UNIVERSITY OF AGRONOMIC SCIENCES AND VETERINARY MEDICINE OF

BUCHAREST

Faculty of Agriculture

Agriculture: Sunflower diseases

Radu Valentin Andrei

Group 1401

Mode of study: Part-Time Courses

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 Content

1. History

2. Climate

3. Cultural practices

4. Insects, Pollinators, and Birds

5.Economic Importance of Sunflower

6. Diseases:

6.1. Downy mildew: Plasmopara halstedii

6.2. Powdery mildew: Erysiphe cichoracearum

6.3. Alternaria leaf spot: Alternaria helianthi Hansf

6.4. Sunflower Necrosis: Sunflower Necrosis Virus

6.5. Sunflower Rust: Puccinia helianthi

7. Bibliography

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 History

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is one of the few crop species that originated in North
America (most originated in the fertile crescent, Asia or South or Central America). It was
probably a "camp follower" of several of the western native American tribes who domesticated
the crop (possibly 1000 BC) and then carried it eastward and southward of North America. The
first Europeans observed sunflower cultivated in many places from southern Canada to Mexico.

Sunflower was probably first introduced to Europe through Spain, and spread through
Europe as a curiosity until it reached Russia where it was readily adapted. Selection for high
oil in Russia began in 1860 and was largely responsible for increasing oil content from 28% to
almost 50%. The high-oil lines from Russia were reintroduced into the U.S. after World War
II, which rekindled interest in the crop. However, it was the discovery of the male-sterile and
restorer gene system that made hybrids feasible and increased commercial interest in the crop.
Production of sunflowers subsequently rose dramatically in the Great Plains states as marketers
found new niches for the seeds as an oil crop, a birdseed crop, and as a human snack food.
Production in these regions in the 1980s has declined mostly because of low prices, but also
due to disease, insect and bird problems. Sunflower acreage is now moving westward into dryer
regions; however, 85% of the North American sunflower seed is still produced in North and
South Dakota and Minnesota.

Climate:

Sunflower is grown in many semi-arid regions of the world from Argentina to Canada and
from central Africa into the Soviet Union. It is tolerant of both low and high temperatures but
more tolerant to low temperatures. Sunflower seeds will germinate at 39F, but temperatures
of at least 46 to 50F are required for satisfactory germination. Seeds are not affected by
vernalization (cold) in the early germination stages. Seedlings in the cotyledon stage have
survived temperatures down to 23F. At later stages freezing temperatures may injure the crop.
Temperatures less than 28F are required to kill maturing sunflower plants.

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Optimum temperatures for growth are 70 to 78F, but a wider range of temperatures (64 to
91F) show little effect on productivity. Extremely high temperatures have been shown to
lower oil percentage, seed fill and germination.

Sunflower is often classified as insensitive to daylength, and photoperiod seems to be

unimportant in choosing a planting date or production area in the temperate regions of North
America. Oil from northern regions tends to be higher in linoleic acid and has a higher ratio of
polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids than oil produced in southern latitudes.

Sunflower is an inefficient user of water, as measured by the amount of water transpired

per gram of plant above-ground dry matter. Levels were 577 (g H2O/g DM) for sunflower, 349
for corn, 304 for sorghum in an Akron, Colorado study. It is similar to wheat, soybean,
fieldbean, oat, and rape in that respect. Efficiency is measured at an optimum moisture level
and is not a measure of drought resistance.

Sunflower is not considered highly drought tolerant, but often produces satisfactory results
when other crops are damaged during drought. Its extensively branched taproot, penetrating to
6.5 ft, aids the plant during water stress. A critical time for water stress is the period 20 days
before and 20 days after flowering. If stress is likely during this period, irrigation will increase
yield, oil percentage and test weight, but decrease protein percentage.

B. Soil:

Sunflower will grow in a wide range of soil types from sands to clays. The demands of a
sunflower crop on soil macronutrients are not as great as corn, wheat or potato. As with other
non-leguminous grain crops, nitrogen is usually the first limiting factor for yield. Medium to
high levels of macronutrients are usually required for good plant growth. Sunflower stover
contains a large proportion of these elements, which means sunflower is relatively inefficient
in the use of these elements. However, most of these nutrients are returned to the soil with the
stover.

Sunflower is low in salt tolerance but is somewhat better than fieldbean or soybean in this
respect. Corn, wheat, rye and sorghum are rated medium, and sugarbeet and barley are high in
salt tolerance.Good soil drainage is required for sunflower production, but this crop does not
differ substantially from other field crops in flooding tolerance.

