ASPE Fire Protection Systems, 3rd Ed.

Fire
Protection
Systems
Third Edition
ASPE
American Society of
Plumbing Engineers,"
Fire Protection Systems, Third Edition, is designed to provide accurate and authoritative
information for the design and speciication of plumbing systems. The publisher makes
no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the data and information
contained in this publication. All data and information are provided with the understanding
that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, consulting, engineering, or other
professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other expert assistance is
required, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers

6400 Shafer Court, Suite 350
Rosemont, IL 60018
(847) 296-0002
info@aspe.org aspe.org
Copyright 2016 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
ISBN 978-1-891255-39-7
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
THIRD EDITION
CHAIR
Jonathan Kulpit, PE, CPD, CFPS
CONTRIBUTORS
Wally Barker|Scott Bartmess, PE, CFPS |Allen Bunner
Brian Conway, PE | Jerry Graupman | Bill Howerton
Jonathan Kulpit, PE, CPD, CFPS | Daniel Lampke, M.S.F.P.E.
Matthew Sciarretti, PE, CPD, CFPS, LEED AP BD+C | Julie Sherby
Bella Treyger | Greg Trombold
TECHNICAL REVIEWERS
Anthony Curiale, CPD, LEED AP | Carol Johnson, CPD, LEED AP, CFI
Larisa Miro, CPD | April Ricketts, PE, CPD
Frank Sanchez, CPD, GPD | Susan Smith | Karl Yrjanainen, PE, CPD
James Zebrowski, PE, CPD, FASPE | Stephen Ziga, CPD, SET, CFPS
Thura Zin, CPD, GPD
EDITOR
Gretchen Pienta
GRAPHIC DESIGNER
Nadine Saucedo
ABOUT ASPE
The American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE), founded in 1964, is the international
organization for professionals skilled in the design and speciication of plumbing systems.
ASPE is dedicated to the advancement of the science of plumbing engineering, to the
professional growth and advancement of its members, and to the health, welfare, and
safety of the public. The Society disseminates technical data and information, sponsors
activities that facilitate interaction with fellow professionals, and, through research and
education programs, expands the base of knowledge of the plumbing engineering industry.
ASPE members are leaders in innovative plumbing design, effective materials and energy
use, and the application of advanced techniques from around the world.
x Fire Protection Systems
Figures
Figure 5-1 Continuous-Line Fixed-Temperature Heat Detector .........................................26

Figure 5-2 Rate-Compensation Heat Detector .....................................................................26
Figure 5-3 Rate-of-Rise Heat Detector ..................................................................................27
Figure 5-4 Photoelectric Light-Obscuration Smoke Detector .............................................27
Figure 5-5 Photoelectric Light-Scattering Smoke Detector .................................................27
Figure 6-1 The Fire Triangle .....................................................................................................31
Figure 7-1 Fire Pump System ...................................................................................................35
Figure 7-2 Vertical Turbine Fire Pump....................................................................................35
Figure 7-3 Impeller Rotation.....................................................................................................36
Figure 7-4 Hydropneumatic Tank ............................................................................................38
Figure 7-5 Example Pump Curve, 1,000-gpm Rated Pump ...............................................39
Figure 8-1 Post Indicator Valve................................................................................................41
Figure 9-1 Wet Pipe Sprinkler System ...................................................................................49
Figure 9-2 Dry Pipe Valve ........................................................................................................49
Figure 9-3 Preaction Valve Riser .............................................................................................49
Figure 9-4 Deluge Valve Riser .................................................................................................50
Figure 9-5 Antifreeze System ..................................................................................................50
Figure 9-6 Vane-Type Water Flow Indicator ........................................................................54
Figure 9-7 Alarm Check Valve Riser .......................................................................................55
Figure 9-8 Design Area Curve Example ................................................................................58
Figure 10-1 Axisymmetric Flow ..................................................................................................62
Figure 11-1 Plan View of Sprinkler System.............................................................................73
Figure 11-2 Hydraulically Most Remote Area.........................................................................74
Figure 11-3 Hydraulic Node Points ...........................................................................................75
Figure 11-4 Illustration of Density/Area Method Calculation..............................................77
Figure 11-5 Example 11-1 Plan View ......................................................................................80
Figure 11-6 Standpipe System with Looped Piping ..............................................................81
Figure 11-7 Water Flow Paths in Loops ...................................................................................81
Figure 14-1 High-Pressure Carbon Dioxide Cylinder Arrangement ...................................96
Figure 14-2 Summary of Carbon Dioxide Applications ........................................................97
Figure 14-3 CO2 Concentration Conversion Factors ........................................................... 100
Table of Contents xi
Tables
Table 4-1 Test and Inspection Frequency of Water-Based Suppression Systems........ 22

Table 5-1 Detector Applications Summary ......................................................................... 29
Table 6-1 Classiications of Combustible Materials .......................................................... 31
Table 7-1 Centrifugal Fire Pump Component Sizing Data ............................................... 37
Table 8-1 Flow Rate Required to Produce a Velocity of 10 fps in a Main .................. 42
Table 9-1 Sprinkler Temperature Ratings and Temperature Classiication
Color Codes .......................................................................................................... 53
Table 9-2 Approved Materials for Sprinkler System Pipe .............................................. 54
Table 9-3 Spacing for Standard Pendent and Upright Sprinklers ................................. 56
Table 9-4 Drain Sizes for Sprinkler Systems ....................................................................... 57
Table 9-5 Hanger Rod Sizing ................................................................................................ 57
Table 9-6 Maximum Distance Between Hangers, ft........................................................... 57
Table 9-7 Underground Main Flushing Flow Rates ............................................................ 59
Table 10-1 Density of Water at Varying Temperatures..................................................... 61
Table 10-2 Pipe Roughness Coeficients ................................................................................ 64
Table 10-3 Equivalent Pipe Lengths for Fittings, ft............................................................... 65
Table 10-4 Equivalent Length Multipliers for C Factors Other than C = 120 ................ 65
Table 10-5A Water Flow Table, 1-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe ......................................... 66
Table 10-5B Water Flow Table, 1-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe ..................................... 67
Table 10-5C Water Flow Table, 1-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe ..................................... 68
Table 10-5D Water Flow Table, 2-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe ......................................... 69
Table 10-5E Water Flow Table, 2-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe ..................................... 70
Table 10-5F Water Flow Table, 3-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe ......................................... 71
Table 10-5G Water Flow Table, 4-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe ......................................... 72
Table 11-1 Inside Diameters for Schedule 10 and Schedule 40 Steel Pipe, in. ............ 75
Table 11-2 Equivalent Lengths of Common Fittings (for Schedule 40 Pipe), ft .............. 76
Table 11-3 Step 1 of the Example Calculation in NFPA 13 Format ................................ 78
Table 11-4 Steps 1 and 2 of the Example Calculation in NFPA 13 Format ................... 78
Table 11-5 Steps 1 and 2 and XX of the Example Calculation in
NFPA 13 Format .................................................................................................... 79
Table 11-6 Common Area Modiications .............................................................................. 79
xii Fire Protection Systems
Table 12-1 Foam Characteristics ............................................................................................. 84

Table 14-1 Minimum Carbon Dioxide Concentrations for Extinguishment ....................... 99
Table 14-2 Flooding Factors ..................................................................................................100
Table 14-3 Flooding Factors for Speciic Hazards ............................................................101
Table 16-1 Clean Agent Information ....................................................................................108
Table 16-2 Chemical Impacts on the Environment ..............................................................110
Table 16-3 Minimum Design Concentrations for Five-Minute Exposure .........................110
Table 16-4 K Values for Equation 16-2 ...............................................................................112
Table 16-5 Clean Agent Comparison Table ........................................................................113
Table 17-1 Portable Fire Extinguisher Classiications ........................................................115
Table 17-2 Travel Distances to Portable Fire Extinguishers..............................................116
Table 17-3 Hydrostatic Testing Requirements .....................................................................116
Table of Contents
1: FIRE PROTECTION FUNDAMENTALS ...................................................................... 1

Codes and Standards................................................................................................................1
Authorities Having Jurisdiction .................................................................................................2
Fire Protection Organizations ..................................................................................................3
National Fire Protection Association .........................................................................3
UL ...................................................................................................................................3
FM Global .....................................................................................................................4
Fire Prevention ............................................................................................................................4
Passive Fire Protection ...............................................................................................................5
Fire-Rated Barriers ......................................................................................................5
Structural Stability .......................................................................................................5
Direct Means of Egress ...............................................................................................5
Detection and Notiication ........................................................................................................6
Suppression Systems ..................................................................................................................6
Development of the Life Safety Code .....................................................................7
2: BASIC CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS OF FIRE ............................................................. 9
Smoke ...........................................................................................................................................9
Smoke Control............................................................................................................ 10
Material Combustibility .......................................................................................................... 10
Fire Extinguishing ..................................................................................................................... 11
Exits and Openings ................................................................................................................. 13
Fire Barriers .............................................................................................................................. 13
3: FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDING DESIGN ...................................................................... 13
Fire Safety Personnel .............................................................................................................. 14
New Construction ..................................................................................................................... 14
Remodeling ............................................................................................................................... 15
4: COMMISSIONING, TESTING, AND MAINTENANCE ............................................. 17
Fire Protection System Commissioning ................................................................................. 17
Commissioning Team ................................................................................................. 17
Commissioning Authority ..................................................................................... 18
Fire Commissioning Agent................................................................................... 18
Registered Design Professional........................................................................... 18
Integrated Testing Agent ..................................................................................... 18
Documentation ........................................................................................................... 18
Owners Project Requirements ............................................................................. 19
Basis of Design .................................................................................................... 19
Commissioning Plan ............................................................................................. 19
Final Commissioning Report ................................................................................ 19
Commissioning Process ............................................................................................. 19
vi Fire Protection Systems
Planning Phase ...................................................................................................... 19

Design Phase ......................................................................................................... 20
Construction Phase ............................................................................................... 20
Occupancy Phase ................................................................................................. 20
Re-Commissioning and Retro-Commissioning ....................................................... 20
Integrated Testing.................................................................................................................... 20
Maintenance ............................................................................................................................. 21
Inspection .................................................................................................................... 21
Testing ........................................................................................................................ 21
Cleaning .................................................................................................................... 22
Preventive Maintenance ......................................................................................... 22
Repair and Replacement ........................................................................................ 22
Carbon Monoxide Detection ................................................................................................. 23
5: FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 23
Basic Components of a Fire Alarm System ......................................................................... 24
Manual vs. Automatic Detection Systems ............................................................................ 25
Types of Detection Devices.................................................................................................... 25
Heat Detectors ........................................................................................................... 25
Fixed-Temperature Heat Detectors..................................................................... 26
Rate-Compensation Type..................................................................................... 26
Rate-of-Rise Type ................................................................................................. 27
Smoke Detectors ........................................................................................................ 27
Ionization Type ..................................................................................................... 27
Photoelectric Type ................................................................................................ 27
Flame Detectors......................................................................................................... 27
Water Flow Detectors .............................................................................................. 28
Choosing a Detector Device .................................................................................................. 28
Detector Location and Spacing............................................................................................. 30
Evacuation Signaling ............................................................................................................... 30
6: FIRE SUPPRESSION OVERVIEW ............................................................................ 31
Extinguishing Agents................................................................................................................ 31
Water .......................................................................................................................... 32
Alternative Suppression Systems .......................................................................................... 33
7: FIRE PUMPS.......................................................................................................... 35
Pump Components ................................................................................................................... 36
Booster Pumps .......................................................................................................................... 37
Spare Pumps ............................................................................................................................ 37
Maintaining Pressure............................................................................................................... 38
Jockey Pumps ............................................................................................................. 38
Hydropneumatic Tanks ............................................................................................. 38
Pump Curves ............................................................................................................................. 39
8: PRIVATE MAINS, STANDPIPES, AND HOSE SYSTEMS .......................................... 41
Standpipe and Hose Systems ............................................................................................... 42
Standpipe Requirements.......................................................................................... 43
Standpipe Classes .................................................................................................... 43
Standpipe System Types ......................................................................................... 43
Flow and Pressure Requirements ............................................................................ 44
Flow Rates .............................................................................................................. 44
Pressure Requirements .......................................................................................... 44
Table of Contents vii
Hose Connections ...................................................................................................... 44

Material Selection..................................................................................................... 45
System Acceptance Tests ......................................................................................... 45
9: AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS ...................................................................... 47
History of Fire Sprinklers ....................................................................................................... 47
NFPA 13...................................................................................................................... 47
Fire Sprinkler System Design................................................................................................. 47
Basis of Design .......................................................................................................... 48
Sprinkler System Types ............................................................................................ 48
Wet Pipe Systems ................................................................................................. 48
Dry Pipe Systems .................................................................................................. 48
Preaction Systems ................................................................................................ 49
Deluge Systems ..................................................................................................... 50
Combined Dry Pipe and Preaction Sprinkler Systems ..................................... 50
Antifreeze Systems .............................................................................................. 50
Occupancy Classiications ...................................................................................................... 51
Light Hazard .............................................................................................................. 51
Ordinary Hazard Group 1 ..................................................................................... 51
Ordinary Hazard Group 2 ..................................................................................... 51
Extra Hazard Group 1 ............................................................................................ 52
Extra Hazard Group 2 ............................................................................................ 52
Components and Materials.................................................................................................... 52
Sprinklers .................................................................................................................... 52
Sprinkler Types...................................................................................................... 53
Piping .......................................................................................................................... 54
Alarms ......................................................................................................................... 54
Other Components .................................................................................................... 55
Basic Installation Requirements ............................................................................................. 55
Area Limitations ......................................................................................................... 55
Spacing per Sprinkler Head and Between Sprinkler Heads............................ 55
Delector Positions ..................................................................................................... 56
Obstructions to Sprinkler Discharge ...................................................................... 56
System Drains ............................................................................................................ 57
Hanging and Restraint Requirements .................................................................... 57
Design Approaches ................................................................................................................. 57
Pipe Schedule Systems............................................................................................. 57
Hydraulically Calculated Systems ......................................................................... 58
Design and Construction Documents..................................................................................... 58
System Acceptance ................................................................................................................. 59
Hydrostatic Tests ........................................................................................................ 59
Pneumatic Tests .......................................................................................................... 59
Flushing........................................................................................................................ 59
Operational Tests ...................................................................................................... 59
10: BASIC HYDRAULICS FOR SPRINKLER SYSTEMS ................................................. 61
Assumptions and Simpliications ............................................................................................ 61
Compressibility .......................................................................................................... 61
Density and Temperature ........................................................................................ 61
Viscosity ...................................................................................................................... 61
One-Dimensional Flow ............................................................................................. 62
viii Fire Protection Systems
Results of Assumptions and Simpliications ........................................................... 62

Pressure Losses in Pipes .......................................................................................................... 63
Energy Loss ................................................................................................................. 63
Water Pressure.......................................................................................................... 63
Absolute Pressure vs. Gauge Pressure .................................................................. 63
Pressure Due to Elevation ........................................................................................ 63
The Hazen-Williams Equation................................................................................. 64
Water Flow Tables.................................................................................................... 65
Friction Losses for Fittings and Valves ................................................................... 65
Water Exiting the Pipe ........................................................................................................... 66
Density/Area Method............................................................................................................. 73
11: HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS .............................................................................. 73
Beginning the Calculation ........................................................................................ 74
Equivalent K Factors ................................................................................................. 77
Result ........................................................................................................................... 77
Elevation Changes ................................................................................................................... 77
Hydraulic Calculation Forms .................................................................................................. 78
Area Modiications .................................................................................................................. 79
Looped and Gridded Piping ................................................................................................ 80
12: FIREFIGHTING FOAM ......................................................................................... 83
How Foams Extinguish Fire ..................................................................................................... 83
Criteria for Foam to Be Effective ........................................................................... 83
Foam Characteristics ............................................................................................................... 84
Drainage Rate ........................................................................................................... 84
Expansion Rate .......................................................................................................... 84
Types of Foams ........................................................................................................................ 84
Aqueous Film-Forming Foam ................................................................................... 84
Alcohol-Resistant Aqueous Film-Forming Foam .................................................... 85
Protein Foam .............................................................................................................. 85
Fluoroprotein Foam ................................................................................................... 85
Alcohol-Resistant Fluoroprotein Foam.................................................................... 85
Film-Forming Fluoroprotein...................................................................................... 85
Alcohol-Resistant Film-Forming Fluoroprotein ...................................................... 85
Class A Foam Concentrate ...................................................................................... 85
Proportioning............................................................................................................................ 85
Percentages ................................................................................................................ 86
Proportioning Methods............................................................................................. 86
Pre-Mix/Dump-In ................................................................................................. 86
Balanced-Pressure Proportioning Systems ........................................................ 86
Line Proportioner .................................................................................................. 86
Around the Pump ................................................................................................. 86
Water-Driven Foam Proportioner ...................................................................... 86
Water Pressure.......................................................................................................... 86
Discharge Devices ................................................................................................................... 86
Guidelines for Fire Protection with Foams .......................................................................... 87
Storage...................................................................................................................................... 87
Environmental Impact of Foam .............................................................................................. 87
13: WATER MIST SYSTEMS ........................................................................................ 89
History of Water Mist ............................................................................................................. 89
Performance Principles of Water Mist ................................................................................ 89
Table of Contents ix
Conditions ................................................................................................................... 90
Standards and Approvals ..................................................................................................... 90
Water Mist System Types ...................................................................................................... 91
Single Fluid ................................................................................................................. 91
Twin Fluid .................................................................................................................... 92
System Design .......................................................................................................................... 92
Comparisons to Other Fire Protection Technologies ......................................................... 94
Water Mist vs. Sprinklers......................................................................................... 94
Water Mist vs. Water Spray .................................................................................. 94
Water Mist vs. Clean Agents .................................................................................. 94
Technical Issues to Consider .................................................................................... 94
14: CARBON DIOXIDE SYSTEMS .............................................................................. 95
Carbon Dioxide as a Fire Suppression Agent ................................................................... 95
System Applications ................................................................................................ 96
Advantages and Disadvantages .......................................................................... 97
Alarms and Evacuation ........................................................................................................... 98
Speciications............................................................................................................................ 98
Cylinders and Scales .............................................................................................................. 98
Pipe Sizing Calculations ......................................................................................................... 99
Pressure-Relief Venting Formula .........................................................................100
15: DRY AND WET CHEMICALS .............................................................................. 103
Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems ..................................................................................103
Dry Chemical Agents ..............................................................................................103
How Dry Chemicals Extinguish Fire ......................................................................104
System Types ...........................................................................................................104
Local Application ...............................................................................................104
Handheld Hose Lines ..........................................................................................104
Total Flooding .....................................................................................................104
Storage and Maintenance ....................................................................................105
Wet Chemical Extinguishing Systems .................................................................................105
Wet Chemical Agents .............................................................................................105
How Wet Chemicals Extinguish Fires ...................................................................106
System Description ..................................................................................................106
16: CLEAN AGENTS ................................................................................................ 107
Development of Clean Agents ............................................................................................107
Types of Clean Agents .........................................................................................................108
Extinguishing Methods ..........................................................................................................108
Chemical Suppression ..............................................................................................108
Evaporative Cooling at the Flames Reaction Zone .............................................108
Flame Cooling ..........................................................................................................109
Environmental Impact ............................................................................................................109
Safety ......................................................................................................................................110
System Design ........................................................................................................................111
Design Procedure .....................................................................................................111
Conclusions/Comparisons .....................................................................................................113
17: PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS...................................................................... 115
Classiications .........................................................................................................................115
Installation ...............................................................................................................................116
Maintenance ...........................................................................................................................116
INDEX .................................................................................................................. 117
1
Fire Protection
Fundamentals 1
Uncontrolled ires are dangerous to people and property. Fire protection is a multifaceted
ield dedicated to preventing and/or mitigating the efects of these ires. he ire protection
discipline has many distinct parts, including prevention, passive protection, suppression,
detection, and notiication. An additional element, smoke management, is also part of ire
protection. Smoke management is required in some occupancies and can be a challenging
aspect of a project, so identifying when smoke management is required is critical.
CODES AND STANDARDS
Every person involved in building construction or maintenance should be aware that many
aspects of a facility are required to conform to standards and codes, which give engineers,
architects, and contractors the guidance they need to design and build safe environments
for human occupancy.
A code is a set of rules and regulations adopted by the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ)
to ensure minimum safety requirements. A standard is deined as a set of recommended
guidelines established by a professional organization that can be used as the basis for the
design, installation, and maintenance of a certain system. Fire protection codes and stan-
dards were developed to protect the lives of building occupants as well as properties and
their contents. Anyone working on a ire protection system should have knowledge of the
wide range of applicable standards and codes that apply to such systems and know where
to ind a reference when required.
In the United States, the most widely accepted standards are issued by the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA). he codes that adopt these standards are typically issued
by the governing state, with amendments added by counties and/or cities. he International
Building Code (IBC) and the International Fire Code (IFC) are two examples of codes
commonly encountered by ire protection professionals.
Standards may require the equipment and materials used in a ire protection system to
be listed or labeled by an organization that has a product certiication program. Examples
of such organizations are UL, FM Global, and ASTM International.
Generally, the purpose of a ire code is to set minimum levels of acceptability in the design,
installation, and maintenance of ire protection systems. Many codes, as well as insurance
company standards, establish performance objectives by providing speciic requirements.
hese performance-based codes leave it up to the designer to determine how to meet those
objectives. More than one solution is usually applicable because new and original ideas are
constantly being developed.
Performance-based codes do not allow building inspectors or plan reviewers to grant
waivers from prescriptive code requirements. Safe alternate substitutions, however, may
be acceptable, and approval may be granted for such an installation if an equivalent level
2 Fire Protection Systems
of safety can be achieved. All local regulations required by the AHJ are mandatory and/or
enforceable. When applicable codes conlict, the most stringent or exclusive requirement
is enforceable.
Where multiple codes apply or the requirements for an installation are not clear, the local
AHJ should be consulted. It must be clearly understood that the applicable code, or any
governing code, does not abrogate, nullify, or abolish any law, ordinance, or rule adopted
by the local governing AHJ.
AUTHORITIES HAVING JURISDICTION
According to NFPA, the AHJ is the organization, oice, or individual responsible for
approving an installation, piece of equipment, or procedure. AHJs may be governmental,
such as federal, regional, state, or local departments. hey may also be individuals such as
ire chiefs, plan reviewers, or building inspectors. An insurance company representative
may also be an AHJ. It is important to identify all applicable AHJs at the beginning of a
project because they all will have a say in the projects requirements.
Before any building is built or remodeled, code dictates that a permit shall be secured
from the AHJ. Project approval and the permit are typically issued by the local building
department and/or ire prevention bureau. Permits are oicial documents issued in the name
of the owner to a contractor prior to the start of construction, and they are not transferable.
he permit process provides AHJs with information regarding what, where, how, and when
a speciic building that is under their jurisdiction will be built or altered. Further, it allows
the building oicial to review and approve devices, safeguards, and procedures that may
be needed to ensure the safe use or occupancy of a building.
For a project of appreciable size and scope, a plan reviewer is typically required to review
the construction plans for compliance with the code. If it is determined that the planned
construction meets the minimum requirements of all applicable codes and standards, the
permit is issued. If all requirements are not met or if the plan reviewer requires clariica-
tions, revisions to and a resubmission of the construction plans to the building department
may be required.
Changes in occupancy, storage (including arrangement, commodity, or quantity),
manufacturing process, or physical building alterations or upgrades also require a permit
and plan review.
When a project is being developed, the following steps usually take place:
1.Project design
2.Permitting
3.Construction/installation
4.Inspection and testing
5.Issuance of the certiicate of occupancy
AHJs should be included as early as possible and in all steps of a project.
Before the certiicate of occupancy is issued, as well as during construction, inspections
may be performed by the building and/or ire inspector. he purpose of an inspection is
to verify that construction is being completed in accordance with the approved plans and
applicable codes and standards. It is common for ire inspectors to require full functional
testing of ire protection and life-safety systems.
Ater construction is complete and the certiicate of occupancy is issued, the relationship
between the owner (or the designated representative) and the AHJ is not over. he owner
Chapter 1: Fire Protection Fundamentals 3
is responsible for the inspection, testing, and maintenance of all aspects of the buildings
ire protection system, including ire barriers, egress routes, emergency lighting, emer-
gency signage, smoke detectors, ire alarms, and ire sprinklers. he AHJ is responsible
for enforcing compliance with ire and life-safety requirements to help ensure the safety of
building occupants and irst responders. Emergency response plans should be developed
and practiced by occupants, and a schedule and record of ire drills, training, and required
ire protection system inspection, testing, and maintenance should be maintained. hese
plans and records must be retained by the owner and inspected by the AHJs.
he owner is responsible for maintaining their property and the systems and procedures
that protect the safety of its occupants. If an AHJ inds a property that is not maintained
to an acceptable level of safety, the owner can be ined, and the propertys certiicate of
occupancy can be revoked.
FIRE PROTECTION ORGANIZATIONS
Many important organizations are associated with the ire protection industry. hree of
these organizations that are important to recognize are NFPA, UL, and FM Global.
National Fire Protection Association
NFPA is a nonproit technical and educational organization dedicated to the protection
of lives and property from ire. he association was founded in 1896 when the need for a
single standard regarding sprinkler installation in buildings was recognized. he association
administers a standards-developing program and publishes ire and life-safety standards
and codes that are used by ire protection professionals, insurance companies, businesses,
and governments. NFPA also provides ire information and statistics to the ire protection
ield, conducts onsite investigations of signiicant ires, and develops publications and
training programs. hese are oten the basis of education for the ire protection community
and the general public.
NFPA is a membership organization consisting of ire service personnel, engineers, con-
tractors, insurers, business and industry representatives, government oicials, architects,
educators, volunteers, and private citizens.
NFPA standards do not have the power of enforcement; they are strictly advisory.
However, these standards have been adopted as the basis for most of the applicable ire
protection codes, which have enforcing power.
Some of the NFPA standards applicable to plumbing engineering are:
u NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
u NFPA 14: Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems
u NFPA 20: Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection
u NFPA 24: Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and heir Appur-
tenances
u NFPA 25: Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire
Protection Systems
UL
UL is a safety consulting and certiication company dedicated to promoting safe living and
has its roots in electrical and ire safety. UL was established in 1894 and published its irst
standard, Tin Clad Fire Doors, in 1903. he following year, the UL Mark made its debut
with the labeling of a ire extinguisher.
UL supports manufacturers, regulatory authorities, building owners, and insurance com-

panies with certiication and customized testing services for a variety of ire suppression
equipment, including products for residential and commercial sprinkler systems. UL tests
and certiies sprinklers and nozzles to standards such as the following:
u UL 199: Standard for Automatic Sprinklers for Fire Protection Service
u UL 1767: Standard for Early-Suppression Fast-Response Sprinklers
u UL 1626: Standard for Residential Sprinklers for Fire Protection Service
u UL 2351: Standard for Spray Nozzles for Fire Protection Service
Other notable UL life-safety standards include:
u UL 217: Standard for Smoke Alarms
u UL 268: Smoke Detectors for Fire Alarm Systems
FM Global
FM Global performs research and testing, ofers guidance, and provides insurance in the
ire protection ield. It was founded in 1835 when it became apparent that large industrial
and commercial companies needed ire insurance coverage.
FM Global is similar to UL in that it tests equipment, devices, and systems to determine if
their reliability and eiciency will receive the FM Approved mark. he FM Approval Guide
lists all products, devices, equipment, and systems approved by FM Global. he guide also
includes details of installation and materials.
FM Global publishes its own requirements in FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data
Sheets; however, some NFPA standards are adopted in their entirety.
FIRE PREVENTION
Contractors, owners, building occupants, and even transient guests can play a part in ire
prevention. he best protection from a ire is for a ire to never start in the irst place. his
is why it is important for everyone to do their part in ire prevention.
It is well understood that children must be taught that ires are dangerous and can quickly
become uncontrolled; however, oten overlooked or underestimated is the fact that adults
also must be trained to understand the dangers of ire in their daily lives. Hazards exist,
whether they be in the kitchen in a home or in an industrial process in the workplace. Ed-
ucation is the heart of ire prevention. When ire risks are understood, safety and practical
ire prevention can be practiced.
Precautions such as prohibiting smoking and maintaining good housekeeping are of
paramount importance. Following standards and manufacturers instructions for the instal-
lation and use of building systems and components, especially those involving electricity
or combustion, can also help prevent a ire.
Building construction and industrial processes can put a facility at risk of ire. A height-
ened sense of caution and preparedness needs to be exercised under the following conditions
due to their inherent danger:
u During welding, soldering, or brazing operations
u In the vicinity of lammable or combustible materials storage
u In areas with an accumulation of waste materials
u When an open lame is used for any reason
u When building ire protection systems are impaired
During any of the above conditions, the code or the AHJ may require a dedicated person
or persons qualiied for the duty to conduct a ire watch while the condition exists.
PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

Passive ire protection refers to ire separation, compartmentalization, structural stability,
and a safe means of escape. hese are all aspects of ire protection that are built into a
building from the very beginning of design. For example, the construction and locations
of walls and doors could easily be overlooked when ire protection systems are being dis-
cussed, but they are critical to the protection of life and property in the built environment.
Fire-Rated Barriers
Fire-rated walls and doors are designed to contain the spread of smoke and ire. hese walls
and doors are barriers used to create separations that protect an area of a building that is
free from smoke and ire from an area that is not. hese ire-resistive barriers can be used
to compartmentalize a building to prevent the migration of smoke and ire to areas outside
of the building section where the ire began.
hese building components and the resultant separations are rated in numbers of hours,
usually between 30 minutes and four hours. his rating is based on how long the building
component can maintain its integrity during a speciic ire that increases in severity with
time based on a speciic standard. It is important to understand that this rating does not
guarantee an integrity time for the building component during any ire that building com-
ponent may encounter for the time period stated by its rating. If a building component is
exposed to a more severe ire, then the component may fail sooner.
Structural Stability
Structural stability is also an important part of passive ire protection. he structural de-
sign of a building is required to account for the weight of the structure and the buildings
contents, but a safety factor or other methods need to be incorporated into the design to
ensure that the structure does not lose its ability to support the building in the case of a ire.
As an unprotected steel structure is heated in a ire, it can fail and cause a building to
collapse. Wood and concrete structures can also fail due to exposure to ire. he ways in
which these materials react to ire difer, but the result of their failures can be catastrophic.
hus, the methods employed to prevent or slow the failure of a buildings structure are very
important aspects of ire protection.
Direct Means of Egress
he shape and layout of a building are also related to passive ire protection. Codes are very
speciic about the maximum distances an occupant must travel to reach an exit. hese exit
paths must meet speciic requirements that oten incorporate the use of the above-men-
tioned ire-resistive barriers. Paths of travel must be unobstructed, of a certain width, and
provided with emergency lighting. he direction an occupant must travel to reach an exit
must be clearly identiied. he number and size of exits provided in a building are required
to be adequate to accommodate all building occupants during evacuation.
For passive ire protection systems to function as designed, it is important that their
importance is recognized and their use is understood. Exits and exit paths function only
when they are free from obstructions. Navigating an escape route can be diicult in a ire,
but it is signiicantly easier when an occupant is familiar with the route and has practiced
ire drills. Compartmentalization and ire separations function only when doors are closed.
Propping a door open will cause the ire barrier to fail and can increase the resultant damage
due to smoke and ire.
DETECTION AND NOTIFICATION

Fire detection and occupant notiication are a critical part of ire protection. hey minimize
a ire events impact on life and property by reducing occupant evacuation and ireighter
response times. Timely evacuation is aided by local notiication of the ire alarm system,
commonly provided by horns and strobes, and early suppression is made possible by
direct notiication of the municipal ire department or by communication with remote
monitoring stations.
he requirements for facility ire alarm systems vary based on the applicable building
code, but most installations are based on the National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
(NFPA 72).
Fire detection most commonly is accomplished via the detection of smoke, but ire can
also be detected by other means such as heat or optical characteristics. Todays ire detec-
tion technologies ofer a large number of options that must be properly matched to the
detection systems requirements, the environment in which the devices will be installed,
and the type of ire to detect.
Notiication occurs ater a ire is detected or some other alarm-initiating event happens,
such as the actuation of a manual pull station or sprinkler water low switch. When a ire
alarm system goes into alarm, the sounding of horns and lashing of strobes is not the full
extent of the systems capabilities. Mass notiication systems utilize pre-recorded voice
messages to instruct occupants, and notiication can also be accomplished through the use
of text messaging and email. Fire alarm systems can also interact and control many building
system upon alarm, such as elevators, smoke or ire barrier doors, and HVAC systems. In
industrial occupancies, ire alarm systems can initiate the shutdown of process equipment.
he capabilities of ire alarm systems have been steadily evolving, and with increased
capabilities and the resultant functionality and integration, it is very important that system
reliability and proper function are ield veriied and commissioned.
SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS
Fire suppression systems are engineered and designed speciically for each individual
installation to protect a speciied occupancy and/or property from a ire of a particular
size and type. he required design and associated calculations are based on an anticipat-
ed worst-case ire, oten referred to as the design ire. Systems are typically designed to
suppress only one ire at a time. Systems typically consist of an extinguishing agent (water
or chemical, liquid or gas) oten stored in a tank or provided with a connection to a large
source of that agent, a network of distribution piping, ittings, valves, and discharge nozzles.
Design calculations determine nozzle quantity, placement, low rate, and pressure and
the total system quantity of the extinguishing agent required for suppression. he pipe,
itting, and valve arrangements are critical aspects of ire suppression system design that
afect these calculations. Some ire suppression systems, however, are pre-engineered and
do not require design and calculation for each speciic installation as long as the systems
guidelines are followed and the systems parameters are not exceeded. hese pre-engineered
systems are common for kitchen hood ire suppression, but they can be found in other
applications as well.
To design an adequate ire suppression system, the designer must know what is required
to protect the particular occupancy type. his is based on the expected design ire and
the severity of the hazard. For use in the design of automatic sprinkler systems, NFPA
13 lists occupancies in generalized hazard class categories based on the magnitude of the
expected ire severity. he designation of a particular occupancy to a speciic hazard class
is a generalization that can be used as a guideline, but every property should be evaluated
based on its own design ires potential.
NFPA 13s hazard classiications are based on an occupancys quantity of combustible
material and its design ires heat release rate. More severe hazard classes signify more
challenging design ires and, therefore, more robust suppression systems. Assigning the
correct hazard class to a property is important because if the hazard potential is underes-
timated, the suppression system may not be able to contain a ire of a severity greater than
the one for which it was designed.
Development of the Life Safety Code
In the irst decade of the 20th century, no technical committee was exclusively geared
toward life-safety concerns. he Triangle Shirtwaist ire on March 25, 1911 changed that
and helped in the development of todays Life Safety Code (NFPA 101).
One of the largest clothing manufacturing companies in New York City, the Triangle
Shirtwaist Company was located on the eighth, ninth, and tenth loors of the Asch Build-
ing. he company had more than 500 employees, many of whom were young women and
immigrants, who worked long hours in dirty, cramped conditions.
he building itself was a iretrap. It was constructed nearly completely of wood, which
was unusual for a building as tall as it was. Instead of three stairways as required by city
codes, the building had only two, as the architect had argued that the ire escape outside
the building could suice as the third stairway. he ire escape, however, went only as far
as the second loor. he doors to the exits opened in toward the rooms instead of outward
because the stairways landing was only a stairs width from the door. Also, egress routes
were narrow and full of obstacles, and partitions were placed in front of elevators and
doors. Finally, the Triangles housekeeping contributed to the ire. Rags from cutaway cloth
materials frequently piled up on the loors and in storage bins. At the time of the ire, the
rag bins had not been emptied in two months.
Just before quitting time on March 25, 1911, a worker noticed smoke coming from one
of the rag bins. In the clothing industry, a ire of this nature was not unusual, but this ire
spread rapidly, overcoming employees who tried to put out the ire with buckets of water.
Workers on the eighth loor rushed for the exits. One exit was locked, a company policy
during working hours. Once it was unlocked, panic ensued, causing a logjam of people
in the stairway. Other workers frantically ran for the elevators, but the elevators had been
summoned to the tenth loor, where the executive oices were located. When the elevators
arrived, they were crammed with people. he elevators made so many trips in an efort to
save workers on the eighth and tenth loors that the operators were inally overcome by
smoke and exhaustion. Some workers climbed out onto the ire escape. One person fell
down the ire escape to the courtyard below. Others climbed down to the sixth loor and
then went down the stairs to the street.
Approximately 260 workers were on the ninth loor, which was congested with long
sewing tables that ran along the length of the loor. he only way to exit the loor was to
walk all the way to one end, negotiating around chairs and baskets. When the quitting bell
rang, the irst worker out walked down the stairs to go home. When he reached the eighth
loor, he noticed smoke and lames. He continued on a short distance and then realized
that he must warn the others on the ninth loor. By then, however, it was too late. he stairs
leading back to the ninth loor were consumed in lames.
he ninth-loor workers discovered the ire when it entered the windows from the loor
below. About 150 workers raced for the remaining stairway, and about 100 made it to the
street. Others ran for the ire escape. Jammed with people and hot from the ire, the ire
escape pulled away from the building, sending many people to their deaths. Many others
rushed for the elevators, but they were full. Some jumped or were pushed into the elevator
shat. A few slid down the elevator cables.
he ire department arrived in a timely manner, but could do little because its equipment
only reached the seventh loor. A total of 147 people lost their lives in the ire.
9
Basic Chemistry and

