CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

OVERVIEW
Raw materials are transformed into products by chemical reaction.
A chemical equilibrium has been established when a chemical reaction reaches
a state where the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the
reverse reaction.
Both the rate and the equilibrium conversion of a chemical reaction depend on
the temperature, pressure and composition of reactants.
The study of thermodynamics give the equilibrium values. The study of rate
gives speed of reaching those values.
The purpose of this chapter is to determine the effect of temperature, pressure
and initial composition on the equilibrium conversion of chemical reactions.

THE REACTION COORDINATE

For general chemical reaction

1 A1 2 A2 3 A3 4 A4 (13.1)
where i is stoichiometric coefficient
Ai is chemical formula.
i is stoichiometric number, and it is
positive (+) for product negative (-) for reactant
Example: CH4 H2O CO 3H2
the stoichiometric numbers are
CH 1
4
H O 1
2
CO 1 H 3
2

The stoichiometric number for inert species is zero.

As the reaction in eq. (13.1) progresses, the changes in the numbers of
moles of species present are in direct proportion to the stoichiometric
numbers. E.g. If 0.5 mol CH4 disappears, 0.5 mol H2O also disappears;
simultaneously 0.5 mol CO and 1.5 mol H 2 are formed.
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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

Applied to differential amount of reaction, this principle provides the Integration of eq. (13.3) from an initial unreacted state where = 0 and ni =
equations: nio to a state reached after an amount of reaction gives
dn2 dn1 dn3 dn1
etc. ni
2 1 3 1
ni 0
dni i d
0

The list continues to include all species. Comparison yields or ni ni 0 i i 1, 2, ..., N (13.4)
dn1 dn2 dn3 dn4 Summation over all species yields
...
1 2 3 4 n ni ni 0 i
All terms being equal, they can be identified collectively by a single quantity i i i

representing an amount of reaction. A definition of d is given by the or n n0

equation: where
dn1 dn2 dn3 dn4 n ni n0 ni 0 i
... d (13.2) i i i
1 2 3 4
Thus the mole fractions yi of the species present are related to by
The general relation connecting the differential change dni with d is therefore
n n i
dni i d i 1, 2, ..., N (13.3) yi i i0 (13.5)
n n0
is called the reaction coordinate (also known as degree of reaction or extent
of reaction), characterizes the extent or degree to which a reaction has taken
place.

5 6

EXAMPLE 13.1 EXAMPLE 13.2

For a system in which the following reaction occurs,
CH4 H2O CO 3H2
assume there are present initially 2 mol CH 4, 1 mol H2O, 1 mol CO and 4 mol
H2. Determine expressions for the mole fractions yi as functions of .
Consider a vessel which initially contains only n0 mol of water vapor. If
decomposition occurs according to the reaction,
H2O H2 21 O2
find expressions which relate the number of moles and the mole fraction of
each chemical species to the reaction coordinate .

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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

Multireaction Stoichiometry EXAMPLE 13.3

For multireaction, i,j designates the stoichiometric number of species i in
reaction j. Consider a system in which the following reactions occur:
The general relation, eq. (13.3) becomes CH4 H2O CO 3H2 1
dni i , j d j i 1, 2, ..., N CH4 2H2O CO2 4 H2 2
j

Integration from ni = ni0 and j = 0 to ni and j gives where the numbers (1) and (2) indicate the value of j, the reaction index. If
ni ni 0 i , j j i 1, 2, ..., N (13.6) there are present initially 2 mol CH4 and 3 mol H2O, determine expressions
Summing over all species yields j for the yi as functions of 1 and 2.

n ni 0 i , j j n0 i , j j Solution:
i i j j i
The stoichiometric numbers i,j can be arrayed as follows:
The definition of a total stoichiometric number i i for a single
reaction has its counterpart here in the definition:
i= CH4 H2O CO CO2 H2
j i , j thus n n0 j j
i j j j
Combination of this last equation with eq. (13.6) gives the mole fraction
1 -1 -1 1 0 3 2
ni 0 j i , j j 2 -1 -2 0 1 4 2
yi i 1, 2, ..., N (13.7)
n0 j j j
9 10

GIBBS ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

Application of eq. (13.7) gives

ni 0 j i , j j
yi i 1, 2, ..., N The Gibbs function serves as variable that determines whether a given
n0 j j j chemical change is thermodynamically possible.