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Cultural Practices :

A. Seedbed Preparation:

Many different tillage systems can be used effectively for sunflower production. Conventional
systems of seedbed preparation consist of moldboard plowing or chisel plowing to invert
residue and several secondary field operations. Conventional systems have been shown to
increase the availability and improve the distribution of potassium and nitrogen and to increase
the seed zone temperatures. However, the risk of erosion and expense of the several tillage
operations has led to greater interest in minimum or ridge tillage systems.

Both germination percentage and lodging have been shown to increase in ridge-till systems vs.
level plantings. Several tillage systems have been used with some success in specific
environments. Major considerations are: 1) firm placement of seed near moist soil, 2) absence
of green vegetation during emergence, 3) maintaining an option to cultivate and 4) reduce the
risk of soil erosion.

B. Seeding Date:

Sunflower can be planted at a wide range of dates, as most cultivars are earlier in maturity
than the length of growing season in most areas. In areas of the world with no winters,
sunflower has been planted at any month of the year to obtain satisfactory yields. In northern
regions, highest yields and oil percentages are obtained by planting early - as soon after the
spring-sown small grain crops as possible. In the northern midwest and Canada this is often
May 1 through 20 and mid-March through early April in the southern USA. Resistance to frost
damage decreases as the seedlings develop into the 6leaf stage, so too-early sowings in the
northern USA or Canada can be risky.

A later planting date tends to increase the proportion of linoleic acid in sunflower,
especially at southern locations. Damage of sunflower heads by insect larvae may be increased
by early planting. Test weight tends to decrease with late plantings. A planting date of early to
mid May is recommended in Minnesota and Wisconsin.

C. Method and Rate of Seeding:

A planting depth of 1 to 3.5 in. allows sunflower seeds to reach available moisture and
gives satisfactory stands. Deeper plantings have resulted in reduced stands and yields. If

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crusting or packing of the soil is expected, with silt loam or clay soils, a shallower planting
depth is recommended.

Sunflower row spacing is most often determined by machinery available, which might be
30 or 36 in. for corn, soybean or sorghum growers, or narrower rows for sugarbeet growers. In
Minnesota trials, sunflower yield, oil percentage, seed weight, test weight, height, and
flowering date did not differ at narrow vs. wide rows over five plant populations. Hence, row
spacings can be chosen to fit available equipment. Row spacings of 30 in. are most common.
There is evidence that earlier, semidwarf varieties may perform better in narrower rows at high
populations.

Insects, Pollinators, and Birds:

Bees are beneficial to sunflower yield because they carry pollen from plant to plant which
results in cross pollination. Some sunflower varieties will not produce highest yields unless
pollinators are present. All varieties will produce some sterile seed (without meats), but
varieties differ in their degree of dependence on insect pollinators. Autogamous sunflower
hybrids do not require bees for maximum yield and will yield the same when covered by bags
as uncovered. In non-autogamous sunflower varieties, pericarp (bull) development is normal
but no ovules or meat develop. Wind is relatively unimportant in cross-pollination of
sunflower. Some of the older open-pollinated varieties such as Peredovick set only 15 to 20%
of seed without pollinators, whereas many hybrids set 85 to 100% seeds without pollinators.

Economic Importance of Sunflower

Diseases:

The most serious diseases of sunflower are caused by fungi. The major diseases include
rust, downy mildew, verticillium wilt, sclerotinia stalk and head rot, phoma black stem and leaf
spot. The symptoms of these diseases are given in Table 3. The severity of these disease effects
on total crop yield might be ranked: 1) sclerotinia, 2) verticillium, 3) rust (recently more
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severe), 4) phoma, and 5) downy mildew. Resistance to rust, downy mildew, and verticillium
wilt has been incorporated into improved sunflower germplasm.

The favourable features for the phenomenal growth of sunflower in India are, wide
adoptability to range of agro climatic conditions and soil types, photoperiod insensitivity
overcoming seasonal variations, Short duration (70-100 days), high yield potential of seed and
oil, high quality edible oil (high PUFA content), high seed multiplication ratio (>1:80), Easier
and cheaper cultivation of the crop (low seed rate, no specialized operations, low water
requirement), remunerative market price and non branched determinate plant type with single
head.

1. Downy mildew: Plasmopara halstedii

Sunflower downy mildew was first described from the North-Eastern United States in the
late 19th century on Eupatorium. Sunflower downy mildew can cause heavy losses of up to 50-
95 percent in cool wet years.

Sporangiophore is branching at right angle. Pathogen produces oospores which are walled,
doubled layered. The pathogen resides in soil as sexually-produced oospores. They are highly
resistant to adverse environmental conditions and are capable of remaining dormant in soils for
up to 10 years. When soils are saturated and cool, oospores can germinate and form
zoosporangia that release motile zoospores that swim through soil water. New systemic
infections occur when zoospores contact and infect seedling roots.