Physics of Fire 2
A ire is a chemical reaction involving fuel, oxygen, and heat. hese elements form what
is called the ire triangle (see Chapter 6). Chemical reactions can be either endothermic,
a reaction that consumes heat during the process, or exothermic, a reaction that releases
heat during the process.
Heat is the energy that is absorbed or emitted when a given chemical reaction occurs. In
the case of ire, energy in the form of heat is required to begin the reaction, and then ater
the reaction is started, heat is released. In other words, combustion begins as an endother-
mic reaction and then continues as an exothermic reaction. In the case of an explosion,
the combustion reaction proceeds rapidly.
Most combustibles, such as solid organic materials, lammable liquids, and gases, contain
a large percentage of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). he most common oxidizing material
is the oxygen (O2) found in air. Air is composed of oxygen (approximately 20 percent),
nitrogen (approximately 80 percent), and traces of other elements. In general, any material
containing carbon and hydrogen can be combined with oxygen, or oxidized.
Usually, both fuel and oxygen molecules must be brought together and then activated
before a ire is produced. his activation can be caused by:
u A spark from a nearby ire or from electrical equipment
u High friction between two hard surfaces rubbing together, which in turn elevates the
materials temperature
u Intense heat, which creates the possibility of the material reaching its lash point (see the
Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, published by the National Fire Protection
Association [NFPA])
Once the fuel and oxygen are combined and activated, a chemical chain reaction starts,
which causes ire to develop. Heat, smoke, and gases are continuously produced during
this process. Once the ire begins, it will continue to burn as long as fuel, oxygen, and heat
are present.
Other elements that may afect a ire include the following:
u A catalyst: A substance that when added or taken away may afect the rate of the chemical
reaction, while the substance itself is not changed
u Inhibitors or stabilizers: Substances that hinder the mixing of fuel and oxygen
u Contaminants: Substances that, if present, may or may not inluence the reaction
SMOKE
Combustion produces smoke, gases, and heat, which form what is called the ire signature.
he ire signature is never the same for two ires. Smoke, gases, and heat can produce drastic
changes in the environment and be hazardous to humans. Statistics show that when a ire
occurs, about 60 percent of human casualties are due to smoke and toxic gas inhalation.
his may be due to confusion, since people reaching a smoke-illed area on the way to an
escape route will normally turn back rather than go through the area to safety.
NFPA 92: Standard for Smoke Control Systems is a very good source of information on
smoke. According to NFPA, smoke is the airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases
evolved when a material undergoes pyrolysis or combustion, together with the quantity
of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. hese airborne particulates are
lightweight, and they rise and spread by air movement.
he amount of smoke produced when a ire burns depends on the mass of air or gas
drawn into the ire, which, in turn, is based on the type of combustible. he amount of air
is based on the pressure diference between the ire area and the adjacent space.
Smoke Control
In the early 1970s it became evident that, in the design of multistory buildings, smoke
control should be included as part of the life-safety systems. In all buildings, buoyancy and
the stack efect cause smoke to travel upward; however, smoke movement difers between
short buildings and tall buildings. In a short building, the inluences of heat convective
movement and gas pressure are major factors in smoke movement. In tall buildings, the
stack efect drastically modiies the same factors due to the strong drat from the ground
loor to the roof due to the diference in temperature.
Computerized smoke-control models have been developed to assess and/or control smoke
movement in a building. hese models can simulate the expected behavior of smoke in a
multilevel building. Variables such as the outside air temperature, wind speed, building
height, air leakage (in and out), building coniguration, stack efect, thermal expansion, air
supply, and air exhaust can all be programmed into a computer-simulated scenario. his
modeling is useful in planning and assessing building design and performance.
A trend in smoke control in buildings is to create smoke-free areas, such as a buildings
egress or stairwells. Stairwell pressurization is an accepted way to prevent smoke from
seeping into stairwell enclosures. However, care must be taken to not create too much
overpressure, which can make access into the stairwell through doors nearly impossible.
For this reason, doors are designed to open out of rather than into a stairwell. he stack
efect and air movement are also factors in creating a smoke-free stairwell. Ducting air into
the stairwell at diferent levels is desirable to prevent uneven pressurization.
Another method of smoke control involves the pressurization capability of the loors
above and below the space where a ire occurs. his air-pressurized barrier prevents smoke
from iniltrating the adjacent loors by producing a higher pressure than the loor in which
the ire and smoke developed. Such an arrangement can be programmed into the air-con-
ditioning system as a ire emergency mode.
MATERIAL COMBUSTIBILITY
Fire protection professionals must have some knowledge of chemistry to estimate the
combustibility of the materials in an area as well as the heat and smoke expected to develop
during a ire.
he combustibility of a material really means its capacity to burn. Combustible materials
oten present themselves in the form of gases, liquids, and solids. Simple organic materials
include common fuels, which are also the building blocks of more complex fuels. For exam-
ple, organic liquids like solvents and hydraulic luids are all highly combustible. Common
combustibles encountered in everyday activity include the following:
Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry and Physics of Fire 11
u Wood and all wood products

u Textiles and all textile materials
u Cushioning, man-made foam, and other applicable synthetic materials
u Finishes such as paints, stains, and lacquers
u Flammable liquids and gases
u Plastic materials
A noncombustible material as deined by NFPA is a material, in the form in which it is
used, and under the conditions anticipated, that will not ignite, burn, support combustion,
or release lammable vapors when subjected to ire or heat.
NFPA 220: Standard on Types of Building Construction also contains the requirements
for a material to be considered limited combustible.
As previously stated, the principal constituents of combustible materials are carbon (C)
and hydrogen (H+). Combustible organic solids are classiied as either hydrocarbons, with
the chemical compounds CH and CH2 as a base, or others like cellulose and its compounds,
which contain the chemical group CH (OH). When these materials burn, the resulting
products are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). If any of these combustible organic
materials is present when a ire occurs, the lames propagate quickly (at a rate of a few feet
per second).
FIRE EXTINGUISHING
When attempting to control a ire, the aim is to break the chemical reaction or the contin-
uous combination of fuel and oxygen. Another goal is to reduce one of its products: heat.
Since ire is an exothermic reaction, one way to extinguish a ire is by cooling.
he oldest and most universally known ire extinguishing agent is water. Water works
as an extinguishing agent because it:
u Absorbs heat1 gallon per minute (gpm) at 60F can absorb 1,000 British thermal
unit per hour (Btuh).
u Can extinguish a ire in a closed area at a rate of 1 gpm to a volume of 100 cubic feet.
u Vaporizes at 500F and expands 2,500:1 at this temperature.
u Is more efective when mixed with thinning agents, becoming what is referred to as
wet water.
u Reduces the heat generated by a ire.
Other ways to extinguish a ire or control the chemical reaction are to:
u Remove the fuel.
u Reduce or eliminate the oxygen available for combustion by introducing an inert gas
such as nitrogen (N) or, in small ires, cover the ire with a blanket.
u Apply chemical extinguishers such as carbon dioxide, sodium, or potassium bicarbonate
(or other dry chemicals).
To prevent the occurrence and/or spread of a ire, the designer should use methods to
reduce the combustibility of various materials. hese methods may include (for unoccu-
pied areas) creating an inert atmosphere or using ire-retardant materials. However, many
materials contain oxidizing agents, which will provide oxygen for combustion even in an
inert atmosphere, so be aware of their presence.
he ire-retardant or lame-resistant treatment of otherwise combustible materials helps
protect against ire. his type of treatment for textile or wooden materials substitutes or im-
pregnates the material with a noncombustible (or less combustible) substance. he process
can be accomplished through either an absorption or a saturation process. Impregnation

can be done in a vacuum, in which case it is called pressure impregnation.
13
Fire Safety in
Building Design 3
Fire safety must be incorporated early in the design of a building, and the applicable build-
ing codes and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards should be consulted
and the requirements strictly followed. One important element is the ire resistance of a
building, which is detailed in NFPA 220: Standard on Types of Building Construction. he
ire-resistance rating is the time that materials or assemblies can withstand exposure to ire
based on the tests prescribed by NFPA 220.
All architectural and engineering disciplines involved in the design of a building are
responsible for various aspects of ire protection, such as the following:
u Determining the location, number, and construction of normal and emergency exits
(architect)
u Designing emergency lighting, ire alarm systems, and grounding, and specifying spark-
proof equipment in hazardous locations (electrical engineer)
u Determining the operation mode of the air-conditioning and/or ventilation equipment
in ire situations (mechanical engineer)
u Protecting the buildings support beams and columns against high heat, performing
structural calculations, and selecting protective materials (structural engineer)
EXITS AND OPENINGS
During the design stage of a building, special attention is given to the protection of exits,
including stairways, corridors, and exit doors. All stairs and other exits in a building should
be arranged to clearly point in the direction of egress toward the street. Exit stairs that
continue beyond the loor of discharge to the street should be interrupted at the loor of
discharge by partitions, doors, or other efective means.
Building openings and penetrations are usually designed to help stop the spread of ire
and smoke while containing gaseous, total-looding ire extinguishing systems. If a gaseous
agent is used, then strategically located relief vents must be provided for the air displaced
by the ire suppression agent when it is released.
FIRE BARRIERS
To contain a ire in a certain area, a building includes passive restraints, or ire barriers,
such as ire walls, ire-resistant loors, and ire-rated doors. Areas that may be more prone
to ire, such as control rooms, computer rooms, and repair and maintenance shops, must
be constructed of noncombustible materials. he walls, loors, and ceilings in these areas
must also be designed with a ire rating per code requirements. For example, if a door must
contain a glass opening larger than 100 square inches, a speciic ire door rating will apply.
From a ire and smoke protection point of view, doors are designed and constructed
based on the degree of protection they provide, such as:
u Non-ire-rated doors, such as the type used in a one- or two-family dwelling that provide
limited protection when closed
u Fire-rated doors tested to withstand ire for a deined period
u Smoke-stop doors made of lighter construction, which provide a barrier to the spread
of smoke
For industrial construction, automatic ire doors in walls must be used to cut of the
following areas:
u Boiler rooms
u Emergency or standby diesel-generator rooms
u Oil-storage rooms
u Storage rooms for combustible materials
u Flammable, oil-illed circuit breakers, switches, or transformers within a station
u Fuel oil pump and heater rooms
u Diesel ire pump rooms
FIRE SAFETY PERSONNEL
Fire prevention involves a personnel network dedicated to enforcing codes and continuously
educating the general public. Engineers, technicians, contractors, and ireighters design,
install, maintain, and operate ire protection and ire suppression equipment and systems.
Every industry has its own speciic ire hazards and its own danger points, but specially
trained personnel help apply the right protection for the speciic hazard.
However, trained professionals are not the only people responsible for ire safety in a
building. Building owners should include ire suppression systems in their properties and
develop ire prevention programs to it their speciic needs. Occupants should become
familiar with and practice the life-saving features. In large organizations, an individual or
team is typically responsible for safety, which includes ire prevention. Such organizations
should have a ire loss-prevention and control manager dedicated to personnel safety and
ire prevention.
NEW CONSTRUCTION
In the preliminary stages of building construction, a greater danger of ire exists because
permanent suppression means are not yet in place. hus, the following basic ire protection
recommendations should be implemented:
u Provide a temporary water supply source (excluding salt, tidal, or brackish water) for ire
protection during the initial construction period in the amount, pressure, and residual
pressure required by the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). Backlow prevention per
the water authoritys requirements must be provided for the temporary connection. As
construction progresses, a permanent water supply must be made available as soon as
possible, and all temporary ire protection water connections should be disconnected
from the permanent supply.
u Underground mains should be made available as soon as practical, and temporary sprin-
klers should be installed and used until the permanent system is installed and charged.
u As construction progresses, standpipes should be brought up and maintained to be
ready for ireighting use. For high-rise buildings, ireighting personnel prefer to have
a standpipe (wet or dry) ready for operation, if needed, two loors below the highest
loor that is ready.
Chapter 3: Fire Safety in Building Design 15
u he use of open lames and welding/cutting equipment should be properly supervised.

he observation or supervision of such operations should be continued for 30 minutes
ater the work is completed. For such operations, temporary permits are usually required
from the ire department.
u Weather shelters and dust covers should be lame resistant.
u Facilities for hydrant operation should be made available as soon as possible, and
emergency protection in the form of portable extinguishers and hose streams must
be provided. In certain cases, a watchperson and standby ireighting apparatus are
recommended.
u Combustible materials should be kept at a minimum. Form work, shoring, bracing,
scafolding, etc., should be made of mostly noncombustible materials, and the construc-
tion site should be kept clean and orderly. Contractors sheds should be constructed of
limited-combustible materials or kept outside the conines of new construction.
u On rock sites (when blazing for ire protection lines), installation should be performed
simultaneously with general excavation to prevent damaging newly placed concrete.
u Portable ire extinguishers should be made available within 100 feet of any work area
and within 30 feet of welding, burning, or other heat-producing equipment.
In summary, when new construction is concerned, it is always smart to:
u Assign the overall ire prevention/protection to a responsible person.
u Expedite the installation of ireighting systems.
u Dispose of construction waste promptly.
u Store combustibles in enclosed, ventilated, and easy-to-supervise areas.
u Closely supervise temporary heaters.
u Provide temporary ire suppression equipment (e.g., mobile hose stations and portable
extinguishers).
u Carefully handle lammable liquids and gases.
u Establish enclosed, controlled areas for smoking.
u Take special precautions during welding and other operations involving open lame.
REMODELING
During building alteration or remodeling, the sprinkler system should be reconnected
or installed at an early stage and kept operational. If work is done on a certain section of
the system, that section should be isolated while the rest of the ire suppression system is
kept operational. If the entire system is out of order, then standby ire apparatus and/or
a watchperson may be employed per recommendations from the ire department or the
AHJ. Ater the system is repaired, refurbished, or modiied, it must be re-inspected and
retested before the installation is considered complete.
In case a sprinkler system is rearranged (with no occupancy change) and sprinkler
heads must be replaced, they should match the existing sprinklers style, oriice diameter,
temperature rating, coating (if any), and delector type. All of these replacement criteria are
true except if the occupancy and/or the type of inside construction (e.g., ceilings removed
or added) changes.
17
Commissioning, Testing,
and Maintenance 4
he procedures for ire suppression system commissioning are outlined in National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) 3: Recommended Practice for Commissioning of Fire Protec-
tion and Life-Safety Systems. NFPA 4: Standard for Integrated Fire Protection and Life-Safety
System Testing contains testing procedures for ire protection and life-safety systems.
According to NFPA 3, commissioning (Cx) is a systematic process that provides docu-
mented conirmation that speciic and interconnected ire and life-safety systems function
according to the intended design criteria set forth in the project documents and satisfy
the owners operational needs, including compliance requirements of any applicable laws,
regulations, codes, and standards requiring ire and life-safety systems.
Integrated testing and commissioning are sometimes confused and used interchangeably,
but they are not the same thing, which is why two separate NFPA standards were developed.
Integrated testing is a vital part of the entire commissioning process. It is used to verify that
a buildings ire and life-safety systems perform and interact as designed.
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM COMMISSIONING
According to NFPA 3, ire system commissioning has the following objectives: document-
ing the owners project requirements (OPR) and the basis of design (BOD), verifying that
equipment and systems were installed and perform as required, conirming that integrated
testing of ire and life-safety systems was performed, delivering operation and maintenance
manuals, training facility staf, and setting up a system for ongoing maintenance and testing.
All active and passive ire protection and life-safety systems included in a project must
be commissioned, including ixed ire suppression systems and their supporting infrastruc-
ture, control systems, ire and smoke alarm systems, emergency communications systems,
elevator systems, ire extinguishers, means of egress, through-penetration ire stops, ire
walls, barriers, and partitions, and smoke barriers and partitions.
Commissioning Team
he commissioning team can be comprised of any of the following individuals:
u Owner and owners technical support personnel
u Commissioning authority (CxA)
u Fire commissioning agent (FCxA)
u Installation contractors
u Manufacturer representatives
u Registered design professionals (RDP)
u Construction manager/general contractor
u Facility manager or operations personnel
u Insurance representative
u hird-party testing entity
u Authorities having jurisdiction (AHJ)
u Integrated testing agent (ITA)
Commissioning Authority
he CxA is the leader of the overall project commissioning team and is responsible for
planning, organizing, and facilitating the commissioning process on behalf of the owner.
In addition to having good technical knowledge of the systems being commissioned, the
CxA must also have a complete understanding of the commissioning process and possess
the organizational, documentation, communication, and team-building skills that are
necessary to lead and coordinate an efective commissioning team and to ensure that the
intent of the building owner is achieved.
Fire Commissioning Agent
he FCxA is the team leader in the ire protection system commissioning portion of a
project. his individual develops the commissioning plan, schedules and veriies process
requirements, prepares documentation and reports, witnesses and documents testing,
tracks compliance, and recommends system acceptance, among other responsibilities.
he FCxA should be knowledgeable and experienced in both the commissioning process
and ire protection system design. A qualiied FCxA should have an advanced understanding
of the installation, operation, and maintenance of all ire protection and life-safety systems
to be installed, with particular emphasis on integrated system testing. his individual is a
representative of the owner and as such should be objective and unbiased and should not
have any inancial interest in any of the systems being commissioned.
Registered Design Professional
A qualiied RDP should have a comprehensive knowledge of the design, installation, oper-
ation, and maintenance of all of the systems proposed to be installed and how individual
and integrated systems operate during a ire or other emergency.
Integrated Testing Agent
he ITA should be knowledgeable in the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of
the types of ire protection and life-safety systems to be installed as well as have experience
in performance veriication methods to validate the functionality of integrated systems
and components.
Documentation
Documentation of every step of the commissioning process is extremely critical to the
overall success of the project. As each decision is made, documentation provides a basis
for evaluation and acceptance before proceeding to the next step in the process.
Critical documents include the owners project requirements, basis of design, commis-
sioning plan, and inal commissioning report. Other documents that should be generated
during the commissioning process include the commissioning speciications, design review
comments, certiication documentation, submittal review comments, inspection reports,
test data reports, issue and resolution logs and reports, system manuals, and training
documentation.
Chapter 4: Commissioning, Testing, and Maintenance 19
Owners Project Requirements

Developed by the owner, the OPR deines the expectations, goals, benchmarks, and success
criteria for the project. An efective OPR incorporates input from the design team, operation
and maintenance staf, and end users of the building and is updated throughout the project.
Basis of Design
Prepared by the design engineer, the BOD includes design submissions that explain how
the proposed design will meet the owners project requirements. It describes the engineers
approach to system selections and integration, focusing on design features critical to overall
building performance.
Commissioning Plan
he commissioning plan identiies the procedures, methods, and documentation for each
phase of the process. It is updated continuously throughout the design, construction, and
installation phases, and the completed plan becomes the commissioning record that is
given to the owner ater construction.
he commissioning plan should include the following, as applicable to the speciic project:
u Commissioning scope and speciications
u Commissioning team members, including their roles and responsibilities
u Communication plan and protocols
u Commissioning process tasks and schedules
u Required documentation and deliverables
u Required testing procedures
u Recommended training
u Owners project requirements
u Basis of design
u Design and submittal review
u Issues log
u Construction checklists
u Meeting minutes
u Functional performance and ongoing testing procedures
u System manuals and warranties
u Test data reports
Final Commissioning Report
All commissioning requirements, processes, documents, and indings are incorporated
in a inal commissioning report that accompanies the construction contractors turnover
documentation. ASHRAE Guideline 0: he Commissioning Process recommends that the
inal commissioning report be included with O&M manuals in a systems manual.
Commissioning Process
he ire protection system commissioning process has four phases: planning, design,
construction, and occupancy.
Planning Phase
It is best to begin a commissioning project before design to allow time to develop the plan
before anything is installed. he planning phase accomplishes the following:
u Develops the owners project requirements
u Establishes the team
u Identiies the commissioning scope

u Develops the commissioning plan
Design Phase
During the design phase, the basis of design is developed, which should include a de-
scription of the project and systems to be commissioned, performance objectives, and
testing requirements. he construction documents should be compared with the BOD
and modiications should be made to ensure that the owners project requirements are
being met. he commissioning activities schedule should be created and approved, and
team members should be assigned speciic tasks to accomplish according to the schedule.
Construction Phase
During construction, the team members should be performing and documenting their
tasks as required, and the FCxA should update the plan and schedule when needed. he
construction should be inspected before, during, and ater installation. All systems, both
passive and active, shall be tested, and any issues found must be corrected and retested.
Occupancy Phase
he occupancy phase includes inal system testing, delivering all documentation and
reports, training building personnel, and implementing the ongoing inspection, testing,
and maintenance program.
Ater all of the inal modiications have been veriied and accepted, the owner takes oc-
cupancy of the building and is henceforth responsible for the systems inspection, testing,
and maintenance.
Re-Commissioning and Retro-Commissioning
NFPA 3 also addresses re-commissioningto be performed when an existing system that
was previously commissioned is changedand retro-commissioningto be performed on
an existing system that was never commissioned. hese processes shall be performed only
if the building or system is signiicantly changed; NFPA 3 does not prescribe an ongoing
program of re-commissioning.
INTEGRATED TESTING
Requirements for the integrated testing of ire and life-safety systems were originally a
component of NFPA 3, but they were removed and standardized in a new document, NFPA
4, in 2015. According to NFPA, the new standard is intended to make sure that buildings
with integrated and interconnected systems, such as ire alarms, sprinkler systems, emer-
gency communications systems, elevator systems, standby power systems, and stairway
pressurization systems, operate as intended using testing protocols, proper oversight, and
veriication documentation. NFPA 4 is intended for both new and existing buildings.
he purpose of integrated testing is to ensure that all ire and life-safety systems work
together as intended. NFPA 4 does not include testing or performance requirements for
individual systems.
he integrated testing agent is responsible for planning, implementing, and documenting
integrated testing. If qualiied, the building owner may act as the ITA.
Integrated testing should be performed at the end of the commissioning process, when
all systems have been installed. While NFPA 4 does not include a timeframe for testing,
the ITA should develop a test plan that includes the systems to be tested, documentation,
members of the integrated system test team, test scenarios, and test schedules. he test
Chapter 4: Commissioning, Testing, and Maintenance 21
plan should include post-occupancy testing requirements based on an assessment of the

potential failure of a system. NFPA 4 lists a series of triggers prompting this testing, par-
ticularly ater any modiications or additions to the system.
While NFPA 4 provides details on test methods and scenarios, the actual testing protocol
should be developed by the ITA based on the buildings particular systems.
MAINTENANCE
NFPA 25: Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Pro-
tection Systems describes the activities that are required to ensure that ire suppression
systems perform as designed when needed. Other NFPA standards for speciic types of ire
protection systems include requirements as well. Manufacturers also should be consulted
for requirements speciic to their systems.
Ongoing maintenance activities can be divided into the following categories:
u Inspecting
u Testing
u Cleaning
u Preventive maintenance
u Repair and replacement
Inspection
Inspection schedules are usually generated by the owner (or owners representative) and are
based on the manufacturers recommendations for the particular equipment. Inspections
must be conducted to identify early warning signs of failure. A weekly inspection should
be made of any exposed parts, piping, valves, backlow preventers, hangers and supports,
etc. It is important to note any leaks, discoloration, rust, or incorrect positions in any of
these components. his inspection should be performed by someone who is trained to
know what to observe. Of particular importance are valves, most of which must be in a
permanently open position.
he weekly inspection of a ire protection system helps eliminate problems such as
blocked ire department connections, vandalized hydrants, leaking pipes and hoses, missing
nozzles, permanently open valves that are partially closed, blocked or padlocked emergency
exits, and freeze-ups (in the winter).
It is also important to inspect the following:
u All gauges (monthly)
u Priming of water (when required)
u Clean, dry system valves (not full of grease and dirt)
u System air or nitrogen pressure (weekly)
u All control valves, including sealed valves (weekly) and locked valves (monthly)
Testing
he person in charge of the system must test it periodically, based on the requirements
of NFPA 25, practical experience, and/or manufacturer recommendations, to ensure that
the equipment meets speciication requirements. All equipment testing must include
performance and safety checks.
Alarms must be tested on a regular schedule, which must be well publicized to building
occupants. Dry pipe systems must be tested annually but mainly before the winter. Table
4-1 illustrates the test and inspection frequency of water-based suppression systems.
Table 4-1 Test and Inspection Frequency of Water-Based Suppression Systems

Inspection Frequency
Dry, deluge, and preaction system gauges Weekly
Wet system gauges Monthly
Sealed control valves Weekly
Locked control valves Monthly
Tamper switch control valves Monthly
Fire department connections Quarterly
Water low alarm devices Quarterly
Valve supervisory alarm devices Quarterly
Hydraulic nameplate Quarterly
Buildings prior to freezing weather Annually
Hangers, seismic bracing, pipes, and ittings Annually
Sprinklers, spare sprinklers, information sign Annually
Check valves, interior Every 5 years
Internal inspection of piping Every 5 years
Test Frequency
Water low alarm mechanical devices Quarterly
Water low alarm vane and pressure switch type devices Semiannually
Priming water (dry, deluge, and preaction) Quarterly
Low air alarm Quarterly
Main drain (sole water supply through backlow or pressure-reducing valves) Quarterly
Main drain Annually
Control valves (position and operation) Annually
Dry pipe system trip test Annually
Dry pipe system full low trip test Every 3 years
Antifreeze solution Annually
Gauges tested or recalibrated Every 5 years
Sprinklers (extra high temperatures or harsh environment) Every 5 years
Sprinklers, dry Every 10 years
Sprinklers, fast response Every 20 years
Maintenance Frequency
Low-point drains in dry pipe systems (after each operation of the system, before the onset of
As needed
freezing weather)
Sprinklers and automatic spray nozzles Annually
Valves, valve components, and trim (additional maintenance as required by the manufacturers
As needed
instructions)
Cleaning
A scheduled cleaning program is required. Maintenance personnel must perform basic
cleaning duties for each system on a regular basis. All parts of the ire protection system
must be kept clean and free of debris.
Preventive Maintenance
All ire protection equipment must be scheduled for preventive maintenance based on
regular inspection results and a scheduled preventive maintenance program.
Repair and Replacement
As a system ages, the need for repair and perhaps equipment replacement becomes more
prevalent. It is necessary to maintain spare parts and provide for their storage.
23
Fire Detection
Systems 5
A ire protection system consists of prevention, suppression, notiication, auxiliary con-
trol, detection, annunciation, and communication reporting systems. he detection and
communication reporting systems include the following:
u A manual means of sensing the products of a ire
u Automatic detectors that sense the products of a ire, harmful gases, or the lowing of
water or dispersal of suppression agents
u Notiication appliance circuits and notiication appliances
u Local and remote annunciation for the ire alarm system
u A means of controlling auxiliary life-safety and non-life-safety systems
u Communication systems that activate active ire suppression and containment systems
u Communication reporting systems that report to on-premise or of-premise emergency
response centers for ire department dispatching
Unlike sprinkler or suppression systems, detection devices do not control or extinguish
a irethey merely detect the products of ire combustion or deadly gases such as carbon
monoxide or chlorine. However, detection systems are a critical aspect of ire suppression
systems because they provide notiication of a developing ire early enough to allow for
the greatest available safe egress time (ASET). A balanced approach of early ire detection
and suppression control ofers the best possible outcome toward achieving the goal of
protecting the lives of the occupants within the building.
CARBON MONOXIDE DETECTION
State and local building codes are adopting mandatory detection requirements for carbon
monoxide at a rapid pace. hus, ire detection system designers need to be aware of these
requirements and change their approach to identifying not only what is needed for ire
detection, but also carbon monoxide and other harmful gas detection as well.
Because plumbing system designers oten design and specify fuel-ired water heating
equipment and water puriication systems that utilize halogenated gases and compounds, it
is important to be knowledgeable about carbon monoxide detectors and chlorine, ammonia,
and other gas detectors that can be connected to a ire alarm system. It is good practice
to coordinate systems with the professionals responsible for the ire alarm system to let
them know of a need for carbon monoxide or other harmful gas detectors and where in
the building they may be required.
he National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has published additional secondary
power supply requirements for ire alarm systems with carbon monoxide detectors in NFPA
72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code and NFPA 720: Standard for the Installation of
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Detection and Warning Equipment. Along with these additional
power requirements come alarm reporting requirements and separate, distinct evacuation
signaling requirements for carbon monoxide sensors. he details of these requirements

are outside the scope of this chapter, but the plumbing system designer must coordinate
with the design team to ensure that the proper detection devices are installed.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A FIRE ALARM SYSTEM
Some of the questions that must be answered before designing a ire alarm system are:
u What type of detection is required?
u Is automatic smoke detection required?
u Is a high-rise voice evacuation signaling system needed?
u Is auxiliary control of stairwell pressurization required?
u Is circuit pathway survivability needed for a defend-in-place strategy?
A ire alarm detection and signaling system contains the following components:
u A control panel with operator interface and primary and secondary power supplies,
as well as communication and reporting circuits, signaling line circuits (SLC) for ad-
dressable components (intelligent and analog-type sensors), initiating device circuits
(IDC) for conventional detection devices (hardwired, non-intelligent type), and a
notiication appliance circuit (NAC) for horn-strobe or speaker and strobe appliances
for evacuation signaling
u A remote annunciator control panel with communication and reporting circuits
u Auxiliary power to supply additional power and secondary power for NAC circuits or for
auxiliary power to primary components of the ire alarm system that are not powered
by the main control panel
u Heat detectors, which can be either the intelligent analog addressable or the conven-
tional hardwired type
u Smoke detectors
u Manual ire alarm boxes, also referred to as pull stations
u Water low detectors, commonly referred to as low switches on a sprinkler system
u Notiication appliances such as electric horns and strobes
u Auxiliary control for both life-safety and non-life safety functions, such as air handler
shutdown, egress door unlocking, and elevator recall
A detection system must be properly designed and the detectors must be carefully selected
for the types of ire and non-ire hazards (i.e., harmful gases) and the resulting products
expected, which depend on the combustible materials, operational activities within the
area, and environmental factors of the protected space.
Even though detectors do not directly afect a ire, they may be connected to initiate
other functions, including:
u Sounding a local and/or remote alarm that notiies building occupants of a ire situation
u Isolating an area by closing dampers and doors
u Either shutting down the operating ventilation equipment or starting smoke evacuation
fans and opening fresh-air dampers or doors
u Supervising the system for ready-for-operation status
u Activating ire suppression systems
Detectors in most types of buildings are electrically connected through communications
circuits (pathways) to a main ire alarm control panel (FACP). Detectors in high-rise
buildings or industrial complexes may also be connected via a communications pathway
from the FACP to a remote ire alarm annunciator panel (FAAP). Control panels are oten
Chapter 5: Fire Detection Systems 25
located in a ire-rated control room, which is intended to be continuously attended. If the