2 1 2 1 G<0 Reaction can spontaneously proceed to the right: AB

y CH4 y CO
5 21 2 2 5 21 2 2 G>0 Reaction can spontaneously proceed to the left: AB
3 1 2 2 2 G=0 The reaction is at equilibrium; the quantities of A and B will not change
y H2O y CO2
5 21 2 2 5 21 2 2
In a spontaneous change, Gibbs energy always decreases and never
31 4 2
y H2 increases. The physical meaning of G is that it tells how far the free energy
5 21 2 2 of the system has changed from Go of the pure reactants.
Composition of a chemical reaction system will tend to change in a
direction that brings it closer to its equilibrium composition. Once this
equilibrium composition has been attained, no further change in the quantities
of the components will occur.

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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM CRITERIA TO THE STANDARD GIBBS-ENERGY CHANGE

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Fig. 13.1 shows the relation of and . The arrows along the curve indicate
Gt AND THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
the directions of changes in (Gt)T,P. The reaction coordinate, has its equilibrium
value e at the minimum of the curve. Equation (11.2) provides an expression for the total differential of the Gibbs
energy:
This figure indicates two distinctive features of the equilibrium state for
given T and P, d nG (nV )dP (nS)dT i dni (11.2)
i
Total Gibbs energy Gt is a minimum.
If changes in the mole numbers ni occur as the result of a single chemical
Its differential is zero dG T ,P 0
t
reaction in a closed system, then by eq. (13.3) each dni may be replaced by
the product id. Eq. (11.2) then becomes
reactants
d nG (nV )dP (nS)dT i i d
i
products
Because nG is a state function, the right side of this equation is an exact
differential expression,
nG G t
Forward reaction i i


T ,P
i T ,P
The quantity i i represents, in general, the rate of change of total Gibbs
(For a single chemical reaction) i
energy of the system with respect to the reaction coordinate at constant T and
P.
13 14

Fig. 13.1 shows that this quantity is zero at the equilibrium state. A criterion of Combining eq. (13.8) with eq. (13.9) to eliminate i gives for the equilibrium
chemical reaction equilibrium is therefore state of a chemical reaction:

i i 0 (13.8)
i
i

G io RT ln fi f i o 0
i
or

i
Recall the definition of the fugacity of a species in solution: G i
i
o
i RT ln fi f i o
i
0
i i T RT ln fi (11.46) or
RTi
i i G io
ln fi f i o

In addition, eq. (11.31) may be written for pure species i in its standard state i
at the same temperature: where i signifies the product over all species i.
In exponential form, this equation becomes
G i i T RT ln f i (11.31) Gio i T RT ln f i o
f
i
fio K (13.10)
i
The difference between these two equations is i

fi where the definition of K and its logarithm are given by

i G io RT ln (13.9)
fio G o
K exp (13.11a)
RT
G o
ln K (13.11b)
RT
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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE

Also by definition,
G o i i G io (13.12)
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
Because the standard state temperature is that of the equilibrium mixture, the
Gio, Go and K are functions of temperature.
standard property changes of reaction, such as Go and Ho, vary with the
K is called the equilibrium constant for the reaction; iiGio,
equilibrium temperature.
represented by Go, is called the standard Gibbs-energy change of The dependence of Go on T is given by eq. (13.13), which may be rewritten
reaction. as
d G o RT H o

The function Go iiGio in eq. (13.12) is the difference between the Gibbs dT RT 2
energies of the products and reactants when each is in its standard state as a In view of eq. (13.11b), this becomes
pure substance at the standard state pressure, but at the system temperature.
G o d ln K H o
Other standard property changes of reaction are similarly defined. For general ln K (13.11b) (13.14)
property M:
RT dT RT 2
If Ho is negative, i.e., if the reaction is exothermic, the equilibrium constant
Mo i Mio
i
decreases as the temperature increases. K increases with T for endothermic
reaction.
The relation between the standard heat of reaction and the standard Gibbs If Ho is assumed independent of T, integration of eq. (13.14) from T to T
energy change of reaction is leads to the simple result: K Ho 1 1
d G o RT ln (13.15)
H o RT 2 (13.13) K' R T T'
dT 17 A plot of ln K vs. the reciprocal of absolute temperature is a straight line. 18