Symptoms

The disease affect on root, basal, stem, leaf & seed. The symptoms are damping-off,
systemic infection, local lesion, basal rot or stem gall. Abnormally thick, downward curled
leaves and whitish downy growth are developing on lower surface of the leaves (Plate 1). The
flower heads remain sterile and erect (Plate 2). Local foliar lesion symptoms are characterized
by small angular greenish yellow spots on leaves (Plate 3). Systemic infection showing
chlorotic leaf veins (Plate 4). Pathogen survives in seed, soil borne through oospores and
secondary through wind-borne. Rain during seedling growth favours disease.

Management

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Cultural

Deep summer ploughing

Clean cultivation and field sanitation

Avoid excessive irrigation

Removal of infection plants

Chemical

Seed treatment

Metalaxyl 6g/kg seed

Spray

Redomil MZ 72 WP @ 3g/lit at - 20, 40 and 60 days after sowing.

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(Plate 1) (Plate 2) (Plate 3) (Plate 4)

2. Powdery mildew: Erysiphe cichoracearum

Powdery mildew caused by Erysiphe cichoracearum has been considered as economically

important disease. It affects most of the commercial varieties under present cultivation and it
has been reported from different parts of the world.

During the winter the fungus survives on infected plant parts and in debris such as fallen
leaves. It may produce resting structures known as cleistothecia, which resist harsh winter
conditions. These will appear as small black dots within the white powdery patches. The next
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spring, sexual spores (ascospores) are released from the cleistothecia, shot up into the air, and
carried by air currents to leaves of plants where new infections will begin. During the growing
season, the fungus produces asexual spores (conidia) that help the fungus to spread and
infection to build.

Symptoms

White powdery growth is on the leaves (Plate 1). White to grey mildew appears on the upper
surface of older leaves. Symptoms are also seen on stem and petiole.

Conditions that favour the host, also favour the pathogen. Spores germinate optimally at 20-
25C under conditions of high humidity, as quickly as two to four hours after landing on the
leaf. Under optimal conditions, infection will lead to the production of more spores within
five to seven days. Spores are primarily dispersed by wind.

Management

Cultural

Field sanitation

Early varieties should be preferred

Chemical

Spray

Difenconazole 25 EC @ 1ml/lit at initial stage and 15 days of first spray.

3. Alternaria leaf spot: Alternaria helianthi Hansf

This disease commonly occurs in all varieties and it rapidly spread during the rainy season.
This disease has been reported from different parts of the world including India. Alternaria leaf
blight is known to cause more than 80 per cent of yield loss under severe epiphytotic conditions.

Etiology

Causal organism: Alternaria helianthi Hansf.

The conidiophores are cylindrical, scattered or gregarious, pale grey yellow, straight or curved,
geniculate, simple or branched, up to 5 septate, 25-80 x 8-11. The conidia are cylindrical to
long ellipsoid, straight or slightly curved pale grey yellow to pale brown.
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 Disease cycle

Disease occurs when spores land on leaves or stems, germinate in the presence of free
moisture, and directly penetrate and infect the plant. Plants are most susceptible to infection
beginning at flowering and continuing through maturity. Plant stress also predisposes plants to
the disease. Spores are readily disseminated in and among fields by splashing irrigation water,
wind, and perhaps insects. The pathogen survives between sunflower crops in and on infested
crop debris, as a pathogen of safflower and cocklebur, and on seed.

Symptoms

Symptoms appear on leaves, petioles, stem, sepals and petals.

Symptoms appear as dark brown irregular leaf spots with very dark border and grey centre.

Spots first appear on lower leaves, later spread to middle and upper leaves.

At later stages spots may be formed on petioles, stem and ray florets.

In later stages the leaf lesions may coalesce causing the leaf to wither (Plate 2).

Epidemiology

Wet, warm weather promotes Alternaria disease growth. Regions prone to high humidity
and warmer temperatures are susceptible to this disease. Fields that are planted early are
susceptible to more severe losses from the affects of the disease than those planted later.
Disease development is favoured by 25-27o C temperatures with at least 12 hours of wet
foliage.

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Management

Cultural control

Deep summer ploughing

Clean cultivation and field sanitation

Use of resistant variety

Planting on mid-September

Chemical control

Seed treatment

Carboxyl 75 WP 2g/kg of seed

Captan 80 WP 2g/kg of seed

Mancozeb 75 WP 2g/kg of seed

Spray

Zineb 80 WP 2g/lit

Mancozeb 75 WP 2g/lit

Hexaconazole 5 EC 1 ml/lit

Spray at 40, 55 and 65 days of crop.