building does not have continuous 24-hour supervision in a given location, the authority
having jurisdiction (AHJ) may insist that a remote annunciator panel be located at the
irst point of entry for the emergency responders, such as a main lobby entrance or a ire
sprinkler riser room.
he control and annunciator panels may also receive trouble signals that indicate such
things as a fault in the supervisory system, a component being in the wrong position, a
depleted secondary power supply battery condition, or some other condition in need of
maintenance and correction.
MANUAL VS. AUTOMATIC DETECTION SYSTEMS
A ire detection system can be either manual or automatic. A manual system relies on a
person to observe ire and/or smoke and pull an alarm to alert occupants. he person may
also activate a suppression system.
An automatic system relies on a detector to sense products of combustion and activate
an alarm or ire suppression system and other auxiliary systems (smoke evacuation, etc.).
Automatic detection can be accomplished with electronic smoke detection, radiant energy
detection, or electronic heat detection, but it is important to note that automatic detection
is also deined in model building codes and NFPA standards as the detection of water
low from a ire sprinkler or suppression system that must be installed and continuously
monitored as required by NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems and
NFPA 72. It is up to the designer to recognize this and any additional requirements for
automatic ire detection that involves applications in addition to water low detection.
An automatic detection system notiies building occupants of a ire or a near-ire condi-
tion and summons an organized response. It may also activate a ire suppression system,
supervise the protection system, and detect any signs of a change of status as well as res-
toration to a non-ire condition.
Before installing an automatic detection system, it is irst necessary to establish whether
or not it is needed. Local codes or regulations may provide guidance for this decision. Some
factors to consider are:
u Importance of the area (types of contents and their value)
u Degree of ire hazard within the area
u Potential of ire spreading
u Type of ire suppression
u Normal occupancy of the area
u Cost of detection and/or suppression systems
u Installation of detection and suppression or just detection
Once a decision is made to install an automatic detection system, it is necessary to
establish the detection requirements for the area and then select the appropriate detector
types and place them in the correct locations and at the correct distances from one another.
TYPES OF DETECTION DEVICES
he four basic types of detectors are heat detectors, smoke/gas detectors, lame detectors,
and water low detectors.
Heat Detectors
Heat detectors sense the heat produced by burning combustibles. hey are the oldest and
least expensive automatic detectors available. hey also have the lowest rate of false alarms.
However, they are fairly slow in detecting a ire in its initial stage and are better suited for
small, conined spaces where high heat is expected. Heat detectors also do not detect the
early products of combustion like automatic smoke detectors and radiant energy sensors.
Understanding these limitations is paramount to designing an appropriate life-safety system.
Heat detectors can be either spot detectors, which are concentrated at a particular loca-
tion, or continuous-line detectors, which are used mostly for cable trays and conveyors.
he three types of heat detectors are based on the way they operate: ixed temperature,
rate compensation, and rate of rise.
Fixed-Temperature Heat Detectors
As a spot detector, the ixed-temperature heat detector consists of two metals (each having
a diferent coeicient of thermal expansion) that are bonded together. When heated, one
metal will bend toward the one that expands at a slower rate, causing an electrical contact
to close. his type of detector is very accurate and is set for various temperatures that can
be expected to develop during a ire. It is also automatically self-restoring, which means
that ater the operation is complete, the detector returns to its original shape or condition.
he ixed-temperature type of heat detector is analogous to a thermally operated sprinkler
head in that it is rated and visually labeled for a speciic operating temperature. It is also
UL Listed or FM Approved to provide detection coverage for a speciic-size area.
As a continuous-line detector, the ixed-temperature heat detector can include a pair
of steel wires enclosed in a braided sheath to form a single cable (see Figure 5-1). he
two concentric elements are separated by
heat-sensitive insulation. Under heat ex-
posure, the insulation melts, and the wires
make contact. Since the portion afected
must be replaced, this type is not self-re-
storing.
Another type of continuous-line, Figure 5-1 Continuous-Line Fixed-
Temperature Heat Detector
ixed-temperature heat detector includes
two coaxial cables with temperature-sensitive semiconductor insulation between them. In
cases of high heat, the electrical resistance of the insulation decreases, and more current
lows between the wires, causing contact to be initiated. his type of detection is self-re-
storing because no insulation melting takes place during the process.
Rate-Compensation Type
he rate-compensation heat detector
(see Figure 5-2) reacts to the tem-
perature of the surrounding area.
When the temperature reaches a
predetermined level, regardless of
the rate of temperature rise, electrical
contact is made. he diference be-
tween a rate-compensated detector
and one with a fixed temperature Figure 5-2 Rate-Compensation Heat Detector
is that the former eliminates the response at the peak temperature. he entire detector
enclosure (rate compensation) must reach the critical (previously set) temperature and
only then does it make contact, sounding an alarm or activating a ire suppression system.
Rate-of-Rise Type
he rate-of-rise heat detector (see Fig-
ure 5-3) is efective when a rapid rise
in temperature is expected due to a ire
caused by a speciic type of combustible.
his detector sounds an alarm and/or
starts a suppression system when the
temperature rise is faster than 15 to 25F
per minute. It will compensate for small Figure 5-3 Rate-of-Rise Heat Detector
luctuations.
Smoke Detectors
Smoke detectors can be of either the ionization type or the photoelectric type. he photo-
electric type is further divided into light-obscuration and light-scattering types.
Ionization Type
he ionization type is very common and uses a small quantity of low-grade radioactive
material to ionize the air within the detector and make it electrically conductive. If smoke
enters the detector, the smoke particles attach themselves to the ions, and ion mobility is
decreased. An alarm then sounds.
Photoelectric Type
In the photoelectric light-obscura-
tion type (see Figure 5-4), the detec-
tor consists of a two-piece metal tube
with a light source at one end and a
receiving photo cell at the other. Be-
tween the light source and the receiv-
er is a light beam. he rising smoke
from a ire obstructs the light nor- Figure 5-4 Photoelectric Light-Obscuration
mally traveling toward the receiving Smoke Detector
cell, which then causes the detector
to sound an alarm. Special light ilters
prevent other light sources within the
area from inluencing the cell. his
type has certain special applications
due to the length of the light beam,
which is operationally useful for a
distance up to 300 linear feet. Figure 5-5 Photoelectric Light-Scattering Smoke
he photoelectric light-scattering Detector
type (see Figure 5-5) is similar to the light-obscuration type, except that the light and cell
are located within the detector body, and light beams do not normally fall on the receiv-
ing cell. he light beam is scattered, so when the smoke rises, the light beam is redirected
toward the receiving cell, which then makes contact.
Flame Detectors
Flame detectors respond to radiant energy and respond very quickly to a ire. hey are
oten used in areas where the potential for an explosion exists.
Light is visible to the human eye when its wavelength is between 4,000 and 7,700 ang-
stroms (A). When the wavelength is smaller than 4,000 A, it is ultraviolet light. When the
wavelength is greater than 7,700 A, it is infrared light. Both types of light (ultraviolet and
infrared) are invisible to the human eye.
he ultraviolet light generated by the sun might produce false alarms, so detectors have
been developed to reject sunlight and other unwanted radiation (e.g., from welding). Lenses
must be kept clean and free of dust or mist to be responsive and sensitive. One way to keep
them clean is to provide an air shield. Compressed air is either blown over the lens, or a
mechanism similar to windshield wipers on a car wipes the lens occasionally.
Infrared detectors operate best when they are separated from the lame by height and
distance. hey work well in large open areas that contain an accumulation of lammable
liquids (e.g., aircrat hangars).
he sensing element is either a silicon solar cell or a sulide cell made of lead or cadmium.
A built-in time delay allows the detector to discern a licker from a continuous infrared
light emanating from a ire.
Water Flow Detectors
he paddle-type and pressure-switch types of water low detectors are electrically connected
via communication pathways to the ire alarm system, which continuously monitors them
for a change of state to activated or trouble. hese detectors have physical momentary
switches with two electrically isolated, identical sets of electrical terminals that consist of
a common terminal (neutral), a normally open terminal, and a normally closed terminal.
he electrical isolation is necessary so a line voltage circuit (typically 120 volts AC) can
be routed through one set of terminals for items such as an interior 4-inch water low alarm
or a 10-inch exterior water low alarm, which can be routed through the switch. Also, a
12-volt or 24-volt DC ire alarm initiating device circuit can be run through the other set of
terminals, allowing both supervision and detection of the state of the water low detector.
In most cases, NFPA 13 requires the installation of 4-inch and 10-inch electrically operat-
ed bells (when a water motor gong is not used) as well as connection to a ire alarm control
system. If an automatic sprinkler system is installed, NFPA 72 requires it to be connected
to the automatic ire alarm system to notify building occupants and communicate with
an emergency reporting station for alarm and trouble conditions in the sprinkler system.
A good practice for any sprinkler or suppression system designer is coordinate the loca-
tion of these types of devices along with their valve supervisory switches (tamper switches)
with the ire protection engineer or alarm technician responsible for the design and layout
of the ire alarm system.
CHOOSING A DETECTOR DEVICE
A detectors operational characteristics and physical location inluence the selection of the
detector type and its placement. Following are a few guidelines to consider when selecting
a detector:
u Combustion products: Certain detectors are sensitive to speciic combustibles and no
other products. he detector may only react if the smoke emanating from a material
falls within certain parameters. For example, ionization detectors may not detect large
smoke particles because they lack high mobility.
u Fire development: he speed of ire development difers from oil ires to electrical ires
to other kinds of ires. Some detectors will not detect all types of ire development.
u Ventilation: If a large ventilation air rate is normally needed for the area, then the
combustion products may be drawn out of the area before they reach the detectors.
his might be the case if the detector is mounted on the ceiling. he type of detector
selected should be installed close to the area protected or close to the air exhaust from
the room. he area surrounding the air supply might actually be kept free of smoke.
u Room congestion: Certain detectors have to see the ire. A maze of pipes, ducts, vessels,
etc., may obstruct the hazard area.
u Room geometry: A very high room renders heat, photoelectric, and ionization detectors
inefective. he best choices for such an application are infrared or ultraviolet detectors.
u Operational activities: Check whether the operational activities in the area may produce
signals that would involuntarily trigger detector operation. For example, ionization
detectors do not distinguish between combustion products from a ire and those from
a diesel generator in operation. In a diesel generator room, heat detectors are recom-
mended.
u Cost: If a large number of detectors will be installed, the equipment cost plus installation
costs could become signiicant.
Selecting the right detector is not an easy task. Experience gained with practice coupled
with help from detector manufacturers and consultation with the AHJ can assist in inding
the correct solution.
Table 5-1 provides a summary of the diferent detector applications and recommended
uses.
Table 5-1 Detector Applications Summary
Type Where to Use Application Recommended Use Cost
Heat Detectors
Use limited to indoor
Responds when
Fixed Large open areas, to protect applications, low false
a predetermined Low
temperature heat-generating equipment alarm rate, a reliable
temperature is reached
device
The rate-of-rise response
Should be used indoors,
Rate of rise Large open areas to a speciic temperature Low
low false alarm rate
rise per minute
The detector and its
Rate Large open areas, to protect enclosure must reach a Should be used indoors,
Low
compensated heat-generating equipment critical temperature. It low false alarm rate
compensates to spikes.
Smoke Detectors
Projected beam type used in
open areas, high rack storage,
Photoelectric Smoldering ires Must be used indoors Moderate
computer rooms, and aircraft
hangars
Oices, computer rooms,
Ionization Fast-laming ires Should be indoors Moderate
combustible materials
Flame Detectors
Hazardous work, explosive
Rapid response to
and rocket propellant Indoor use, may be
Infrared infrared radiation High
manufacturing, aircraft afected by heat
generated by ire
hangars
Hazardous work, explosive Rapid response in
May be used indoors or
and rocket propellant milliseconds to ultraviolet
Ultraviolet outdoors, lenses need High
manufacturing, aircraft radiation generated
cleaning
hangars by ire
DETECTOR LOCATION AND SPACING

he location and spacing of detectors must be consistent with the environment in which
they operate and the qualiications for which they were tested. For example:
u Keep heat detectors away from normal heat sources such as space heaters. For spot heat
detectors, it is best to install them on the ceiling or side wall (not closer than 4 inches
from either). When the ceiling either does not have a smooth surface or is higher
than 16 feet, the spacing is based on speciic NFPA recommendations as well as the
requirements of the AHJ.
u Install smoke detectors close to the return air register. hey should not be installed close
to the air supply into the area.
u Install lame detectors where they can see the ire.
EVACUATION SIGNALING (NOTIFICATION APPLIANCE CIRCUITS)
Like ire detectors, signals do not ight ires directly. However, by alerting building occupants
of a ire situation, signals can save lives and/or property.
A ire detection system is normally connected to an alarm system. NFPA 13 requires
the installation of local water-low alarms in areas that have more than 20 sprinkler heads.
his type of signal provides a warning sound and, required in most jurisdictions, a visual
signal as well that alerts personnel that water is lowing from one or more sprinkler heads.
he alarm signal may be initiated by an alarm check valve installed in the systems riser.
his check valve may be connected to a water low switch or a mechanical device, which
activates a gong or bell and has a second circuit connected to the ire alarm system.
Evacuation signaling systems are not detailed in this chapter because specialized tech-
nicians in the electric/electronic ield are responsible for the design and installation of
such systems. However, alarm systems are always installed in cooperation with the ire
protection engineer who establishes the criteria.
31
Fire Suppression
Overview 6
In spite of ire prevention methods, controls, and alarms, ires occur and endanger lives
and property. For this reason, ire suppression systems are necessary. hese systems are
comprised of various agents and methods and are efective at controlling and potentially
extinguishing ires, but whenever a ire starts, ireighters still must be called.
he general strategy when ighting a ire is to locate it, surround it, conine it, and ex-
tinguish it. However, when ireighters arrive at the scene of a ire, their irst concern is
the safety of any occupants who could be trapped. When ireighters attack a ire in a low-
height building, one of their irst actions is to punch a hole in the buildings roof so heat
and gases may escape. If conined, heat and gases could hamper the ireighters capabilities
and escalate the ires development.
EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
Fire suppression involves an extinguishing agent and a means, system, or procedure to apply
the extinguishing agent at the ires location. he selection
of an appropriate extinguishing agent should be based on
several factors, including the following:
u he buildings construction materials and contents
u he type of combustible materials known or assumed to
be involved in a ire in the protected area Heat Oxygen
u he coniguration of the area
u Extinguisher expectations and performance
u How the extinguisher afects one of the three elements
Fuel
involved in the ire triangle (see Figure 6-1)
Figure 6-1 The Fire Triangle
u Cost
u he cleanup required ater the ire is extinguished
Table 6-1 shows the classiications of combustible materials that may be involved in a
ire and the type of suppression agent recommended.
Table 6-1 Classiications of Combustible Materials
Class Combustible Materials Suppression Systems and Agents
Ordinary combustibles such as wood, Water works best. Carbon dioxide and foam designated as Type
A
paper, or anything that leaves ash A can also be used.
Flammable or combustible liquids, Smothering efects, which deplete the oxygen supply, work
B
including oil, gasoline, and similar best (foam, water spray, carbon dioxide, and dry chemicals).
Always de-energize the circuit and then use a nonconductive
C Electrical equipment
extinguishing agent such as carbon dioxide or a clean agent.
Combustible metals, such as Dry powder agents work best by smothering and heat
D
magnesium and titanium absorption.
K Cooking oils, grease, or animal fats Dry powder extinguishing agents work best.
One of the goals of a ire suppression system is to afect one of the three elements in-
volved in a ire (oxygen, fuel, and heat). When ighting a ire that is either exposed to the
atmosphere or involves an oxidizing agent, the goal is to lower the oxygen concentration
below the minimum level (at or below 15 percent for general materials and 8 percent or
lower for a smoldering, deep-seated ire in a cable tray) so combustion is not supported.
One way to prevent contact between a ire and the oxygen contained in the atmosphere
is to apply a layer of inert gas over the ires surface in an enclosed space. If an area is un-
occupied and can be leak-proofed, inerting the respective rooms atmosphere is another
possibility.
he temperature element of a ire may be controlled by cooling the combustion zone.
he temperature should be lowered below the ignition temperature of the fuel vapors.
he most eicient cooling agent utilized in ire suppression is water, which is an extremely
eicient heat absorber. Water is also inexpensive when compared to other extinguishing
agents and available in most buildings through an existing network of pipes. Water is not
dangerous or noxious to humans, and it can be cleaned easily.
Fires involving lammable liquids or gases are typically extinguished by cutting of the
fuel supply at the source (such as closing a valve, which may be activated by a fusible link).
Water
Fixed water systems include hydrants on streets, hose stations or standpipe stations in
buildings, and sprinklers in buildings. All of these systems require a reliable source of water
and a connecting network of distribution pipes. he supply of water may come from the
city water line or a natural body of water such as a river, lake, or well (freshwater only).
Note: In areas with freezing temperatures, man-made reservoirs must be protected and
checked daily.
A water source must be reliable. It must be available during droughts or freezing tem-
peratures and be able to supply the anticipated amount required as determined by engi-
neering calculations or available standards such as those by the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA).
When the water supply source cannot provide enough water low, storage tanks may be
installed to furnish the balance required during ireighting operations. NFPA 22: Standard
for Water Tanks for Private Fire Protection provides the standard installation and mainte-
nance details for water tanks in private ire protection systems.
he amount of water stored for ire protection purposes varies with the type of hazard.
Calculations take into consideration the standard amount of water stored as well as the
low required and the expected duration of the suppression operation. hese calculations
determine a base storage requirement.
From the reservoir, water may be supplied to the extinguishing system by gravity (if
the required head or pressure available is adequate) or with the assistance of pumps. he
gravity system may be employed when the water source is located at an elevation high
enough to provide the required working pressure at the sprinkler or hose station in the
most remote location. When this pressure is not available, pumps are installed to deliver
the low capacity and pressure required for system operation.
If the supply system delivers a pressure that is lower than that required, booster pumps
are installed. his type of pump boosts the pressure for proper system operation.
Chapter 6: Fire Suppression Overview 33
Where dual water sources, chemicals, and/or pumps are needed, check with the water
authority for the proper backlow prevention required.
Alternative Suppression Systems
Other ire suppression agents are available in addition to water. hese include the following:
u Carbon dioxide (CO2)
u Clean agents: HFC-227ea (FM-200), HFC-125 (ECARO-25, FE-25), and FK-5-1-12
(3M Novec 1230)
u Inert gases: IG-55 (ProInert, Argonite) and IG-100, IG-541 (Inergen)
u Dry and wet chemicals
u Foam
hese systems are detailed in later chapters in this manual and the appropriate NFPA
standards.
35
Fire Pumps 7
In a pressurized water-distribution system for ire protection, the irst piece of equipment
is the pump, which supplies and distributes water (through a network of pipes in the case
of ire protection) from the source (reservoir
or city water pipe) to the point of application
(see Figure 7-1). For the purposes of this
book, a pump is deined as a mechanism that
is used to push a liquid with a speciic force
to overcome friction losses and any existing
diferences in elevation (static or head losses).
he pump produces this force with the help
of a motor or a driver and consumes energy
in the process.
Fire pumps are part of National Fire Pro-
tection Association (NFPA) history. They
were mentioned in the irst standard issued
in 1896, and in 1899 an NFPA committee was
organized to study ire pumps.
All ire pumps must be listed with UL. he
various types of centrifugal pumps used for
fire protection include Figure 7-1 Fire Pump System
horizontal split case, in-
line, end suction, and vertical turbine (see Figure 7-2). Pump capacities
range from 25 to 5,000 gallons per minute (gpm), and pressures range
from 40 to more than 500 pounds per square inch (psi). Electric motors
and diesel drivers (both of which must be UL Listed) may occasionally
exceed 500 horsepower (hp). A special feature of a ire pump is the fact
that it must deliver 150 percent of the rated capacity at no less than
65 percent of the rated head (pressure). In other words, a 1,000-gpm
pump rated at 100 psi must be capable of delivering 1,500 gpm at a
minimum of 65 psi.
Another special feature is that the shutof pressure of a ire pump
(i.e., at zero capacity) must not exceed 140 percent of the pressure at the
rated capacity. Many pumps on the market have a much lower shutof
head than 140 percent. All ire pumps must be used with positive suc-
Figure 7-2 Vertical tion pressure, and they cannot be used for suction lit applications. If
Turbine Fire Pump suction lit is required, a vertical turbine pump must be used.
Source: Patterson Pump Co.
he capacity of a pump is the rate of luid low delivered, which is generally expressed in
gallons per minute. he head (pressure) furnished is the energy per unit weight of the liquid.
he total head developed by a pump is the discharge head minus the suction (inlet) head:
Equation 7-1
H = hd hs
where
H = Total head, ft
hd = Discharge head, ft
hs = Suction inlet head, ft
PUMP COMPONENTS
he pump housing is referred to as the casing, which en-
closes the impeller and collects the liquid being pumped. Figure 7-3 Impeller Rotation
he liquid enters at the center, or eye, of the impeller (or eyes of the impeller in the case of
a horizontal split-case pump). he impeller rotates, causing centrifugal force to push the
liquid out (see Figure 7-3). he velocity is the greatest at the impellers periphery, where
the liquid is discharged through a spiral-shaped passage called the volute. he shape is
designed to provide an equal liquid velocity at all circumference points.
he ire pump assembly consists of a pump and a driver. Common drivers for ire pumps
are electric motors and diesel engines. Steam turbines, while still in the code, are no longer
available on the market. he maximum speed of listed ire pumps is 3,600 revolutions per
minute (rpm).
Pumps with double drivers are no longer allowed per NFPA 20: Standard for the Installa-
tion of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection. he most common driver is the electric-motor
squirrel cage, induction type, three phase, in various voltages. Controllers are available for
combined manual and automatic operation.
Diesel drivers do not depend on outside sources of power (electricity). A diesel driver
is similar to a car engine, except that it is stationary and runs on diesel fuel oil (no. 2). A
storage tank for no. 2 fuel oil should contain enough fuel for eight hours of continuous
pump operation and have a capacity of at least 1 gallon per horsepower plus a 5 percent
volume for expansion and a 5 percent volume for sump. (Note: 1 hp equals 0.746 kW, or
3 kW equals approximately 4 hp.)
Diesel engine controllers must have an alarm system to indicate:
u Low lubricating oil pressure
u High coolant temperature in the engine jacket
u Failure to start automatically
u Shutdown on over-speed
u Battery failure
u Battery charger failure
u Engine running
u Controller main switch turned from automatic to manual or of
To ensure that the pump will start when required, it should have an optional timer that
will start the pump once a week and run it for a predetermined time (usually 30 minutes).
A few things to consider with a motor-driven ire pump follow:
u he diesel fuel tank shall be mounted high enough to keep the engine primed.
Chapter 7: Fire Pumps 37
u he main control switch shall be automatic.

u he pump shall start automatically in case of a drop in system pressure.
u he pump may be started manually or automatically (for test purposes).
Per NFPA 20, the component of the ire pump shall be sized as shown in Table 7-1.
Table 7-1 Centrifugal Fire Pump Component Sizing Data

Pump Relief Relief Valve Meter Number Size of Hose
Suction, Discharge,
Rating, Valve, Discharge, Device, of Hose Hose Header
in. in.
gpm in. in. in. Valves Valve, in. Supply, in.
250 3 3 2 2 3 1 2 3
300 4 4 2 3 3 1 2 3
400 4 4 3 5 4 2 2 4
450 5 5 3 5 4 2 2 4
500 5 5 3 5 5 2 2 4
750 6 6 4 6 5 3 2 6
1,000 8 6 4 8 6 4 2 6
1,250 8 8 6 8 6 6 2 8
1,500 8 8 6 8 8 6 2 8
2,000 10 10 6 10 8 6 2 8
Source: NFPA 20
BOOSTER PUMPS
When a ire protection installation is supplied from a low-pressure water source, the system
will require a booster pump. his type of pump raises the pressure in the water supply line.
For a relatively small installation, the pressure from the city water source is usually adequate.
he booster pump is selected based on the low requirements and the pressure diference
required. If, for example, the required operating pressure for a ire protection system is 125
psi and the pressure available from the source at rated low (such as city water) is 50 psi, a
booster pump is necessary. To calculate the booster pump size required, ind the diference
between the required and available pressures, which in this case is 75 psi (125 psi 50 psi).
A safety factor of 10 percent should be added to the required pressure, so 125 psi + 12.5
psi (safety factor) 50 psi = 87.5, or a 90-psi pump head selection.
SPARE PUMPS
In a large installation, spare pumps may be installed for emergency situations. he number
of pumps to be installed depends on the situation. For example, if the total capacity required
is 1,500 gpm, two pumps could be installed, each with 1,500 gpm at 100 percent capacity,
with one pump being the spare. Alternatively, it would be possible to install three pumps,
each at 50 percent of capacity, or 750 gpm each. All pumps have the same design pressure.
he spare capacity is an added safety, which might be desired or requested by the author-
ity having jurisdiction (AHJ) or the insurance underwriter. Because there is no clear-cut
solution to the question of spare pumps, every system must be analyzed independently.
he inal decision is usually made among the designer, owner, and AHJ. he designer
should present the owner with the available pump options, including the proposed pump
type, number of pumps, initial cost, maintenance requirements, and the installation space
required for each alternative. An educated decision can be made only ater a detailed and
speciic analysis has been performed.
MAINTAINING PRESSURE
In addition to a ire pump, a ire protection installation includes a jockey pump or a hydro-
pneumatic tank to maintain a constant, predetermined pressure in the sprinkler system and/
or at the hose stations. A jockey pump may also compensate for minor leaks or a limited
test of water discharge from the system.
Jockey Pumps
he jockey pump is not a ire pump. It is a small pump with only 10 to 50 gpm capacity,
but it has a discharge pressure (head) that is 10 psi higher than the ire pump. It does not
have the same special requirements as a ire pump.
Each ire pump motor, jockey pump, or engine controller is equipped with a pressure
switch or pressure transducer. If the pressure in the system drops to a predetermined level,
the jockey pump starts irst. If the pressure in the system continues to drop because the
low cannot be satisied, the ire pump starts.
he ire pump system, when started by a pressure drop, should be arranged as follows:
u he jockey pumps stop point should be 5 psi lower than the maximum churn pressure of
the ire pump. Churn pressure is deined as the pressure produced by a pump at zero low.
u he jockey pumps start point should be at least 10 psi less than its stop point.
u he ire pumps start point should be 10 psi less than the jockey pumps start point. Use
10-psi increments and time delays for each additional pump.
Where minimum run times are provided, the pump will continue to operate ater attaining
these pressures. he inal pressures should not exceed the pressure rating of the system.
(Note: Some authorities having jurisdiction and insurance underwriters have these times
disabled in the ield.)
For example, a 1,000-gpm, 100-psi pump with a churn pressure of 115 psi is selected.
he suction supply is 50 psi from the city minimum residual and 60 psi from the city
maximum static. hus,
u Jockey pump stop = 115 + 60 5 = 170 psi
u Jockey pump start = 170 10 = 160 psi
u Fire pump stop = 5 psi higher than the start point
u Fire pump start = 160 10 = 150 psi
u Fire pump maximum pressure = 115 + 60 = 175 psi
Hydropneumatic Tanks
Another way to maintain the water pressure in a sprinkler system is to install a hydropneu-
matic tank, but this method is not used very oten due to cost. A hydropneumatic tank is
pressurized and consists of a small water storage tank (100 to 200 gallons) with a cushion of
compressed air in its upper portion
(see Figure 7-4).
he volume of air and the tanks
pressure depend on whether the hy-
dropneumatic tank is located above
or below the sprinkler heads. If the
tank is located above the sprinkler
heads, the minimum pressure can
be calculated as follows: Figure 7-4 Hydropneumatic Tank
Chapter 7: Fire Pumps 39
Equation 7-2
30
P= 15
A
where
P = Air pressure, psi
A = Volume of air in the tank (usually 33, 50, or 60 percent)
For example, if A = 0.33 (33 percent), the result is as follows:
P = (30/0.33) 15 = 76 psi
If the tank is located below the sprinkler heads, the minimum pressure can be calculated
as follows:
Equation 7-3
30 0.434 + H
P= 15 +
A A
where
H = Height of the highest sprinkler head above the tank bottom, ft
he actual tank operating pressure is a function of the system pressure required. To
determine the pressure in the tank when the system pressure is known, use the following
calculation:
Equation 7-4
Pf + 15
Pi = 15
A
where
Pi = Tank pressure, psi
Pf = System pressure obtained from hydraulic calculations, psi
For example, if Pf = 75 psi and A = 0.5 (50 percent), the result is as follows:
75 + 15
Pi = 15 = 165 psi
0.5
A hydraulic calculation for a sprinkler system determines the amount of water and the
head or pressure the pump must deliver and maintain for proper sprinkler system operation.
The pump selection is made
based on low and pressure.
PUMP CURVES
Figure 7-5 illustrates a pump
curve for a 1,000-gpm rated
capacity pump.
As mentioned, a fire pump
must deliver 150 percent of the
rated capacity at no less than
65 percent of the rated head
(pressure). The pump curves
indicate these conditions. For
example, in Figure 7-5, when Figure 7-5 Example Pump Curve, 1,000-gpm Rated
Pump
delivering 1,500 gpm, following Courtesy of Patterson Pump
the 8-inch impeller (105-psi) curve will generate a pressure of 190 feet of water, which
represents 80 percent. his pump performs better than the code, which requires 65 percent.
Each pump curve diagram also includes the following information:
u Pump low delivery capacity in gpm (horizontal line)
u Pump head or pressure capability measured in feet of water and/or the corresponding
pressure in head in feet (vertical line)
u Brake horsepower for electric motor (straight lines slanted up to the right)
u Impeller rpm (written on the top)
u Range of pressure (written in the top right box)
Pump selection should be made for maximum eiciency, as this will save power when
the pumps are running. Before making a inal decision, discuss potential pump selections
with a manufacturer representative. his can be very helpful in selecting the proper pump.
Most manufacturers have selection charts that show gpm and the corresponding psi for
each selection they have approved. It is good practice to use these charts to select a ire
pump. In general, rpm should not be a consideration when selecting a ire pump because
these pumps see very limited use, and rpm is not a factor in length of life like it is in other
pumping applications.
In an installation, the ire pump must be one-hour ire rated if sprinklered and two-hour
rated if unsprinklered. he ire pump room should be kept at an ambient temperature
(many installations have a low pump room temperature alarm), and it should be located
on the ground loor. he ire department must be able to reach it quickly in case of a ire.
he room must also have a loor drain.
For more information on ire pumps, see NFPA 20.
41
Private Mains, Standpipes,

and Hose Systems 8
Private ire service mains are the pipe and its appurtenances on private property that are
between a source of water and the base of the system riser, between a source of water and
the inlets to foam-making systems, between a source of water and the base elbow of private
hydrants or monitor nozzles, used as ire pump suction and discharge piping, or beginning
at the inlet side of the check valve on a gravity or pressure tank. Private ire service mains
are used to supply ire sprinkler systems, water spray systems, foam systems, private ire
hydrants, standpipe systems, monitor nozzles, hose houses, and water for other uses.
Private ire service mains can be supplied by a reliable city water system or by ire pumps
that take suction from a tank, pond, public system, or other reservoirs. Where connections
are made to a public system, the requirements of the public health authority should be
followed to prevent possible contamination of the public system.
Mains that supply hydrants must be at least 6 inches in diameter. For mains that supply
hydraulically calculated systems but not hydrants, the pipe size can be smaller than 6 inches
if the calculations demonstrate that the main can meet the total demand at the required
pressure.
A ire department connection (FDC) should be provided. he FDC is used by the ire
department to provide supplemental water under pressure to the systems being served. he
authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) should be consulted to conirm the type and location
of the FDC. Signage may be required indicating what the FDC serves (e.g., type of system,
system demand, or which buildings or portions thereof).
Valves are required at each
source of water supply. The
valves are usually post in-
dicator valves (PIVs) (see
Figure 8-1), but underground
gate valves can be used where
acceptable to the AHJ. In ad-
dition, every connection from
a private ire service main to a
building should have a listed
PIV located not less than 40
feet from the building.
Sectional control valves
should be used to isolate sec-
tions of private fire service Figure 8-1 Post Indicator Valve
mains. For example, sectional valves can be used to isolate a limited number of risers so a
break in the underground loop would not impair an entire building.
Where hydrants are provided, a valve shall be installed in the hydrant connection. he
type of hydrant (number and size of outlets, type of hose thread) and the spacing of hy-
drants should be approved by the AHJ. Hydrants must be operable all the time; therefore,
they must be inspected regularly for vandalism and other damage. hey must also be
lubricated on a yearly basis.
Hose houses are used by trained ireighters. he AHJ should be consulted regarding
the quantity and type of hoses and other equipment that should be furnished in each hose
house, as well as the number and location of hose houses.
Master streams are monitor nozzles or hydrant-mounted monitor nozzles that are used
to protect hazards such as combustible materials stored in yards.
Any underground pipe used for a private ire service main must be listed for that pur-
pose, and the pipe material can be ductile iron, steel, concrete, plastic, or copper. When
choosing the type of material, consideration should be given to the ire resistance of the
pipe, system working pressure, soil conditions, corrosion issues, and the susceptibility of
the pipe to physical damage (e.g., traic loads).
During the commissioning of a private ire service main, the system should be tested
and lushed. he minimum test pressure is 200 pounds per square inch (psi), or 50 psi
in excess of the maximum working pressure, for a duration of two hours. Leakage from
the system is permitted (see National Fire Protection Association [NFPA] 24: Standard
for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and heir
Table 8-1 Flow Rate
Appurtenances for the quantity allowed). he amount of Required to Produce a
actual leakage is calculated by pumping from a calibrated Velocity of 10 fps in a Main
container at the speciied test pressure. Pipe Size, in. Flow Rate, gpm
he mains should be lushed at not less than the hydrau- 4 390
lically calculated low rate (including hose allowances), at 6 880
a rate that provides a velocity of 10 feet per second (fps) 8 1,560
(see Table 8-1) or at the maximum low rate available to the 10 2,440
system under ire conditions. 12 3,520
STANDPIPE AND HOSE SYSTEMS

NFPA 14: Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems covers the minimum
requirements for the installation of these systems. he applicable edition of the installation
standard, the building code, and local amendments should be consulted for complete design
and installation requirements.
Standpipes provide a means of manual water application to a ire within a building.
hey are connected to water supply mains or to ire pumps, tanks, and other equipment
necessary to provide an adequate supply of water.
According to NFPA, a standpipe system is an arrangement of piping, valves, hose con-
nections, and allied equipment installed in a building or structure with the hose connections
located in such a manner that water can be discharged in streams or spray patterns through
attached hoses and nozzles, for the purpose of extinguishing a ire and so protecting a
building or structure and its contents in addition to protecting the occupants.
When designing a standpipe system, the following questions should be considered:
u Where is a standpipe required?
Chapter 8: Private Service Mains, Standpipes, and Hose Systems 43
u Which class of standpipe is required?

