6/19/2017 OffshoringWikipedia

Offshoring
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Offshoringistherelocationofabusinessprocessfromonecountrytoanothertypicallyanoperationalprocess,
suchasmanufacturing,orsupportingprocesses,suchasaccounting.Typicallythisreferstoacompanybusiness,
althoughstategovernmentsmayalsoemployoffshoring.[1]Morerecently,offshoringhasbeenassociatedprimarily
withtheoutsourcingoftechnicalandadministrativeservicessupportingdomesticandglobaloperationsfrom
outsidethehomecountry("offshoreoutsourcing"),bymeansofinternal(captive)orexternal(outsourcing)
deliverymodels.[2]

Indiahasemergedasakeyoffshoringdestinationoverthepast15years.Thetermisinuseinseveraldistinctbut
closelyrelatedways.Itissometimesusedbroadlytoincludesubstitutionofaservicefromanyforeignsourcefora
serviceformerlyproducedinternallytothefirm.Inothercases,onlyimportedservicesfromsubsidiariesorother
closelyrelatedsuppliersareincluded.Afurthercomplicationisthatintermediategoods,suchaspartially
completedcomputers,arenotconsistentlyincludedinthescopeoftheterm.[3]

Offshoringcanbeseeninthecontextofeitherproductionoffshoringorservicesoffshoring.Afteritsaccessionto
theWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)in2001,thePeople'sRepublicofChinaemergedasaprominentdestination
forproductionoffshoring.Anotherfocusareahasbeenthesoftwareindustryaspartofglobalsoftware
developmentanddevelopingglobalinformationsystems.Aftertechnicalprogressintelecommunications
improvedthepossibilitiesoftradeinservices,Indiabecameacountryleadinginthisdomain,thoughmanyparts
oftheworldarenowemergingasoffshoredestinations.

Theeconomiclogicistoreducecosts,sometimescalledlaborarbitrage,toimprovecorporateprofitability.Jobsare
addedinthedestinationcountryprovidingthegoodsorservices(generallyalowercostlaborcountry),butare
subtractedinthehighercostlaborcountry.[4]Theincreasedsafetynetcostsoftheunemployedmaybeabsorbed
bythegovernment(taxpayers)inthehighcostcountryorbythecompanydoingtheoffshoring.Europe
experiencedlessoffshoringthantheUnitedStatesduetopoliciesthatappliedmorecoststocorporationsand
culturalbarriers.[5]

Contents
1 Frequentlyusedterms
1.1 Productionoffshoring
1.2 ITenabledservicesoffshoring
1.3 Innovationoffshoring
1.4 Reshoring
2 Transferofintellectualproperty
3 Debate
3.1 Impactonjobsinwesterncountries
3.2 LegalimplicationsinJapan
3.3 Competitiveconcerns
4 Effectsoffactorofproductionmobility
5 History
6 Seealso
7 Furtherreading
8 References

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Frequentlyusedterms
Offshoringisdefinedasthemovementofabusinessprocessdoneatacompanyinonecountrytothesameor
anothercompanyinanother,differentcountry.Almostalwaysworkismovedbecauseofalowercostofoperations
inthenewlocation.Morerecently,offshoringdriversalsoincludeaccesstoqualifiedpersonnelabroad,in
particularintechnicalprofessions,andincreasingspeedtomarket.[2]Offshoringissometimescontrastedwith
outsourcingoroffshoreoutsourcing.Outsourcingisthemovementofinternalbusinessprocessestoanexternal
organizationalunit.Outsourcingreferstotheprocessbywhichanorganizationgivespartofitsworktoanother
firm/organizationandmakesitresponsibleformostoftheapplicationsaswellasthedesignoftheenterprise
businessprocess.Thisprocessisdoneunderrestrictionsandstrategiesinordertoestablishconsistencywiththe
offshoreoutsourcingorganizations.Manycompaniesnowadaysoutsourcevariousprofessionalareasinthe
companysuchasemailservices,payrollandcallcenter.Thesejobsarebeinghandledbyotherorganizationsthat
specializeineachsectorallowingtheoffshoringcompanytofocusmoreonotherbusinessconcerns.However,
subcontractinginthesamecountrywouldbeoutsourcing,butnotoffshoring.Acompanymovinganinternal
businessunitfromonecountrytoanotherwouldbeoffshoringorphysicalrestructuring,butnotoutsourcing.A
companysubcontractingabusinessunittoadifferentcompanyinanothercountrywouldbebothoutsourcingand
offshoring.