4. Sunflower Necrosis: Sunflower Necrosis Virus

The disease appeared in epiphytotic form in 1997. Disease was reported from all sunflower
growing areas of south India. Disease incidence varied from 0.00 to 100 per cent.

Etiology

The disease transmitted through thrips. Thrips palmi was very well recognized as vector.
Thrips recorded on flowers were found to be foraging ones and does not have any role in
transmission of the virus disease.
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 Diseases cycle

Symptoms

Mosaic and chlorotic ring spot on younger leaf.

Marginal necrosis of leaf (Plate 1).

Malformation of ear head.

Necrosis symptoms on stem and stalk.

Defoliation of ear head.

Twisting of stem to S shape (Plate 2).

Epidemiology

Incidence of the disease is moderate (10 to 20%) during Kharif months. It was very low (0
to 5%) during rabi/winter months. It was very high (15 to 100%) during summer months
(January onwards).

Management

Cultural control

Destroy the weeds and other crop plants around the field

Sowing of jawar , maize or bajra 3 to 4 rows around the field

Up root infect plant

Chemical control

Seed treatment

Treat the seeds with Gaucho 70WS @ 4 to 5 g/kg of seeds

Spray

Confidor 200SL - 0.5ml/l before 20 days and 35 DAS of sowing.

5. Sunflower Rust: Puccinia helianthi

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 Sunflower rust, caused by the fungus Puccinia helianthi, can cause significant yield and
quality losses on susceptible sunflower hybrids under conditions favourable for rust
development. P. helianthi has been reported from every state where either cultivated or wild
sunflowers are found.

Etiology

Causal organism: Alternaria helianthi

Disease cycle

Sunflower rust completes its entire life cycle on sunflower and can only infect sunflower.
Puccinia helianthi overwinters throughout the upper Midwest as black telial pustules on
infected sunflower debris. Early season rust infection (aecia) may occur on wild, volunteer or
hybrid sunflowers. The aeciospores are then wind-blown to other plants to initiate uredial
infections.

Symptoms

Small reddish brown spots appear on the lower leaves (Plate 1).

They slowly spread on all the leaves and green parts of the head.

The leaves may turn yellow.

Epidemiology

Day temperature of 25.5 to 30.5C with relative humidity of 86 to 92 per cent enhances
intensity of rust attack.

Management

Cultural control

Crop sanitation

Chemical control

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 Zineb 80 WP 2g/lit

Mancozeb 75 WP 2g/lit, Spray 15 days interval of 2 to 3 times.

Bibliography

1. The sunflower crop in Minnesota. 1973. R.G. Robinson. Extension Bulletin 299.
Agricultural Extension Service, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN.

2. Sunflower science and technology. 1978. Jack F. Carter (ed.). Agronomy Monograph 19.
American Society of Agronomy, 677 South Segoe Rd, Madison, WI 53711.

3. Sunflower production in Wisconsin. 1979. E.S. Oplinger. Publication A3005, University of

Wisconsin-Extension. Agric. Bulletin, Rm. 245,30 N. Murray St., Madison, WI 53715.

4. Pest control in sunflowers. 1980. J.D. Doll and J.L. Wedberg. Publication A3075. Univ. of
Wisconsin-Extension. Agric. Bulletin, Rm. 245, 30 N. Murray SL, Madison, WI 53715.

5. Irrigation and nitrogen for sunflower and fieldbean on sandy soil. 1985. R.G. Robinson.
Minnesota Report AD-MR-2862. Agric. Expt. Stn. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, MN.

6. Sunflower monoculture and crop rotation. 1979. R.G. Robinson, L.J. Smith, J.V. Wiersma.
Misc. Report 166 - Agricultural Expt. Stn. Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN.

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7. Sunflower planting date: An important decision. 1985. R.G. Robinson, D.L. Rabas, J.V.
Wiersma, D.D. Warnes. Minnesota Report AD-MR-2737. Agric. Expt. Stn. University of
Minnesota, St. Paul, MN.

8. Sunflowers for silage in Idaho. 1986. G.A. Murray, D.L. Auld, V.M. Thomas, B.D. Brown.
Bulletin No. 652. Agric. Expt. Stn. University of Idaho.

9. Oil crops of the world, their breeding and utiliLzation. 1989. G. Robbelen, P.K. Downey, A.
Ashri, eds. McGraw Hill, NY. 553 pages

10. Schneiter A.A. and Miller J.F. 1981. Description of Sun ower Growth Stages. Crop Sci.
21:901-903.

11. Langridge D.F. and Goodman R.D. 1974. A study on pollination of sun owers (Helianthus
annuus). Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 14: 201204.

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