u What type of standpipe system is appropriate?
u What are the low and pressure requirements of the system?
u Where should hose connections be located?
u What materials should be speciied?
u What tests are required before the system is approved?
Standpipe Requirements
Standpipe requirements for buildings are based on the building code and local amend-
ments. For example, a common requirement based on the International Fire Code is for
standpipes to be installed in buildings where the loor level of the highest story is located
more than 30 feet above the lowest level of ire department vehicle access or where the
loor level of the lowest story is located more than 30 feet below the highest level of ire
department vehicle access.
In addition to the applicable building code, the requirements of the AHJ should be fol-
lowed regarding local amendments and ireighting methods that could afect the design
of the system.
Standpipe Classes
Standpipe systems are grouped into three classiications. he class of system required is
usually determined by the building code.
u Class I: Intended for ire department use only, this type of system is equipped with a
2-inch valve for hose attachment.
u Class II: his type of system is typically equipped with a 1-inch hose for use only by
trained industrial ire brigades. (Previous editions of NFPA 14 allowed Class II systems
to be used by building occupants.)
u Class III: A combination of Class I and Class II, this type of system includes a 2-inch
hose connection for ire department use and a 1-inch hose rack assembly for indus-
trial ire brigade use.
Standpipe System Types
A standpipe system can be wet or dry and automatic, semiautomatic, or manual.
An automatic wet standpipe is full of water and under pressure at all times. When the
hose valve is opened in a wet system, water comes out through the hose and its nozzle.
An automatic dry standpipe contains air or nitrogen under pressure that, when released,
allows a dry pipe valve to open and water to low into the piping system.
A manual dry system does not have water in the pipes or a permanent water supply and
relies on the ire department to supply the system demand through the ire department
connection.
A manual wet system contains water at all times but relies on the ire department to
supply the system demand through the ire department connection.
A semiautomatic dry system has a deluge valve that, when released, allows an automatic
water supply to provide water at hose connections.
A combined system supplies water to both hose connections and automatic sprinkler
systems.
Class I standpipes should be wet systems except where the piping is subject to freezing.
In high-rise buildings, Class I standpipes shall be automatic or semiautomatic. Class II
and III systems should be automatic wet systems unless they serve a facility with areas
subject to freezing and where the ire brigade is trained to operate the system without ire
department intervention.
Flow and Pressure Requirements
Pipe schedule systems are no longer allowed by NFPA 14. All systems must be hydraulically
calculated.
Flow Rates
For Class I and III standpipes, the minimum low rate for the most hydraulically remote
standpipe is 500 gallons per minute (gpm) (250 gpm through each of two 2-inch hose
connections). Each additional standpipe requires an additional 250 gpm, up to a maximum
low rate of 1,250 gpm for buildings that are not sprinklered throughout or 1,000 gpm for
buildings that are sprinklered throughout.
For Class II systems, the minimum low rate is 100 gpm.
Pressure Requirements
For Class I and III systems, the minimum residual pressure required at the hydraulically
most remote hose connection is 100 psi. Where the static pressure exceeds 175 psi, a pres-
sure-regulating device must be installed to limit the static and residual pressures to 175 psi.
For Class II systems, the minimum residual pressure required at the hydraulically most
remote hose connection is 65 psi. Where the residual pressure exceeds 100 psi, a device
must be installed to limit the residual pressure at the low required to 100 psi. Where the
static pressure exceeds 175 psi, a device must be installed to limit the static and residual
pressures to 100 psi.
For any system, the maximum pressure allowed anywhere in the system is 350 psi, ex-
cept that express mains supplying higher zones may exceed 350 psi where their material
listings and the AHJ allow.
Hose Connections
Hose connections should be unobstructed and located not less than 3 feet or more than
5 feet above the loor.
Class I hose connections should be located:
u At the main loor landing in exit stairways
u On each side of the wall adjacent to the exit openings of horizontal exits (as deined by
NFPA 101: Life Safety Code)
u In covered mall buildings, at the entrance to each exit passageway and at the interior
side of the public entrance from the exterior to the mall
u At the highest landing in stairways with access to a roof where the slope is less than
four in 12
Additional hose connections for Class I systems should be provided where the most
remote portion of a non-sprinklered loor is more than 150 feet of travel distance from a
hose connection (200 feet for a sprinklered building).
In Class II systems, a hose station should be located so all portions of each loor are
within 130 feet of a hose connection provided with a 1-inch hose or within 120 feet of a
hose connection provided with a hose smaller than 1 inches.
Class III systems should be provided with hose connections as required for both Class
I and Class II systems. he 130-foot travel distance does not apply to Class III systems. In
a fully sprinklered building, the AHJ may allow the omission of the Class II hose stations
Chapter 8: Private Service Mains, Standpipes, and Hose Systems 45
provided that each Class I connection is equipped with a 2- by 1-inch reducer with a
cap and chain.
Material Selection
All devices and materials that afect the performance of the standpipe system should be
listed.
Pipe should meet or exceed the standards listed in NFPA 14, which allows the use of the
following types of pipe:
u Steel
u Ferrous (ductile iron)
u Copper tube
u Other pipe and tube types listed for this service
Fittings can include:
u Cast iron, malleable iron, or ductile iron (threaded, grooved, or langed)
u Steel ittings (welded, langed, or threaded)
u Other ittings listed for this service
System Acceptance Tests
he following tests are required for acceptance of a standpipe system:
u Flushing of pipe: Underground pipe should be lushed in accordance with NFPA 24:
Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and heir Appurtenances.
Piping between the ire department connection and the check valve in the inlet pipe
shall be lushed with a suicient volume of water to remove any construction debris.
u Hose threads: All hose connections and ire department connections should be tested
to verify their compatibility with the threads used by the local ire department.
u Hydrostatic tests: All systems should be tested at a minimum of 200 psi (or 50 psi in
excess of the maximum pressure where the maximum pressure exceeds 150 psi) for two
hours. his includes the pipe between the ire department connection and the check
valve. An air pressure leakage test at 40 psi shall be conducted for 24 hours.
u Flow tests: To verify system demand, water should be lowed simultaneously from the
outlets indicated in the approved hydraulic calculations of each standpipe.
u Pressure-regulating devices: Each pressure-regulating device should be tested under
low and no-low conditions to verify that the pressure setting is correct and that each
device is installed in the correct location.
u Main drain: he main drain valve should be opened and remain open until the system
pressure stabilizes, at which time the static and residual pressures should be recorded.
u Automatic dry and semiautomatic systems: hese systems should be tested by initiating
low from the most remote hose connection.
47
Automatic
Sprinkler Systems 9
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler
Systems provides the minimum requirements for the design and installation of automatic ire
sprinkler systems, but it also allows for alternate design approaches and system components.
When designing such systems, it is important to follow all of the requirements in NFPA 13,
so verify with the local authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) which edition should be used.
HISTORY OF FIRE SPRINKLERS
he irst sprinkler system in the United States was installed in 1852 and consisted of per-
forated pipe. he irst automatic sprinkler was invented 12 years later to control, conine,
and extinguish ires to prevent the loss of life and minimize the loss of property. By 1895,
sprinkler system development was increasing signiicantly, and the Boston area alone had
nine diferent systems. Boston experienced the most growth in this discipline because of
the number of hazardous textile mills in the area.
Before 1950, sprinkler heads simultaneously discharged water upward and downward.
he downward discharge quenched the ire, while the upward discharge kept the structure
cool. hese ineicient heads were subsequently replaced by upright and pendent heads.
NFPA 13
NFPA 13 was irst written in 1896. It was prepared in conjunction with ire service personnel,
ire insurance representatives, laboratories that tested ire protection items, representatives
from ire protection equipment manufacturers, contractors who installed such systems, and
consulting engineers who speciied and designed these systems. Since then, the standard
has evolved signiicantly, especially in 1997 when it was expanded to include design and
installation information from more than 40 other NFPA standards. he current edition of
NFPA 13 includes design criteria for underground pipe, rack storage, high-piled storage,
and other unique hazards.
With the unprecedented development of sprinkler system devices, installation practices,
and design techniques for automatic sprinkler systems, increased diligence is required
when designing and installing these systems, as the requirements have become both more
complex and less uniform. As with any other code or standard, NFPA 13 gives only the
minimum requirements to provide a reasonable degree of protection. Based on the owners
preference, additional protection may be installed for a higher degree of safety.
FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEM DESIGN
When designing a ire sprinkler system, the following items should be considered:
u Basis of the design
u Type of system to be selected
u Occupancy classiication
u Materials to be speciied
u Basic installation requirements
u Hanging and restraint requirements
u Design approaches
u System acceptance
It is essential to design a sprinkler system to it the particular hazard of a building or
structure. NFPA 13 includes requirements for general storage, high-piled and rack storage,
plastic and rubber commodities storage, and other special occupancies. (Note: Require-
ments for storage occupancies and certain special sprinklers are not included in the scope
of this chapter.)
Basis of Design
he irst step in designing a ire sprinkler system is to ask the owner to complete an own-
ers information certiicate, which can be found in NFPA 13. his certiicate informs the
designer and installer of the owners intended occupancy of the building, including what
materials will be used and how they will be stored, preliminary construction plans of the
building, and any environmental concerns, such as the possibility of microbiologically
inluenced corrosion (MIC).
Once the designer understands the construction and intended use of the building, de-
sign documents consisting of drawings, calculations, and speciications can be prepared.
hese documents must be approved and kept readily available for further inspection and
modiications if necessary.
Sprinkler System Types
he factors to consider in selecting the type of sprinkler system or the type of suppression
system are:
u Types of building construction and contents needing protection
u he potential of a fast-growing ire developing
u Valuable items in the area being protected that would be damaged by water
u he freezing potential of the area being protected
Knowing this information will help determine the type of suppression system to be
designed and installed. he various types of ixed sprinkler systems are clearly deined in
NFPA 13 and summarized below.
Wet Pipe Systems
A wet pipe system (see Figure 9-1) employs automatic sprinklers attached to a piping net-
work containing water under pressure at all times. he system is connected to a water supply
so water discharges immediately from the sprinklers when they open. Approximately 75
percent of the sprinkler systems in use are wet pipe systems. his type of sprinkler system
is easy to maintain and is considered the most reliable. It is installed where freezing or
other special requirements are not a concern.
Dry Pipe Systems
he dry pipe system employs automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system containing
air or nitrogen under pressure, the release of which (as from a sprinkler opening) allows
the water pressure to open a valve known as a dry pipe valve (see Figure 9-2). he water
then lows into the piping system and out the opened sprinklers. A dry pipe system re-
quires more time to get water to a ire than a wet pipe system; however, the time between
Chapter 9: Automatic Sprinkler Systems 49
Figure 9-1 Wet Pipe Sprinkler System
the sprinkler opening and the water

lowing can be shortened by using
quick-opening devices.
his system is used where sprin-
klers are subject to freezing. he
dry pipe system uses compressed
air from a plant supply or a local
air compressor. he air supply will
typically have a restrictive oriice to
limit the rate at which compressed Figure 9-2 Dry Pipe Valve
(Left) Air pressure maintains clapper closed.
air is introduced into the system. (Right) Venting of air allows clapper to open and water to low.
he sprinkler head oriice is much
larger than the air supply pipe
opening, so the opening of a sprin-
kler head will allow the system air
pressure to drop and the dry valve
to open.
Preaction Systems
A preaction system employs auto-
matic sprinklers that are attached to
a piping system containing air that
may or may not be under pressure,
with a supplemental detection
system installed in the same areas
Figure 9-3 Preaction Valve Riser
as the sprinklers (see Figure 9-3).
Actuation of the detection system and sprinklers in the case of a double-interlocked sys-
tem opens a valve, which allows water to low into the sprinkler piping system and to be
discharged from any sprinklers that may be open. his system is oten used where valuables
are stored and accidental water discharge may

cause damage.
Deluge Systems
A deluge system employs open heads attached
to a piping system and is connected to a water
supply through a deluge valve, which is opened
by the operation of a detection system installed
in the same area as the sprinklers (see Figure
9-4). When this valve opens, water lows into
the piping system and discharges from all
attached heads. his system is used in very
high-hazard areas where rapid application of
large volumes of water is required to quickly
gain control of a ire. Figure 9-4 Deluge Valve Riser
Combined Dry Pipe and Preaction Sprinkler Systems
Combined systems employ automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system containing
air under pressure, with a supplemental detection system installed in the same area as the
sprinklers. Operation of the detection system actuates tripping devices, which open dry
pipe valves simultaneously and without the loss of air pressure in the system. Operation
of the detection system also opens approved air exhaust valves at the end of the feed main,
which usually precedes the sprinklers opening. he detection system also serves as an
automatic ire alarm system.
Antifreeze Systems Filing cup
An antifreeze system (see Figure Water supply
9-5) is a wet pipe system employing Water
automatic sprinklers attached to a
12 inches
piping system that contains an an-
Wall
tifreeze solution and is connected Drop, Approved A

Nonfreezing
to a water supply. he antifreeze 5 feet indicating

solution
solution fills the pipes first, fol- minimum valve Unheated area
lowed by water, which discharges Heated area
immediately from sprinklers that
B
are opened by the heat from a ire.
Check valve
he antifreeze system is no difer- (1/32-inch hole Pitch to drain
ent than a wet system except that in clapper) Drain valve
the initial charge of water is mixed 1. Check valve shall be permitted to be omitted where sprinklers are below
the level of valve A.
with antifreeze, so the system may 2. The 1/32-inch hole in the check valve clapper is needed to allow for
be installed in unheated areas. Ad- expansion of the solution during a temperature rise, thus preventing
ditional devices may be required to damage to sprinklers.
Figure 9-5 Antifreeze System
prevent air pocket formation.
Due to the possible combustibility of some antifreeze solutions, NFPA has been research-
ing the use of antifreeze in wet pipe systems and updating standards as needed. hus, it
is critical to consult the latest version of the applicable standard regarding the maximum
concentration of antifreeze solution allowed.
OCCUPANCY CLASSIFICATIONS
Light Hazard
Light hazard occupancies are those where the quantity and/or combustibility of contents
is low and ires with relatively low rates of heat release are expected. Examples include:
u Churches
u Clubs
u Eaves and overhangs of combustible construction with no combustibles beneath
u Educational facilities
u Libraries, except for large stack rooms
u Museums
u Nursing or convalescent homes
u Oices, including data processing areas
u Restaurant seating areas
u heaters and auditoriums, excluding stages and prosceniums
u Unused attics
Ordinary Hazard Group 1
Ordinary Hazard Group 1 occupancies are those where combustibility is low, the quantity
of combustibles is moderate, stockpiles of combustibles do not exceed 8 feet, and ires with
moderate rates of heat release are expected. Examples include:
u Automobile parking lots and showrooms
u Bakeries
u Beverage manufacturing
u Canneries
u Dairy product manufacturing and processing
u Electronic plants
u Glass and glass product manufacturing
u Laundries
u Restaurant service areas
Ordinary Hazard Group 2
Ordinary Hazard Group 2 occupancies are deined as occupancies where the quantity and/
or combustibility of contents is moderate to high, stockpiles of contents with moderate
rates of heat release do not exceed 12 feet, and stockpiles of contents with high rates of heat
release do not exceed 8 feet. Examples include:
u Cereal mills
u Chemical plants (ordinary)
u Distilleries
u Dry cleaners
u Feed mills
u Horse stables
u Leather goods manufacturing
u Libraries with large stack rooms
u Machine shops
u Metal working
u Paper and pulp mills
u Piers and wharves
u Post oices
u Repair garages
u Stages
u Tire manufacturing
Extra Hazard Group 1
Extra Hazard Group 1 occupancies are those where the quantity and combustibility of
contents are very high and dust or other materials are present, introducing the probability
of rapidly developing ires with high rates of heat release, but with little or no combustible
or lammable liquids. Examples include:
u Aircrat hangars
u Combustible hydraulic luid use areas
u Die casting
u Metal extruding
u Plywood and particle board manufacturing
u Printing (using inks having lash points below 100F)
u Rubber reclaiming, compounding, drying, milling, and vulcanizing
u Saw mills
u Textile picking, opening, blending, garnetting, carding, and the combining of cotton,
synthetics, wool shoddy, or burlap
u Upholstering with plastic foams
Extra Hazard Group 2
Extra Hazard Group 2 occupancies have moderate to substantial amounts of lammable or
combustible liquids or extensive shielding of combustibles. Examples include:
u Asphalt saturating
u Flammable liquid spraying
u Flow coating
u Mobile home or modular building assemblies (where a inished enclosure is present
and has combustible interiors)
u Open oil quenching
u Plastic processing
u Solvent cleaning
u Varnish and paint dipping
COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS
In general, all components used in a sprinkler system should be listed (i.e., approved by a
third-party testing agency) and used in accordance with their listing. Certain components
that do not afect system performance are not required to be listed (e.g., drain valves and
signs).
Sprinklers
he automatic sprinkler head is a thermosensitive device that is automatically activated
when the area in which it is installed reaches a predetermined temperature. Once this
temperature is met, the sprinkler head releases a stream of water and distributes it in a
speciic pattern and quantity over a designated area. Water reaches the sprinklers through
a network of overhead pipes, and the sprinklers are placed along the pipes at regular,
geometric intervals.
Sprinkler heads shall never be stored where temperatures may exceed 100F. Sprinkler
heads shall never be painted, coated, or modiied in any way ater leaving the manufacturing
premises. Care should be exercised to prevent damage to sprinkler heads during handling.
he sprinkler should be selected based on the following criteria:
u Temperature rat-
Table 9-1 Sprinkler Temperature Ratings and Temperature
ings are based on Classiication Color Codes
the expected am- Maximum Color Code
Temperature Temperature Glass Bulb
bient ceiling tem- Ceiling
Rating Classiication
(with Fusible
Color
perature around the Temperature Link)
Uncolored or Orange (135F)
sprinkler (see Ta- 100F 135170F Ordinary
Black or Red (155F)
ble 9-1). Where the Yellow (175F)
maximum expected 150F 175225F Intermediate White or Green
temperature is less (200F)
than 100F, ordi- 225F 250300F High Blue Blue
300F 325375F Extra High Red Purple
nary temperature
375F 400475F Very Extra High Green Black
sprinklers should be
475F 500575F Ultra High Orange Black
selected. Sprinklers
625F 650F Ultra High Orange Black
located in areas ex- Source: NFPA 13
posed to heat-pro-
ducing devices (space heaters, steam mains, skylights, etc.) should have higher tem-
perature ratings to prevent accidental operation.
u Oriice sizes are based on the available pressure and the required water low rate. Larger
K factors mean that less pressure is required to reach a given low rate.
u hermal sensitivity refers to how quickly a sprinkler will respond to a change in the
ambient temperature. Quick-response sprinklers increase the protection of life and
property and are generally required in all new light hazard occupancies. hey also are
oten used in ordinary hazard occupancies because their faster response to a ire allows
reductions in the design area, thereby resulting in smaller pipe sizes.
Sprinkler Types
Standard sprinkler heads are made for installation in an upright or pendent position and
must be installed in the position for which they were constructed. Architects sometimes
require special sprinkler types to be used for certain applications. he many types of com-
mercially available sprinklers include the following:
u Upright: Normally installed above the supply pipe
u Pendent: Installed below the pipe
u Sidewall (horizontal and vertical): Similar to standard sprinkler heads except for a special
delector, which allows the discharge of water toward one side only in a pattern resem-
bling one-quarter of a sphere. he forward horizontal range of about 15 feet is greater
than that of a standard sprinkler. For special applications, a sidewall vertical type is used.
u Extended coverage: Covers more than 225 square feet per head or greater distances
than standard sprinklers
u Open sprinklers
u Corrosion resistant: Mostly regular pendent or upright type heads used in areas where
corrosive substances are present (e.g., chlorine storage rooms and salt-water reservoirs)
that are coated with wax or Telon by the manufacturer to protect against corrosives
u Nozzles
u Dry pendent and dry upright: Used where a limited enclosure is subject to freezing; may
be connected to a wet pipe system through a special dry pipe connector
u Quick response (QR)
u Quick response, extended coverage (QREC)
u Quick response, early suppression (QRES)
u Early suppression, fast response (ESFR)
u Ornamental
u Recessed: Most of the body is mounted within a recessed housing and operation is
similar to a standard pendent sprinkler
u Flush: he working parts of the sprinkler head extend below the ceiling into the area
in which it is installed without afecting the heat sensitivity or the pattern of water
distribution
u Concealed: he entire body, including Table 9-2 Approved Materials for Sprinkler
the operating mechanism, is above a System Pipe
cover plate, which drops when a ire Material Standard
occurs, exposing the thermosensitive Ferrous piping (welded and ASTM A795
seamless)
assembly. he delector may be ixed,
or it may drop below the ceiling level Welded and seamless steel pipe ASTM A53
Wrought steel pipe ASME B36.10M
when water lows.
Electric-resistance welded steel
u Residential: Designed to respond to a ASTM A135
pipe
ire much faster than standard com- Copper tube (drawn, seamless) ASTM B42; ASTM B75
mercial and industrial sprinklers Seamless copper water tube ASTM B88
u On/of sprinkler heads Wrought seamless copper and
ASTM B251
copper alloy tube
Piping Fluxes for soldering applications
ASTM B813
NFPA allows the use of steel pipe, copper of copper and copper alloy tube
tube, and other specially listed pipes (see Brazing iller metal
AWS A5.8
(classiication BCuP-3 or BCuP-4)
Table 9-2). he pipe selected should be
Solder metal ASTM B32
based on the maximum system pressure,
Alloy materials ASTM B446
ambient conditions, aesthetics, and possi-
Plastic pipe (CPVC, PEX) ASTM F442; ASTM F876
ble exposure of the pipe to ire conditions. Source: NFPA 13
Note: Always verify approved materials with the AHJ.
Alarms
hree basic types of alarms can be part of a sprinkler system:
u Vane-type water low: his alarm comes equipped with a small paddle that is inserted
directly into the riser pipe (see Figure 9-6). he paddle responds
to water low as low as 10 gallons per minute (gpm), which then
triggers an alarm. his type may be equipped with a delayed
system (adjustable from 0 to 120 seconds) to prevent false
alarms caused by normal water pressure luctuations.
u Mechanical water low (water motor gong): his alarm involves
a check valve that lits from its seat when water lows (see Figure
9-7). he check valve may vary as follows. he diferential type
has a seat ring with a concentric groove connected by a pipe to
the alarm device. When the clapper of the alarm valve rises to Figure 9-6 Vane-Type
allow water to low to the sprinklers, water enters the groove Water Flow Indicator
and lows to the alarm-giving device. Anoth-

er type has an extension arm connected to a
small auxiliary pilot valve, which, in turn, is
connected to the alarm system.
u Pressure-activated alarm switch: his is used
in conjunction with dry pipe valves, alarm
check valves, and other types of water con-
trol valves. It has contact elements arranged
to open or close an electric circuit when sub-
jected to increased or reduced pressure. In
most cases, the motion to activate a switch is
given from a diaphragm exposed to pressure
on one side and supported by an adjustable
spring on the other side. Figure 9-7 Alarm Check Valve Riser
he alarm for a dry pipe sprinkler system
is arranged with a connection from the intermediate chamber of the dry pipe valve to a
pressure-operated alarm device. When the dry pipe valve trips, the intermediate chamber,
typically containing air at atmospheric pressure, ills with water at the supply pressure,
which operates the alarm devices. Sometimes both an outdoor water motor gong and a
pressure-operated electric switch are provided. he alarm devices for deluge and preaction
systems are the same as those used for dry pipe systems.
Codes require water supply control valves to indicate conditions that could prevent the
unwanted or unnecessary operation of the sprinkler system. his can be achieved by using
electric switches, also called temper switches, which can be selected for open or closed
contact. he signal that indicates valve operation is given when the valve wheel is given
two turns from the wide-open position. he restoration signal sounds when the valve is
restored to its fully open position. his simply cancels the temper switch alarm.
Other Components
Sprinkler system components are typically designed for a minimum pressure of 175 pounds
per square inch (psi). If the pressure required in the system is higher than 175 psi, then all
system components must be rated for the higher pressure. It is not unusual for systems to
be designed with maximum pressures of 250 to 300 psi.
BASIC INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS
Area Limitations
he maximum loor area that may be protected by sprinklers supplied on each system riser
on any one loor is as follows:
u Light hazard: 52,000 square feet
u Ordinary hazard: 52,000 square feet
u High-piled storage: 40,000 square feet
u Extra hazard, pipe schedule: 25,000 square feet
u Extra hazard, hydraulically calculated: 40,000 square feet
Spacing per Sprinkler Head and Between Sprinkler Heads
he maximum spacing for standard pendent and upright sprinklers is shown in Table 9-3.
Other sprinklers, such as sidewalls, extended coverage, control mode speciic application
Table 9-3 Spacing for Standard Pendent and Upright Sprinklers

Protection Maximum
Construction Type System Type
Area, sf Spacing, ft
Light Hazard
Noncombustible Pipe schedule 200 15
Combustible unobstructed, exposed members 3
Pipe schedule 200 15
feet or more on center
Noncombustible Hydraulically calculated 225 15
Combustible unobstructed, exposed members 3
Hydraulically calculated 225 15
feet or more on center
Combustible obstructed, exposed members 3 feet
All 168 15
or more on center
Combustible obstructed or unobstructed,
All 130 15
exposed members less than 3 feet on center
Ordinary Hazard
All All 130 15
Extra Hazard
All Pipe schedule 90 12
Hydraulically calculated with
All density more than or equal 100 12
to 0.25
Hydraulically calculated with
All 130 15
density less than 0.25
(CMSA), ESFR, and residential sprinklers have diferent rules, and NFPA 13 and the speciic
listings of each sprinkler should be consulted for proper design and installation methods.
Delector Positions
Under unobstructed construction, the sprinkler delector should be a minimum of 1 inch
and a maximum of 12 inches below the ceiling. Under obstructed construction, the sprin-
kler delector should be located in a horizontal plane between 1 inch and 6 inches below
the structural members and a maximum distance of 22 inches below the ceiling/roof deck.
Obstructions to Sprinkler Discharge
NFPA 13 contains numerous igures and tables to clarify where obstructions are considered
too signiicant and could cause sprinklers to provide inadequate coverage. hese rules
apply to obstructions such as beams, soits, privacy partitions, joists, ducts, lights, etc. In
general, sprinklers should be located to minimize obstructions to discharge, or additional
sprinklers should be provided to ensure adequate coverage.
he rule commonly known as the three times rule states that a sprinkler located within
24 inches of an obstruction should be located a distance at least three times the maximum
dimension of the obstruction. For example, a sprinkler located near a 4-inch wide by 4-inch
deep obstruction should be located at least 12 inches from the obstruction.
In general, sprinkler delectors should be located 18 inches above storage or other ob-
structions that could interrupt the discharge pattern of the sprinkler.
Additional sprinklers should be installed under ixed obstructions that are more than 4
feet in width (e.g., ducts, overhead doors).
System Drains
All sprinkler systems must be installed so the system may be drained if necessary. If repairs
or alterations are required, a main drain valve will allow the system to be emptied. Wet pipe
systems may be installed level, while dry pipe and preaction systems must be pitched for
drainage. he required pitch is inch per 10 feet Table 9-4 Drain Sizes for Sprinkler
for branch lines and inch per 10 feet for mains. Systems
Mains must be pitched at least inch per 10 feet Riser Pipe, in. Drain Pipe, in.
in refrigerated areas. 2 and smaller or larger
he required drain pipe size as a function of the 2 to 3 1 or larger
riser size is shown in Table 9-4. 4 and larger 2
Hanging and Restraint Requirements

In general, all components of hanger assemblies that directly attach to the pipe or the
building structure must be listed. NFPA 13 does allow a licensed Professional Engineer to
certify other hangers if they meet these requirements:
u hey can support ive times the weight of the water-illed pipe plus 250 pounds at each
point of piping support.
u hese points of support shall be adequate to support the system.
u he spacing between hangers does not exceed that allowed by NFPA 13.
u All hanger components are ferrous.
u Detailed calculations shall be submitted showing the stresses and safety factors allowed.
Sprinkler piping and hangers should not be used to support non-system components.
Hanger rods shall be sized as shown in Table 9-5, and the maximum distance between
hangers is shown in Table 9-6.
Table 9-5 Hanger Rod Table 9-6 Maximum Distance Between Hangers, ft
Sizing Pipe Size, in.
Type of Pipe
Rod Diameter, 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 6 8
Pipe Size, in.
in.
Steel (except
Up to and 12 12 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
3/8 threaded lightwall)
including 4 Threaded lightwall 12 12 12 12 NA NA NA NA NA
5 to 8 Copper tube 8 10 10 12 12 12 15 15 15
10 to 12 5/8 CPVC 6 6 7 8 9 10 NA NA NA
Except when sprinklers are less than 6 feet apart, a hanger is required on each section
of pipe. Sprigs 14 feet or longer need to be restrained against lateral movement. Where
sprinkler systems are subject to damage by earthquakes, bracing, restraint, and the use of
lexible joints or clearances must be provided.
DESIGN APPROACHES
Pipe Schedule Systems
Whereas all systems were once designed on a pipe schedule basis, NFPA 13 no longer allows
pipe schedules to be used except for modiications or extensions to existing systems or for
new systems less than 5,000 square feet. To determine the water supply requirements for
a pipe schedule, consult NFPA 13, which gives low rates and operational durations for
light and ordinary hazards.
Hydraulically Calculated Systems

hree methods to determine the required water supply using hydraulic calculations follow:
u he design/area method uses design/area curves (see Figure 9-8). For example, a light
hazard system can be designed to provide a density of 0.1 gpm over a remote area of
1,500 square feet. Any point along the curve can be selected. Where quick-response
sprinklers are used, the area of sprinkler operation can be reduced by up to 40 percent,
depending on the elevation of the ceiling.
Figure 9-8 Design Area Curve Example
u he room design method can be used when all rooms are enclosed with walls having
a ire-resistive rating equal to the required water supply duration. his method allows
the water supply requirement to be based on the sprinklers in the room that creates the
greatest demand. Where a room communicates through an unprotected opening with
other rooms, up to two additional sprinklers must be included for each additional room.
u Special design areas: Where a building service chute (trash or linen) is protected with
sprinklers, the three most remote sprinklers shall be calculated with a minimum dis-
charge of 15 gpm each. In spaces where residential sprinklers can be used within the
scope of NFPA 13, the design area shall include the four adjacent sprinklers that produce
the greatest hydraulic demand.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
When developing a sprinkler system design, code requires certain data to be included on
the working design drawings. NFPA 13 lists all of the information required, which includes
the following:
u Name, location, and address of the property in which the system will be installed
u Owner and occupant
u Point of compass (north direction)
u Type of construction
u Distance from hydrant
u Special hazard requirements, etc.
SYSTEM ACCEPTANCE
Hydrostatic Tests
When the sprinkler systems operating pressure is 150 psi or less, the test pressure must
be 200 psi, and the length of the test must be two hours. For any other operating pressure,
the test must be the maximum working pressure plus 50 psi. If the test takes place during
the winter, air may be temporarily substituted for water.
Pneumatic Tests
In addition to hydrostatic tests, dry pipe and double-interlocked preaction systems require
an air pressure leakage test. hese systems must be tested at 40 psi for a 24-hour period
and must not lose more than 1.5 psi during this period.
Flushing
Ater installation, underground mains, lead-in connec- Table 9-7 Underground Main
tions, and risers must be lushed. his operation is very Flushing Flow Rates
important, because factory-supplied pipes may contain Pipe Size, in. Flow Rate, gpm
dust, rust, etc., in addition to impurities and debris col- 4 390
lected during installation. If not eliminated, these foreign 6 880
materials may block a sprinklers oriice and render it 8 1,560
inoperable. he lushing rates prescribed by NFPA 13 for 10 2,440
underground mains are shown in Table 9-7. 12 3,520
Operational Tests
All water low devices should be tested. NFPA 13 allows up to ive minutes ater low begins
before an audible alarm sounds on the premises.
Dry pipe systems must have a full-low trip test. he test should be started by opening
the inspectors test connection and measuring the time required to trip the valve and the
time for water to discharge from the inspectors test connection.
Deluge and preaction systems should be trip-tested through both manual and automatic
means.
All control valves should be operated under system pressure to ensure proper operation.
A main drain test should be conducted and recorded for comparison during future tests.
Each pressure-reducing valve must be tested at both the maximum and normal inlet
pressures.
61
Basic Hydraulics for

Sprinkler Systems 10
Hydraulics is a subdivision of luid mechanics that speciically studies the behavior of
liquids. When predicting the motion of a liquid, speciically water in pipes, many of the
equations used can be simpliied to relect that some variables will remain constant. his
chapter describes the basic principles that govern the motion of water through pipes in ire
protection systems and the assumptions that can be made in this context.
ASSUMPTIONS AND SIMPLIFICATIONS
Compressibility
In nearly all applications, water can be considered to be incompressible. his means that
for any given volume of water, regardless of how much external force is applied, the vol-
ume will stay the same. No matter how much pressure is applied, a gallon of water will not
it into a pint. his seems obvious, but it is a key assumption that simpliies many of the
equations that predict water low.
Density and Temperature
he density of water in a ire protection system is relatively constant. his means that a
given volume of water will always have approximately the same weight, and since the water
cannot be compressed, the same amount of water by weight will always ill the same volume.
he density of many materials and luids varies with temperature, and water is no diferent.
he variation, however, is small. A ire protection system installed in any space that can
be occupied will be within a predictable range. In addition, the properties of water in the
temperature ranges normally observed do not change signiicantly. Table 10-1 shows the
density of water at three diferent temperatures as an example. As can be seen in Table 10-1,
the diference in density for the temperatures Table 10-1 Density of Water at Varying
likely to be observed varies less than 1 percent Temperatures
from one extreme to the other. his small Temperature, F Density, slugs/ft3 Density, lb/ft3
variation can be ignored in calculations for 40 1.94 62.43
most ire protection systems. 70 1.936 62.3
100 1.927 62
Viscosity
Viscosity is what many would describe as the thickness of a liquid. Its the resistance a
luid has to being deformed. Fluids with a high viscosity, like honey, require more force to
deform than luids with a lower viscosity.
Viscosity is an important property when describing low though pipes. To visualize the
efect of viscosity, consider drinking water through a straw. Water lows with little efort
through the straw. Pulling a more viscous liquid like maple syrup through the same straw
takes considerably more efort. he higher viscosity of the maple syrup resists the changes
in physical shape that are required for it to low through the straw easily.
he viscosity of water is another property that can be considered constant across the
conditions in which a ire protection system will be installed. he one signiicant excep-
tion to this is antifreeze systems. In some cases when a ire protection system is installed
in an area where the temperature may drop below 40F, the system may be illed with an
antifreeze solution rather than water. In this circumstance, the calculations to predict sys-
tem performance will have to account for a slightly higher viscosity. (Check with the local
authority and relative standards for the approved use of antifreeze solutions.)
One-Dimensional Flow
Fire protection systems consist of a network of pipes. Flow within a pipe can be considered
to be one-dimensional because it is axisymmetric and relatively uniform. his essentially
means that the low within the pipe stays almost the
same throughout the cross-section of the pipe. he
variations that do occur within the low vary with Pipe centerline
distance from the pipe wall. Flow tends to be faster in
the center of the pipe and slower near the wall. Figure
10-1 shows the concept of axisymmetric low.
hough the velocity varies from the center of the Flow velocity
pipe to the wall, the variation is small. For most cal- proile
culations the low is assumed to be the same regard-
less of position in the pipe cross-section. Once this Figure 10-1 Axisymmetric Flow
assumption is made, only one dimension is let: the distance along the length of the pipe.
he practical meaning of this is that there are no diferences in sprinklers on the bottom
of a pipe vs. the top or the pressure along the outer radius of a itting vs. the inner radius.
Only the distance through the pipe is considered.
Results of Assumptions and Simpliications
Ater all of these assumptions, the basic formulas for low in a pipe can be reduced to:
Equation 10-1
Q = AV; V = Q/A; A = Q/V
where
Q = Flow rate, gallons per minute (gpm)
A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe, in2
V = Velocity of lowing water, feet per second (fps)
Since the velocity of water is considered to be consistent across the cross-section of the
pipe, a single number for velocity or an average velocity is all that is required. With an
average velocity and an area, the volume of water over a given time or low rate can easily
be determined.
Example 10-1
Consider a 4-inch Schedule 40 (inside diameter of 4.026 inches) ire main lowing 500 gpm.
What is the average velocity of water low in the pipe in feet per second?
First, ind the area of the pipe cross-section:
A = x 2.012 = 12.7 in2 = 0.0881 ft2
hen convert gallons per minute to cubic feet per second (cfs). If 500 gpm equal 8.33
gallons per second and 1 gallon equals 0.134 cubic feet, then 8.33 gallons equal 1.11 cfs.
Chapter 10: Basic Hydraulics for Sprinkler Systems 63
Using Equation 10-1:

500 gpm = 0.881 ft2 x V, or
1.11 cfs
V= = 12.6 fps
0.881 ft2
PRESSURE LOSSES IN PIPES
Energy Loss
he irst law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It simply
changes from one form to another. he two forms of energy of interest when describing
low though pipes are heat and pressure. James Prescott Joule, a 19th century English phys-
icist, discovered the relationship between the friction of a moving luid and heat. He was
determined to relate a measured amount of energy in heat (or increase in temperature of
a luid) to the mechanical work done on that luid. In his experiment, he placed a paddle
inside a container of luid and stirred the luid with a given amount of mechanical force for
a given time. He showed that stirring the luid increased its temperature the same amount
as the mechanical energy put into the paddle.
To relate this experimental example to water low in pipes, think of the paddle as the
surface of the pipe. As water lows through the pipe, the portion of the water along the
pipe wall is disturbed, and the water is heated a very small amount. his heating is so small
that the rise in temperature is ignored, but the irst law of thermodynamics states that this
energy has to come from somewhere. he small amount of heat created is energy lost in
the form of pressure.
An equivalent way to express energy is a change in pressure within a given volume. For
low in a pipe, the pressure of the water along the length of the pipe decreases as the energy
is lost due to the friction of the water against the pipes walls.
Water Pressure
Water pressure is the amount of force that the water exerts on its container. It is expressed
in a force per unit area. he common unit for pressure measurement in ire protection and
plumbing systems in the United States is pounds per square inch (psi).
Absolute Pressure vs. Gauge Pressure
When measuring pressure, it is important to remember the environment in which the
pressure measurement is taken. Pressure in a ire protection system, or pressure read from a
typical pressure gauge, is referred to as gauge pressure, which is the diference between the
pressure inside the pipe and the pressure outside the pipe. he open atmosphere has an air
pressure of between 14 and 15 psi. he gauge is measuring how much higher the pressure
inside the pipe is compared to the atmospheric pressure. he absolute pressure inside the
pipe would be the diference between the pressure in the pipe and a perfect vacuum. For
example, if the atmospheric pressure is 14 psi and the gauge reads 100 psi, then the gauge
pressure is 100 psi, and the absolute pressure is 114 psi.
Pressure Due to Elevation
In any volume of water, the pressure changes with elevation. his is true of all luids under
the inluence of gravity or any other acceleration. he pressure varies according to the
density of the luid, not the size or shape of the container in which its lowing. For example,
the pressure change from the top to the bottom of a 12-inch-long drinking straw stood on
end will be the same as the pressure change from the top to the bottom of a 12-inch-deep
aquarium. Even though more water is in the aquarium, the pressure change is the same
since pressure is measured as force per unit area.
To determine how much the pressure changes due to elevation, consider a column of
water 1 square inch in area and 12 inches high. From Table 10-1, the weight of water per
cubic foot is 62.3 pounds. If a square foot is 144 square inches, a column of water 1 foot
high will occupy 1/144 of a cubic foot. his means that the column of water will weigh
1/144 of 62.3 pounds, or 0.433 pound.
With this information, the amount of water pressure created by elevation can be de-
termined in any situation. In a non-lowing ire protection system, the pressure at any
elevation relative to the pressure at another elevation will difer by 0.433 psi per foot of
elevation. For example, if the pressure at the top of a 100-foot riser is 100 psi, the pressure
at the bottom will be 143 psi. Another way to say this is that a 100-foot vertical pipe has
a pressure loss of 43 psi.
Example 10-2
Consider a water pump on ground level with a discharge pressure of 300 psi. Will this pump
be capable of delivering water to the top of a 500-foot-tall high-rise?
500 feet x 0.433 psi/ft = 216.5 psi
Yes, it will be capable. If the pump is producing 300 psi and 216.5 psi is required, then
the pressure at the top will be 83.5 psi.
Example 10-3
On the 10th loor of a building, a ire department standpipe requires 65 psi. If the valve on
the 10th loor is 124 feet above ground level, what pressure will be required at ground level?
65 psi + 124 feet x 0.433 psi/ft = 119 psi required
The Hazen-Williams Equation

To make this information applicable to ire protection systems, an equation that will pre-
dict how much pressure is lost for a given pipe and given water low rate is required. he
Hazen-Williams equation is the most commonly used way to determine pressure losses
in ire protection systems. his equation was derived empirically, which means it is based
on observed results rather than theory. It predicts the pressure loss per foot of pipe as:
Equation 10-2
4.52 Q1.85
p=
C1.85 d4.87
where
p = Pressure loss per linear foot of pipe, psi
Q = Flow, gpm
C = Roughness coeicient (Table 10-2) Table 10-2 Pipe Roughness Coeicients
d = Internal diameter of the pipe, in. Pipe Material C
The variable not easily understood Black steel pipe in a dry sprinkler system 100
here is C, the roughness coeicient. his Steel pipe in a wet sprinkler system 120
variable takes into account the condition Galvanized pipe in a dry sprinkler system 120
of the pipe through which the water is Cement-lined underground pipe 140
lowing. If the pipe walls are very rough, Plastic (CPVC) 150
the amount of energy lost is higher than Copper pipe 150
if the pipe walls are very smooth. Values for C can be as low as 70 for rough, old iron pipe
or as high as 150 for perfectly smooth, new plastic pipe.
Example 10-4
How much pressure is lost in a 100-foot-long, 2-inch Schedule 40 (inside diameter of
2.47 inches) pipe lowing 250 gpm if the roughness coeicient is 120?
4.52(2501.85)
p= x 100 ft = 21.5 psi
1201.85(2.474.87)
Water Flow Tables
he hydraulic pipe schedule is a table of standard sprinkler system pipe sizes with associ-
ated lows that will produce the average friction loss per foot allowed in the system under
consideration. (See the tables at the end of this chapter for hydraulic values in sprinkler
pipe sizes up to 4 inches.)
Friction Losses for Fittings and Valves
he common method for expressing friction losses for ittings and valves in ire protection
is to express the loss as an equivalent length of pipe. When water lows through a itting
or valve, more energy is lost than if it were lowing through a straight section of pipe. he
additional lost energy can be accounted for by replacing the itting or valve in the calcu-
lation by an equivalent length of straight pipe. With this simpliication, losses for ittings
and valves can be added into the Hazen-Williams friction loss formula.
Example 10-5
How much pressure is lost in the pipe from Example 10-4 if there are four grooved 90-de-
gree elbows in the pipe? (he equivalent length of a grooved 90-degree elbow is 3.9 feet.)
Total length = 100 ft + (4 x 3.9 ft) = 116 ft
Since other variables remain the same, the friction loss per foot remains the same:
4.52(2501.85)
p= = 0.215 psi/ft x 116 ft = 24.9 psi
1201.85(2.474.87)
Equivalent lengths for ittings and valves are typically provided by manufacturers, though
some common itting equivalent lengths are prescribed in codes and standards (see Table
10-3). hese lengths are always provided with an assumed roughness coeicient (C factor)
of 120. If the piping does not have a roughness coeicient of 120, the equivalent length
must be adjusted according to Table 10-4.
Table 10-3 Equivalent Pipe Lengths for Fittings, ft Table 10-4
Fitting and Valve Size, in. Equivalent Length
Fittings and Valves Multipliers for C
0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Factors Other than
45 elbow x 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 C = 120
90 standard elbow 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 Value Multiplying
90 long-turn elbow 0.5 1 2 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 of C Factor
Tee or cross 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 17 20 100 0.713
Butterly valve x x x x x 6 7 10 x 12 120 1
Gate valve x x x x x 1 1 1 1 2 140 1.33
Swing check* x x 5 7 9 11 14 16 19 22 150 1.51
*Due to the variation in design of swing check valves, the pipe equivalents indicated in this table
are considered average.
WATER EXITING THE PIPE

At some point, for the purpose of a ire protection system to be realized, the water must
exit the pipe. In water-based ire protection systems, this occurs through an oriice with
ixed properties. he simplest and most common way of expressing the properties of an
oriice is with a number referred to as the K factor. An oriices K factor includes the efects
of both the oriices size and the shape of the sprinkler or nozzle immediately before the
opening that afects the amount of low through the opening. he expression that relates
the K factor to pressure and low is:
Equation 10-3
Q = Kp
where
Q = Flow, gpm
K = K factor
p = Pressure, psi
Example 10-6
If a ire sprinkler has a K factor of 5.6 and the water pressure inside the pipe is 10 psi, how
much water is lowing out of the sprinkler?
Using Equation 10-3:
Q = 5.610 = 17.7 gpm
Table 10-5A Water Flow Table, 1-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe
ID = 1.049 inches
Pf, psi/ft Velocity, Pf, psi/ft Velocity,
Q, gpm Q, gpm
C=100 C=120 fps C=100 C=120 fps
10 0.051 0.036 3.71 33 0.460 0.329 12.25
11 0.060 0.043 4.08 34 0.487 0.347 12.62
12 0.071 0.051 4.46 35 0.513 0.366 12.99
13 0.082 0.059 4.83 36 0.541 0.386 13.37
14 0.094 0.067 5.20 37 0.569 0.406 13.74
15 0.107 0.076 5.57 38 0.598 0.427 14.11
16 0.121 0.086 5.94 39 0.627 0.448 14.48
17 0.135 0.096 6.31 40 0.657 0.469 14.85
18 0.150 0.107 6.68 41 0.688 0.491 15.22
19 0.166 0.182 7.05 42 0.719 0.513 15.59
20 1.820 0.130 7.43 43 0.751 0.536 15.96
21 0.200 0.142 7.80 44 0.784 0.56 16.34
22 0.217 0.155 8.17 45 0.817 0.583 16.71
23 0.236 0.169 8.54 46 0.851 0.608 17.08
24 0.255 0.182 8.91 47 0.886 0.632 17.45
25 0.276 0.197 9.28 48 0.921 0.657 17.82
26 0.296 0.211 9.65 49 9.57 0.683 18.19
27 0.318 0.227 10.02 50 0.993 0.709 18.56
28 0.340 0.243 10.40 51 1.03 0.735 18.93
29 0.363 0.259 10.77 52 1.068 0.762 19.31
30 0.386 0.276 11.14 53 1.106 0.79 19.68
31 0.410 0.293 11.51 54 1.145 0.817 20.05
32 0.435 0.310 11.88
Table 10-5B Water Flow Table, 1-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

ID = 1.049 inches
Q, gpm Q, gpm
C=100 C=120 fps C=100 C=120 fps
10 0.013 0.009 2.14 53 0.291 0.208 11.36
11 0.016 0.011 2.36 54 0.301 0.215 11.57
12 0.019 0.013 2.57 55 0.312 0.222 12.00
13 0.022 0.015 2.79 56 0.322 0.230 12.21
14 0.025 0.018 3.00 57 0.333 0.238 12.43
15 0.028 0.020 3.21 58 0.344 0.245 12.64
16 0.032 0.023 3.43 59 0.355 0.253 12.86
17 0.036 0.025 3.64 60 0.366 0.261 13.07
18 0.039 0.028 3.86 61 0.377 2.690 13.07
19 0.044 0.031 4.07 62 0.389 0.278 13.29
20 0.048 0.034 4.29 63 0.401 0.286 13.50
21 0.052 0.037 4.50 64 0.412 0.294 13.71
22 0.057 0.041 4.71 65 0.424 0.303 13.93
23 0.062 0.044 4.93 66 0.437 0.312 14.14
24 0.067 0.048 5.14 67 0.449 0.320 14.36
25 0.072 0.052 5.36 68 0.461 0.329 14.57
26 0.078 0.056 5.57 69 0.474 0.338 14.79
27 0.084 0.060 5.79 70 0.487 0.347 15.00
28 0.089 0.064 6.00 71 0.500 0.357 15.21
29 0.095 0.068 6.21 72 0.513 0.366 15.43
30 0.102 0.072 6.43 73 0.526 0.375 15.64
31 0.108 0.077 6.64 74 0.540 0.385 15.86
32 0.114 0.082 6.86 75 0.553 0.395 16.07
33 0.121 0.086 7.07 76 0.567 0.405 16.29
34 0.128 0.091 7.29 77 0.581 0.414 16.50
35 1.135 0.096 7.50 78 0.595 0.424 16.71
36 0.142 0.102 7.71 79 0.609 0.435 16.93
37 0.150 0.107 7.93 80 0.623 0.445 17.14
38 0.157 0.112 8.14 81 0.638 0.455 17.36
39 0.165 0.118 8.36 82 0.652 0.466 17.57
40 0.173 0.123 8.57 83 0.667 0.476 17.79
41 0.181 0.129 8.79 84 0.682 0.487 18.00
42 0.189 0.135 9.00 85 0.697 0.498 18.21
43 0.198 0.141 9.21 86 0.712 0.508 18.43
44 0.206 0.147 9.43 87 0.728 0.519 18.64
45 0.022 0.153 9.64 88 0.743 0.531 18.86
46 0.224 0.160 9.86 89 0.759 0.542 19.07
47 0.233 0.166 10.07 90 0.775 0.553 19.29
48 0.242 0.173 10.29 91 0.791 0.565 19.50
49 0.252 0.180 10.50 92 0.807 0.576 19.71
50 0.261 0.186 10.71 93 0.823 0.588 19.93
51 0.271 0.193 10.93 94 0.840 0.599 20.14
52 0.281 0.200 11.14
Table 10-5C Water Flow Table, 1-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

ID = 1.61 inches
Q, gpm Q, gpm
C=100 C=120 fps C=100 C=120 fps
10 0.006 0.004 1.57 70 0.23 0.164 11.02
12 0.009 0.006 1.89 72 0.242 0.173 11.34
14 0.012 0.008 2.20 74 0.255 0.182 11.65
16 0.015 0.011 2.52 76 0.359 0.191 11.97
18 0.019 0.013 2.83 78 0.281 0.200 12.28
20 0.023 0.016 3.15 80 0.294 0.210 12.59
22 0.027 0.019 3.46 82 0.308 0.220 12.91
24 0.032 0.023 3.78 84 0.322 0.230 13.22
26 0.037 0.026 4.09 86 0.336 0.240 13.54
28 0.042 0.030 4.41 88 0.351 0.250 13.85
30 0.048 0.034 4.75 90 0.366 0.261 14.17
32 0.054 0.039 5.04 92 0.381 0.272 14.48
34 0.060 0.043 5.35 94 0.396 0.283 14.80
36 0.067 0.048 5.67 96 0.412 0.294 15.11
38 0.074 0.053 6.98 98 0.428 0.306 15.43
40 0.082 0.058 6.30 100 0.445 0.317 15.74
42 0.089 0.064 6.61 102 0.461 0.329 16.06
44 0.097 0.069 6.93 104 0.478 0.341 16.37
46 0.106 0.075 7.24 106 0.495 0.353 16.69
48 0.114 0.082 7.56 108 0.513 0.366 17.00
50 0.123 0.088 7.87 110 0.530 0.378 17.32
52 0.133 0.095 8.19 112 0.548 0.391 17.63
54 0.142 0.101 8.50 114 0.566 0.404 17.95
56 0.152 0.109 8.82 116 0.585 0.418 18.26
58 0.162 0.116 9.13 118 0.604 0.431 18.58
60 0.173 0.123 9.45 120 0.623 0.445 18.89
62 0.184 0.131 9.76 122 0.642 0.458 19.21
64 0.195 0.139 10.08 124 0.662 0.472 19.52
66 0.206 0.147 10.39 126 0.682 0.487 19.84
68 0.218 0.155 10.71 128 0.702 0.501 20.15
Table 10-5D Water Flow Table, 2-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

ID = 2.067 inches
Q, gpm Q, gpm
C=100 C=120 fps C=100 C=120 fps
30 0.014 0.010 2.87 129 0.211 0.150 12.33
35 0.019 0.010 3.35 132 0.220 0.157 12.62
40 0.024 0.017 3.82 135 0.229 0.164 12.91
45 0.030 0.021 4.30 138 0.239 0.170 13.20
50 0.037 0.026 4.78 141 0.249 0.177 13.48
55 0.044 0.031 5.26 144 0.258 0.184 13.77
60 0.051 0.037 5.74 147 0.269 0.192 14.06
63 0.056 0.040 6.02 150 0.279 0.199 14.34
66 0.061 0.044 6.31 152 0.288 0.206 14.60
69 0.066 0.047 6.60 154 0.295 0.211 14.80
72 0.072 0.051 6.88 156 0.304 0.217 15.00
75 0.077 0.055 7.17 158 0.311 0.222 15.20
78 0.083 0.059 7.46 160 0.318 0.227 15.30
81 0.089 0.064 7.75 162 0.325 0.232 15.50
84 0.095 0.068 8.03 164 0.333 0.238 15.70
87 0.102 0.073 8.32 166 0.340 0.243 15.90
90 0.108 0.077 8.61 168 0.349 0.249 16.10
93 0.115 0.082 8.89 170 0.355 0.254 16.30
96 0.122 0.087 9.18 172 0.364 0.260 16.50
99 0.129 0.092 9.47 174 0.371 0.265 16.70
102 0.137 0.097 9.78 176 0.378 0.270 16.90
105 0.144 0.103 10.04 178 0.386 0.276 17.00
108 0.152 0.108 10.33 180 0.395 0.282 17.20
111 0.160 0.144 10.61 185 0.416 0.297 17.70
114 0.168 0.120 10.90 190 0.437 0.312 18.20
117 0.176 0.126 11.19 195 0.458 0.327 18.70
120 0.184 0.132 11.47 200 0.480 0.343 19.10
123 0.193 0.138 11.76 205 0.502 0.359 19.60
126 0.202 0.144 12.05 210 0.526 0.376 20.10
Table 10-5E Water Flow Table, 2-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

ID = 2.469 inches
Q, gpm Q , gpm
C=100 C=120 fps C=100 C=120 fps
40 0.010 0.007 2.68 180 0.166 0.118 12.10
45 0.013 0.009 3.02 182 0.169 0.120 12.20
50 0.015 0.011 3.35 184 0.172 0.123 12.30
55 0.018 0.013 3.69 186 0.176 0.125 12.40
60 0.022 0.015 4.02 188 0.179 0.128 12.60
65 0.025 0.018 4.36 190 0.183 0.131 12.70
70 0.029 0.020 4.69 192 0.187 0.133 12.90
75 0.033 0.023 5.03 194 0.190 0.136 13.00
80 0.037 0.026 5.36 196 0.194 0.138 13.20
85 0.041 0.029 5.70 198 0.197 0.141 13.30
90 0.046 0.033 6.03 200 0.201 0.144 13.40
95 0.050 0.036 6.37 202 0.205 0.146 13.50
100 0.055 0.040 6.70 204 0.209 0.149 13.60
103 0.059 0.042 6.90 206 0.213 0.152 13.70
106 0.062 0.044 7.10 208 0.216 0.154 13.80
109 0.065 0.046 7.30 210 0.200 0.157 13.90
112 0.068 0.049 7.51 212 0.224 0.160 14.10
115 0.072 0.051 7.71 214 0.228 0.163 14.20
118 0.075 0.054 7.91 216 0.232 0.166 14.40
121 0.079 0.056 8.11 218 0.236 0.168 14.60
124 0.082 0.059 8.31 220 0.240 0.171 14.70
127 0.086 0.066 8.51 222 0.244 0.174 14.90
130 0.090 0.064 8.71 224 0.248 0.177 15.10
133 0.094 0.067 8.91 226 0.252 0.180 15.30
136 0.098 0.070 9.11 228 0.257 0.183 15.60
139 0.102 0.073 9.32 230 0.261 0.186 15.80
142 0.106 0.076 9.52 235 0.271 0.194 16.00
145 0.110 0.079 9.72 240 0.282 0.201 16.10
148 0.114 0.082 9.92 245 0.293 0.209 16.40
151 0.119 0.085 10.12 250 0.304 0.217 16.90
154 0.123 0.088 10.32 255 0.316 0.225 17.10
157 0.128 0.091 10.52 260 0.327 0.234 17.40
160 0.132 0.094 10.72 265 0.339 0.242 17.70
163 0.137 0.098 10.92 270 0.351 0.250 18.10
166 0.142 0.101 11.12 275 0.363 0.259 18.50
169 0.146 0.104 11.33 280 0.375 0.268 18.80
172 0.151 0.108 11.53 285 0.388 0.227 19.00
175 0.156 0.111 11.73 290 0.401 0.286 19.40
178 0.161 0.115 11.93 295 0.414 0.296 19.80
179 0.164 0.117 12.00 300 0.427 0.305 20.10
Table 10-5F Water Flow Table, 3-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

ID = 3.068 inches
Q, gpm Q, gpm
C=100 C=120 fps C=100 C=120 fps
30 0.002 0.001 1.30 280 0.129 0.092 12.15
40 0.004 0.003 1.74 285 0.134 0.095 12.37
50 0.005 0.004 2.17 290 0.138 0.098 12.59
60 0.007 0.005 2.60 295 0.142 0.102 12.80
70 0.010 0.007 3.04 300 0.147 0.105 13.02
80 0.013 0.009 3.47 305 0.151 0.108 13.24
90 0.016 0.011 3.91 310 0.156 0.111 13.45
100 0.019 0.014 4.34 315 0.161 0.115 13.67
110 0.023 0.016 4.77 320 0.165 0.118 13.89
120 0.027 0.019 5.21 325 0.170 0.122 14.11
130 0.031 0.022 5.64 330 0.175 0.125 14.32
140 0.036 0.026 6.08 335 0.180 0.129 14.54
150 0.041 0.029 6.51 340 0.185 0.132 14.76
155 0.043 0.031 6.73 345 0.190 0.136 14.97
160 0.046 0.033 6.94 350 0.195 0.139 15.19
165 0.049 0.035 7.16 355 0.200 0.143 15.41
170 0.051 0.037 7.38 360 0.206 0.147 15.62
175 0.054 0.039 7.60 365 0.211 0.151 15.84
180 0.057 0.041 7.81 370 0.216 0.154 16.06
185 0.060 0.043 8.03 375 0.222 0.158 16.28
190 0.063 0.045 8.25 380 0.227 0.162 16.49
195 0.066 0.047 8.46 385 0.233 0.166 16.71
200 0.069 0.049 8.68 390 0.239 0.170 16.93
205 0.073 0.052 8.90 395 0.244 0.174 17.14
210 0.076 0.054 9.11 400 0.250 0.178 17.36
215 0.079 0.057 9.33 405 0.256 0.183 17.58
220 0.083 0.059 9.55 410 0.262 0.187 17.79
225 0.086 0.062 9.77 415 0.268 0.191 18.01
230 0.090 0.064 9.98 420 0.274 0.195 18.23
235 0.093 0.067 10.20 425 0.280 0.200 18.45
240 0.097 0.069 10.42 430 0.286 0.204 18.66
245 0.101 0.072 10.63 435 0.292 0.208 18.88
250 0.011 0.075 10.85 440 0.298 0.213 19.10
255 0.109 0.078 11.07 445 0.305 0.217 19.31
260 0.113 0.080 11.28 450 0.311 0.222 19.53
265 0.117 0.083 11.50 455 0.317 0.226 19.75
270 0.121 0.086 11.72 460 0.324 0.231 19.96
275 0.125 0.089 11.94 465 0.330 0.236 20.18
Table 10-5G Water Flow Table, 4-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

ID = 4.026 inches
Q, gpm Q, gpm
C=100 C=120 fps C=100 C=120 fps
100 0.005 0.004 2.52 570 0.128 0.091 14.37
125 0.008 0.006 3.15 580 0.132 0.094 14.62
150 0.011 0.008 3.78 590 0.137 0.097 14.87
175 0.014 0.010 4.41 600 0.141 0.101 15.12
200 0.018 0.013 5.04 610 0.145 0.104 15.37
225 0.023 0.016 5.67 620 0.150 0.107 15.63
250 0.028 0.020 6.30 630 0.154 0.110 15.88
275 0.033 0.024 6.93 640 0.159 0.113 16.13
300 0.039 0.028 7.56 650 0.163 0.117 16.38
325 0.045 0.032 8.19 660 0.168 0.120 16.63
350 0.052 0.037 8.82 670 0.173 0.123 16.89
375 0.059 0.042 9.45 680 0.178 0.127 17.14
400 0.067 0.048 10.08 690 0.183 0.130 17.39
425 0.074 0.053 10.71 700 0.187 0.134 17.64
450 0.083 0.059 11.34 710 0.192 0.137 17.89
475 0.091 0.065 11.97 720 0.197 0.141 18.15
500 0.101 0.072 12.60 730 0.203 0.145 18.40
510 0.104 0.074 12.85 740 0.208 0.148 18.65
520 0.108 0.077 13.11 750 0.213 0.152 18.90
530 0.112 0.080 13.36 760 0.218 0.156 19.16
540 0.116 0.083 13.61 770 0.224 0.160 19.41
550 0.120 0.086 13.86 780 0.229 0.163 19.60
560 0.124 0.089 14.11 790 0.234 0.167 19.91
73
Hydraulic
Calculations 11
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler
Systems deines the method of calculating the predicted performance of water-based ire
protection systems. Most building codes reference this document as their source for hy-
draulic calculation procedures.
DENSITY/AREA METHOD
In commercial and residential occupancies, sprinkler systems are typically required to
be capable of providing a speciic density of water low over a given area. For example, a
sprinkler system protecting oice space is most commonly required to provide 0.1 gallon
per minute (gpm) per square foot over 1,500 square feet. his means that the water low-
ing out of each sprinkler must average 0.1 gpm for every square foot of loor space that
particular sprinkler is protecting. NFPA 13 provides requirements regarding the density
and area required for a given occupancy or hazard, but ultimately it is the responsibility
of the engineer of record and the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) to make the inal
determination of what density and area will be required.
Consider the plan view of a sprinkler system as shown in Figure 11-1. he rectangular
area is protected by sprinklers spaced at 14 feet by 14 feet. Assume that this space must be
protected with a density of 0.1 gpm per square foot over 1,500 square feet. To prove that
Figure 11-1 Plan View of Sprinkler System

the system is able to provide the required water low rate over any 1,500 square feet within
the protected area, the hydraulically most remote 1,500 square feet must be found. NFPA
13 prescribes the method of determining the hydraulically most remote area.
To ind the number of sprinklers lowing, divide 1,500 by the area of coverage per sprin-
kler (196 square feet). his results in 7.65 sprinklers. NFPA 13 does not permit a partial
sprinkler; therefore, the number of sprinklers must be rounded up to eight. he shape of
the remote area is also prescribed by NFPA 13. It must be at least 1.2 times the square root
of the area in length along the direction of the branch lines, as shown below:
1.21,500 = 46.5 ft
he hydraulically most remote area is shown in Figure 11-2.
Figure 11-2 Hydraulically Most Remote Area
Beginning the Calculation

Now that the lowing sprinklers have been determined, the calculation can begin. Assume
that all of the sprinklers in this example have a K factor of 5.6. Each sprinkler is protecting
196 square feet at a density of 0.1 gpm per square foot. his means that each sprinkler must
low 19.6 gpm. To determine what pressure is required for a K = 5.6 sprinkler to low 19.6
gpm, use Equation 10-3 (Q = Kp):
19.6 gpm = 5.6p
p = (Q/K)2 = (19.6/5.6)2 = 12.25 pounds per square inch (psi)
hus, each sprinkler in the remote area must be fed with a pressure of 12.25 psi or higher.
he calculation begins at the single most remote sprinkler and works back toward the wa-
ter source. Figure 11-3 assigns hydraulic node points to all of the relevant locations in the
system. Sprinkler S1 is the farthest from the water source, so the calculation begins at S1.
Since the minimum pressure at any sprinkler must be 12.25 psi, the calculation will increase
from 12.25 psi. To determine the pressure at sprinkler S2, the friction loss created by water
Chapter 11: Hydraulic Calculations 75
Figure 11-3 Hydraulic Node Points

lowing from S2 to S1 must be found. Friction loss is predicted using the Hazen-Williams
equation (Equation 10-2). In this case, the low in the pipe between S1 and S2 is 19.6 gpm.
For this example, assume the system is wet and has a C factor of 120. he inside diameter
of the pipe can be found in Table 11-1. (Assume all piping in this example is Schedule 40).
Table 11-1 Inside Diameters for Schedule 10 and Schedule 40 Steel Pipe, in.
Pipe 1 in. 1 in. 1 in. 2 in. 2 in. 3 in. 4 in. 6 in.
S10 1.097 1.442 1.682 2.157 2.635 3.260 4.260 6.357
S40 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 6.065
From Equation 10-2:

4.52 Q1.85 4.52(19.61.85)
p= = = 0.125 psi/ft
C1.85 d4.87 1201.85(1.0494.87)
Since there are 14 feet of pipe and no ittings between S1 and S2, the pressure loss
between these two nodes is 1.76 psi. Given that the pressure at node S1 is 12.25 psi, the
pressure at S2 must be 12.25 + 1.76, or 14 psi. At node S2 is a sprinkler also with a K factor
of 5.6. Since the pressure at node S2 is now known, the low out of this sprinkler can be
determined as follows:
Q = Kp = 5.614 = 21 gpm
With sprinkler S1 lowing 19.6 gpm and sprinkler S2 lowing 21 gpm, the amount of
water lowing in the pipe feeding these two sprinklers (S3 to S2) must be 40.6 gpm. Using
the same procedure, the pressure at node S3 can be found. he pressure loss per foot be-
tween S3 and S2 will be:
4.52 Q1.85 4.52(40.61.85)
p= 1.85 4.87 = = 0.482 psi/ft
C d 1201.85(1.0494.87)
Adding the pressure from S2 (14 psi) to the pressure loss from the pipe to the next node,
the pressure at node S3 is found to be 20.7 psi. he procedure is again repeated for the
next sprinkler and section of pipe, this time with more low and a larger diameter (for the
1-inch pipe between S4 and S3).
Q = Kp = 5.620.7 = 25.5 gpm
25.5 gpm + 40.6 gpm = 66.1 gpm
4.52 Q1.85 4.52(66.11.85)
p= = = 0.312 psi/ft
C1.85 d4.87 1201.85(1.384.87)
Adding the pressure from S3 (20.7 psi) to the pressure loss from the pipe to node S4,
the pressure at node S4 is found to be 25.1 psi. he procedure is repeated for the next
sprinkler and section of pipe, again with more low and a larger diameter (for the 1-inch
pipe between S4 and M1).
Q = Kp = 5.625.1 = 28.1 gpm
28.1 gpm + 66.1 gpm = 94.2 gpm
4.52 Q1.85 4.52(94.21.85)
p= = = 0.284 psi/ft
C1.85 d4.87 1201.85(1.614.87)
he piping between S4 and M1 contains the irst itting in this example (ittings where
the sprinkler itself is attached are not counted). When the loss for a reducing tee or elbow
is calculated, its equivalent length must be included as the smaller pipe size. Node M1 is
a tee with sizes of 3 inches and 1 inches, so the equivalent length must be included as
1-inch pipe. Common equivalent lengths are listed in Table 11-2.
Table 11-2 Equivalent Lengths of Common Fittings (for Schedule 40 Pipe), ft

Fitting 1 in. 1 in. 1 in. 2 in. 2 in. 3 in. 4 in. 6 in.
45 elbow 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 7
90 elbow 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 14
Tee or cross 5 6 8 10 12 15 20 30
Butterly valve 6 7 10 12 10
Gate valve 1 1 1 2 3
Check valve 5 7 9 11 14 16 22 32
Using this information, the pressure at node M1 can be found. he distance from node
S4 to M1 is 7 feet, and the equivalent length of the 3-inch by 1-inch tee is 8 feet of 1-
inch pipe. he distance between the two in the calculation is therefore 15 feet. he pressure
at M1 is then:
15 ft x 0.284 psi/ft = 4.26 psi
4.25 psi + 25.1 psi = 29.4 psi
he calculation up to this point is illustrated in Figure 11-4. From here, the loss between
nodes M1 and M2 can be calculated. Since the low from M1 to S4 is 94.2 gpm and there
is no sprinkler at node M1, the low from M1 to M2 must also be 94.2 gpm.
he loss between nodes M1 and M2 can be calculated as:
4.52 Q1.85 4.52(94.21.85)
p= 1.85 4.87 = = 0.0123 psi/ft
C d 1201.85(3.0684.87)
Figure 11-4 Illustration of Density/Area Method Calculation

he required pressure at node M2 can then be calculated as 29.6 psi.
At node M2, the low splits into two directions. Some water goes to node M1, and some
goes to node S8. It has already been determined how much is lowing to M1, so the low
to S8 must be found.
Equivalent K Factors
All of the branch lines in this example are exactly the same. Most importantly, both branch
lines included in the remote area are exactly the same. Since they are identical, an equiv-
alent K factor can be used to ind the amount of water lowing into another branch line
at a diferent pressure. Remember from Chapter 10 that a K factor is not only a function
of oriice size, but also of shape or coniguration. his can include an entire branch line.
Using the information known at this point, a K factor for the typical branch line in this
example can be found. he pressure at the feed end of the branch line is 29.4 psi, and the
low is 94.2 gpm. Using Equation 10-3:
Q = Kp = 94.2 gpm = K29.4 psi
Q/p = K = 94.2 gpm/29.4 psi = 17.4
With a K factor of 17.4 for the entire branch line, the low of the branch line at a diferent
pressure (the pressure at node M2) can be easily found. Again, use Equation 10-3:
Q = Kp = 17.429.6 = 94.7 gpm
his yields an expected result; at a slightly higher pressure, the branch lows slightly
more water. he total low for the calculation is now known. he low from M2 to M1 is
94.2 gpm, and the low from M2 to S8 is 94.7 gpmadding to a total low from the riser
(node RSR) of 189 gpm.
Result
For the inal required pressure at the riser, the loss between nodes M2 and RSR must be
found. Between nodes M2 and RSR are 99 feet of pipe. In addition, there is a 3-inch 90-de-
gree elbow for a total of 106 feet. Using Equation 10-2:
4.52 Q1.85 4.52(1891.85)
p= = = 0.0446 psi/ft
C1.85 d4.87 1201.85(3.0684.87)
Multiplying this value by the length of 106 feet yields a loss of 4.73 psi. Adding to the
required pressure at node M2 gives 34.3 psi as a inal pressure.his means the system as
shown will require a low and pressure of 189 gpm at 34.3 psi at node RSR to satisfy the
area and density prescribed.
ELEVATION CHANGES
he example calculated above does not include any elevation changes. In practice, all
systems have elevation changes (i.e., systems are not installed on the loor). Assume that
all of the piping in the example is at an elevation of 10 feet above the loor. What would
the required pressure be in the riser at loor level if the riser is a 3-inch pipe? To ind the
answer, add an additional 10 feet for the vertical pipe and 7 feet for a 90-degree elbow at
the top of the riser:
(10 ft + 7 ft)(0.0446 psi/ft) + 34.3 psi = 35.1 psi
Add the loss due to the increase in elevation:
10 ft x 0.433 psi/ft = 4.33 psi
Adding the elevation loss to the required pressure at the top of the riser results in a
pressure of 39.4 psi.
Most systems will include elevation changes at various points in the network of piping
as well. hese changes must be accounted for as the calculation progresses so the correct
pressure is used for each lowing sprinkler.
HYDRAULIC CALCULATION FORMS
NFPA 13 details how calculation work must be shown. Regardless of how the calculation
is performed (either by hand or by sotware), this format is still used to show the numbers
throughout the calculation. As an example, Table 11-3 shows the start of the example
calculation from earlier in this chapter.
Table 11-3 Step 1 of the Example Calculation in NFPA 13 Format

Flow Nominal
Node K Fittings: Pipe, ft
Elevation Added in Pipe C Factor Total
1 Factor Quantity
This Step Diameter
and Notes
Actual Fittings, Pressure
Node Total Equiv. Elevation
Elevation Pipe ft Loss per
2 Flow Length
Diameter Total, ft Foot Friction
S1 10 ft 5.6 19.6 gpm 1 in. 14 120 12.25

0.125 0
S2 10 ft 19.6 gpm 1.049 in. 14 psi/ft 1.76
Each block like the one in Table 11-3 represents a single pipe. When the calculation is
inished, each pipe or equivalent K factor should have a block showing what was calculated.
Table 11-4 shows the irst two pipes in the example calculation.
Table 11-4 Steps 1 and 2 of the Example Calculation in NFPA 13 Format

