Chapter 2

z-TRANSFORM

One-sided z-transform

X(z) = Z[x(t)] = Z[x(kT )] = Z[x(k)]

= x(kT )z k = x(k)z k
k=0 k=0

Two-sided z-transform





X(z) = x(kT )z k = x(k)z k
k= k=

Note that X(z) = x(0) + x(T )z 1 + x(2T )z 2 + + x(kT )z k +

Inverse z-transform

Z 1 [X(z)] = x(kT ) = x(k)


1
= X(z)z k1 dz
2j c
Where c is a circle with its center at the origin of the z plane such that
all poles of X(z)z k1 are inside it

Z Transform of elementary functions:

Unit step function 
1(t) 0 t
x(t) =
0 t<0




1 z
X(z) = Z[1(t)] = 1 z k = z k = =
k=0 k=0 1z 1 z1
Region of convergence |z| > 1

Geometric series a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + = a
1r
|r| < 1

Exponential Function

eat 0 t
x(t) =
0 t<0

x(kT ) = eakT , k = 0, 1, 2,

X(z) = Z[eat ] = x(kT )z k = eakT z k
k=0 k=0
1
=
1 eaT z 1
z
=
z eat

1
 See table of z-transforms on page 29 and 30 (new edition), or page 49 and
50 (old edition).

The z-transform X(z) and its inverse x(k) have a one-to-one correspondence,
however, the z-transform X(z) and its inverse z-transform x(t) do not have a
unique correspondence.

Properties and theorems of the z-transform

Multiplication by a constant: Z[ax(t)] = aX(z)

Linearity: Z[f (k) + g(k)] = F (z) + G(z)

Multiplication by ak : Z[ak x(k)] = X(a1 z)

Real translation theorem (shifting theorem):

If x(t) = 0 for t < 0

Z[x(t nT )] = z n X(z)
and
n1
Z[x(t + nT )] = z n [X(z) k=0 x(kT )z k ]

Initial value theorem:

x(0) = z
lim X(z)

Final value theorem:

lim x(k) = lim [(1 z 1 )X(z)]

k z1

Real convolution Theorem:

let
x1 (t) = 0 for t < 0
x2 (t) = 0 for t < 0
then


k
X1 (z) X2 (z) = Z[ x1 (hT ) x2 (kT hT )]
h=0

2
 INVERSE z TRANSFORM

Dierent Methods
1. Direct division method (Power Series Method)

2. Computational method

3. Partial-fraction-expansion method

4. Inversion integral method

Direct division method

Express X(z) in powers of z 1

Example 1

F ind Z 1 of X(z) = 1 + 2z 1 + 3 z 2 + 4 z 3
Solution:

x(0) = 1; x(1) = 2; x(2) = 3; x(3) = 4

Example 2
10z + 5
F ind Z 1 of X(z) =
(z 1)(z 0.2)
Solution:

10 z 1 + 5 z 2
X(z) =
1 1.2 z 1 + 0.2 z 2

X(z) = 10z 1 + 17 z 2 + 18.4 z 3 + 18.68 z 4 +

x(0) = 0
x(1) = 10
x(2) = 17
x(3) = 18.4
x(4) = 18.68

Computational method

10 z + 5
X(z) =
(z 1)(z 0.2)
Solution:
10z + 5
Let X(z) = U(z)
z2 1.2 z + 0.2
where U(z) = 1
now, U(z) = u(0) + u(1)z 1 + u(2)z 2 + + u(k)z k +

3
 for U(z) = 1
u(0) = 1
u(k) = 0, for k = 1, 2, 3

Converting to dierence equation

x(k + 2) 1.2 x(k + 1) + 0.2 x(k) = 10 u(k + 1) + 5 u(k) ()

now, let k = 2

x(0) 1.2 x(1) + 0.2 x(2) = 10 u(1) + 5 u(2)

now, x(1) = x(2) = 0 and u(1) = u(2) = 0

x(0) = 0

Similarly, we nd
x(1) = 10
We may continue the process to nd x(k), k = 2, 3, using ()

Partial Fraction Expansion

To nd the Z 1 X(z), we may expand X(z)

z
or X(z) into partial fractions.
X(z)
z
is expanded since each of the expanded terms is generally available in
z-transform tables.