Effect of temperature on equilibrium constant is based on the definition of the

Gibbs energy at standard state:
G io Hio TSio
Multiply by i and summation over all species gives
G H
i
i
o
i
i
i
o
i T i Sio
i
As a result of the definition of a standard property change of reaction, this
reduces to
G o Ho T So (13.16)
The standard heat of reaction is related to temperature:
T C po
H o H0 o R dT (4.18)
T0 R
The temperature dependence of the standard entropy change of reaction is:
dT
dSio C Poi
T
Multiply by i and summation over all species gives
dT
d S o C Po
T
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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

Integration gives The first integral of eq. (13.18) is

C Po dT T
CPo B 2 2 C 3 3 D 1
S S R
o o
(13.17)
T0 1 T0 1
T
0
T0 R T T0 R
dT A T0 1
2 3

T0
(4.19)
where So and S0o are the standard entropy changes of reaction at
temperature T and at reference temperature T 0. where T
Eqs. (13.16), (4.18) and (13.17) are combined to yield
T0
T C P o T C
o
OR
G o H0o R dT TS0o RT P
dT
T0 R T0 R
C Po B 2
T T02 3C T 3 T03 D T1 T1
T
However, dT A T To
H G o o T0 R 2 o
S0o 0 0

T0
The second integral of eq. (13.18) is
Hence,
D 1
H0o G0o R T0 CRP dT RT T0 CRP dT
o o
T CPo dT
A ln BT0 CT02 2 2
T T T
G o H0o
T0 T0 R T
1
T0 2
(13.19)

Finally, division by RT yields OR
G o G 0 H 0 H0 1
o o o
C o T C
o
dT T
C Po dT T C 2
T T02 2D T12 T12
T

RT

RT0

RT T T0 RP dT T0 RP T (13.18) R T
A ln B T T0
T0 T0 2 o
21 22

EVALUATION OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT

Go/RT(= - ln K) as given in eq. (13.18) is readily calculated at any
temperature from the standard heat of reaction and the standard Gibbs EXAMPLE 13.4
energy change of reaction at a reference temperature (usually 298.15 K). Calculate the equilibrium constant for the vapor phase hydration of ethylene at
Factor K may be organized into three terms: 145oC (418.15 K) and at 320oC (593.15 K) from data given in App. C.
K K0K1K2
Solution:
G 0o The chemical reaction:
K 0 exp (13.21)
RT0 C2 H4 g H2O g C 2H5OH g

H T0 o
(13.22)
K1 exp 1
0
From Table C.1 and C.4:
RT0 T
vi A B (x10-3) C (x10-6) D (x105) Ho298 Go298
1 T C Po T C dT
o
(13.23)
K2 exp dT P
(J/mol) (J/mol)
T T0 R T0 R T
C2H5OH 1 3.518 20.001 -6.002 - -235100 -168490
C2H4 -1 1.424 14.394 -4.392 - 52510 68460
H2O -1 3.470 1.450 - 0.121 -241818 -228572

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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

A i Ai -1.376 For T = 593.15 K,

i
C Po
B i Bi 4.157 10-3
T

i

T0 R
dT 22.632

C i C i 1.610 10-6 T C dT
o

i T0 R P T 0.0173
D i Di - 0.121105
i
G593.15
o
8378 45792 45792 22.632
H298
o
i Hio,298 45792 Jmol-1 0.0173 5.8286
i
RT 8.314 298.15 8.314 593.15 593.15
G 298
o
i G io,298 8378 Jmol-1
i

For T = 418.15 K, values of integrals in eq. (13.18) are Finally, by eq. (13.11b)
TC o T C o dT
T0 R P dT 23.121 eqn. 4.19 T0 R P T 0.0692 eqn. 13.19
ln K
G o
RT
Substitute into eq. (13.18) for a reference temperature of 298.15 K gives:
G o G 0 H 0 H0 1
o o o
T C P o T C
o
P dT At 418.15 K, ln K = -1.9356 and K = 1.443 x 10-1
RT

