Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

Fluid Mechanics

Chapters (1&2) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

(Quoted from : Fluid Mechanics
By : E. Jain)

Matters and their classifications.

All maters in nature can be classified mainly in two states i.e. solid and fluid
states. At ordinary conditions, steel is a solid, and water, oil, gas ..etc. are fluids.
Their behavior is found to be quite different. The very basic question arises as to why
they behave differently though they all are matter ? To give an answer to this question
one has to look deeply into the microscopic or molecular level.
From microscopic point of view, any matter is composed of infinite number of
molecules that are constantly in motion and collision. This is general for both solids
and fluids.
For solids, the atoms and molecules are bonded into a rigid structure. The
molecules, although vibrating, have a strong tendency to remain in fixed mean
positions relative to each other. This movement is, however, so small that the
molecules can be considered to be very close to each other. This causes the inter-
molecular forces of cohesion are very large. When an external force (up to certain
limit) is applied on the molecules of the solid, they change their positions in order to
withstand the force and tangential stresses are produced between the adjacent
particles. As soon as the load is removed, the molecules tend to regain their original
position and the solid to its original shape. From this we come to the definition of the
solid as The substances which deform on the application of shearing stress until the
internal shear resistance is equal to the externally applied stress.
For fluids, on the other hand, have no definite molecular structure. Its
molecules have continuous random translational and rotational motions. The mean
distance between fluid molecules is larger than in the case of solids. Hence, inter
molecular forces of cohesion are less and the molecules are, therefore, more free to
drift or move relative to each other i.e. they are mobile. They have no or negligible
strength in tension. They can withstand compressive forces only when kept in
containers. But, when any external tangential forces causing tangential or shearing
stress is applied, no matter how small, a pronounced drift in the direction of the
stress, in an attempt to relief the stress, is observed and fluid motion results. Thus the
tangential stresses (induced between adjacent particles of fluids) are proportional to
the velocity of deformation and vanish as the velocity approaches zero. Therefore, the
molecules of fluid never regain their original positions. This inability of the fluid to
withstand the shearing stresses at normal temperatures and pressures without
deforming continuously as long as the stresses remains, is a defining characteristics
of fluids.
Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

An important point to point at is that the classification of solids, plastics liquids

and gases depends upon the environmental conditions and that no substance is
absolutely solid, plastic, liquid or gas under all conditions.

Definition of solids and fluids.

From the above discussion we can define the fluid as any substance that will
continuously deform i.e. flow under the action of shear stress, no matter how small
that shear stress is.

Solids liquids and gases.

The basic difference between all phases of a matter can be attributed to their
molecular structure (i.e. the spacing between the molecules and the ease with which
they can move). These two variables are large in the case of a gas, smaller in the case
of a liquid and extremely small in a solid. The very strong inter molecular attraction
that exists between the molecules of the solid gives them the properties of rigidity.
These forces are weaker in liquids and extremely small in gases. This characteristic
enables the liquid molecules to move freely within the liquid mass while still
maintaining nearness to one another. Gases molecules, on the other hand, have
freedom to the extent that they completely fill any space allotted to them.
The famous saying by sir Oliver Lodge : A solid has volume and shape, a
liquid has volume but no shape and a gas has neither.

Distinction between liquids and gases.

A fluid may be either a liquid or gas. The molecules of a liquid are more
closely spaced as compared to those of a gas. While a liquid has free surface and
occupies a certain volume in a container, a gas does not posses a free surface and fills
the entire space of the container regardless of its size. For all practical purposes, a
liquid is incompressible while a gas is compressible and expands unless enclosed in a
container.
Vapor is defined as a gas whose temperature and pressure is such that it is
nearer to liquid phase e.g. steam. Gas, can be defined as a superheated vapor e.g. air.

Distinction between Solids and Liquids.

The basic difference can be understood in studying the behavior of both phases
under the application of a shear force.
For solids, (1) Up to certain limits of elasticity, the deformation of a solid is
such that the strain is proportional to the applied stress, (2) The strain of a solid is
independent of the time of application of the force, and (3) If elastic limit is not
exceeded, the deformation disappears when the stress is removed.
Liquids, on the other hand, (1) The rate of strain (d/dt) is proportional to the
applied stress and (2) The fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied and
never recovers if stress is removed.
Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

Definition of Fluid Mechanics.