Relatedtermsincludenearshoring,whichimpliesrelocationofbusinessprocessesto(typically)lowercostforeign
locations,butinclosegeographicalproximity(e.g.,shiftingUnitedStatesbasedbusinessprocessesto
Canada/LatinAmerica)inshoring,whichmeanspickingserviceswithinacountryandbestshoringor
rightshoring,pickingthe"bestshore"basedonvariouscriteria.Businessprocessoutsourcing(BPO)refersto
outsourcingarrangementswhenentirebusinessfunctions(suchasFinance&Accounting,CustomerService,etc.)
areoutsourced.MorespecifictermscanbefoundinthefieldofsoftwaredevelopmentforexampleGlobal
InformationSystemasaclassofsystemsbeingdevelopedfor/bygloballydistributedteams.

Afurthertermsometimesassociatedwithoffshoringisbodyshoppingwhichisthepracticeofusingoffshored
resourcesandpersonneltodosmalldisaggregatedtaskswithinabusinessenvironment,withoutanybroader
intentiontooffshoreanentirebusinessfunction.

Productionoffshoring

Productionoffshoring,alsoknownasphysicalrestructuring,ofestablishedproductsinvolvesrelocationofphysical
manufacturingprocessestoalowercostdestination.Examplesofproductionoffshoringincludethemanufacture
ofelectroniccomponentsinCostaRica,productionofapparel,toys,andconsumergoodsinChina,Vietnametc.

Productdesign,researchandthedevelopmentprocessthatleadstonewproducts,arerelativelydifficultto
offshore.Thisisbecauseresearchanddevelopment,inordertoimproveproductsandcreatenewreference
designs,requireaskillsetthatishardertoobtaininregionswithcheaplabor.Forthisreason,inmanycasesonly
themanufacturingwillbeoffshoredbyacompanywishingtoreducecosts.

However,thereisarelationshipbetweenoffshoringandpatentsystemstrength.Thisisbecausecompaniesundera
strongpatentsystemarenotafraidtomoveworkoffshorebecausetheirworkwillremaintheirproperty.
Conversely,companiesincountrieswithweakpatentsystemshaveanincreasedfearofintellectualpropertytheft
fromforeignvendorsorworkers,and,therefore,havelessoffshoring.

AmajorincentiveforphysicalrestructuringarrivedwhentheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)
madeiteasierformanufacturerstoshiftproductionfacilitiesfromtheUStoMexico.Thistrendlatershiftedto
China,whichofferedcheappricesthroughverylowwagerates,fewworkers'rightslaws,afixedcurrencypegged
totheUSdollar,(currentlyfixedtoabasketofeconomies)cheaploans,cheapland,andfactoriesfornew
companies,fewenvironmentalregulations,andhugeeconomiesofscalebasedoncitieswithpopulationsovera
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millionworkersdedicatedtoproducingasinglekindofproduct.However,manycompaniesarereluctanttomove
highvalueaddedproductionofleadingedgeproductstoChinabecauseoflaxenforcementofintellectualproperty
laws.[6]NAFTAhasincreasedthevelocityatwhichphysicalrestructuringisoccurring.

ITenabledservicesoffshoring

ThegrowthofITenabledservicesoffshoringislinkedtotheavailabilityoflargeamountsofreliableand
affordablecommunicationinfrastructurefollowingthetelecommunicationandInternetexpansionofthelate
1990s.Thiswasseenallthewayuptotheyear2000.Coupledwiththedigitizationofmanyservices,itwas
possibletoshifttheactualproductionlocationofservicestolowcostcountriesinamannertheoretically
transparenttoendusers.Servicesincludeadministrativeservices,suchasfinanceandaccounting,HR,andlegal
callcentersmarketingandsalesservicesITinfrastructureapplicationdevelopmentandknowledgeservices,
includingengineeringsupport,productdesign,researchanddevelopment,andanalytics.

