Space Technology Section-A, Module -1, Lecture-2 Class 2

1.2 THRUST FROM A STATIONARY ROCKET ENGINE / MOTOR:

dS
S
pa

T Ae Ue (Uniform flow)
Y pe
X

Control volume: V e
Figure 1 Schematic showing control volume enclosing a stationary rocket motor/engine

Consider a control volume V (shown in Fig.1) bounded by the control surface S.

The control volume is chosen such that a part of control surface S lies on the nozzle
exit plane.

Continuity Equation:

Applying the continuity equation to the above control volume V

dM V

t CV
dV +

CS
U dS =0
dt
+ eU e Ae =0

Rate of change of Mass flux through

mass inside control the control surfaces
volume V

m e = eU e Ae = M V

X-Momentum Equation
Assuming the velocity is dominant in X direction and applying X-momentum equation over
the control volume V,

t
u dV + u U Fx
dS =
CV CS
Rate of change of Momentum flux through External forces
momentum inside the control surfaces on the system
control volume V

F X = T + PdS = T + Ae p a Ae p e
S

Thrust (T):
T = m eU e + Ae ( pe p a ) = m
e U eq
p pa
where U eq = U e + e Ae
m

Total impulse ( I ):
The total impulse I is the thrust force T (which can vary with time) integrated over the
burning time t.
m
I = T dt = m e U eq dt = m pU eq units : kg
s
where m p = total mass of propellant expelled.

Specific impulse ( I sp ):
The specific impulse I SP is the total impulse per unit weight of propellant.
I U eq m/s
I sp = = units : s
m/s
2
mp ge ge

Here g e is the acceleration due to gravity at the earths surface. Note that the choice

of g e is arbitrary. The advantage is that in all common systems (fps, cgs, SI etc.) the

unit of specific impulse ( I sp ) is the same seconds.

Maximum Thrust:

At this point we ask ourselves; At what pe do we get maximum thrust? It can be

seen from Fig.3 that the inner walls encounter higher pressure (due to the
combustion in the chamber) compared to outer walls. The component of force acting
in the forward direction (w.r.t the rocket motor) contributes to thrust, whereas the
component in rearward direction reduces thrust.
 Since the chamber pressure ( pcomb.chamber ) or the pressure acting on the inner walls

decreases towards the exit and the nozzle section at the position where exit pressure
pe = pa (optimal expansion) is crucial (as this will be seen later). A nozzle longer than
this point results in net force in negative thrust direction due to over-expansion (as
the pressure acting on the inner walls is less than pa ). The nozzle shorter than the

optimal expansion position would result in a net force in positive thrust direction due
to under-expansion (as the pressure acting on the inner walls is higher than pa ). But it

should be noted that the exiting momentum is not fully regained from pe in case of

shorter nozzle. Finally, it can be seen that a nozzle designed for optimal expansion
would result in higher thrust.

Pa

positive thrust negative thrust

Pcomb. chamber Pe > Pa Pe < Pa

Pe = Pa @ Ae
(optimal expansion)

Figure 2. Schematic showing optimal expansion in a CD nozzle.

The thrust equation of the rocket nozzle (as given previously) is

T = m eU e + Ae ( pe p a )
Differentiating the above equation (noting that U e & pe to be the variables), we get
dT = m e dU e + dAe ( pe pa ) + Ae dpe = 0

Ae Ae + dAe
Pe Pe + dPe
Ue Ue + dUe
e e + de

differential element

Figure 3 A differential element at the nozzle exit

Momentum equation for a differential element (Fig.2) at exit gives

( e + d e )(U e + dU e )2 ( Ae + dAe ) eU e2 Ae = Fx = Ae Pe ( Ae + dAe )(Pe + dPe ) + Pe dAe

( e +de )(U e +dU e ) ( Ae +dAe )U e -eU e2 Ae + ( e +de )(U e +dU e ) ( Ae +dAe ) dU=e Fx

Ue (( +d )(U +dU ) ( A +dA ) - U A )+ ( +d )(U +dU ) ( A +dA ) dU=

e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e F x

Now from continuity,

( e +de )(U e +dU e ) ( Ae +dAe ) -eU e Ae=0

eU e Ae dU e + Ae dpe = m e dU e + Ae dpe = 0

dT = dAe ( p e p a ) = 0 , or pe = pa

d 2T = d 2 Ae ( p e p a ) + dAe dp e

d 2T = dAe dp e
at pe = pa

Now dAe dpe < 0 as dAe > 0 and dpe < 0

Therefore, pe = pa refers to optimum expansion. Under-expansion pe > pa implies

additional force is remaining unused and over-expansion pe < pa can be noted as the

beginning of negative contribution to thrust generation.

Thrust is max. for given chamber condition at optimum expansion i.e. pe = pa

Tmax = m pU e

In normal situation nozzle is not always optimally expanded because p a is changing

with altitude.

Exhaust gas velocity (U e ) in terms of combustion chamber properties

Ideal analysis: one dimensional, steady state, isentropic flow. The gas is assumed to
be a perfect gas with constant properties
 Pc Pe
Tc Ue
T

Figure 4 A schematic showing control volume to relate exhaust velocity (U e ) to thermodynamic properties in
the combustion chamber.

Recall equation for conservation of energy

U2 U2

t
CV
0
e +
2
dV +
CS
h +
2

U dS = Q W

Vc21 U e2
hc + = he +
2 2

2 C p (Tc Te ) = U e2 Vc2 (1)

Cp Ru
C p Cv = R , = and R =
Cv MW

Ru
Eliminating Cv we get C p = R =
1 MW 1

For isentropic flow the pressure temperature relationship follows

r 1
r 1

Te pe r
p r

= , or Tc Te = Tc 1
e

Tc pc
(2)
pc

Substituting for (Tc Te ) in (1)

1/ 2
1

T 2R 1 p e + V 2

Ue = c u c (3)
p c
MW 1

Now
Vc = gas flow velocity in combustion chamber is very small and hence neglected
 pe
pe = outside atmospheric pressure < < pc is very small.
pc
Tc
U e = const (4)
MW

Note: Exhaust velocity, U e and thus the specific impulse, I sp is directly proportional

to combustion temperature, Tc and inversely proportional to the molecular weight,

M W of combustion gases these are important for selecting propellant.

Specific Impulse ( I sp ) of representative space propulsion system

Propulsion system type Working fluid Specific impulse

Chemical (liquid)

a) Monopropellant Hydrogen
110-140
peroxide
220-245
Hydrazine
b) Bipropellant
440-480
O 2 -H 2
340-380
O 2 -hydrocarbon
300-340
N 2 O 2 -Monomethyl
hydrazine
Chemical (solid) Fuel and oxidizer 260-300

Nuclear H2 600-1000

Solar heating H2 400-800

Electric (Arcjet) H2 400-2000

Electric (Ion) Cesium 5000-25000

Cold gas N2 50-60

Further reading
1. Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion by Philip.G.Hill & Carl.Peterson.
Chapter #10 (Section 10.2)

2. Rocket Propulsion Elements by G. P. Sutton and Oscar Biblarz, Chapter #3,

Nozzle Theory and Thermodynamics Relations.