Fluid mechanics is defined as that field of science and engineering which is
concerned with the behavior of fluid either at rest or in motion. This field is classified
as :
1. Hydraulics : is the branch of science that is based on experimental observation
of water flow.
2. Hydrodynamics : is a mathematical science dealing with flow analysis based on
the concept of ideal flow.
3. Kinematics : which deals only with velocities, acceleration and flow patterns.
4. Dynamics : deals with relation between velocity, acceleration and forces or
energy causing them.

Types of fluids.
Fluids are generally classified as :

1. Ideal fluids : is the one that has no properties other than density. No resistance
is encountered when such fluid flows. In a true sense, no such fluid exists in
nature. The assumption of ideal fluid helps in simplifying the mathematical
analysis.
2. Real fluids : are those fluids which have viscosity, density, surface tension, and
compressibility. All fluids have all these properties.

Applications of Fluid Mechanics.

It is possible to experience the application of fluid mechanics in daily life.
Some of its applications are :
1. Birds flying in the air, fish swimming in water etc are governed by FM laws.
2. Golf and tennis balls.
3. The design of airplanes and ships.
4. The oil and gas pipelines.

Basic principles of Fluid Mechanics.

In analyzing any fluid mechanics problems, the following three basic principles
are used :
1. Mass conservation.
2. Energy conservation, and,
3. Momentum conservation.

Dimensions and units.

While dealing with any physical science we come across two types of
variables:
Variables which can be described by some appropriate numbers e.g. density.
Variables which cannot be described by some appropriate numbers e.g. taste.
Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

As for those that can be described by some appropriate numbers, they are
described quantitatively and qualitatively. The quality characteristics of the physical
variable are called Dimension. For quantitative description needs some standards so
as to give some numerical magnitudes. These standards are called Units.
Units are classified as :
Fundamental units : e.g. Length (L), Mass (M), Time (T), Electric Current,
Amount of Matter and Luminous intensity, and
Derived units : all other units are derived units e.g. force, velocity etc.

Basic Systems of units.

There are mainly four systems of units as follows :

System of units Length Mass Time

C.G.S. Cm gram Second
F.P.S. Foot Lbm Second
M.K.S. Meter Kg Second
S.I. meter Kg second

Let us take an example of a derived unit from the Newtons second law of
motion. It states as follows: The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction of the force.

Force = rate of change of momentum

F = d/dt (m*v)
= m* (dv/dt)
= m*a

System Force Definition

2
S.I. Kg.m/s Force required to accelerate 1 kg of mass @ rate of 1 m/ s2
(N)
F.P.S. 32.174 Lbm.ft/ s2 Force required to accelerate 32.174 Lb mass @ rate of 1 ft/ s2
(Lbf)
M.K.S. Kgm.(9.81m/ s2) Force required to accelerate 1 kgm of mass @ rate of 9.81 m/ s2
(kgf)

Systems (definitions and classifications).

In this section we have to define the following terms: from fluid mechanics
point of view :

System : is the region of space occupied by the quantity of fluid under

consideration.
Boundary : is the borders that separate the system from the surroundings.
Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

Surroundings : is the region outside the systems boundaries.

Free body diagram : is the system diagram in which the forces of interaction
between the surroundings and system are of importance.
Open system : is the system in which the fluid enters and/or leaves it during the
process and is referred to as flow process, e.g. water turbine.
Closed system: is the system in which the same body of fluid remains within it
during the process and is referred to s non-flow process, e.g. refrigerating unit.

Intensive and extensive properties.

Intensive properties are those properties that are dependant on the total mass or
extent of the system, e.g. mass, weight etc. Extensive properties are those that are
independent on the extent of the system, e.g. pressure, density.

M M M
V V V
P P P

T T T
Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

Properties of liquids.

1. Density. Is the mass per unit volume. It is given the symbol () and has a
unit of ML-3 or Kg/m3. The density of water varies very little with variation of
pressure and temperature, hence can be considered as constant. The density of
water @ 4 oC (water) = 1000 kg/m3, and for air @ 20 oC (air) = 1.2 kg/m3.

= M/V

2. Specific weight.Is the weight of a given substance per unit volume. It

represents the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of fluid. It is given the
symbol () and has a dimension of force/unit volume (N/ m3). The specific weight
of water @ 4 oC ( water) = 9.81*103 N/m3.