Indiafirstbenefitedfromtheoffshoringtrend,asithasalargepoolofEnglishspeakingpeopleandtechnically
proficientmanpower.[7]India'soffshoringindustrytookrootinlowendITfunctionsintheearly1990sandhas
sincemovedtobackofficeprocessessuchascallcentersandtransactionprocessing.Thisspawnedtheneologism
Bangalored,usedtoindicatealayoff,oftensystemic,andusuallyresultingfromcorporateoutsourcingtolower
wageeconomiesderivedfromBangaloreinIndia,wheresomeofthefirstoutsourcecenterswerelocated.[8]

Currently,India'slowcostlaborhasmadeitanoffshoringdestinationforglobalfirmslikeHP,IBM,Accenture,
Intel,AMD,Microsoft,OracleCorporation,Cisco,SAP,andBEA.

Becauseofinflation,highdomesticinterestrates,robusteconomicgrowthandincreasedIToffshoring,theIndian
ITsectorhaswitnessed1015%wagegrowthinthe21stcentury.Consequently,Indian'soperationsandfirmsare
concernedthattheyarebecomingtooexpensiveincomparisonwithcompetitionfromtheotheroffshoring
destinations.Tomaintainhighgrowthrates,attemptshavebeenmadetogrowupthevaluechainanddiversifyto
otherhighendworkinadditiontosoftwareandhardwareengineering.Thesejobsincluderesearchand
development,equityanalysis,taxreturnprocessing,radiologicalanalysis,medicaltranscription,andmore.

Thechoiceofoffshoringdestinationisoftenmadeaccordingtoculturalconcerns.Japanesecompaniesarestarting
tooutsourcetoChina,wherelargenumbersofJapanesespeakerscanbefoundparticularlyinthecityofDalian,
whichwasJapaneseoccupiedChineseterritoryfordecades(thisisdiscussedinthebookTheWorldisFlat).
GermancompaniestendtooutsourcetoEasternEuropeancountries,suchasPolandandRomania,where
proficiencyinGermaniscommon.[9]FrenchcompaniesoutsourcetoNorthAfricaforsimilarreasons.For
AustralianITcompanies,Indonesiaisoneofthemajorchoiceofoffshoringdestination.Nearshorelocation,
commontimezoneandadequateITworkforcearethereasonsforoffshoringITservicestoIndonesia.

OtheroffshoringdestinationsincludeMexico,CentralandSouthAmerica,thePhilippines,SouthAfricaand
EasternEuropeancountries.

TheCentralAmericaFreeTradeAgreement(CAFTA)madenearshoringmoreattractivebetweentheCentral
AmericancountriesofCostaRica,ElSalvador,Guatemala,Honduras,Nicaragua,andtheDominicanRepublic
andtheUS.

Innovationoffshoring

Oncecompaniesarecomfortablewithservicesofferingsandstartedrealizingthecostsavings,manyhightech
productcompanies,includingsomeinSiliconValley,startedoffshoringinnovationworktocountrieslikeBelarus,
SouthAfrica,India,China,Mexico,RussiaandUkraine.Accessingthetalentpoolsinthesecountrieshasthe

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potentialtocutcostsorevenshortenproductlifecycles.DevelopingcountrieslikeIndiaarealsoinvolvedinthis
practice.

Whenoffshoringknowledgework,firmsheavilyrelyontheavailabilityoftechnicalpersonnelatoffshore
locations.Inordertosecureaccesstotalent,Westernfirmsoftenestablishcollaborativerelationshipswith
technicaluniversitiesabroadandtherebycustomizeuniversityprogramstoservetheirparticularneeds.Examples
includeuniversitiesinShanghai,suchasTongJiUniversity,whereGermanfirmsandscholarscosponsorlabs,
courses,andprovideinternships.SimilarexamplesofcollaborativearrangementscanbefoundinEasternEurope,
e.g.Romania.[9]Additionally,EUcompanieslookingforITinnovationoftensetupcollaborationwithuniversities
incountriessuchasBelarusandUkraine,whichhaveahighpercentageofICTgraduatesandoverallaveryskilled
ITlabor.[10]