Alternatively, X(z) may be expanded and use of the shifting theorem may
be made.

Example

z 1
X(z) =
1 az 1
1
let Y (z) = z X(z) = 1az 1

Z 1 {Y (z)} = y(k) = ak
now,
X(z) = z 1 Y (z)
Z 1 {X(z)} = x(k) = y(k 1) = ak1
thus, 
ak1 k = 1, 2, 3,
x(k) =
0 k0

4
General procedure for partial fraction expansion:
X(z)
Given X(z), f ind z
let
X(z) a0 + a1 z + + aN z N
= (1)
z b0 + b1 z + + bM z M
X(z)
If M > N, no adjustment need be made to z
,
If N > M, we divide through

X(z)
= cN M z N M + cN M 1 z N M 1 + + c1 z + c0
z
d0 + d1 z + + dM 1 z M 1
+
b0 + b1 z + + bM z M
  
=(z)

Factoring (z) where we have one repeated pole of order k, call it zr , and
the rest unique, zk+1 , zk+2 , , zm

A1k A1k1 A11

M
Aj
(z) = + + + + (2)
(z zr )k (z zr )k1 z zr j=k+1 z zj

1 kj
kj (z zj ) (z)] |z=zj , j = 1, 2, , k
d k
Where A1j = (kj)!
[ dz

Aj = (z zj ) (z) |z=zj , j = k + 1, k + 2, , M

Substituting (3) into (2) and multiplying by z and taking inverse transform
gives us:

Z 1 [X(z)] = x(n)

= Z 1 cN M z N M +1 + cN M 1 z N M + + c1 z 2 + c0 z



k
A1j z
M
Aj z
1 1
+ Z + Z
j=1 (z zr ) j
j=k+1 z zr

N
x(n) = CN M (n + (N M + 1))
n=M
A1k n(n 1) (n (k 2)) zrnk+1
+ [A11 zrN + A12 n zrn1 + +
(k 1)!


M
+ Aj zjn ] u(n)
j=k+1

Where the following has been used

 
1 z n (n 1) (n (k 2)) ank+1 u(n)
Z =
(z a)k (k 1)!
where u(n) is the unit step function.

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Example

Find Z 1 {X(z)} where,

z4 + z2
X(z) =
(z 12 )(z 14 )

Solution
23
X(z) z3 + z 3 z 3
= 2 = z+ + 2 16 3 32
z z 34 z + 1
8
4 z 4z + 1
8
now,
23 3
16
32
z A1 A2
= 1 +
z 2 34 z + 1
8
z2 z 14
Where
23 3 5
16
z 32 8 5
A1 = | 1 = =
z 14 z= 2 1
4
2
23 3 17
16
z 32 64 17
A2 = 1 | 1 =
1 =
z 2 z= 4
4 16
Thus
5 17
X(z) 3
=z+ + 2 1 16
1
z 4 z 2
z 4

 5 17
 
3 z z
x(n) = Z 1 z 2 + z + Z 1 2
1 16
4 z2 z 14
 
3 5 1 n 17 1 n
= (n + 2) + (n + 1) + ( ) ( ) u(n)
4 2 2 16 4

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 Inversion integral method

Background material:

Suppose z0 is an isolated singular point (pole) of F(z). Expand F(z) in a

Laurent series about z = z0




bn
F (z) = an (z z0 ) +n

n=1 (z z0 )
n
n=0

where 
1 F (z)
an = dz n = 0, 1, 2,
2j 1 (z z0 )n+1
1  F (z)
bn = dz n = 1, 2, 3,
2j 2 (z z0 )n+1
where 1 and 2 are closed paths around z0
and
1 
b1 = F (z) d(z)
2j
where is any closed path within and on which F(z) is analytic except at
z = z0 , and b1 is called the residue of F(z) at the pole z0 .