Flow Nominal
1 Factor Quantity
This Step Diameter
and Notes
2 Flow Length
S1 10 ft 5.6 19.6 gpm 1 in. 14 120 12.25
0.125 0
S2 10 ft 19.6 gpm 1.049 in. 14 psi/ft 1.76
S2 10 ft 5.6 21 gpm 1 in. 14 120 14
0.482 0
S3 10 ft 40.6 gpm 1.049 in. 14 psi/ft 6.75
Two numbers carry over from one pipe to the next. In the low column, the total low is
cumulative. For each sprinkler, the low of that individual sprinkler is added in the upper
box, and the total low up to that point (including that sprinkler) is in the lower box. If the
node is simply a pipe size change where there is no low, the upper box would be zero. In
the pressure column, the total pressure loss as the calculation progresses is in the top box
labeled Total. hat top box is the sum of the three boxes from the pipe above it; meaning
that the top box is the cumulative pressure, and the bottom two boxes are the pressure losses
from friction and elevation (or gain from elevation if the elevation change is negative) in
that pipe. Table 11-5 shows the irst two steps and the inal step of the example calculation.
Table 11-5 Steps 1 and 2 and XX of the Example Calculation in NFPA 13 Format
Flow Nominal
1 Factor Quantity
This Step Diameter
and Notes
2 Flow Length
S1 10 ft 5.6 19.6 gpm 1 in. 14 120 12.25

0.125 0
S2 10 ft 19.6 gpm 1.049 in. 14 psi/ft 1.76
S2 10 ft 5.6 21.0 gpm 1 in. 14 120 14.0
0.482 0
S3 10 ft 40.6 gpm 1.049 in. 14 psi/ft 6.75
...
M2 10 ft 17.4 94.2 gpm 3 in. 2 elbows 109 120 29.6 Final
pressure
7 ft each 14 4.33 and low:
0.0446
RSR 0 ft 189 gpm 3.068 in. psi/ft 39.4 psi,
123 5.49 189 gpm
AREA MODIFICATIONS
he design density and area prescribed by either the engineer of record or NFPA 13 may or
may not be the inal area calculated. In a number of situations the area is either increased
or decreased. Some examples of area modiications are listed in Table 11-6.
Table 11-6 Common Area Modiications

For wet pipe systems using quick-response sprinklers, the design area can be
Quick-response sprinklers reduced by as much as 40%. The amount of reduction is based on the ceiling
height. See NFPA 13 for the area reduction formula and restrictions on its use.
For dry systems and double-interlock preaction systems, the design area must
Dry systems or double- be increased by 30%. Since these systems are illed with air, the air must be
interlock preaction systems exhausted before the water will low. The increase in area is required due to
the increased amount of time it will take for water to arrive at the sprinkler.
For most systems, the design area must be increased by 30% if the system is
Sloped ceilings
installed under a ceiling that is sloped more than 2 in 12.
Example 11-1
Using the example system in the earlier part of the chapter, how would the remote area
change if the system were dry rather than wet?
For dry systems, the design area must be increased by 30 percent, which results in a
design area of 1,950 square feet. To ind the number of sprinklers along a branch line:
1.21,950 = 53 ft
his length still results in four sprinklers per branch line. he diference is that now the
remote area must include 10 sprinklers to add up to 1,950 square feet. Figure 11-5 shows
the new remote area.
Figure 11-5 Example 11-1 Plan View
he two additional sprinklers are added closer to the main, not at the end of the branch
line. his is important to note since it is a common mistake to include the two sprinklers
at the end of the third branch line rather than the two at the root of the branch line. he
reason the two sprinklers closest to the main must be included is due to diferences in water
low. he two sprinklers closest to the main will low more water and, therefore, increase
the friction loss in the main as it lows from the riser.
LOOPED AND GRIDDED PIPING
In many cases, the water may low along more than one path. Looped and gridded systems
can be challenging to calculate by hand. In most cases, these systems are designed using
sotware that can easily solve much more complex systems of equations. Even so, it is
helpful to understand what the sotware is doing and be able to make estimates without it.
As a simple example, consider a standpipe system with two standpipes. For a standpipe
system, 500 gpm at 100 psi is required at the top of the most remote standpipe, with 250
gpm lowing from other standpipes. he system is shown in Figure 11-6. In this example,
the low and loss in each of the single paths can be easily determined. he problem is the
looped piping. No simple formula can be used to determine how much water is lowing
through each pipe in the loop.
To work through this problem, start with all of the known quantities and ind the losses
in the single paths (the vertical pipes). Since the 250-gpm standpipe is closer and less de-
Figure 11-6 Standpipe System with Figure 11-7 Water Flow Paths in Loops
Looped Piping
manding, the 500-gpm standpipe will start the calculation. here is 75 feet of 4-inch piping
with an internal diameter of 4.026 inches, a tee at the base with an equivalent length of 20
feet, and a starting pressure of 100 psi at the top. Assume the piping is all Schedule 40 and
the C factor is 120. he required pressure at the base of the riser is then:
4.52(Q1.85)
100 psi + (75 ft)(0.433 psi/ft) + (75 + 20)( ) = 139 psi
1201.85(4.0264.87)
he next step is to determine how much water is lowing through each leg of the loop
so pressure losses can be calculated. Figure 11-7 designates the three paths in the loop at
the base of the risers. Based on the igures, the following low relationships are known:
QB + QC = 500 gpm, or QC = 500 QB
QA QB = 250 gpm, or QA = QB + 250
QA + QC = 750
It should be noted at this point that not all of these lows will always be positive. his
example is simple enough that the direction of low can be easily seen. In many cases,
however, it may not be clear which direction the water is lowing in all sections of piping.
he important thing to remember is that simply because a low is negative, it does not
necessarily mean that an equation or the answer is wrong. It just means that water may be
lowing in the opposite direction from what was expected.
From here, the expressions for friction losses through each path must be incorporated.
To simplify the process, the variables that will remain the same for each section can be
consolidated. Since each pipe in the loop has the same C factor and diameter, this portion of
the Hazen-Williams equation can be calculated, and a new constant (T) can be substituted:
4.52
T= = 9.91 x 10-8
1201.85(6.0654.87)
A useful detail in calculating looped piping is the fact that the pressure at any given node
point must be the same regardless of from which direction it comes. In this example, it is
known that the pressure at the base of the 500-gpm riser is 139 psi; therefore, the calculation
of pressure losses in each leg of the loop must start at 139 psi. Since the loop also comes
back to a common node point at the beginning and the pressure at this beginning node
must be the same coming from both sides of the loop, the pressure losses through each
leg of the loop must be equal. he efect this fact has on this calculation is that the sum of
the pressure losses in paths A and B must equal the pressure loss in path C. When these
pressure losses match, the pressure of the water arriving at the base of the riser will be the
same regardless of from which leg it comes.
To match up the pressure losses, the low through each path will vary. To express this as
an equation, add the lengths of each path and the equivalent lengths of the ittings in that
path to the Hazen-Williams equation, substituting T for the constant values. Path A is 25
feet long, path B is 150 feet long with two 90-degree elbows at 14 feet each for a total of
178 feet, and path C is 125 feet long with a 90-degree elbow at 14 feet and a tee at 30 feet
for a total of 169 feet. he resulting equation is then:
25TQA1.85 + 178TQB1.85 = 169TQC1.85
Substituting the low relations from earlier:
25T(QB + 250)1.85 + 178TQB1.85 = 169T(500 QB)1.85
he equation is now down to a single variable and can be solved. A non-linear equa-
tion of this type, however, cannot easily be solved algebraically. With access to sotware,
a calculator, or a spreadsheet, a solution can be found quickly, but without those tools,
trial and error substituting guesses and adjusting is most likely the fastest method. In this
example, a little reasoning can yield a good irst guess. Looking at the loop, no ittings and
very little pipe are between the water source and the irst standpipe, or path C. Also, the
equivalent lengths ater ittings are included for each of the other two paths are similar.
With this information, it seems likely that the amount of low through paths B and C will
also be similar.
Ater several iterations, the low that satisies the equations above is found to be QB = 216
gpm. With a known quantity for QB, QC can be found; therefore, the pressure loss along
path QC can be found:
QC = 500 QB = 500 216 = 284
hen substitute the low in path C in the reduced Hazen-Williams equation to ind the
friction loss:
169TQC1.85 = 0.579 psi
Since the pressure losses around both sides of the loop are the same, this pressure loss is
added to the 139 psi required at the base of the standpipe. he required pressure at the start
of the loop is then 139.579 psi, or rounded to 140 psi. To complete the calculation, the loss
from the inal 50 feet of pipe between the start of the loop and the water supply is added:
4.52(7501.85)
140 psi + (50 x ) = 141 psi
1201.85(6.0654.87)
he inal required low and pressure at the water source are 750 gpm and 141 psi.
83
Fireighting
Foam 12
Fireighting foam is a substance made of water, foam concentrate, and air that is used to
suppress ires by coating the fuel source, thus preventing the ires contact with oxygen. he
mixture forms a stable blanket that has a lower density than oil, gasoline, and water. Foam is
the primary extinguishing agent used for lammable liquid (Class B) ires. High-expansion
foams are also acceptable for Class A ires.
he following National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards shall be consulted
for speciic design requirements as applicable:
u NFPA 11: Standard for Low-, Medium-, and High-Expansion Foam
u NFPA 16: Standard for the Installation of Foam-Water Sprinkler and Foam-Water Spray
Systems
u NFPA 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code
u NFPA 403: Standard for Aircrat Rescue and Fire-Fighting Services at Airports
u NFPA 409: Standard on Aircrat Hangars
u NFPA 1150: Standard on Foam Chemicals for Fires in Class A Fuels
HOW FOAMS EXTINGUISH FIRE
Fireighting foam works to extinguish ires in the following ways:
u Smothering the fuel source
u Separating the ire from the fuel source
u Cooling the fuel and surrounding surfaces
u Suppressing the release of lammable vapors
Criteria for Foam to Be Effective
For foam to be fully efective in suppressing a ire, the following criteria must be met:
u he liquid (fuel) must be below its boiling point at the ambient conditions of tempera-
ture and pressure.
u Care must be taken in the application of the foam to liquids with a bulk temperature
higher than 212F. At this temperature and above, foam forms an emulsion of steam,
air, and fuel, which may produce a four-fold increase in volume when applied to a tank
ire, with dangerous frothing or overlow of the burning liquid.
u he liquid must not be unduly destructive to the foam used, or the foam must not be
highly soluble in the liquid (fuel).
u he liquid must not be water-reactive.
u he ire must be a horizontal surface ire. hree-dimensional (falling fuel) or pressurized
ires cannot be extinguished by foam unless the hazard has a relatively high lashpoint
and can be cooled to extinguishment by the water in the foam.
FOAM CHARACTERISTICS
Drainage Rate
he discharge rate measures how long it takes for the discharged foam to drain from the
expanded foam mass, with the rate based on how long it takes 25 percent of the solution
to drain from the foam. Fast, or short, drain times relect a more luid foam. Slow, or long,
drain times indicate a less luid foam, but these foams cover the surface more slowly, which
means more contact time with the fuel source.
Expansion Rate
he expansion rate is the volume of inished foam divided by the volume of foam solution.
Foams are divided into three expansion rateslow, medium, and highbased on their
ability to ill a space:
u he expansion rate of low-expansion foams is less than 20 times. hese foams are low
viscosity, mobile, and able to quickly cover large areas.
u he expansion rate of medium-expansion foams is between 20 and 200. hey are used
to ill large volumes, lood surfaces, and ill cavities.
u he expansion rate of high-expansion foams is more than 200. hey are suitable for
enclosed spaces such as hangars, where quick illing is needed, but they also can be
used to ill large volumes, lood surfaces, and ill cavities.
TYPES OF FOAMS
Foams are selected for speciic applications according to their properties and performance
(see Table 12-1). Some foams are thick, viscous, and form tough heat-resistant blankets
over burning liquid surfaces; other foams are thinner and spread more rapidly.
Aqueous Film-Forming Foam
Aqueous ilm-forming foam (AFFF) is the most widely used type of ireighting foam based
on its fast ire control and knockdown. It is appropriate for use on hydrocarbon fuels and
is widely used in aircrat hangars and military installations.
AFFF is water-based and frequently contains a hydrocarbon-based surfactant, which
allows it to spread over the surface of hydrocarbon-based liquids. When discharged, it forms
an aqueous ilm on the surface of the lammable liquid, providing superior extinguishing
capabilities compared to protein or luoroprotein foams. AFFF is also very luid, so it can
quickly low around obstacles.
Table 12-1 Foam Characteristics
Eiciency2 Foam Expansion3
Foam Type1
Hydrocarbons Polar Liquids Low Medium High
AFFF 3 0 Y Y N
AR-AFFF 3 3 Y Y N
P 1 0 Y N N
FP 2 0 Y Y N
FFFP 3 0 Y Y N
AR-FP 2 3 Y Y N
AR-FFFP 3 3 Y Y N
1
AFFF: Aqueous ilm-forming foam, AR: Alcohol-resistant, P: Protein, FP: Fluoroprotein, FFFP: Film-forming luoroprotein
2
0: No eiciency, 1: Low eiciency, 2: Good eiciency, 3: Excellent eiciency
3
Low: Expansion ratio between 2 to 1 and 20 to 1, Medium: Expansion ratio between 20 to 1 and 200 to 1, High: Expansion ratio
more than 200 to 1.
Source: Chemguard
Chapter 12: Fireighting Foam 85
Alcohol-Resistant Aqueous Film-Forming Foam

Polar solvent/alcohol liquids have the ability to destroy a ireighting foam blanket, so
alcohol-resistant AFFF was developed. When discharged, a protective ilm separates the
foam from the fuel and prevents the destruction of the foam blanket; thus, AR-AFFF is
very efective on hydrocarbon and water-miscible ires.
Protein Foam
Protein is a very stable foam made of naturally occurring sources of protein such as hoof,
horn, and feather meal. It is intended for use on hydrocarbon fuels only. Because of its
stability, it is slow moving compared to synthetic foams, but it has good heat resistance
and burnback. Protein foam has slow knockdown characteristics, but it provides post-ire
security at an economical cost.
Fluoroprotein Foam
Fluoroprotein (FP) foam ofers the same beneits as regular protein foams, but due to the
addition of luorochemical surfactants, it ofers faster mobility, has improved resistance
to fuel contamination/pickup, and is compatible with dry chemicals. FP foam is intended
for use on hydrocarbon fuels and some oxygenated fuel additives. FP foam can be applied
directly on the fuels surface.
Alcohol-Resistant Fluoroprotein Foam
Alcohol-resistant FP foam ofers the same beneits as FP foam, but it is also efective on
water-soluble fuels such as methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and acetone by forming a pro-
tective membrane between the foam and the fuel source.
Film-Forming Fluoroprotein
Film-forming luoroprotein (FFFP) is a protein-based foam concentrate with the addition of
a luorochemical surfactant, which releases an aqueous ilm on the surface of a hydrocarbon
fuel for improved mobility and faster extinguishment. FFFP combines the fuel tolerance
and burnback resistance of an FP foam with increased knockdown.
Alcohol-Resistant Film-Forming Fluoroprotein
Alcohol-resistant FFFP ofers the same beneits as FFFP and also is resistant to water-sol-
uble fuels.
Class A Foam Concentrate
Class A foam concentrate is used in addition to water to help extinguish Class A ires. When
mixed with water, it allows the water to blanket the fuel source rather than running of it;
thus, less water is necessary with the use of Class A concentrates. According to the National
Institute of Standards and Technology, water treated with Class A foam concentrate can
wet a Class A fuel up to 20 times more rapidly and is three to ive times more eicient at
ire extinguishment than untreated water.
Class A foam concentrates can also be used as a ire barrier to increase the moisture
content in Class A combustibles to prevent them from igniting.
PROPORTIONING
Foam concentrate is mixed with water in a process called proportioning. he correct ratio
of foam concentrate to water is essential for optimum performance.
Percentages
Diferent foams are proportioned at diferent percentages (ratios), which are listed on the
foam container. For example, 3 percent concentrates are mixed with water at a ratio of 97
parts water to 3 parts foam. Lower proportioning percentage foams are preferred when
possible because more foam concentrate can be transported and stored than higher pro-
portioning percentage foams.
Proportioning Methods
Proportioning can be accomplished in the following ways.
Pre-Mix/Dump-In
his is the simplest method, requiring nothing more than mixing pre-measured portions
of water and foam concentrate. It is not practical for ixed (piped) industrial applications.
Balanced-Pressure Proportioning Systems
his method comprises a pressure-rated vessel with an internal, reinforced elastomeric
bladder containing the foam concentrate. he systems water pressure squeezes the blad-
der, forcing the foam concentrate into a proportioner with a metering device. he foam is
stored in an atmospheric foam storage tank with an electric positive-displacement pump,
and an automatic pressure-balancing valve regulates the foam to match the water pressure.
Line Proportioner
In this method, pressurized water lows through a line proportioner (eductor), creating
a negative pressure area where suction draws the foam concentrate from an atmospheric
foam storage tank.
Around the Pump
A ire pump is used in this method. A portion of the ire pump discharge is diverted through
a line proportioner, which is piped to the suction side of the pump to form a loop around
the pump. he line proportioner produces a foam solution with the incoming water in the
loop piping in a ratio such that when proportioned with ire pump intake water, the desired
percentage of foam solution is produced.
Water-Driven Foam Proportioner
he water-driven foam proportioner assembly is installed in the main water line (riser).
he systems water low rate determines the amount of foam concentrate that is injected
into the water supply, delivering the correct percentage of foam solution to the discharge
devices regardless of varying low rates and pressures.
Water Pressure
Proportioner pressures should not exceed 200 pounds per square inch (psi), as foam quality
deteriorates at higher pressures.
DISCHARGE DEVICES
Once the foam concentration is correctly mixed (proportioned) with water, air must be
added to produce the expanded foam. his is accomplished using an aspirated or non-as-
pirated discharge device.
With an aspirated device, the foam solution passes through an oriice, past air inlets,
into a mixing area, and through a discharge device. With a non-aspirated device, the foam
solution passes through an oriice and a stream delector to produce droplets of solution
that combine with air between the device outlet and the fuel surface.
Chapter 12: Fireighting Foam 87
NFPA and UL classify discharge devices by the way they apply foam to the liquids
surface as follows:
u NFPA classiications: Type 1 delivers the foam gently onto the liquids surface without
the foam being submerged or the surface being agitated. Type 2 does not deliver foam
gently onto the surface, but it is designed to lessen submergence of the foam and agi-
tation of the surface.
u UL classiications: Type 1 delivers foam without submergence. Type 2 delivers foam with
partial submergence. Type 3 delivers in a manner that causes the foam to fall directly
onto the surface and in a manner that causes general agitation.
Many types of discharge devices are used with foam. hey include but are not limited
to the following:
u Nozzles
u Monitors
u Sprinkler heads
u Foam chambers
u Foam makers
u Foam generators
GUIDELINES FOR FIRE PROTECTION WITH FOAMS
he following general rules apply to the application and use of ordinary foams:
u Applying the foam more gently requires a lower total amount of foam and produces
more rapid extinguishment.
u Successful use of foam depends on the rate at which it is applied. Application rates are
described as volume of foam per fuel surface area per minute (i.e., gallons per minute
per square foot). Increasing the application rate reduces the time required to extinguish
the ire. Increasing the rate more than three times the minimum rate does not provide
much more improvement in extinguishment time.
u In general, foams will be more stable when they are generated with clean water at an
ambient temperature between 35F and 80F. Water containing known impurities may
adversely afect the foams quality.
u Foams are also adversely afected by air containing combustion products. It is best to lo-
cate foam makers to the side of the hazard being protected, rather than directly overhead.
u Recommended pressure ranges should be observed for all foam-making devices. he
foams quality will deteriorate if these limits (either high or low) are exceeded.
STORAGE
A foam storage tank and its contents must be inspected and tested at least yearly or as re-
quired by NFPA 25: Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based
Fire Protection Systems. Storage conditions (temperature variations, sunlight, and type of
concentrate) afect the shelf life of foam concentrates. Storing diferent types and brands
of foam in the same container is typically not acceptable. For speciic recommendations,
contact the foam manufacturer.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF FOAM
Contemporary UL-Listed or military speciication-approved foam concentrates are specii-
cally formulated to provide maximum ireighting capabilities with minimal environmental
impacts and human exposure hazards. All concentrates are biodegradable in both the
natural environment and sewage treatment facilities. However, foam solutions generally
have a high biological oxygen demand (BOD)that is, they extract high levels of oxygen to
break down. his is an issue in the natural environment and where the foam is discharged
to wastewater treatment plants. By federal and state laws, all attempts should be made to
prevent discharge to waterways, even under emergency conditions. Prior to discharge to
water treatment plants, the facility operator should be contacted to discuss the volume,
rate, and expected time to discharge to their system.
89
Water Mist
Systems 13
Water mist systems were developed to provide a ixed ire protection system using water
as the key extinguishing media, similar to an automatic sprinkler system or water spray
(deluge) system. he key diference of water mist systems is the droplet size and the
impact the droplet size has relating to the eiciency of the water in controlling and/or
extinguishing a ire.
Water mist systems are deined by NFPA 750: Standard on Water Mist Fire Protection
Systems as a water spray for which the Dv0.99, for the low-weighted cumulative volumetric
distribution of water droplets, is less than 1,000 microns at the minimum design operating
pressure of the water mist nozzle. Dv0.99 refers to the amount of water discharged from
the nozzlesi.e., 99 percent of the water volume must have droplets smaller than 1,000
microns in size. (In comparison, a typical sprinkler water droplet is 1,500+ microns in size.)
he minimum pressure of the water mist nozzle is the basis for the measurement of droplet
size. As a comparison, most current water mist systems require minimum pressures as high
as 1,000 pounds per square inch (psi), depending on the technology selected, whereby a
typical sprinkler may operate at as low as 7 psi.
HISTORY OF WATER MIST
he motivation to develop technology to create smaller droplets and use less water was
associated with two key ire protection issues. First, due to previous ires and loss of life on
merchant ships at sea, regulations known as SOLAS (safety of life at sea) were adopted. All
ships with more than 20 passengers were required to install ire sprinklers. he technical
challenges to installing a regular sprinkler system (i.e., water supplies, balancing the ship
during water discharge, bulkhead penetrations, and pipe sizes) were addressed by the
development and use of water mist systems. Due to their smaller pipe sizes, smaller water
supplies, etc., ships could accommodate water mist systems more easily than sprinkler
systems.
he second market development was the technical challenges associated with the
installation of automatic sprinkler, deluge water spray, or clean agent systems in many
land-based applications. For example, water supplies were sometimes limited, water runof
was an environmental issue, and new pipe installation was severely restricted in existing
structures. For these reasons, water mist systems were found to be an alternative to more
conventional ire protection systems.
PERFORMANCE PRINCIPLES OF WATER MIST
Water mist controls and extinguishes a ire by impacting two sides of the ire triangle: heat
and oxygen. Water mist afects these two properties through three primary methods: heat
extraction, oxygen displacement, and radiant heat blocking.
he irst way that water mist controls and extinguishes a ire is through heat extraction.
Water mist does not cool ires in the same method as typical wet pipe sprinkler systems,
which are able to wet and cool the fuel itself due to the size and velocity of the comparatively
large water droplets created by an ordinary sprinklers delector. Water mist systems, with a
substantially smaller droplet size, quickly extract heat from the hot gases and lames. his
is due to the surface area of the particlethe rate of heat absorption is a function of the
surface area of the water droplet, not the volume of the water droplets. As the water mist
droplets are much smaller than other water-based systems, the surface area per gallon of
water is dramatically increased.
When a water mist system discharges, the droplets are rapidly heated and converted into
steam, which in turn consumes the energy of the ire. When suicient energy is removed
from the ire, the temperature of the lame drops below the minimum level required to
maintain combustion, and the ire extinguishes.
he steam also plays a role in oxygen displacement. Water droplets expand during evap-
oration (up to 1,600 times), causing the water vapor to displace the air surrounding the
droplet. he application of water mist into a hot compartment causes rapid steam creation,
displacing the combustion-fueling air within the space. his process is particularly efective
with an extremely large or hot ire, as such conditions cause rapid vaporization of the water.
Lastly, the steam blocks radiant heat. A combination of the large amounts of steam
generated during the extinguishment process and the water droplets themselves creates
an efective thermal barrier, attenuating the heat transfer between the lames and the fuel
while also reducing the radiation of the lames to unburned surfaces, thus slowing the
spread of the ire.
Conditions
For a water mist system to control and extinguish a ire, the following key conditions must
be present:
u Open lames (deluge applications)
u Light hazard (or limited ordinary hazards) for closed-head systems
u Limited volumes of the risk being protected
u Limited heights
u Limitations on ventilation
u Limited fuel types and quantities of combustibles
Based on these conditions, a water mist system will perform well as a deluge application
in a limited-volume, enclosed space if the fuel type is limited, if an open lame is antici-
pated in a ire scenario, and if the ventilation is controlled to some degree. In a sprinkler
alternative application, water mist will perform well within a light hazard occupancy (with
limited ordinary hazard spaces).
STANDARDS AND APPROVALS
he key standards for water mist systems utilized in North America are:
u FM Approval Standard for Water Mist Systems (Class Number 5560)
u NFPA 750
u UL 2167: Standard for Water Mist Nozzles for Fire Protection Service
he earliest approvals were associated with the International Maritime Organization
(IMO), with sprinkler alternatives for passenger ships and local application systems (used
to protect engine equipment in lieu of carbon dioxide) being the predominant approvals.
Chapter 13: Water Mist Systems 91
FM Global approves both deluge and sprinkler alternative systems (light and ordinary
hazard). he Class 5560 test protocols are the basis for all land-based system approvals, and
each approval is based on a volume limitation (deluge) or square footage and ceiling height
(sprinkler alternative). hese approvals are typically system approvals, not component ap-
provals such as those seen with conventional sprinkler systems. Water mist systems are sold
inclusive of nozzles, pressure units, strainers, valving, and some level of technical support.
Some of FM Globals approvals for specialty water mist systems are:
u Protection of Machinery in Enclosures with Volumes Not Exceeding 9,175 t3
u Protection of Combustion Turbines in Enclosures with Volumes Not Exceeding 9,175 t3
u Protection of Non-Storage Occupancies, Hazard Category 1
u Protection of Wet Benches and Other Similar Processing Equipment
u Protection of Industrial Oil Cookers
u Protection of Computer Room Raised Floors
It is important to note that generalized listings should not be broadly relied on with-
out verifying that the performance stated by the listing meets the needs of the particular
protection scenario. he listings have two shortcomings: a simpliied test protocol and
speciic performance objectives. he simpliied test protocols may not capture the details
of all possible real-world conditions. For example, the FM approval for the Protection of
Combustion Turbines in Enclosures with Volumes Not Exceeding 9,175 t3 only contains
a mock-up of a combustion turbine enclosure; the mist is tested against exposed and
shielded spray ires with sheet metal used for shielding, but the mock-up does not include
the turbine body and associated components and tubing. Careful consideration must be
employed to accurately determine what components were tested for the listing and how
that applies to the desired protection scenario.
In addition, with many of the approving organizations, water mist is tested against ex-
tremely speciic settings using precise criteria. For example, IMO tests for accommodations
and public spaces only require the ire be controlled (not extinguished) for 10 minutes, in
the philosophy that ireighting crews will arrive on the scene to manually extinguish the
ire within that timeframe. However, the machinery room tests require full extinguishment.
It is important to accurately assess the desired protection scheme and compare it to the
speciic listing to determine if the approval tests meet the real-world application.
WATER MIST SYSTEM TYPES
he two types of water mist systems are single and twin luid.
Single Fluid
he single-luid system employs either a pump unit or cylinder supplies of gas to increase
the water pressure to the design requirements. he water supply for the system may be a
potable water supply, if available, or a stored water tank or cylinder. he quantity of water
depends on the anticipated system demand and the discharge duration. FM allows for a
limited discharge duration of 10 minutes for certain deluge applications, while NFPA 750
requires enough gas and water for two 30-minute discharges. hese types of systems may
use a stored cylinder arrangement for both water and gas.
he network of pipes from the pressure device (pump or cylinders) to the nozzles is
required to be capable of withstanding the pressures anticipated in the system and must
not contribute scale, rust, etc., that may clog the nozzles. Since water mist nozzle oriices
are extremely small compared to sprinklers, all water mist systems require an integral
strainer on the incoming nozzle oriice and in the water supply to prevent deposits from
clogging the nozzles.
Single-luid systems are ofered with open (deluge) nozzles and closed, fusible bulb
(sprinkler alternative) options. Each manufacturer has diferent listings, designs, and spac-
ing requirements for their nozzles and system components. Droplet sizes for single-luid
system range from 50 to 200 microns; however, this measurement depends on the location
of the water droplet sample and the sophistication of the measuring equipment.
Nozzles are further divided into impingement and pressure jet models. Impingement
nozzles rely on a solid jet of water impacting a delector and subsequently atomizing into
small drops. he velocity of the water and the shape of the impingement surface determine
the angle of discharge, the drop size, and the spray momentum. Impingement-type nozzles
are generally employed with low- and medium-pressure systems and create relatively large
water droplets. Pressure jet nozzles rely on specialized system components to drive water
through a tiny oriice at very high velocities, causing a breakup of the water stream into
mist as it exits the nozzles. Pressure jet nozzles typically require higher operating pressures
than impingement nozzles, but they can create a much iner and more uniform water mist.
NFPA 750 further deines single-luid systems based on the system pressure:
u Low pressure: 175 psi or less
u Intermediate pressure: 175 to 500 psi
u High pressure: More than 500 psi
As the system pressure has a direct correlation to system component requirements, pipe
types, installation complexity, pumps, tanks, and life-cycle costs, these technical issues
associated with pressure should be considered in the pre-design stage.
Twin Fluid
In lieu of developing all of the required nozzle pressure at the starting point (via a pump
or cylinders) and transmitting the water under pressure through the pipe network, NFPA
750 provides for the option of a twin-luid system. his type of water mist system utilizes
a propellant gas (steam, air, or nitrogen) and water, with the two media routed through
separate pipe networks to the discharge device. (Note: FM considers a twin-luid water
mist system using nitrogen as the propellant to be a hybrid system.) At the discharge de-
vice (nozzle, emitter, or atomizer), the two luids are combined to produce the water mist.
he advantages of a twin-luid system are eiciency and small water droplets. he
separate propellant network of pipes to the discharge device allows for a lower pressure
within the system, yet enables the technology to create smaller water droplets and less
water consumption than a single-luid system. Many twin-luid systems operate at less
than 120 psi, with some operating with pressures as low as 25 psi. Testing with twin-luid
discharge devices has demonstrated that a substantial number of water droplets is below
the 10-micron size, creating more droplets per gallon of water and thus more surface area
to absorb heat, causing a higher rate of steam conversion per gallon of water discharged.
Twin-luid nozzles create mist by using the gas and nozzle geometry to shear the water
as it exits the system, creating a uniform mist discharge. Twin-luid nozzles can control
the angle of the discharge pattern, discharge rate, and drop size distribution.
SYSTEM DESIGN
he design of a water mist system should start with a review of the hazard and the perfor-
mance characteristics of the system. If the risk being protected exceeds the volume and/or
Chapter 13: Water Mist Systems 93
height restrictions of the approval agencies, if the fuel load is diferent or of a larger quantity
compared to the testing, or if oxygen levels below 16 percent will not be acceptable (deluge
applications), then water mist may not be the appropriate system choice.
he reliability of a water mist system must also be considered. Water mist systems typically
incorporate equipment and concepts that are generally avoided in customary sprinkler
systems. Higher water pressures increase the chances of piping or itting failures, while a
small discharge oriice size increases the chances of nozzle plugging. he control systems
generally require local detection to trigger an electrically released solenoid, adding logic
controls and increasing the chances of individual equipment (and therefore system) failure.
Another key design consideration is the customers budget. As all water mist systems
require higher pressures and more sophisticated components to develop and deliver smaller
droplet sizes, these systems are likely more expensive than other ire protection technologies
such as automatic sprinklers, water spray, and clean agents.
hus, prior to the selection and design of any water mist system, it is recommended that
the hazard, system design parameters, and motivation for using water mist be conirmed
with both the building owner and the water mist manufacturer.
he design information required for any water mist technology includes the following:
u Risk to be protected (area and volume)
u Type of risk (e.g., turbine enclosure, machinery space, light hazard sprinkler alternative)
u Type of fuel anticipated (class A, class B lammable liquids, etc.)
u Maximum ceiling height for any space protected
u Ventilation into risk (options to shut down ventilation)
u Water supply low and pressure (existing, extension from domestic supply, self-con-
tained, etc.)
u Duration of water mist discharge
u Insurance underwriter or approving agency
u Other motivations for use (water use, environmental safety, contamination, etc.)
u Why other system types were eliminated from consideration
u Commercial limitations
With this information, a design approach may be selected. As diferent water mist sys-
tems have unique design limitations, the designer may elect to review the design param-
eters directly with the manufacturers to determine the best system option for the design
requirements.
he system designer is recommended to solicit the above technical information as re-
quired to establish the scope of supply for the contractor to develop a quote. As the water
mist system may be a small portion of the overall ire protection scope of supply (and price),
it is recommended that the water mist projects value be clearly established at the time of
bidding to ensure that the designer may utilize the option to compare system alternatives.
he designer also will need to consider the requirements for a system of electrical detec-
tion to activate the water mist system if a deluge or local application is speciied. Electrical
detectors, manual pull stations, alarms, and control panels may be required.
If a pump unit is used to pressurize the water mist system, consideration should be given
to the need for a standby power supply and/or electrical transfer switch if an electric water
mist pump is employed. Auxiliary devices for the system, such as low-measuring devices,
onsite testing, etc., are identiied in NFPA 750 and NFPA 20: Standard for the Installation
of Stationary Pumps.
In the design of a twin-luid system, additional consideration should be given to the dual
network of piping required for each discharge device. his requirement may restrict the
use of a twin-luid system in an occupancy with limited space allocated for ire protection.
Further, nitrogen storage and reill capabilities need to be considered.
COMPARISONS TO OTHER FIRE PROTECTION TECHNOLOGIES
he use of water mist is a viable option assuming the technical and commercial issues have
been vetted. Following is an overview of the technical advantages and issues to review when
considering water mist in lieu of other ire protection technologies.
Water Mist vs. Sprinklers
u Reduced water demand (less than 20 percent for nonresidential systems)
u Improved cooling and radiation attenuation
u Reduced footprint of equipment and pipe network
u Reduced water discharge from head damage or inadvertent operation
u Efective against class A and class B fuels
u Decreased water damage to the building and surrounding environment
Water Mist vs. Water Spray
u Oxygen displacement (local and global)
u Combustion chemistry interference
u Fuel cooling
u Radiation attenuation
u Reduced ireighting runof containment and disposal costs
Water Mist vs. Clean Agents
u Improved maintenance, reliability, and life-cycle
u Fully approved for occupied spaces (nontoxic)
u No discharge delay; attacks ire in the earliest stages
u Less restrictive enclosure integrity
u Extended/unlimited agent supply
u No/low agent costs to all parties
u No potential for decommissioning of the system
Technical Issues to Consider
u High pressure required compared to sprinklers and water spray
u Pipe network must be corrosion resistant and able to withstand higher pressures
u Limits on system volumes (deluge)
u Limits on nozzle elevations (deluge and sprinkler alternative)
u Limited installer experience (notably high-pressure systems)
u Component complexity and availability
u Life-cycle costs
95
Carbon Dioxide
Systems 14
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is naturally present in the atmosphere in very small amounts (0.03
percent) and is a normal product of human and animal metabolism. However, an increase
in its concentration in the air (to more than 6 or 7 percent) is dangerous for humans. At
room temperature, carbon dioxide is a gas that is colorless, odorless, inert, electrically
nonconductive, and noncorrosive.
CO2 is liqueied by compression and cooling and converted to a solid state by cooling
and expansion. An unusual property of carbon dioxide is that it cannot exist as a liquid at
pressures below 60 pounds per square inch gauge (psig) (75 psi absolute). his pressure
is known as the triple-point pressure at which carbon dioxide may be present as a solid,
liquid, or vapor. Below this pressure, it must be either a solid or a gas, depending on the
temperature.
If the pressure in a CO2 storage container is reduced by bleeding of vapor, some of the
liquid will vaporize, and the remaining liquid will get colder. At 60 psig, the remaining
liquid will be converted to dry ice at a temperature of -69F (-56C). Further reduction in
the pressure will convert all of the material to dry ice, which has a temperature of -110F
(-79C).
he same process takes place when liquid carbon dioxide is discharged into the at-
mospherea large portion of the liquid lashes to vapor with a considerable increase in
volume. he rest is converted into inely divided particles of dry ice at -110F. his dry ice,
or snow, gives the discharge its typically cloudy, white appearance. he low temperature
also causes water to condense from the air, so ordinary water fog tends to persist for a while
ater the dry ice has evaporated.
When carbon dioxide is discharged into an enclosed area, a cloud or fog develops, which
is due to the condensation that results from the dry ice forming. he dry ice disappears
shortly, which is why extinguishing by cooling is minimal.
When CO2 is discharged into an enclosed area at 34 percent concentration by volume, the
temperature in the area drops nearly 80F very quickly, but it immediately begins to rise. In
two minutes, the temperature rises 35F, and in six minutes it rises 50F. he temperature
then will slowly continue to rise to that of surrounding area.
CARBON DIOXIDE AS A FIRE SUPPRESSION AGENT
As a ire suppression agent, carbon dioxide is beneicial because it leaves no residue to clean
up ater discharge and does not contribute harmful chemicals to the drainage system. It
is approximately 50 percent heavier than air and moves slowly downward, so discharge
nozzles must be located at the upper portion of the protected area. Its extinguishing efect
occurs because the oxygen content in the surrounding air is reduced below the 15 percent
threshold needed for combustion to take place.
When CO2 is discharged on electrical equipment, it does not produce an electrical shock.
It also does not spread the ire to surrounding areas, which may happen when a ire hose
with a solid stream is used. However, if a stream of CO2 directly hits an operating piece of
hot equipment, thermal shock and damage could result.
Carbon dioxide may be used in the following applications:
u Flammable liquids and gases
u Electrical hazards (computer rooms, transformers, generators, and switch-gear rooms)
u Ovens, broilers, ranges, and kitchen stove exhaust ducts
u Combustibles with unique value (e.g., legal documents, ilms, books)
CO2 should not be used in the following areas:
u When oxidizing materials (chemicals containing their own oxygen supply) are present
u Where personnel cannot be quickly evacuated
u When reactive metals are present (e.g., sodium, potassium, magnesium, titanium)
Carbon dioxide is stored in either high- or
low-pressure containers. High-pressure containers
store CO2 at 850 psi and 70F, and each cylinder may
weigh 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 35, 50, 75, 100, or 125 pounds.
he CO2 content per cylinder is 60 to 68 percent, and
the balance within the cylinder is an inert propellant
gas. Figure 14-1 shows the typical arrangement of
high-pressure containers.
Low-pressure containers store CO2 in refrigerated
tanks at 300 psi and 0F.
he conventional breakpoint between high- and
low-pressure systems is based on the amount of CO2
required for protection and the space occupied by the
cylinders. Typically this is 2,000 pounds of carbon Figure 14-1 High-Pressure Carbon
dioxide. Due to energy conservation, high-pressure Dioxide Cylinder Arrangement
systems that do not require refrigeration are used in larger systems. he space occupied
by the cylinders is the limiting criteria.
A CO2 system may be controlled by either an automatic pneumatic or heat-actuated
detector (HAD). Detectors may be either electrical or mechanical. For manual operation,
a pull cable is used in a mechanical system, a push button is used in an electrical system,
and plant or bottled air is used in a pneumatic system. Manual emergency actuation is
used if the automatic operation fails.
When installing a carbon dioxide system, the following points should be considered:
u High-pressure cylinders must be stored at temperatures of no more than 120F and no
less than 32F.
u he distribution piping must be steel. For high-pressure systems of inch and less,
use Schedule 40; for 1 inch and larger, use Schedule 80 with malleable and forged-steel
ittings. For low-pressure piping, check the required pipe schedule with National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) standards.
u Valves and nozzles must be furnished by the vendor and be UL Listed.
System Applications
Types of carbon dioxide system applications include the following:
Chapter 14: Carbon Dioxide Systems 97
u Total looding in enclosed spaces, such as within electrical equipment, electrical closets,
or specially designed enclosures that surround a hazard: In such cases, the CO2 system
includes a ixed supply, piping, and nozzles.
u Local application where the hazard can be isolated and CO2 is applied directly on the
burning material: Such a system includes a ixed supply, piping, and nozzles. System
design is based on the area to be protected, nozzle design, optimum low rates, and
discharge time. he total quantity can be calculated as follows:
Total quantity = Nozzle discharge rate x Number of nozzles x Discharge time
Note: High-pressure cylinders use a discharge time of +30 seconds. For storage capacity,
consult the vendor.
u Standpipe and handheld hoses to be directed on burning surfaces: he supply is dis-
charged through hoses located on reels or racks, preferably laid out so two hoses can
reach the same spot simultaneously (estimate two minutes at 500 pounds per minute, or
1,000 pounds of CO2). Note: A 200-foot limitation on the supply line may be extended
with a bleeder, which simultaneously opens and closes a valve provided with a timer.
u Mobile systems, usually in which twin cylinders are manifolded together and installed
on a dolly: Such a system is wheeled to an area where a ire is burning. he usual ap-
plication is in parking garages.
u Portable ire extinguishers illed with carbon dioxide
Examples of CO2 concentrations for deep-seated ires are:
u For cable insulation: 50 percent
u For dust-illed areas: 75 percent
Figure 14-2 summarizes carbon dioxide applications.
Advantages and Disadvantages
he advantages of carbon dioxide as an extinguisher are as follows:
u Provides some cooling (minor)
u Smothers ires
u Leaves no residue ater discharge
u Is a gas and has the capability to penetrate and spread
he disadvantages of carbon dioxide as an extinguisher are as follows:
u Hazardous to personnel in the area protected
u Needs enclosure for best results
u Finite supply (vs. water)
u Fire may relash (to suppress and/or prevent relash, provide a double-shot reserve)
CO2 Applications
Total looding Local application
Surface ires (one- Deep-seated ires Rate of Rate of application