Reshoring

"Reshoring",alsoknownas"backshoring"[11]or"inshoring"[12]isoffshoringthathasbeenbroughtback
onshore.[13]

JohnUrry(distinguishedprofessorofsociologyatLancasterUniversity)arguesthattheconcealmentofincome,
theavoidanceoftaxationandeludinglegislationrelatingtowork,finance,pleasure,waste,energyandsecurity
maybebecomingaseriousconcernfordemocraticgovernmentsandordinarycitizenswhomaybeadversely
affectedbyunregulated,offshoreactivities.Further,therisingcostsoftransportationcouldleadtoproduction
nearerthepointofconsumptionbecomingmoreeconomicallyviable,particularlyasnewtechnologiessuchas
additivemanufacturingmature[14]

Transferofintellectualproperty
Offshoringisoftenenabledbythetransferofvaluableinformationtotheoffshoresite.Suchinformationand
trainingenablestheremoteworkerstoproduceresultsofcomparablevaluepreviouslyproducedbyinternal
employees.Whensuchtransferincludesprotectedmaterials,asconfidentialdocumentsandtradesecrets,protected
bynondisclosureagreements,thenintellectualpropertyhasbeentransferredorexported.Thedocumentationand
valuationofsuchexportsisquitedifficult,butshouldbeconsideredsinceitcomprisesitemsthatmayberegulated
ortaxable.

Debate
Offshoringhasbeenacontroversialissuespurringheateddebatesamongeconomists,someofwhichoverlapthose
relatedtothetopicoffreetrade.Itisseenasbenefitingboththeoriginanddestinationcountrythroughfreetrade,
providingjobstothedestinationcountryandlowercostofgoodsandservicestotheorigincountry.Thismakes
bothsidesseeincreasedgrossdomesticproduct(GDP).Andthetotalnumberofjobsincreasesinbothcountries
sincethoseworkersintheorigincountrythatlosttheirjobcanmovetohighervaluejobsinwhichtheircountry
hasacomparativeadvantage.

Ontheotherhand,joblossesandwageerosionindevelopedcountrieshavesparkedoppositiontooffshoring.
Expertsarguethatthequalityofanynewjobsindevelopedcountriesarelessthanthejobslostandofferlower
pay.Economistsagainstoffshoringchargethatcurrencymanipulationbygovernmentsandtheircentralbanks
causesthedifferenceinlaborcostcreatinganillusionofcomparativeadvantage.Further,theypointoutthateven
moreeducatedhighlytrainedworkerswithhighervaluejobssuchassoftwareengineers,accountants,radiologists,
andjournalistsinthedevelopedworldhavebeendisplacedbyhighlyeducatedandcheaperworkersfromIndiaand
China.OnMay1,2002,EconomistandformerAmbassadorErnestH.PreegtestifiedbeforetheSenatecommittee

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onBanking,Housing,andUrbanAffairsthatChina,forinstance,pegsitscurrencytothedollaratasubparvalue
inviolationofArticleIVoftheInternationalMonetaryFundArticlesofAgreementwhichstatethatnonation
shallmanipulateitscurrencytogainamarketadvantage.[15]

Impactonjobsinwesterncountries

TheEconomistreportedinJanuary2013that:"HighlevelsofunemploymentinWesterncountriesafterthe2007
2008financialcrisishavemadethepublicinmanycountriessohostiletowardsoffshoringthatmanycompanies
arenowreluctanttoengageinit."[16]EconomistPaulKrugmanwrotein2007thatwhilefreetradeamonghigh
wagecountriesisviewedaswinwin,freetradewithlowwagecountriesiswinloseformanyemployeeswhofind
theirjobsoffshoredorwithstagnatingwages.[17]TwoestimatesoftheimpactofoffshoringonU.S.jobswere
between150,000and300,000peryearfrom20042015.Thisrepresents1015%ofU.S.jobcreation.[18]U.S.
opinionpollsindicatethatbetween7695%ofAmericanssurveyedagreedthat"outsourcingofproductionand
manufacturingworktoforeigncountriesisareasontheU.S.economyisstrugglingandmorepeoplearen'tbeing
hired."[19][20]