= * g = M*g / V

3. Specific gravity. Is the ratio between the specific weight of a given fluid
to that of a standard reference at standard reference temperature. For liquids, water
is taken as the standard reference. It is given the symbol (SG) and is
dimensionless.
SG = substance / water
= substance / water
= substance / 9.81*103 OR substance / 1000

4. Viscosity. It literally means Sticky or Adhesive. It can be defined as the

property by virtue of which a fluid offers resistance to deformation under the
influence of shear force.
U
1 2 3 4
F

du
y
dy

Experimental investigations showed that there is the shear force F is

proportional to the velocity U and surface area A of the plate and is inversely
proportional to the distance y between the plates. In other words it can be written
as :
Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

F A.U/y

The force F is the shear force applied at the upper plate which exerts a shear
stress (F/A) between the plates. Let us denote the shear stress as ():

U/y

= U/y

This equation was first suggested by Isaac Newton and hence it is called Newtons
viscosity equation.
The ratio (U/y) is called the rate of shear deformation of a fluid OR the angular
velocity of the upper line which can be written as du/dy in differential form. It can be
written as :
U du Change of velocity

Y dy Distance over which the change occurs
dU/dY is the rate at which upper layer moves relative to the adjacent layer.
() is known as the coefficient of vescosity or absolute vescocity or dynamic vescosity
or can simply be referred to as viscosity. It is defined as The shear force per unit
area required to drag one layer of fluid over the other a unit distance at a unit
velocity. It has the units of (Kg-Sec/m2) in MKS units and in SI it has the unit of (N-
Sec/m2) or (Pascal-sec). In some older system it was referred to as (Poise).

1 poise = (1/98.1) Kgf-sec/m2

1 poise = (1/10) N-sec/m2

From the Newtons law of viscosity we conclude :

The rate of deformation is greater for fluids with law viscosity (keeping
constant.).
It is also seen that Hooks law for solids is analogous to Newtons law of
viscosity.
Based on this equation, fluids are classified as Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids. Newtonian fluids are those fluids that follow the Newtons laws of viscosity.
For such fluids, does not change with the rate of deformation. Examples are : water,
kerosene, air etc. Non-Newtanian fluids arethose fluids which does not follow the
Newtons law of viscosity. Examples are blood, clay solution, polymer solutions
etc.
Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

They can be classified as :

Time dependent Time Independent

Dilatant Thixotropic
Bingham Rheopectic
Pseudoplastic
Bingham Plastic

Dilatant Fluid

Thixotropic Fluid
Newtonian Fluid

Ideal Fluid
Shear Stress

Velocity gradient (dU/dY)

Effect of temperature on viscosity.

The viscosity of the liquids decreases as the temperature increases. This is

mainly because the viscosity of the liquids occurs due to the intermolecular cohesion
between the molecules. This cohesive forces decreases as the temperature of the
liquid increases. Whereas, the viscosity of the gases increases as the temperature
increases. This is because the intermolecular forces for gases are nearly negligible .
Thus the viscosity of the gases is mainly due to the momentum transfer between the
molecules. So when the temperature is raised, the molecular activities increases,
consequently, more transfer of momentum takes place, as a result the viscosity of the
gases increases. Poiseuille showed that the viscosity of the liquid varis with
temperature as per the following equation :

1
o * 2
1 A * T B * T
where, T = oC, o = viscosity @ T= 0 oC.

For water, , o = 0.0179 poise, A = 0.033368 & B = 0.000221.

Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties

Example (1) : Calculate the velocity gradient at distances of 0,10 & 15 cm from the
boundary if the velocity profile is parabola with the vertex 15 cm from the boundary
where the velocity is 100 cm/sec. Also calculate the shear stress at those points if the
fluid has a coefficient of viscosity = 80.4*10-2 N-S/m2.
Hint : Assume the velocity profile as : U = A*y2 + B*y + C
Solution : [A=-0.444, B=13.333 & C=0.0, du/dy = (13.33, 4.45 & 0.0 Sec-1), and =
(10.8, 3.575 & 0.0 N/m2)]

Example (2) : Calculate the approximate viscosity of the oil for the following case :

0.15 cm
13 cm 5 cm
0.5 m/sec
12 cm
2
The area of the block is 1 m , its weight is 15 Kg, and is moving with velocity of 0.5
m/s, the distance between the fluid and the surface is 0.15 cm.

Example (3) : A cylinder of 15 cm radius rotates concentrically inside another

cylinder of 15.5 cm radius. Both cylinders are 30 cm long. Determine the viscosity of
the liquid which fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.98 N-m is
required to maintain an angular velocity of 60 RPM.

r
Fluid Mechanical chapter (1) : Introduction & Fluid Properties