduced in size. The leading tip of the wire is usually

58
pointed in the process. The tip of the wire is then guided into the die and

rolled onto a block on the opposite side. The block provides the power to

pull the wire through the die.

The die is divided into several different sections. First is an

entrance angle that guides the wire into the die. Next is the approach

angle, which brings the wire to the nib, which facilitates the reduction.

Next is the bearing and the back relief. Lubrication is added at the

entrance angle. The lube can be in powdered soap form. If the lubricant is

soap, the friction of the drawing of wire heats the soap to liquid form and

coats the wire. The wire should never actually come in contact with the

die. A thin coat of lubricant should prevent the metal to metal contact.

For pulling a substantial rod down to a fine wire a series of several

dies is used to obtain progressive reduction of diameter in stages.

Standard wire gauges used to refer to the number of dies through

which the wire had been pulled. Thus, a higher-numbered wire gauge

meant a thinner wire. Typical telephone wires were 22-gauge, while main

power cables might be 3- or 4-gauge.

59
 CHAPTER 6

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Power

Work piece in
Ac mptor Rack and Extension opposite
pinion rod with direction to bend
bend tool

Bending

Finished job

60
 CHAPTER 6

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

S.No Components Dimension Quantity Material

1. Round pipe column 33 mm 400 mm Mild steel

2. Lead Screw 25 diameter 150 mm Mild steel

3. Male Die 150 mm 1 Mild steel

4. Female Die (Round 25 mm 2 Mild Steel

Rod)

5. Thread arrangement BSW 1 Mild steel

8 TPI

6. Base plate 130 mm 1 Mild steel

7. Handle fly wheel 290 diameter 1 Cast iron

8. Ac motor 200 mm dia 1 Copper

coil

61
 CHAPTER - 7

SIMPLE LAYOUT OF THE BENDING MACHINE

62
 CHAPTER 8

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The Bending machine consists of column in which the lead screw

is provided. At one end of the lead screw handle of the Bending tool is

attached. Another tools is fixed on the based plate. The Bending machine

consists of a base plate in which the work piece is placed. When the

handle is rotated the lead screw moves down and the bending tool press

the sheet and the sheet metal is bended. Different size & shape of the

bend can be bended using various tools. Automatic bending machine

consists of an electric motor and a frame with lead screw. The sheet is

fitted in the vice. When the motor switched gets on the rotary motion of

the motor is converted into reciprocating motion by means of an gear and

lead screw arrangement. A bending tool is attached at the end of the lead

screw which bends the sheet metal.

63
 CHAPTER 9

PROCEDURE FOR BENDING

Precision sheet metal bending is not always easy operation. Poor

bending tool design and manufacturing can result in the following

bending defects.

1. Insufficient angle on bend part due to spring back

2. Scratch mark on part

3. Thinning of sheet metal at bending area

In order to avoid these common defects try one of the following

tips mentioned below.

Choose the correct bending operation. L bending is more accurate

than V bending in most cases.

Verify the clearance between bending punch and die. There should

be a clearance of at least one sheet thickness+10% of Sheet

Thickness between bending punch and die.

64
 Provide adequate bending radius and polish it to high surface

finish. Bending radius is the radius on the bending die on which

the sheet material flows to form the desired profile. Hence it is

important to have very good surface finish at this area for smooth

flowing of material.

Use corner setting if possible. In case of 90 bending, it is a good

idea to provide corner setting to eliminate spring back. Corner

setting is the process of coining the material to a small depth along

the bending line to overcome spring back. Please note that corner

setting may not be possible on very think sheet materials and sheet

metals with very high hardness.

Factors affecting Bending force

Station Size & Land Distance

Bend radius

Material factor

shear strength of the material,

Material Factor

Material thickness

Shear factor

65
 The face of the punch tip

Die Clearance

More Bending pressure reduce tool life

CHAPTER 10

DESIGN CALCULATION

The required force to bend a piece of sheet metal using V-bending

a process in which a V-shaped punch presses the sheet into a V-die. The

bending force can be calculated from the sheet thickness, die opening,

bend length, and the ultimate tensile strength of the material. The die

66
ratio may be entered to calculate the die opening, which is typically 6 to

18times the sheet thickness. The calculated tonnage can be used for the

selection of a machine, such as a press brake, to perform the bending

operation.

F = BA x t x l x

Where

F = Bending Force in Newton

l = Bend length

t = Thickness of sheet

= Ultimate tensile strength

F = BA x t x l x

F = (1.2) x. 0.004 x 0.01 x 410 x 106 = 19680 N

67
 CHAPTER 11

ADVANTAGES OF BENDING MACHINE

Advantages

Low cost .

Less maintenance.

Simple in construction

Operating Principle is very easy.

Installation is simplified very much.

It is possible to operate Manually/automatically by proving

On/Off switch.

Higher accuracy

Disadvantages

1. Heavy load needed

2. Noisy operation

68
 CHAPTER- 12

CONCLUSION

With the idea on view, we have completed the project titled

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BENDING MACHINE

This project is very much useful for Bending the sheet metal.

Thus by means of the Bending machine, we can bend the sheet metal.

This is one of the most reliable and simple machine in the machine

shop in which many number of operations can done.

By means of this project, bending force also be calculated.

69
 REFERENCES

1. Production technology by P.C. Sharma

2. Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K. Manufacturing Processes

Reference Guide

3. Industrial Press Inc., ISBN 0-8311-3049-0,

4. Colvin, Fred H. (1947), Sixty Years with Men and

Machines, McGraw-Hill,

5. Floud, Roderick C. (2006) [1976], The British Machine Tool

Industry,

6. Hounshell, David A. : The Development of Manufacturing

Technology in the United States,

7. Noble, David F. (1984), Forces of Production: A Social

History of Industrial Automation

70