Theincreasedsafetynetcostsoftheunemployedmaybeabsorbedbythegovernment(taxpayers)inthehighcost
countryorbythecompanydoingtheoffshoring.EuropeexperiencedlessoffshoringthantheU.S.duetopolicies
thatappliedmorecoststocorporationsandculturalbarriers.[5]

LegalimplicationsinJapan

Japanesecompaniesuseoffshoringtoexploitforeignlaborers,particularlyChineseandVietnamese,inviolationof
theEmploymentSecurityActandLaborStandardActguidelinessetbytheJapaneseMinistryofHealth,Labour,
andWelfare.Article44oftheEmploymentSecurityActimplicitlybansunauthorizedcompaniessupplying
domestic/foreignworkers,regardlessoftheiroperatinglocations.Thelawsapplyifatleastonepartyamong
suppliers,clientsandworkersresideinJapan,andiftheworkersarepartoftheintegralpartofthechainof
commandoftheclientcompanyorthesupplier:

Nopersonshallcarryoutalaborsupplybusinessorhaveworkerssuppliedbyapersonwhocarries
outalaborsupplybusinessworkunderhis/herowndirectionsororders,exceptincasesprovided
forinthefollowingArticle.
Unlesspermittedbyact,nopersonshallobtainprofitbyintervening,asabusiness,inthe
employmentofother
TheEmploymentSecurityActsetspunishmentguidelinesasfollows:

Apersonwhofallsunderanyofthefollowingitemsshallbepunishedbyimprisonmentwithwork
fornotmorethanoneyearorafineofnotmorethanonemillionyen
VictimscanlodgeacriminalcomplaintagainsttheCEO'softhesuppliersandclientstotheLaborStandards
InspectionOffice(inthecaseoftheLaborStandardsAct)orPublicProsecutor'sOfficeinthecompany'slocation.
DuetotheriskofCEO'sarrest,Japanesecompaniestendtoprivatelysettlewithplaintiffs,offeringbetween20and
100millionJPY(approximately200,0001millionUSD)indamages.

Competitiveconcerns

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In2015,ITemploymentintheUnitedStateshasrecentlyreachedpre2001levels[22][23]andhasbeenrisingsince.
Thenumberofjobslosttooffshoringislessthan1percentofthetotalUSlabormarket.[24]Accordingtoastudy
bytheHeritagefoundation,outsourcingrepresentsaverysmallproportionofjobslostintheUS.Thetotalnumber
ofjobslosttooffshoring,bothmanufacturingandtechnicalrepresentonly4percentofthetotaljobslostintheUS.
Majorreasonsforcuttingjobsarefromcontractcompletionanddownsizing.[25]Someeconomistsand
commentatorsclaimthattheoffshoringphenomenoniswayoverblown.[25]

Effectsoffactorofproductionmobility
Accordingtoclassicaleconomics,thethreefactorsofproductionareland,labor,andcapital.Offshoringrelies
heavilyonthemobilityoftwoofthesefactors.Thatis,howoffshoringaffectseconomiesdependsonhoweasily
capitalandlaborcanberepurposed.Land,asafactorofproduction,isgenerallyseentohavelittleornomobility
potential.

Theeffectsofcapitalmobilityonoffshoringhavebeenwidelydiscussed.Inmicroeconomics,acorporationmust
beabletospendworkingcapitaltoaffordtheinitialcostsofoffshoring.Ifthestateheavilyregulateshowa
corporationcanspenditsworkingcapital,itwillnotbeabletooffshoreitsoperations.Forthesamereasonthe
macroeconomymustbefreeforoffshoringtosucceed.Generally,thosewhofavoroffshoringsupportcapital
mobility,andthosewhoopposeoffshoringcallforgreaterregulation.

Labormobilityalsoplaysamajorrole,anditishotlydebated.WhencomputersandtheInternetmadework
electronicallyportable,theforcesoffreemarketresultedinaglobalmobilityofworkintheservicesindustry.
Mosttheoriesthatargueoffshoringeventuallybenefitsdomesticworkersassumethatthoseworkerswillbeableto
obtainnewjobs,eveniftheyhavetoobtainemploymentbydownpricingthemselvesbackintothelabormarket
(byacceptinglowersalaries)orbyretrainingthemselvesinanewfield.Foreignworkersbenefitfromnewjobs
andhigherwageswhentheworkmovestothem.