RT0

RT T
T0 R
dT
T0 R T (13.18)
At 593.15 K, ln K = -5.8286 and K = 2.942 x 10-3
G 418.15
o
8378 45792 45792 23.121
0.0692 1.9356
RT 8.314 298.15 8.314 418.15 418.15 Alternative solution by using eq. (13.21), (13.22) and (13.23).
25 26

RELATION OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS

TO COMPOSITION
Gas phase reactions
The standard state for a gas is the ideal gas state of the pure gas at the
standard state pressure Po of 1 bar.
Because the fugacity of ideal gas is equal to its pressure, fio = Po for each
species i. Therefore for gas phase reactions fi f i o fi P o and eq. (13.10)
becomes

fi
i

f
i
i fio K (13.10) P o
K (13.25)
i i

This eq. relates K to fugacities of the reacting species as they exist in the real
equilibrium mixture. These fugacities reflect the non-idealities of the
equilibrium mixture and are functions of temperature, pressure and
composition.
The fugacity is related to the fugacity coefficient by eq. (11.52):

fi i y i P
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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

Substitute into eq. (13.25) provides an equilibrium expression displaying the Some conclusions based on eq. (13.28) that are true in general:
pressure and the composition: According to eq. (13.14), the effect of temperature on the equilibrium

constant K is determined by the sign of Ho.
y
P
o K
i
(13.26) d ln K H o
i i
P (13.14)
i
dT RT 2
where i i and Po is the standard state pressure of 1 bar. When H is positive, i.e., when the standard reaction is endothermic, an
o

increase in T results in an increase in K. Eq. (13.28) shows that an increase in K

The yis may be eliminated in favor of the equilibrium value of the reaction at constant P results in an increase in i(yi)vi; this implies a shift of the reaction
coordinate e. For fixed temperature eq. (13.26) relates e to P. If P is specify, to the right and an increase in e.
e can be solved. i can be evaluated by using eq. (11.63 or 11.64). When Ho is negative, i.e., when the standard reaction is exothermic, an
If the equilibrium mixture is an ideal solution, then each i becomes i , then increase in T causes a decrease in K and a decrease in i(yi)vi at constant P.
eq. (13.26) becomes This implies a shift of reaction to the left and a decrease in e.

P
i y ii i P o K If the total stoichiometric number v (ivi) is negative, eq. (13.28) shows

(13.27)
that an increase in P at constant T causes an increase in i(yi)vi , implying
a shift of the reaction to the right and an increse in e .
Each i for a pure species can be evaluated from a generalized correlation.
If v is positive, an increase in P at constant T causes a decrease in i(yi)vi,
For pressure sufficiently low or temperatures sufficiently high, the equilibrium
implying a shift of the reaction to the left and a decrease in e .
mixture behaves essentially as an ideal gas. Each i 1 and eq. (13.26)

reduces to: P
y o K
i
P (13.28)
y o K
i i
i (13.28) i P
i P 29 30

Liquid phase reactions

For a reaction occurring in the liquid phase, The difference between these two equations is
f
i
fio K (13.10) fi
i
G i G io RT ln
i
fio
fio
Standard state for liquid is the fugacity of pure liquid i at the temperature Integration of eq. (6.10) at constant T for the change of state of pure liquid i
of the system and at 1 bar. from Po to P yields
According to eq. (11.90), G i G io o Vi dP
P

f
fi i x i f i i i P
(11.90) As a result,
xifi
fi P

f i o P o
RT ln Vi dP
The fugacity ratio can be expressed as
fi i x i f i f Because Vi changes little with pressure for liquids (and solids), integration from
o i x i io (13.29)
fio fi fi Po to P gives
f i Vi P P
o

ln (13.30)
Because the fugacities of liquids are weak function of pressure, the ratio fi/fio is fio RT
often taken as unity. With eq. (13.29) and (13.30), eq. (13.10) may be written as
For pure liquid i, eq. (11.31) is written for temperature T and pressure P, and
Po P
for the same temperature T but for standard state pressure Po.
x i iVi
i
i i K exp (13.31)
G i i T RT ln f i i RT
G i o i T RT ln f i o 31 32