Now
   
F (z) dz = F (z) dz + F (z) dz + + F (z) dz
1 2 m
= 2j(b11 + b12 + + b1m ) Residue theorem

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 Inversion integral



X(z) = x(kT )z k = x(0) + x(T )z 1 + x(2T )z 2 + + x(kT ) z k +
k=0

X(z)z k1 = x(0)z k1 + x(T )z k2 + x(2T )z k3 + + x(kT )z 1 +

Note, this  is the Laurent series expression of X(z)z k1 around point z = 0,

and x(kT) is the residue

1 
x(kT ) = 2j c X(z)z k1 dz

the inverse  integral for the z-transform

Inverse z transform using inversion integral

M
x(k) = x(kT ) = [residue of X(z)z k1 at pole z = zi of X(z)z k1 ]
i=1

assuming M poles.

The residue K, for simple pole is given by

K = lim [(z zi )X(z)z k1 ]

z zi

The residue K, for multiple pole zj of order q is given by

1 dq1
K= lim [(z zj )q X(z)z k1 ]
(q 1)! z z j dz q1

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Example

z2
Find Z 1 [X(z)], where X(z) = (z1)2 (zeaT )

Solution:
z k+1
X(z)z k1 =
(z 1)2 (z eaT )
Simple pole at z = eaT
Double pole at z = 1
2
 

z k+1
x(k) = residue of at pole z = zi
i=1 (z 1)2 (z eaT )
= K 1 + K2
where  
aT z k+1 ea(k+1)T
K1 = lim (z e ) =
zeaT (z 1)2 (z eaT ) (1 eaT )2
 
1 d 2 z k+1
K2 = lim (z 1)
(2 1)! z1 dz (z 1)2 (z eaT )
k eaT
= see steps below
1 eaT (1 eaT )2

akT
kT aT (1 e )
x(kT ) = e k = 0, 1, 2,
T (1 e )
aT (1 e )2
aT

Steps
v udv vdu
d =
u u2

 
d z k+1
lim
z1 dz z eaT
(k + 1)z k (z eaT ) z k+1
= lim
z1 (z eaT )2
 
(k + 1)z k z k+1
= lim
z1 z eaT (z eaT )2
k+1 1
=
1e aT (1 eaT )2
k 1 eaT 1
= +
1e aT (1 e )
aT 2 (1 eaT )2
k eaT
=
1 eaT (1 eaT )2

9
 Pulse-Transfer Function

Dierence equation:

x(k) + a1 x(k 1) + + an x(k n)

= b0 u(k) + b1 u(k 1) + + bn u(k n)

Taking z transform

X(z) + a1 z 1 X(z) + + an z n X(z)

= b0 U(z) + b1 z 1 U(z) + + bn z n U(z)

X(z) b0 + b1 z 1 + + bn z n
G(z) =
U(z) 1 + a1 z 1 + + an z n
 Pulse Transfer Function

Now, Kronecker delta function 0 (kT )


1 for k = 0
0 (kT ) =
0 for k = 0

Z [0 (kT )] = 1
G(z) is the z transform of the response to 0 (kT ). It is called the pulse
transfer function

g(k) = Z 1 {G(z)} is called the weighting sequence.

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 z transform method of solving dierence equations

Example
Solve: x(k + 2) + 3x(k + 1) + 2x(k) = 0; x(0) = 0, x(1) = 1

Solution
taking the z transform

z 2 X(z) z 2 x(0) z x(1) + 3z X(z) 3z x(0) + 2X(z) = 0

Substituting initial data
z z z z
X(z) = = =
z2 + 3z + z (z + 1)(z + 2) z+1 z+2
1 1
= 1

1+z 1 + 2z 1

   
1 1
Z 1 = (1)k , Z 1 = (2)k
1 + z 1 1 + 2z 1

x(k) = (1)k (2)k , k = 0, 1, 2,

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