Offshoringfacescriticismfromlaborscholarswhoarguethatgloballaborarbitrageleadstounethicalpractices,
connectedtoexploitationofworkers,erodingworkconditionsanddecreasingjobsecurity.[26]

History
Inthedevelopedworld,movingmanufacturingjobsoutofthecountrydatestoatleastthe1960s[27]whilemoving
knowledgeservicejobsoffshoredatestothe1970s[28]andhascontinuedsincethen.Itwascharacterizedprimarily
bythetransferringoffactoriesfromthedevelopedtothedevelopingworld.Thisoffshoringandclosingof
factorieshascausedastructuralchangeinthedevelopedworldfromanindustrialtoapostindustrialservice
society.

Duringthe20thcentury,thedecreasingcostsoftransportationandcommunicationcrossedwithgreatdisparities
onpayratesmadeincreasedoffshoringfromwealthiercountriestolesswealthycountriesfinanciallyfeasiblefor
manycompanies.Further,thegrowthoftheInternet,particularlyfiberopticintercontinentallonghaulcapacity,
andtheWorldWideWebreduced"transportation"costsformanykindsofinformationworktonearzero.[29]

WiththedevelopmentoftheInternet,manynewcategoriesofworksuchascallcentres,computerprogramming,
readingmedicaldatasuchasXraysandmagneticresonanceimaging,medicaltranscription,incometax
preparation,andtitlesearchingarebeingoffshored.

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Beforethe1990s,IrelandwasoneofthepoorestcountriesintheEU.BecauseofIreland'srelativelylowcorporate
taxrates,UScompaniesbeganoffshoringofsoftware,electronic,andpharmaceuticalintellectualpropertyto
Irelandforexport.Thishelpedcreateahightech"boom"andwhichledtoIrelandbecomingoneoftherichestEU
countries.[29]

In1994theNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)wentintoeffect.Asconcernsarewidespreadabout
unevenbargainingpowers,andrisksandbenefits,negotiationsareoftendifficult,suchthattheplantocreatefree
tradeareas(suchasFreeTradeAreaoftheAmericas)hasnotyetbeensuccessful.In2005,offshoringofskilled
work,alsoreferredtoasknowledgework,dramaticallyincreasedfromtheUS,whichfedthegrowingworries
aboutthreatsofjobloss.[29]

Seealso
AntiGlobalism
Callcentersecurity
DeclineandFalloftheAmericanProgrammer
Followthesun
Globalsourcing
Globality
GloballyIntegratedEnterprise
Homeshoring
Inshoring
Jobmigration
Lowcostcountrysourcing
Offshorecompany
Offshoreoutsourcing
OffshoringResearchNetwork
Outsourcing
Personaloffshoring
ProgrammersGuild
Restructuring
Runawayproduction
Taxhaven

Bysector:

Businessprocessoutsourcing
Informationtechnologyconsulting
Legaloutsourcing
OffshoresoftwareR&D

Furtherreading
AlanS.Blinder,"Offshoring:TheNextIndustrialRevolution?(https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2006
0301/offshoringnextindustrialrevolution)"inForeignAffairs,Vol.85,No.2(March/April2006),pp.
113128.
ThomasL.Friedman,TheWorldisFlat:ABriefHistoryoftheTwentyfirstCentury(2005).
CatherineL.Mann&JacobFunkKirkegaard,AcceleratingtheGlobalizationofAmerica:TheRolefor
InformationTechnology,InstituteforInternationalEconomics,WashingtonD.C.,PetersonInstitutefor
InternationalEconomics(June2006).
StephanManning,SilviaMassini&ArieY.Lewin,ADynamicPerspectiveonNextGenerationOffshoring:
TheGlobalSourcingofScienceandEngineeringTalent(https://www.jstor.org/stable/27747462),Academy
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ofManagementPerspectives,Vol.22,No.3(October2008),pp.3554.
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