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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

EQUILIBRIUM CONVERSIONS FOR SINGLE

Except for high pressure, the exponential term is close to unity and may be
omitted. Then, REACTIONS
x i i
i
K (13.32)
EXAMPLE 13.5
i
A water gas shift reaction,
If the equilibrium mixture is an ideal solution, then i is unity and eq. (13.32)
becomes CO g H2O g CO2 g H2 g

x
i
K is carried out under the different sets of conditions described below. Calculate
i
i (13.33) the fraction of steam reacted in each case. Assume the mixture behaves as an
ideal gas.

33 34

(a) The reactants consist of 1 mol of H2O vapor and 1 mol of CO. The (b) Same as (a) except that the pressure is 10 bar.
temperature is 1100 K and the pressure is 1 bar.
For the given reaction at 1100 K, 10 4/T = 9.05, and from Figure 13.2, (c) Same as (a) except that 2 mol of N2 is included in the reactants.
ln K = 0 and K = 1. (d) The reactants are 2 mol of H2O and 1 mol of CO. Other conditions are
i i 1 1 1 1 0 the same as in (a).
Because the reaction mixture is an ideal gas, eq. (13.28) applies (e) The reactants are 1 mol of H2O and 2 mol of CO. Other conditions are
0
the same as in (a).
P
o K
1bar
y y y y 1bar
i
i yCO
1 1 1 1
1 (f) The initial mixture consists of 1 mol of H2O, 1 mol CO and 1 mol of
P H2 O CO2 H2
CO2. Other conditions are the same as in (a).

i

y H2 y CO2 (g) Same as (a) except that the temperature is 1650 K.

1 (A)
y CO y H2O
By eq. (13.5),
ni ni 0 i 1 e 1 e e e
yi yCO y H2O y CO2 y H2
n n0 2 2 2 2
Substitute into eq. (A) gives
2
e
1 or e 0.5
1 e
2

Therefore the fraction of the steam that reacts is

noH O nH O 1 1
2 2
0.5
noH2O 1 35 36

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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

EXAMPLE 13.6
Fugacity coefficients are evaluated by eq. (11.68).
Pr 0 Pr 0
Estimate the maximum conversion of ethylene to ethanol by vapor-phase ln
Tr
B B1 or exp B B1
hydration at 250oC (523.15 K) and 35 bar for an initial steam to ethylene Tr
ratio of 5. Assume the reaction mixture is an ideal solution. 0.422 0.172
B0 0.083 and B1 0.139
Tr1.6 Tr4.2
Solution: C2 H4 g H2O g C 2H5OH g
The results are summarized in the following table:
The calculation of K for this reaction is treated in Example 13.4.
At T = 523.15 K, K = 10.02 x 10-3 Tc/K Pc/bar i Tri Pri B0 B1 i
For ideal solution, C2H4 282.3 50.40 0.087 1.853 0.694 -0.074 0.126 0.977

P
y o K H2O 647.1 220.55 0.345 0.808 0.159 -0.511 -0.281 0.887
i
i i
P (13.27)
i EtOH 513.9 61.48 0.645 1.018 0.569 -0.327 -0.021 0.827
Because i 1 1 1 1 this equation becomes
i Substitute values of i and P = 35 bar into eqn. (A) gives:
y EtOHEtOH P
y EtOHEtOH P
10.02 103 A 10.02 103 A
yC2H4 C2H4 y H2OH2O P o yC H C H y H OH O P o
2 4 2 4 2 2