minute discharge, (seven-minute application determined by
no holding period maximum discharge,* determined by volume
20-minute holding area
period
*30 percent concentration within two minutes
Figure 14-2 Summary of Carbon Dioxide Applications
ALARMS AND EVACUATION

Oxygen deiciency and decreased visibility are both concerns when carbon dioxide is used.
For these reasons, it is important to establish an alarm system and evacuation procedure
for a CO2 extinguishing system.
he three alarm steps in CO2 operation are initial, evacuation, and discharge. Each alarm
has a distinctive tone; for an efective evacuation, alarm drills are required so the occupants
become familiar with the distinctive signals as well as evacuation procedures.
When CO2 is released, auxiliary switches operated by either cylinder pressure or an
electronic panel may simultaneously cut of fuel (close a gas-supply valve), close dampers,
or shut of fans to cut the supply of fresh oxygen, as well as set of alarms, close ire doors,
and/or shut down operating equipment.
An area protected by CO2 must have warning signs, such as one of the following:
u Warning: Carbon dioxide gas is discharged when alarm operates. Vacate immediately.
u Warning: Carbon dioxide gas is discharged when alarm operates. Do not enter until
ventilated.
u Warning: Carbon dioxide discharged into a nearby space may collect here. When alarm
operates, vacate immediately.
u Warning: Actuation of this device will cause carbon dioxide to discharge. Before acti-
vating, be sure personnel are clear of the area.
In addition to signs, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations
require CO2 discharge delays, breathing apparatus available to personnel entering the room
(ater the ire is out), and accessible, well-marked exits.
SPECIFICATIONS
he engineer should write a speciication with the idea that specialized, engineered equip-
ment will be purchased from a vendor. Speciications must include:
u Description of the risk (hazard)
u Type of system desired (low or high pressure)
u Type of activation desired (manual and/or automatic)
u Opening closures to be released or activated (door fans, etc.)
he engineer also must show the desired route of piping, but not include sizes. Vendor
drawings, together with calculations, shall be submitted for approval to the authority having
jurisdiction (AHJ) and the owners ire insurance underwriter.
For inal approval ater installation, a puf test is usually used; however, the puf CO2
discharge might not be permitted for environmental reasons. In this case, a harmless (inert)
gas is used to test the system.
CYLINDERS AND SCALES
In a carbon dioxide system, high-pressure cylinders are sometimes located on a scale,
which is normally inoperable unless lited into position. Cylinders may last up to 12 years
before being recharged.
Two banks of CO2 are kept in storage for a double shot. One of the two banks of cylinders
is a reserve. A cylinders weight must be checked every six months. If during this interval
a cylinder loses 10 percent of its weight, it must be replaced with a new one.
Whatever the arrangement, routine maintenance should include storage area cleanliness.
Another part of routine maintenance is to ensure that all equipment is ready for proper
operation when needed.
PIPE SIZING CALCULATIONS

When carbon dioxide gas is discharged, the pressure drops, a vapor is formed, and CO2
volume increases, as does friction in pipes and ittings. Sotware is available that takes all of
these factors into consideration and can be used when performing pipe sizing calculations.
Pipe sizing shall be done by the CO2 manufacturer. he designer shall calculate the amount
needed and select the system type (high or low pressure).
Example 14-1
Perform calculations for a total-looding system. he area in which this system will be
installed contains lammable materials. Other speciications are as follows:
u Space volume: 2,000 cubic feet
u Type of combustible: Gasoline
u Ventilation openings: 20 square feet
From Table 14-1, the design concentration of CO2 can be found. For this installation, it
is 34 percent.
From Table 14-2 it is possible to determine the volume factor. For this particular installa-
tion, the room has a volume of 2,000 cubic feet. Table 14-2 shows that between 1,601 cubic
feet and 4,500 cubic feet, the requirement is 18 cubic feet per pound of CO2. herefore:
2,000 ft3/18 ft3 = 111 lbs CO2 required
Table 14-1 Minimum Carbon Dioxide Concentrations for Extinguishment
Theoretical Minimum Theoretical Minimum
Minimum CO2 Design CO2 Minimum CO2 Design CO2
Material Material
Concentration, Concentration, Concentration, Concentration,
% % % %
Acetylene 55 66 Gasoline 28 34
Acetone 27 34 Hexane 29 35
Aviation gas, grades Higher parain
30 36 28 34
115/145 hydrocarbons
Benzol, Benzene 31 37 Hydrogen 62 75
Hydrogen
Butadiene 34 41 30 36
sulide
Butane 28 34 Isobutane 30 36
Butane I 31 37 Isobutylene 26 34
Isobutylene
Carbon disulide 60 72 26 34
formate
Carbon monoxide 53 64 JP-4 30 36
Coal or natural gas 31 37 Kerosene 28 34
Cyclopropane 31 37 Methane 25 34
Diethyl ether 33 40 Methyl acetate 29 35
Dimethyl other 33 40 Methyl alcohol 33 40
Methyl butane
Dow therm 38 46 30 36
I
Methyl ethyl
Ethane 33 40 33 40
ketone
Ethyl alcohol 36 43 Methyl formate 32 39
Ethyl ether 38 46 Pentane 29 35
Ethylene 41 49 Propane 30 36
Ethylene dichloride 21 34 Propylene 30 36
Quench, lube
Ethylene oxide 44 53 28 34
oils
It is necessary to account for leaks Table 14-2 Flooding Factors

that may occur through openings. Volume of Space, Volume Factor Calculated Quantity,
For the purposes of this example, ft3 incl. ft3/lb CO2 lb CO2/ft3 lb, no less than
use a quantity of 1 pound of CO2 Up to 140 14 0.072
per square foot to determine the 141 to 500 15 0.067 10
required additional amount of CO2 501 to 1,600 16 0.063 35
needed to compensate for leaks 1,601 to 4,500 18 0.056 100
through openings. herefore, for a 4,501 to 50,000 20 0.050 250
More than 50,000 22 0.046 2,500
20-square-foot opening:
20 ft2 x 1 lb/ft2 = 20 lbs
he amount depends on whether the opening remains open, has a large amount of
leakage, etc. For openings that are not to be closed, a calculated additional amount of CO2
must be provided.
For this example, the total amount of CO2 required is 131 pounds (111 + 20). Two shots
are recommended, so use 300 pounds of CO2 (131 x 2 = 262 pounds and round up), or
four cylinders at 75 pounds each. his will include two cylinders for the irst shot and two
for the reserve shot.
Pressure-Relief Venting Formula
Now that the total amount of CO2 has been determined, it is necessary to calculate the
size requirement for the overpressure vent openings. For very tight spaces, overpressure
openings must be calculated based on a pressure-relief venting formula, which is as follows:
Equation 15-1
Q
X=
1.3p
where
X = Free area, in.2
Q = Calculated carbon dioxide low rate, lb/min
p = Allowable strength of enclosure, lb/ft2
Again, this should be calculated with the manufacturer representatives help.
Since the design requirement for this example is not more than 34 percent concentration,
no correction factor is required for the basic quantity. If the concentration is more than 34
percent, the quantity of CO2 required is increased by a factor of 1 to 4 (see Figure 14-3).
The pressure-relief venting factor
applies to openings and is also called
the correction factor. he amount of
CO2 discharged must be increased when
the normal temperature of the protected
space is above 200F.
Example 14-2
Size a carbon dioxide system for an
electrical equipment system with two
adjacent electrical switch-gear rooms of
50,400 cubic feet and 58,800 cubic feet Figure 14-3 CO2 Concentration Conversion
and 50-square-foot openings. Factors
To ind the preliminary esti- Table 14-3 Flooding Factors for Speciic Hazards
mate of CO2 required, use the Design
ft3/lb
largest risk of 58,800 cubic feet Concentration, lb CO2/ft3 Speciic Hazard
CO2
%
and divide by the appropriate
Dry electrical hazards in general
looding factor, which can be 50 10 0.100
(spaces 0 to 2,000 ft3)
found in Table 14-3. In this 0.083, 200- Dry electrical hazards in spaces
50 12
case, since the space is more lb min. greater than 2,000 ft3
than 2,000 cubic feet, the fac- 65 8 0.125
Record (bulk paper) storage,
tor is 12 cubic feet per pound ducts, covered trenches
Fur storage vaults, dust
of CO2. herefore: 75 6 0.166
collectors
58,800 ft2/(12 ft3/lb CO2) = Source: NFPA 12
4,900 lbs of CO2 required
Use a factor of 2 pounds of CO2 per square foot for openings:
2 lb CO2/ft2 x 50 ft2 = 100 lbs of additional CO2 required
he inal amount of CO2 required is 5,000 pounds (4,900 + 100). A single shot would
require 5,000 pounds, and a double shot would require 10,000 pounds. For a double-shot
system (remember that 2,000 pounds = 1 ton), use a 5-ton, low-pressure, refrigerated
tank. Using the number of cylinders required for a high-pressure system would not be a
practical solution.
For gas discharge, the practical maximum distance between the storage point and the
discharge point is 300 feet (for a low-pressure system), and the absolute maximum distance
is 400 feet. At distances beyond these points, separate systems must be installed, with each
system closer to the hazard protected.
For rotating electrical equipment, the air volume of the interior equipment to be protected
must be obtained from the equipment manufacturer.
103
Dry and Wet

Chemicals 15
Dry and wet chemical extinguishing systems are primarily used on lammable liquid
(Class B) ires, and dry chemicals also can be used for ires involving energized electrical
equipment (Class C). Dry chemical systems are typically found in industrial, marine, and
aircrat applications. Wet chemical systems commonly provide ire protection for commer-
cial kitchen hoods, ducts, and appliances. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
standards mandate the provision of a Class K portable ire extinguisher in locations with
either a dry or wet chemical system in case the ire spreads outside the protected area.
DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
Dry chemicals are most efective and most oten used on surface ires, especially on lam-
mable and combustible liquids, and they can be applied using various methods, including
portable extinguishers, hand hose-line systems, or ixed (local or total-looding) systems.
Dry chemicals are particularly suited for outdoor environments where concerns about
freezing prevent the installation of water-based systems.
he minimum requirements for the design, installation, maintenance, and testing of
dry chemical extinguishing systems can be found in NFPA 17: Standard for Dry Chemical
Extinguishing Systems and UL 1254: Standard for Pre-Engineered Dry Chemical Extinguish-
ing System Units. Another applicable standard is NFPA 33: Standard for Spray Application
Using Flammable or Combustible Materials.
Dry Chemical Agents
A dry chemical system utilizes a dry powder mixture as the ire-extinguishing agent. he
ive basic varieties of dry chemical extinguishing agents are borax and sodium bicarbonate,
sodium bicarbonate, urea-potassium bicarbonate, monoammonium phosphate base, and
potassium bicarbonate (commonly referred to as Purple K).
Dry chemicals are efective in extinguishing ires involving lammable and combustible
liquids and gases, combustible solids, energized electrical hazards, and lash surface ires.
Dry chemicals can be used to extinguish ordinary combustibles (Class A), but they are
not the most eicient or efective means of suppression for this hazard. Dry chemicals are
not efective in extinguishing deep-seated ires due to the nature of the chemical and its
inability to penetrate the objects surface.
Twin-agent units using dry chemicals for early lame knockdown, followed by a foam
application to prevent re-lash, are becoming a popular means of ire suppression in the
petroleum, petrochemical, marine, natural gas, and aviation industries.
How Dry Chemicals Extinguish Fire

Dry chemicals work by breaking the chain reaction of combustion. When introduced
directly into the ire area, dry chemicals cause almost immediate extinguishment by sup-
pressing the ire via saponiication, a method in which a thin foam barrier forms between
the fuel and the oxygen source, depriving the ire of oxygen and shielding the fuel from
hot gas layer radiation.
While dry chemicals provide rapid lame-suppressing capabilities, the subsequent cleanup
is a disadvantage. Cleanup may entail a multi-pronged approach, including dry powder
vacuuming, surface washdown, and scrubbing with neutralizing elements. When wet or
let in a high-humidity environment, dry chemicals may be corrosive to surfaces sensitive
to mildly acidic or alkaline materials.
System Types
Local Application
Dry chemicals can be discharged by handheld extinguishers or wheeled portable equipment
in local applications where the hazard is not enclosed or where the enclosure does not
form an efective ire boundary. his includes such areas as temporary/open spray booths,
chemical mixing areas, and small oil-illed transformers. he hazardous area includes all
locations that are or may become coated by the lammable liquid, including those areas
subject to spillage, leakage, dripping, or splashing.
Chemical application may be from the side, overhead, or a combination of both. he
amount of extinguishing agent depends on the hazardous area or the volume of the haz-
ardous object.
Handheld Hose Lines
A handheld hose-line system consists of a hose and a nozzle connected to a dry chemical
supply by direct connection to the storage container or by ixed piping. One or more hose
reels can be supplied by the same chemical supply. he capacity of the unit must be capable
of maintaining low through the hose line for a minimum of 30 seconds.
Total Flooding
Dry chemical systems also may be total looding. he total-looding system consists of a
predetermined supply of dry chemical permanently connected to a ixed discharge piping
system (typically utilizing galvanized pipe), with ixed nozzles discharging into an enclosed
space or an enclosure around a hazard. Upon activation of the system by a heat detector or
manual actuation, expellant gas is discharged into the storage container, and dry chemical
is propelled through the systems nozzles.
A ixed system providing total looding must be capable of providing the design con-
centration in all parts of the hazardous area within 30 seconds. Openings such as doors
and room ventilation systems must be coordinated to automatically close upon system
discharge. Openings not capable of being closed must be limited to less than 15 percent of
the total enclosure area; if these non-closing openings exceed 15 percent, a local application
system is more efective.
A total-looding system may be either of the following:
u Engineered: hese systems are designed based on known factors of chemical low,
pressure, friction losses, and pressure drops. Detection and activation are by automatic
operation using electric, electronic, or mechanical detection and discharge. Many au-
Chapter 15: Dry and Wet Chemicals 105
thorities require a full discharge test ater installation for veriication of the efectiveness
of such a system or require a room air pressure test.
u Pre-engineered: hese systems have been ire-tested for a listing with a recognized
laboratory. he installation must be in compliance with the limitations imposed by the
manufacturers instructions regarding installation for speciic hazard types and sizes,
pipe sizes, pipe lengths, number and types of ittings, number and types of nozzles,
and types and quantities of chemicals to be used. Most pre-engineered systems are
designed for automatic operation, using electric, electronic, or mechanical detection
and discharge. A manual pull station is required to be installed at an exit.
Storage and Maintenance
Dry chemical powders are typically stored in pressurized cylinders, with an accompanying
cylinder of carbon dioxide or nitrogen for use as an expellant gas. Dry chemical cylinders
must be located in close proximity to the protected area due to the large amount of friction
loss experienced by the dry chemicals low through the discharge piping.
Dry powders should be stored in an environment between -40F and 120F, and they
are stable up to approximately 130F. Operating temperatures are primarily limited by the
expellant gas.
he container in which the dry chemical is stored should be tightly closed and kept in a
dry location to prevent the absorption of moisture. If any caking occurs due to moisture,
the dry chemical must be discarded. Dry chemicals of diferent compositions shall not be
stored in the same container.
In general, all dry chemical powder systems should be inspected annually. Hand hose-
line systems may be inspected more frequently depending on the location and climate.
WET CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
Wet chemical agents are the only agents listed to suppress ires in commercial cooking
appliances and equipment, such as deep-fat fryers, griddles, range tops, broilers, kitchen
hoods, plenums, exhaust ducts, and grease ilters. According to the National Association
of Fire Equipment Distributors, pre-engineered wet chemical ire suppression systems are
95 percent successful in suppressing kitchen cooking hazard ires.
he minimum requirements for the design, installation, maintenance, and testing of wet
chemical extinguishing systems can be found in NFPA 17A: Standard for Wet Chemical
Extinguishing Systems and NFPA 96: Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection
of Commercial Cooking Operations. Wet chemical systems are performance tested under
the guidelines of UL 300: Fire Testing of Fire Extinguishing Systems for Protection of Com-
mercial Cooking Equipment.
Wet Chemical Agents
Wet chemical ire-extinguishing agents consist of a potassium carbonate, potassium acetate,
or potassium citrate-based solution of organic or inorganic salts mixed with water to form
a liquid alkaline solution that is typically discharged as ine droplets though a piping and
nozzle system using expellant gas.
Wet chemicals will react with any water-reactive metals (typically Class D ires), energized
electrical equipment, and any other water-sensitive materials. Wet chemicals are typically
nontoxic and non-carcinogenic in nature, although slight skin and respiratory irritation
may occur with prolonged exposure.
How Wet Chemicals Extinguish Fires

When the wet chemical extinguishing agent is sprayed on a grease ire, it interacts imme-
diately with the grease (saponiication) to form a blanket of foam over the fuels surface,
preventing further contact with oxygen (smothering) and to cool the fuel source below its
combustion temperature. he ine droplets also cool the surrounding air via vaporization
and prevent splashing.
For kitchen cooking hazard ires, wet chemical ire suppression systems are preferred
over dry chemical systems because they provide faster lame knockdown, and the ine spray
helps prevent re-ignition ater the discharge is complete. Cleanup is another beneit: the
wet chemical can be easily removed from surfaces using a cloth.
System Description
Wet chemicals are typically applied via a pre-engineered local application system consisting
of an activation gas tank, agent tank, distribution piping, discharge nozzles, a releasing
device, fuse link or heat detector, manual pull station, and gas/electric shutof device, with
predetermined low rates, nozzle pressures, and quantities of agent required.
Wet chemicals are usually stored in cylinders adjacent to the hazard and are activated
by either manual (pull station) or automatic (fuse link or heat detector) means. When the
system is actuated, the seal on the gas tank opens, and the gas lows to the agent tank to
force the wet chemical through the distribution piping and nozzles. A typical wet chemical
system discharges 3 to 4 gallons of agent in approximately 30 seconds.
107
Clean Agents 16
Halon compounds are composed of hydrocarbon molecules in which one or more of the
hydrogen atoms have been replaced with bromine, luorine, or chlorine. Originally discov-
ered and developed in the 1960s, halons were utilized as a gaseous ire suppression agent
that could be efectively employed in areas that could not withstand the discharge of water,
such as computer rooms, telecommunications rooms, lammable liquid storage areas, and
switchgear rooms. Halons possess extremely low toxicity levels, are electrically inert, and do
not empty the room of oxygen, allowing them to be deployed in a space where personnel
could still be present (unlike carbon dioxide, where a sufocation potential exists). Ater
discharge, the altered hydrogen compound could no longer ignite and let little to no residue.
he one major disadvantage of halons is their environmental impact: they are severely
damaging to the ozone layer and can reside in the atmosphere for a signiicant period.
he Montreal Protocol (1987) restricted the creation of new chloroluorocarbons, and in
1994 new production of halons was stopped, practically eliminating the use of halons in
ire suppression systems in 197 countries including Canada and the United States. A small
secondary market has arisen to reclaim discharged halons and maintain existing systems
using stockpiles of halon gases, but overall, most halon systems have been decommissioned,
are slated for decommissioning, or have been retroitted with a clean agent equivalent.
DEVELOPMENT OF CLEAN AGENTS
Clean agents were developed to replicate the efectiveness of halons but without the negative
environmental impacts. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 2001: Standard on
Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems deines a clean agent as an electrically nonconduct-
ing, volatile, or gaseous ire extinguishant that does not leave a residue upon evaporation.
Clean agents must be liqueied gas or quickly convert to gas upon discharge. Most, if not
all, clean agents can be stored and discharged from typical total-looding halon system hard-
ware. Generally, clean agents are less eicient per pound than halon systems, requiring more
stored agent (and subsequent storage area) to produce the same extinguishment results.
he types, requirements, and approvals for clean agents are outlined in:
u NFPA 2001
u UL 2127: Standard for Inert Gas Clean Agent Extinguishing System Units
u UL 2166: Standard for Halocarbon Clean Agent Extinguishing System Units
According to NFPA 2001, clean agents should not be used on the following materials:
u Chemicals capable of rapid oxidation in the absence of air (such as gunpowder)
u Reactive metals including lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and uranium
u Metal hydrides
u Chemicals capable of undergoing auto-thermal decomposition, like organic peroxides
and hydrazine
TYPES OF CLEAN AGENTS