y EtOH 0.997 0.887 35

10.02 10 0.367 B
3

37 y C2 H4 y H2O 0.827 1 38

EXAMPLE 13.7
By eqn. (13.5),
1 e 5 e e
yC2H4 yH2O yEtOH In a laboratory investigation, acetylene is catalytically hydrogenated to
6 e 6 e 6 e
ethylene at 1120oC (1393.15 K) and 1 bar. If the feed is an equimolar
Substitute these into eqn. (B) yields: mixture of acetylene and hydrogen, what is the composition of the product
stream at equilibrium?
e 6 e
0.367 or e2 6 e 1.342 0
5 e 1 e
Solution:
The solution for the smaller root is e = 0.233. Therefore the maximum The required reaction is obtained by addition of the two formation reactions
conversion of ethylene to ethanol is written as follows:
noC2H4 nC2H4 1 1
C 2 H2 2C H2 I
0.233 23.3% 2C 2H2 C 2 H4 II
noC2H4 1
The sum of reactions (I) and (II) is the hydrogenation reaction:
C2 H2 H2 C2H4
o o
Also, G GI GII
o

By eq. (13.11b), RT ln K RT ln KI RT ln KII or K KI KII

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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

Data for both reactions (I) and (II) are given by Fig. 13.2. For 1120 oC (1393.15 The equilibrium composition of the product gas is then
K), 104/T = 7.18, the following values are read from the graph: 1 0.293 0.293
y H2 y C2H2 0.414 and y C2H4 0.172
ln KI 12.9 KI 4.0 105 2 0.293 2 0.293
ln KII 12.9 KII 2.5 10 6

Therefore, K = KIKII = 1.0

At this temperature and pressure of 1 bar, assume ideal gases.
By eq. (13.28),
P

y C2H4
y o K
i
i
1
i P y H2 yC2H2

On the basis of one mole initially of each reactant, eq. (13.5) gives
1 e e
y H yC H and yC H
2
2 e
2 2
2 e 2 4

Therefore, e 2 e
1
1 e
2

The smaller root of this quadratic expression is e = 0.293.

41 42

EXAMPLE 13.8
By eq. (13.11b),
H298
o
i i Hio
Acetic acid is esterified in the liquid phase with ethanol at 100 oC (373.15 K)
1 480000 1 285830 1 484500 1 277690 3640 J
and atmospheric pressure to produce ethyl acetate and water according to the
reaction: G 298
o
i i G io
1 332200 1 237130 1 389900 1 174780 4650 J
CH3COOH l C 2 H5OH l CH3COOC 2 H5 l H2O l
For small temperature change from 298.15 K to 373.15 K, eq. (13.15) is
If initially there is one mole each of acetic acid and ethanol, estimate the mole adequate for estimation of K. Therefore,
fraction of ethyl acetate in the reacting mixture at equilibrium.
G 298
o
4650
ln K298 1.8759 or K298 6.5266
Solution: RT 8.314 298.15

Ho298 (J) Go298 (J) or

K373 H298
o
1 1
CH3COOC2H5 -480 000 -332 000 ln
K298 R 373.15 298.15
H2O -285 830 -237 130 and
K Ho 1 1 K373 3640 1 1
CH3COOH -484 500 -389 900 ln
ln 0.2951
K' R T T' 6.5266 8.314 373.15 298.15
C2H5OH -277 690 -174 780
(13.15)
K373 6.5266 0.7444 4.8586
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CHE553 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 5/13/2016

REFERENCES
For the given reaction, eq. (13.5), with x replacing y, yields
1 e e
x AcH x EtOH x EtAc x H2O Smith, J.M., Van Ness, H.C., and Abbott, M.M. 2005. Introduction to Chemical
2 2
Engineering Thermodynamics. Seventh Edition. Mc Graw-Hill.
Because the pressure is low, eq. (13.32) is applicable. In the absence of data
for activity coefficients, assume the reacting species form an ideal solution. In http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/chemeq/Eq-01.html#SEC1
this case eq. (13.33) is employed, giving http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/thermeq/TE4.html
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/thermeq/TE5.html
x EtAc x H2O
x
i
i K (13.33) K
i x AcH x EtOH
2

4.8586 e
1 e
Solution yields
e 0.6879 and xEtAc 0.6879 / 2 0.344

45 46

PREPARED BY:
MDM. NORASMAH MOHAMMED MANSHOR
FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,
UiTM SHAH ALAM.
norasmah@salam.uitm.edu.my
03-55436333/019-2368303

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