Two types of products fall under the clean agent deinition: halocarbon compound replace-
ments and inert gas agents. Both types have advantages and disadvantages.
Halocarbon replacements consist of halogenated agents incorporating such compounds
as carbon, hydrogen, luorine, chlorine, and iodine. Halocarbon replacements extinguish
ires through a variety of methods, each speciic to the chemicals used within the agent,
but predominately though chemical suppression. Halocarbon agents are engineered and
man-made products (unlike inert gases) that are stored as a liquid.
Inert gases consist of an electrically nonconductive gaseous mixture composed of argon,
nitrogen, or other gases that do not support a lame reaction. hese gases extinguish a ire
by cooling the surrounding lame. hey do not break down in the ire to produce harmful
gases or other dangerous decomposition products. Unlike carbon dioxide, they can be
discharged into a space without causing occupant sufocation (although occupant evacua-
tion is still required). Inert gases require a large quantity of gas to be efective, mandating a
very large (comparatively) storage area. he protected space must also have pressure-relief
venting engineered and installed to prevent overpressurization and damage to the room.
EXTINGUISHING METHODS
Table 16-1 outlines the well-known agents by trade name and the primary extinguishing
mechanism of each agent.
Table 16-1 Clean Agent Information
Chemical Extinguishing
Trade Name Agent Type
Agent Mechanism
HFC-227ea FM-200 Halocarbon replacement Chemical suppression
HFC-125 FE-25, ECARO Halocarbon replacement Chemical suppression
HFC-23 FE-13 Halocarbon replacement Chemical suppression
FK-5-1-12 NOVEC 1230/SAPPHIRE Halocarbon replacement Evaporative cooling
IG-541 Inergen Inert gas Flame cooling
IG-55 Argonite Inert gas Flame cooling
IG-100 Nitrogen Inert gas Flame cooling
Chemical Suppression
his is the principal extinguishment method of halons, and the original clean agent re-
placement gases strove to mirror this mechanism. Most of these agents use luorinated
compounds (versus the brominated compounds in halons) that bind with lame radicals,
thereby interrupting the chemical chain reaction of the ire. hese compounds work in
a similar manner as halons but are less eicient because, unlike bromine, luorine atoms
cannot be continually recycled in the combustion process; thus, more agent needs to be
discharged in the space to reach the same extinguishment efectiveness.
Evaporative Cooling at the Flames Reaction Zone
his method of extinguishment is a more recent development in clean agents. It mirrors the
primary principle of sprinkler systems without the use of water. he clean agent reduces the
lames temperature below the minimum temperature required to maintain reaction rates
due to the high heat capacity of the chemicals during decomposition. hat is, the chemicals
use heat from the space to decompose, thereby cooling the surrounding environment.
Chapter 16: Clean Agents 109
Flame Cooling
his is the primary extinguishing method for inert gases. hese agents suppress ires by
cooling the lames temperature below the combustion threshold. Cooling of the lame
is a two-pronged attack: the oxygen content in the room is reduced to the limits of com-
bustion (without afecting overall life safety) while the heat capacity of the surrounding
atmosphere is raised.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
he three main factors to consider when evaluating the environmental impact of various
agents are ozone depletion potential (ODP), global warming potential (GWP), and atmo-
spheric lifetime. When designing a clean agent system, consideration should be given to
the chemicals impact on the environment and green building certiication goals.
he irst consideration is how the chosen chemical impacts the ozone layer. Ozone is a
product created when ultraviolet (UV) light breaks down oxygen (O2) into two separate
oxygen molecules, which combine with existing oxygen to create ozone (O3). he process
occurs naturally in the stratosphere and provides a shield against harmful UVB light from
the sun. Halons and other halocarbons containing chlorine or bromine have been demon-
strated to destroy ozone in the stratosphere. he valuation of this destruction potential is
not a measure of the exact amount of ozone destroyed by the chemical, but rather it is the
amount of ozone destroyed as compared to an arbitrary standardin this case, the chosen
chemical is CFC-11, which is assigned an ozone depletion potential of 1. Halon 1301 has an
ODP of 12, meaning it will destroy 12 times as much ozone as CFC-11 on a mass-per-mass
basis. FM-200 has an ODP of 0, meaning it will not destroy any ozone in the stratosphere.
he second factor is the global warming potential of the agent. he atmosphere is pri-
marily composed of nitrogen and oxygen, but trace elements of carbon dioxide, water
vapor, and other gases lead to the capture of radiant heat from the sun, causing elevated
temperatures through the greenhouse efect. Certain elements in the atmosphere are
more efective at retaining heat and therefore cause the air to stay warmer. To quantify
the greenhouse efect, the concept of radiative forcing was developed. Radiative forcing
is anything that will cause the troposphere to change, causing the radiation into and out
of the atmosphere to unbalance. Any condition that results in a positive radiative forcing
value will cause a rise in the average temperature, whereas a negative radiative forcing value
will cause a drop in atmospheric temperature.
A scale was developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to quantify
the global warming change, called the global warming potential, which is the cumulative
efect of radiative forcing between the present and a future time caused by a unit mass of
a compound as compared to the same unit mass release of carbon dioxide. he common
reference periods are typically 20 years, 100 years, and 500 years. For example, a 100-year
GWP of FM-200 is 3,500, meaning that 1 pound of FM-200 will cause as much global
warming as 3,500 pounds of released carbon dioxide.
he inal consideration in selecting a clean agent is the atmospheric lifetime of the chem-
ical. he atmospheric lifetime of a chemical is simply the time in which the chemical will
reside in the stratosphere and have an efect on GWP and ODP. he values are measured in
years. For example, Halon 1301 has an atmospheric lifetime of 65 years, meaning that it will
stay in the atmosphere (at an appreciable quantity) for 65 years, causing ozone depletion
and global warming (cumulative efect).
Table 16-2 compares the en- Table 16-2 Chemical Impacts on the Environment
vironmental efects of several Property Halon 1301 FM-200 FE-25 NOVEC 1230
common compounds. Ozone depletion
12 0 0 0
potential
SAFETY Global warming
he two levels that are particu- 6,900 3,500 3,400 1
potential, 100 years
larly important when designing Atmospheric lifetime,
65 33 29 0.014
clean agent systems are the years
NOAEL and LOAEL. NOAEL,
or no-observed-adverse-efect level, is the highest concentration at which no harmful tox-
icological or physiological efects have been observed from exposure to the agent. LOAEL,
or lowest-observed-adverse-efect level, is the lowest concentration at which an adverse
efect (toxicological or physiological) has been observed from exposure to an agent. All
clean agent systems should be engineered to discharge enough agent to meet the minimum
design criteria for the hazard being suppressed, yet remain below the NOAEL limit of the
particular chemical to retain a chemically safe environment within the enclosure. While
they are safer than carbon dioxide, unnecessary exposure to any halocarbon should be
avoided, with pre-discharge alarms and time delays implemented to warn occupants of
discharge and give them a chance to escape the area.
Inert gas agents are not toxic and therefore do not have a NOAEL design limit. However,
they do reduce the oxygen concentration during discharge to a point that could create an
asphyxiation hazard. Inert gas systems typically decrease the oxygen concentration in the
enclosure to 11 to 13 percent to sufocate combustion within the room. Human exposure
to such a low oxygen concentration should not exceed ive minutes. he concentration of
the system corresponds to the total oxygen amount in the room (based on the enclosure
volume) and should be coordinated to ensure that oxygen levels do not dip below 10
percent (unless the room is not normally occupied) and that any exposure can be limited
to 30 seconds.
All clean agents form more decomposition products than Halon 1301; therefore, they
have the potential to have negative health efects on occupants. Depending on the exposure
time and the concentration of the clean agent within an enclosure, clean agents can cause
eye and nasal irritation, upper respiratory tract irritation, and tissue surface irritation. Pro-
longed exposure to halocarbons can trigger cardiac arrhythmia. he varied efects of inert
gases could be so pronounced as to impair escape. herefore, all clean agent discharge areas
should be equipped with discharge signs, strobes, and exit signs to facilitate rapid egress.
Table 16-3 shows the minimum design concentrations required to extinguish Class A
and Class C ires, as well as the NOAEL for each chemical.
Table 16-3 Minimum Design Concentrations for Five-Minute Exposure
Class A Minimum Design Class C Minimum Design
Clean Agent NOAEL, %
Concentration, % Concentration, %
FM-200 6.7 7 9
FE-25/ECARO 8.7 9 11.5
NOVEC-1230 4.5 4.7 10
43 design concentration (12
Inergen 34.2 38.5
oxygen concentration)
43 design concentration (12
Argonite 37.9 42.7
oxygen concentration)
SYSTEM DESIGN
Similar to carbon dioxide and chemical systems, clean agents can be designed as a to-
tal-looding system or for local application. Total-looding systems are an engineered
assembly consisting of a calculated quantity of agent discharging into a tight, fully enclosed
space designed to retain and concentrate the agent. Local application systems are employed
to suppress hazards that are not enclosed or where the enclosure does not form an efective
ire boundary, such as transformers, spray booths, chemical hoods, etc.
Due to the gaseous nature of clean agent systems, they are much more efective when dis-
charged into an area that will prevent rapid ventilation and evaporation of the gas, allowing
the concentration to quickly reach extinguishment levels. While halons were used in both
local application and total-looding systems, the decreased efectiveness of alternative clean
agent systems essentially limits them to total-looding applications. If local application is
desired, an alternative system such as water mist or dry chemical should be considered.
Typical applications for clean agents include data centers/IT facilities, telecommunica-
tions rooms, control rooms, and record storage/archive areas.
Design Procedure
he process of designing a total-looding clean agent system involves the following steps:
1.Determine the hazard area to be protected and the volume of that area.
2.Determine the agent to use.
3.Deine the hazard and determine the appropriate design concentration for the space.
4.Calculate the total quantity of agent required.
5.Design the maximum discharge time.
6.Design the agent storage location, piping distribution network, and nozzle location/type.
7.Establish the piping material and thickness rating for the chosen agent.
8.Engineer the detection system for agent release, including detector types, the panel,
detector layouts, and the interface with the releasing system.
9.Evaluate the pressurization potential of the hazard area to determine whether relief
venting will be required.
10.Analyze compartments for leakage and seal the hazard area.
A more detailed description of the implementation of these steps follows.
Step 1. he irst step is to concretely deine the area to be protected by the clean agent
system. As these systems are costly and require extra equipment and preparation, it is
important to accurately identify critical protection areas versus estimating a general lo-
cation/enclosure. Once the protected area is deined, a general room volume needs to be
determined to accurately size the system.
Step 2. Selection of the agent to use is based on many factors, including room hazards,
enclosure integrity, owner requirements (e.g., environmental preferences), efectiveness/
required concentration amount based on the hazard size, and project budget.
Step 3. he design concentration should be established through calculation methods
available in NFPA 2001 and should be appropriate for the hazard protection. General
minimum design concentrations are outlined in Table 16-2.
Step 4. he total agent quantity available afects both the design concentration and
the discharge time. General equations to estimate the required agent quantity for both
halocarbon clean agents and inert gases are available. he equations require the agent
type and speciic weight, the volume of the protected space, and the design concentration
of the agent. hese equations do not estimate or take into account enclosure leakage. For
halocarbons, use Equation 16-1:
Equation 16-1
V C
w= x
S 100 C
where
w = Speciic weight of agent required
V = Net volume of protected space
C = Design concentration percentage
S = Speciic volume
S can be deined using the following equation and Table 16-4 to estimate the required
discharge volume based on the speciic volume constants.
Equation 16-2
Table 16-4 K Values for Equation
S = K1 + K2(T) 16-2
Agent K1 K2
Use Equation 16-3 for inert gases.
FE-13 4.730 0.0106
Equation 16-3 FE-25 2.722 0.0063
V 100 FM-200 1.879 0.0046
X = 2.303 log ( )V
S 100 C s NOVEC 1230 0.986 0.0024
where Argonite 9.881 0.0214
Inergen 9.858 0.0214
X = Volume of inert gas at 70F
Source: NFPA Handbook, Chapter 6
Vs = Speciic volume at 70F
V = Net protected hazard volume
S = Speciic volume
Step 5. Halocarbon clean agent systems are limited to a 10-second discharge, deined
as the point when all liquid agent has cleared the inal nozzle. Additional vaporized agent
may still leave the piping due to the uncontrolled gaseous nature of the agent. Inert gases
are generally at a 60-second discharge time, but that may be increased if the design con-
centration requires for certain applications.
Step 6. he agent is typically stored within the protected enclosure or in a separately
isolated and protected room close to the protected area. he storage location will depend
on the type of clean agent or inert gas being used, based on discharge time constraints,
pressure piping losses, and the energy required to drive the clean agent. Individual agent
characteristics and requirements must be considered for location and distance constraints.
Step 7. he chosen piping is speciic to each agents distribution system. he distribution
piping must be engineered to mechanically control the agent discharge time, maintain
adequate nozzle low and pressure to ensure agent distribution, and deliver both uniform
and suicient agent quantity to every area of the protected enclosure. Each clean agent
manufacturer typically has proprietary sotware that can accurately size a designed piping
system and a sotware user certiication program.
Step 8. he detection system is an important part of a clean agent system. he detection
and alarm system is responsible for detecting and conirming a ire, sounding the pre-dis-
charge alarms, and rapidly actuating the system.
Step 9. he near-instantaneous release of agent into an enclosure causes rapid changes to
the compartments pressure. Depending on the agent and the rate of discharge, the pressure
of the compartment can luctuate between a negative and a positive value due to the cooling
of the compartment and the vaporization of the agent. his efect is particularly notable with
inert gases, as the discharged gas will rapidly expand in the space. Calculating the required
open venting area is part of the design process for inert gas systems. he pressure-relief
vent (or vents) must be positioned at a location, typically higher in the compartment, to
prevent heavier-than-air agent from escaping during the discharge/settling period.
Step 10. he compartment should be analyzed for leakage and sealed for integrity to
prevent agent loss during discharge and to ensure that the design concentration is main-
tained throughout the required hold time. In conjunction with the ire alarms activation
(and during the pre-discharge period, prior to system activation), the compartments
openings (doors, windows, vent openings, cable openings) must be automatically closed.
All openings must be secured before agent release to ensure that adequate concentrations
of the clean agent remain in the compartment during the design period.
A door fan test (room integrity test) and leakage calculations are performed by certi-
ied personnel to simulate a worst-case leakage scenario in the space and to ensure that
an adequate concentration of the agent is maintained within the space during and ater
discharge. Door fan test methods are standardized by ASTM E779, ASTM E1827, and
CAN/CGSB-149.10-M86. Leakage calculations are performed using certiied computer
sotware operated by certiied users. Leaks are detected by a smoke pencil test and sealed
of using standard construction techniques. Door fan testing is considered a conservative
approach, and if acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction, a witnessed detailed leak
inspection might be a substitute.
CONCLUSIONS/COMPARISONS
Table 16-5 summarizes the various positive and negative aspects of clean agent ire sup-
pression chemicals. It also outlines the possibility of future regulation within the industry;
although no formal talks have occurred, some speculate that halocarbon-based extin-
guishing chemicals may be further regulated or banned based on health or environmental
impact. he chart is for comparison purposes only and may vary signiicantly based on
market factors, local labor rates, and building type.
Table 16-5 Clean Agent Comparison Table
Halon
Property CO2 FM-200 FE-25 NOVEC 1230 Inergen Argonite
1301
Class No regulation if cylinders are
Transport* Class 2.2 Class 2.2 Class 2.2 Class 2.2 Class 2.2
2.2 not charged with nitrogen/CO2
Environmental
High Low Medium Medium Low None None
impact
Occupant
hazard and
Low High Low Low Very low Low Low
system safety
factor
Cost
(compared to $ x1.5$ x2$ x2$ x3$ x4$ x4$
halons)
Space/storage
Low Medium Low Low Low High High
requirements
Future
Banned None Possible Possible None None None
regulation
*Class 2, Division 2 (or Class 2.2) is a HAZMAT categorization that is applied on all nonlammable, nontoxic gases. These gases exert
(in the packaging) an absolute pressure of 40.6 psia or greater at 68F and are not Division 2.1 (lammable) or 2.3 (toxic) gases.
115
Portable Fire
Extinguishers 17
Portable ire extinguishers ofer a convenient and easy means of putting out small ires or
supplementing ixed ire suppression systems. Portable ire extinguishers are most efective
when a ire just begins and people are present in the area.
NFPA 10: Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers details the classiication, marking,
installation, and maintenance requirements for portable extinguishers. Requirements
also can be found in 29 CFR 1910.157 published by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA).
CLASSIFICATIONS
Portable ire extinguishers are classiied based on the type of ire they can extinguish:
u Class A extinguishers are used on ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, and
textiles and contain either water or dry chemicals.
u Class B extinguishers are used on lammable liquids and gases and contain agents that
deprive the ire of oxygen and inhibit the release of combustible vapors.
u Class C extinguishers are used on energized electrical equipment ires and contain an
electrically nonconductive extinguishing agent.
u Class D extinguishers are used on combustible metals, such as sodium, titanium, zir-
conium, and magnesium and contain an extinguishing medium that does not react
with the burning metal.
u Class K extinguishers are used on ires involving cooking media (fats, grease, and oils)
in commercial kitchens and contain either wet or dry chemicals.
he extinguisher is marked with its letter Table 17-1 Portable Fire Extinguisher
and a symbol for easy identiication as shown Classiications
in Table 17-1. Extinguishers suitable for more Class Hazard Symbol Color
than one class of fire should be identified A Ordinary combustibles Triangle Green
by multiple symbols placed in a horizontal B Flammable liquids Square Red
sequence. C Live electrical ires Circle Blue
D Flammable metals Star Yellow
Class A and Class B extinguishers also carry
K Cooking media None None
a numerical UL rating to indicate the size of
ire an experienced person can put out with the extinguisher. Each A rating is equivalent
to 1.25 gallons of water, so an extinguisher marked 5A would be equivalent to 6.25 gallons
of water. he B rating is equivalent to the amount of square footage the extinguisher can
cover, so an extinguisher marked 10B could cover 10 square feet.
Class C and D extinguishers do not have a numerical rating. Class C ires are essentially
Class A or B ires involving live electrical equipment, so the rating should be based on the
amount of the Class A or Class B component. he efectiveness of Class D extinguishers
is described on the faceplate.
INSTALLATION
Portable ire extinguishers constitute the irst line of defense against a ire, so they should
be located in strategic locations, including at every exit from a loor or building. A portable
ire extinguisher must be conspicuously located, with its top 3 to 5 feet above the loor.
Bright markings must draw attention to its location.
OSHA requires ire extinguishers to be located based on the class of anticipated ires as
well as the size and degree of the hazard. he
requirement is based on the distance a person Table 17-2 Fire Travel Distances to Portable
Extinguishers
must travel to reach a ire extinguisher. See Table Class Travel Distance
17-2 for the placement requirements. A 75 ft or less
A plan showing the proposed locations of B 50 ft
fire extinguishers must be developed before C Based on appropriate Class A or B hazard
installation. his plan must be submitted to the D 75 ft or less
authority having jurisdiction for their comment Note: Class K extinguishers have no distance requirement.
They are typically placed at the point of possible cooking
and/or approval. ire ignition.
Source: OSHA 1910.157
MAINTENANCE
OSHA 1910.157 requires portable ire extinguishers to be visually inspected monthly to
verify the following:
u Fire extinguishers are in their assigned places.
u Fire extinguishers are not blocked or hidden.
u Fire extinguishers are mounted in accordance with NFPA 10.
u Pressure gauges show adequate pressure.
u Pin and seals are in place.
u Fire extinguishers show no visual sign of damage or abuse.
u Nozzles are free of blockage. Table 17-3 Hydrostatic Testing Requirements
OSHA 1910.157 also requires Type of Extinguisher Test Interval, years
hydrostatic testing by trained per- Soda acid (stainless steel shell) 5
sonnel according to the schedule Cartridge-operated, water and/or
5
antifreeze
found in Table 17-3.
Stored pressure, water and/or antifreeze 5
To sum up, portable ire extin-
Wetting agent 5
guishers must be: Foam (stainless steel shell) 5
u Properly located and in good Aqueous ilm-forming foam (AFFF) 5
working condition Loaded stream 5
u Conspicuously located Dry chemical with stainless steel 5
u he proper type for the respective Carbon dioxide 5
combustible material Dry chemical, stored pressure, with mild
12
u Used when the ire is still small so steel, brazed brass, or aluminum shells
Dry chemical, cartridge or cylinder
the extinguisher will be efective operated, with mild steel shells
12
u Clearly marked for easy identii- Dry powder, cartridge or cylinder
cation, labeled, tested regularly, 12
operated, with mild steel shells
and inspected Halon 1211 12
Halon 1301 12
Source: OSHA 1910.157
INDEX
Index Terms Links
3 times rule 56
3M Novec 1230 (FK-5-1-12) 33 108 110
113
absolute pressure 63
AFFF (aqueous film-forming foam) 84 116
AHJ (authorities having jurisdiction) 23 18
air handlers 24
air pressure 63
air-pressurized barriers 10
aircraft hangers 29 83
airports 83
alarm systems 6
analyzing requirements 24
carbon dioxide systems 98
carbon monoxide detection 23
clean agent systems 110
components of 2425
for diesel pump drivers 36
signaling evacuation 30
sprinkler alarms 5455
standards 6 23 25
testing 21
alcohol liquids 85
This p a g e ha s b e e n re fo rma tte d b y Kno ve l to p ro vid e e a sie r na vig a tio n.

Index Terms Links
alcohol-resistant aqueous film-forming foam (AR-AFFF) 84 85

alcohol-resistant film-forming fluoroprotein (AR-FFFP) 84 85
alcohol-resistant fluoroprotein foam (AR-FP) 84 85
ammonia 23
annunciation systems 23 24
antifreeze solutions 22 116
antifreeze sprinkler systems 50 62
application rates (foam) 87
aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) 84 116
AR-AFF (alcohol-resistant aqueous film-forming foam) 84 85
AR-FFFP (alcohol-resistant film-forming fluoroprotein) 84 85
AR-FP (alcohol-resistant fluoroprotein foam) 84 85
area modifications (sprinkler systems) 7980
Argonite (IG-55) 33 109 110
113
around the pump proportioning 86
Asch Building 78
ASET (available safe egress time) 23
ASHRAE Guideline 0: The Commissioning Process 19
aspirated foam discharge 86
atmospheric lifetimes 109
atmospheric pressure 63
authorities having jurisdiction 23 18
automatic detection systems 25
automatic doors 14
automatic dry standpipes 43 45
automatic pump systems 37
automatic sprinkler systems. See sprinkler systems
automatic wet standpipes 43
auxiliary power 24
available safe egress time (ASET) 23
axisymmetric flow 62

Index Terms Links
balanced-pressure proportioning systems 86

barriers
air pressurization 10
designing into buildings 1314
fire-rated walls and doors 5
basis of design (BOD) 17 18 19
20 48
battery failures 36
biodegradable foam 8788
biological oxygen demand 88
blankets 11
BOD (basis of design) 17 18 19
20 48
BOD (biological oxygen demand) 88
boiling points 83
booster pumps 32 37
borax 103
Boston textile mills 47
brake horsepower 40
breathing apparatus 98
bromine 107
buildings
certificates of occupancy 2
construction safety 1415
exits 5
fire-safety design 1315
green building certification 109
occupancy classifications 5152
remodeling 15
smoke control 10

Index Terms Links
buildings (Cont.)
structural stability 5
Triangle Shirtwaist Fire 78
bulb water mist dispensers 92
calculations. See formulas and hydraulic calculations

carbon 9 11 108
carbon dioxide
alarms and evacuation 98
characteristics 95
compared to clean agents 113
concentrations needed for combustibles 99
cylinder storage and scales 98
dry chemical systems and 105
as extinguishing agent 31 33 9597
fires and 11
installing systems 96
sizing system pipes 99101
system advantages/disadvantages 97
system specifications 98
testing systems 116
types of systems 9697
carbon monoxide detection 2324
casings, pump 36
catalysts 9
ceilings 79 93
centrifugal pumps 35 37
certificates of occupancy 2
certification documentation 18
chemical extinguishing agents 103
See also dry chemical extinguishing agents;
wet chemical extinguishing agents
Index Terms Links
chemistry of fires 912

chlorine 23 107 108
churn pressure 38
Class I, II, II standpipes 4345
Class A, B, C, D, K combustible materials 31 93
Class A, B, C, D, K portable fire extinguishers 115
Class A fires 83 85 103
Class A foam concentrate 85
Class D fires 105
clean agents 33 107
comparisons 94 113
environmental impact 109110
as extinguishing agents 108109
safety 110
standards for 107
substances not suitable for 107
system design 111113
types of 108
cleaning programs 22
cleanup
dry chemicals 104
extinguishing agents 31
wet chemicals 106
closed bulbs (water mist systems) 92
clouds (Co2) 95
codes and standards
codes, defied 1
NFPA standards (See under NFPA)
performance-based 12
standards, defied 1
UL standards (See under UL (Underwriters
Laboratory))

Index Terms Links
combined dry pipe and preaction sprinkler systems 50

combined standpipe systems 43
combustibility and combustible materials 1011
classes of materials 31
detection devices for 29
extinguishing agents and 31
fire-retardant treatments 1112
handling materials during construction 15
portable fire extinguishers and 115
combustion 9
cooling flames 32 83 97
106 109
detecting 28
dry chemical agents and 104
material combustibility 1011
preventing 95
suppressing 32
commissioning 17
commissioning plans 18 19
commissioning specifications 18 19
documentation 1819
guidelines 19
process 1920
re- or retro-commissioning 20
standards 17
team 1718 19
testing and 20
commissioning authorities (CxA) 17 18
compressibility (water) 61
computer rooms 29 91 96
concealed sprinklers 54

Index Terms Links
concentration of carbon dioxide 100101

construction
commissioning and 1720
fire prevention 4 1415
fire-safety building design 1315
permits and plan reviews 23
sprinkler documentation 58
structural stability of buildings 5
construction managers 17
construction phase (commissioning) 20
contaminants 9
continuous-line detectors 26
contractors
contractors sheds 15
general contractors 17
installation contractors 17
control-mode specific-application sprinklers 5556
control panels (alarm systems) 2425
control rooms 25
control valves 4142
controls (pumps) 37
cooking oils, fat, or grease 31 105 106
115
cooling combustion 32 83 97
106 109
correction factor (carbon dioxide) 100101
corrosion-resistant sprinklers 5354
costs
detection systems 29
fire suppression systems 31

Index Terms Links
costs (Cont.)
water mist systems 93
coverage (sprinklers) 74
Cx. See commissioning
CxA (commissioning authorities) 17 18
cylinders (carbon dioxide) 96 98
dampers 24
deaths
smoke inhalation 910
Triangle Shirtwaist fire 78
deep-seated fires 97 103
deflectors (sprinklers) 56
deluge sprinkler systems 50 59
density (water) 61
density/area method (sprinklers) 58 7377
design concentration (clean agents) 111
design fires 6
design phase (commissioning) 20
design review comments 18 19
design/area method (sprinklers) 58 7377
detection systems 6 23
carbon monoxide 2324
choosing 2829
clean agents 112
components of 2425
design questions 25
locating 30
manual and automatic 25
types of 2528

Index Terms Links
diesel generator rooms 29

diesel pump drivers 35 36
discharge devices (foam) 8687
discharge head 36 37
discharge issues (foam) 8788
discharge rates (foam) 84
distance to fire extinguishers 116
documentation
certification 18
commissioning 1819
sprinklers 58
training 18
door fan tests 113
doors
automatic 14
closing 24
controlling during fires 6 24
emergency exits 13
exit paths 5
fire-rated 5 1314
locked 7
propping open 5
smoke control and 10 14
double drivers 36
double shots (carbon dioxide) 101
drainage rates (foam) 84
drains (sprinkler systems) 57
dry chemical extinguishing agents 31 33 103105
116
dry ice 95
dry pendant sprinklers 54
dry pipe sprinkler systems 4849

Index Terms Links
dry pipe sprinkler systems (Cont.)

alarms 55
design area 79 80
drainage 57
testing 21 59
dry pipe valves 4849
dry standpipe systems 43
dry upright sprinklers 54
dump-in proportioning 86
Dv0.99 89
early suppression fast response sprinklers 54 56

ECARO-25 (HFC-125, FE-25) 33 108 110
113
eductors 86
electric pump motors 35 36
electrical equipment 31 96 101
105 115
elevation, pressure and 6364 7778
elevators 6 7 24
emergency exits 13
end suction pumps 35
endothermic processes 9
energy (thermodynamics) 63
engineered dry chemical systems 104105
environmental impacts
clean agents 109110
foam 8788
halon compounds 107
equivalent lengths of pipe 65 76 77

Index Terms Links
ESFR (early suppression fast response sprinklers) 54 56

evacuating personnel 96 98
evacuation signaling 30
evaporative cooling 109
exits 5 13
exothermic processes 9 11
expansion rate (foam) 84
explosions 27
explosives 29
exposure risks 110
extended coverage sprinklers 53 5556
extinguishing agents 6 3133
alternatives to water 33
clean agents 33
dry chemicals 33
foam 33 8388
inert gases 33
wet chemicals 33
extinguishing fires 1112
Extra Hazard Group 1 occupancy 52 55 56
58
Extra Hazard Group 2 occupancy 52 58
FAAP (fire alarm annunciator panels) 24

facility managers 17
FACP (fire alarm control panels) 24
falling fuel fires 83
false alarms 25 29
fast-response sprinklers (quick-response) 4 53 54
79
fats (cooking fires) 31 105 106
115

Index Terms Links
FCxA (fire commissioning agents) 17 18 20

FE-13 (HFC-23) 108 110
FE-25 (HFC-125, ECARO-25) 33 108 110
113
film-forming fluoroprotein (FFFP) 84 85
final commissioning reports 18 19
fire alarm annunciator panels (FAAP) 24
fire alarm control panels (FACP) 24
fire alarm systems. See alarm systems
fire commissioning agents (FCxA) 17 18 20
fire department connections 22 41
fire department notification. See notification systems
fire detection systems. See detection systems
fire extinguishers 15 115116
fire hydrants. See hydrants
fire inspectors 2
fire notification systems. See notification systems
fire prevention
dangerous conditions 4
detection and notification 6
fire safety personnel 14
safe building design 1315
suppression systems 68
fire protection
authorities having jurisdiction 23
codes and standards 12
fire prevention 4
organizations 34
passive fire protection 5
safe building design 1315
fire protection organizations 34
fire pump rooms 40

Index Terms Links
fire pumps. See pumps

fire-rated barriers 5 1314
fire-retardant (resistant) treatments 1112
fire service mains 3 14 42
45
fire signatures 910
fire sprinklers. See sprinkler systems
See also specific types of systems
alternatives 33
designing 68
pre-engineered 6
fire triangle 31
fire walls 13
fires
chemistry and physics 912
deep-seated 97
design fires 6
extinguishing 1112
fire triangle 31
foam suppression 83
material combustibility 1011
preventing 4
smoke and 910
speed of 28
types of 29
worst-case 6
fitting friction losses 65 76
fixed-temperature heat detectors 26 29

Index Terms Links
FK-5-1-12 (3M Novec 1230, Sapphire) 33 108 110

113
flame detectors 2728 29
flames, cooling 32 83 97
106 109
flammable liquids
carbon dioxide and 96
classes of combustible materials 31
dry chemical extinguishing 103
fighting fires 32
foam extinguishing 83
NFPA standards 83
portable fire extinguishers and 115
water mist systems and 93
flash points 9
flooding
carbon dioxide systems 97 99
clean agents 111
dry chemicals 104105
flooring 13
flow
axisymmetric 62
calculating 6263
one-dimensional 62
flow rates
calculating 6263
exiting pipes 66
flow tables 65 6672
flushing sprinkler systems 59
private fire service mains 42

Index Terms Links
flow rates (Cont.)

standpipe systems 44
flow switches 24
flow tables 65 6672
flow tests 45
fluorine 107 108
fluoroprotein foam (FP) 84 85
flush sprinklers 54
flushing
sprinkler systems 59
FM Global 4
Approval Guide 4
Approval Standard for Water Mist Systems 90
Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 4
FM-200 (HFC-227ea) 33 108 109
110 113
foam
characteristics 84
discharge devices 8687
environmental impacts 8788
expansion rates 84
guidelines for 87
NFPA standards 83
proportioning 8586
storage 87
testing schedule 116
twin-agent systems 103
types of 8485

Index Terms Links
foam (Cont.)
wet chemicals 106
fog (Co2) 95
formulas and hydraulic calculations
carbon dioxide extinguishers 97 99101
compressibility 61
density/area method 7377
elevation changes 7778
flow in pipes 6263
halocarbon concentration 112
Hazen-Williams formula 6465 8182
hydraulically-calculated sprinkler sizing 58
hydraulics overview 61
K factor 77
looped or gridded piping 8082 81
NFPA forms 7879
pressure losses in pipes 6365
pressure-relief venting 100101
pump pressure 64
sprinkler coverage 7478
sprinkler tank pressure 3839
standpipe pressure 64
total head 36
water exiting pipes 66
water flow tables 65 6672
FP (fluoroprotein foam) 84 85
freezing temperatures
sprinkler systems and 48 49 50
standpipe systems and 4344
water fire suppression systems 32
friction, fires and 9
friction losses. See pressure losses

Index Terms Links
fuel
additives 85
combustibility 1011
in fires 9 32
removing 11
separating from fires 83
gases
carbon dioxide (See carbon dioxide)
carbon monoxide 2324
detection 23
hydrogen 9 11 108
inert 32
inert gas agents 108 110 112
nitrogen 11 92 105
oxygen (See oxygen)
gate valves 41
gauge pressure 63
gauges 21 22
general contractors 17
global warming 109
grease 31 105 106
115
green building certification 109
gridded piping 8082
gunpowder 107
GWP (global warming potential) 109
HAD (heat-actuated detectors) 96

Index Terms Links
halocarbon replacements 108

halogenated gases 23
halon compounds 107 109 110
113 116
hangars (aircraft) 29 83
hangers (sprinkler systems) 57
hazard classifications
deluge systems 50
NFPA sprinkler systems 67
hazardous extinguishers 97
hazardous work, detectors and 29
Hazen-Williams formula 6465 8182
head. See pressure
heat 9 32
heat-actuated detectors (HAD) 96
heat detectors 24 2527 29
96
heat extraction 8990
heaters at construction sites 15
HFC-23 (FE-13) 108 110
HFC-125 (ECARO-25, FE-25) 33 108 110
113
HFC-227ea (FM-200) 33 108 109
110 113
high-expansion foam 84
high-piled storage 48 55
high-pressure carbon dioxide systems 98
high-pressure water mist systems 92
history of fire codes 78
horizontal split-case pumps 35
horizontal surface fires 83

Index Terms Links
horns 6 24
hose application (dry chemicals) 104
hose houses 42
hose stations 44
hose systems. See standpipe and hose systems
HVAC systems 6
hydrants
during construction 15
fire service mains for 41
fixed water systems 32
valves 42
hydraulic calculations. See formulas and hydraulic
calculations
hydraulic pipe schedules 65 6672
hydraulically-calculated sprinkler sizing 58
hydrazine 107
hydrocarbons 11 84
hydrogen 9 11 108
hydrostatic tests 45 59 116
IBC (International Building Code) 1

IDC (initiating device circuits) 24
IFC (International Fire Code) 1
IG-55 (ProInert, Argonite) 33 109 110
113
IG-100 or -541 (Inergen) 33 109 110
113
IMO (International Maritime Organization) 90 91
impellers (pump) 36 40
impingement nozzles 92
impregnation 12

Index Terms Links
Inergen (IG-100 or -541) 33 109 110

113
inert gas agents 108 110 112
inert gases 32
infrared detectors 28 29
inhibitors 9
initiating device circuits 24
inlet (suction) head 36 37
inline pumps 35
inspection reports 18
inspections
fire extinguishers 116
fire inspectors 2
schedules 21
standards 3 21 87
installation contractors 17
insurance representatives 18
integrated testing 2021
integrated testing agents 18 20
intelligent sensors 24
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 109
intermediate-pressure water mist systems 92
International Building Code 1
International Fire Code 1
International Maritime Organization 90 91
iodine 108
ionization-type smoke detectors 27 28 29
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 109
isolating areas 24
issue logs 18 19
ITA (integrated testing agents) 18 20

Index Terms Links
jockey pumps 38
Joule, James Prescott 63
K factor 66 75 77
kitchen equipment 96 105 115
kitchen grease or fats 31 105 106
115
leakage
fire service mains 42
Life Safety Code (NFPA 101) 78
Light Hazard occupancy 51 55 56
58 90
light-obscuring smoke detectors 27
light-scattering smoke detectors 27
limited combustibility 11
line proportioners 86
linen chutes 58
lithium 107
LOAEL (lowest-observed-adverse-effect level) 110
local application
clean agents 111
dry chemical systems 104
wet chemical systems 106
Index Terms Links
looped piping 8082

low-expansion foam 84
low-pressure carbon dioxide systems 98
low-pressure water mist systems 92
lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) 110
machinery, water mist systems and 91

magnesium 31 96 107
115
main drains 45 59
mains
providing during construction 14
standards 3 42 45
maintenance
ongoing 2122
preventative 22
standards 3 21 87
manual detection systems 25
manual dry standpipes 43
manual fire alarm boxes 24
manual wet standpipes 43
manufacturer representatives 17
master streams 42
mechanical water flow alarms 5455
medium-expansion foam 84
metals 31 96 105
107 115
microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) 48
mobile carbon dioxide systems 97
monitor nozzles 42

Index Terms Links
monoammonium phosphate 103

motors, pump 35
NAC (notification appliance circuits) 24 30

NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)
fire pump studies 35
NFPA Type 1 or 2 foam discharges 87
standards 1 3
NFPA 3: Recommended Practice for
Commissioning of Fire Protection and Life-
Safety Systems 17
NFPA 4: Standard for Integrated Fire Protection
and Life Safety System Testing 17 2021
NFPA 10: Standard for Portable Fire
Extinguishers 115
NFPA 11: Standard for Low-, Medium-, and
High-Expansion Foam 83
NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of
Sprinkler Systems 3 67 25
47 5758 73
7879
Standpipe and Hose Systems 3 45
Foam-Water Sprinkler and Foam-Water
Spray Systems 83
NFPA 17: Standard for Dry Chemical
Extinguishing Systems 103
NFPA 17A: Standard for Wet Chemical
Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection 3 36 93

Index Terms Links
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)

standards (Cont.)
NFPA 22: Standard for Water Tanks for Private
Fire Protection 32
NFPA 24: Standard for the Installation
of Private Fire Service Mains and Their
Appurtenances 3 42 45
NFPA 25: Standard for the Inspection, Testing,
and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire
Protection Systems 3 21 87
NFPA 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Code 83
NFPA 33: Standard for Spray Application Using
Flammable or Combustible Materials 103
NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code 6 25
NFPA 92: Standard for Smoke Control Systems 10
NFPA 96: Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire
Protection of Commercial Cooking Operations 105
NFPA 101: Life Safety Code 78
NFPA 220: Standard on Types of Building Construction 11 13
NFPA 403: Standard for Aircraft Rescue and
Fire-Fighting Services at Airports 83
NFPA 409: Standard on Aircraft Hangars 83
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Detection and
Warning Equipment 23
NFPA 750: Standard on Water Mist Fire
Protection Systems 89 90 9192
93
NFPA 1150: Standard on Foam Chemicals for
Fires in Class A Fuels 83
NFPA 2001: Standard on Clean Agent Fire

Index Terms Links
nitrogen 11 92 105
NOAEL (no-observed-adverse-effect level) 110
non-aspirated foam discharge 86
non-combustible materials 11
notification appliance circuits 24 30
notification systems 6 23
components 24
notification appliance circuits 24 30
Novec 1230 (FK-5-1-12, Sapphire) 33 108 110
113
nozzle sprinklers 54
nozzles
monitor nozzles (master streams) 42
placement 6
standards 4
obstructions (sprinklers) 56
occupancy classification
permits and plan reviews 2
sprinkler design and 48 55 58
types of 5152
occupancy phase (commissioning) 20
occupants, fire safety and 14
Occupational Safety and Health Administration 98
ODP (ozone depletion potential) 109
offices 29
oil pressure alarms 36
on/off sprinklers 54

Index Terms Links
open areas 29
open nozzles (water mist systems) 92
open sprinklers 53
OPR (owners project requirements) 17 18 19
Ordinary Hazard Group 1 occupancies 51 55 56
58
Ordinary Hazard Group 2 occupancies 5152 58
orifices (sprinklers) 53
ornamental sprinklers 54
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) 98
ovens 96 105
owners
in commissioning team 17
in design drawings 58
fire suppression systems and 14
owners information certificate 48
owners project requirements 17 18 19
permitting process 23
owners information certificate 48
owners project requirements 17 18 19
oxidizing agents 11 96
oxygen
biological oxygen demand 88
carbon dioxide systems and 98
combustion and 9
in fire triangle 9 32
removing 11 32 8990
95 109 110
oxygenated fuel additives 85
ozone layer 107 109

Index Terms Links
P (protein film) 84 85
paddle-type water detectors 28
passive fire protection 5 1314
paths of travel 5 13
pendant sprinklers 53 5556
penetrations 13
percentages (foam mixtures) 8586
performance-based codes 12
permits 23
peroxides 107
personnel
in commissioning 17
fire safety 14
health effects of agents on 110 113
photoelectric smoke detectors 27 29
physics of fires 912
pipe schedules 57
pipes
hydraulics and (See formulas and hydraulic
calculations)
looped or gridded systems 8082
pressure losses (See pressure losses)
roughness 6465
pitch (drains) 57
PIV (post-indicator valve) 41
plan reviewers 2

Index Terms Links
planning phase (commissioning) 1920

plastics, storage 48
pneumatic tests 59
polar liquids 84 85
portable carbon dioxide systems 97
portable dry chemical systems 104
portable fire extinguishers 15 115116
post-indicator valves (PIVs) 41
potassium 96 107
potassium acetate 105
potassium bicarbonate 103
potassium carbonate 105
potassium citrate 105
pounds per square inch 63
power supplies 23 24
pre-engineered suppression systems 6 105
pre-mix proportioning 86
preaction sprinkler systems 4950 57 59
79
pressure. See also pressure losses
absolute 63
air 63
atmospheric 63
booster pumps 37
churn 38
discharge head 36
elevation and 6364
fire pumps 35 36
foam 86 87

Index Terms Links
pressure (Cont.)
gauge 63
Hazen-Williams formula 6465
hydropneumatic tanks 3839
inspections 21
K factor 66
looped or gridded piping 8082
maintaining in systems 3839
sprinkler systems 55 59 7478
suction head 36
total head 36
water mist systems 91 92
pressure-activated alarms 55
pressure impregnation 12
pressure jet nozzles 92
pressure losses
calculating 6365
dry chemical systems and 105
fittings and valves 65
friction losses in flow 63
Hazen-Williams formula 6465
pressure-regulating devices 45 59 112113
pressure-switch water detectors 28
pressure transducers 38
pressurized fires 83
preventative maintenance 22
priming 21 36

Index Terms Links
private fire service mains 3 14 42

45
private water supplies 41
ProInert (IG-55) 33 109 110
113
propellants in water mist systems 92
proportioning foam 8586
protein foam (P) 84 85
psi (pounds per square inch) 63
puff tests 98
pull stations 24
pump rooms 40
pumps 3536
booster 37
capacity 36 3940
components 3637
jockey 38
pressure example 64
pump curves 3940
pump rooms 40
reservoirs and 32
spare 37
standards 3 36 93
Purple K 103
QR (quick-response sprinklers) 4 53 54
79
QREC (quick-response extended coverage sprinklers) 54
QRES (quick-response early suppression sprinklers) 54

Index Terms Links
rack storage areas 29 48

radiant energy detectors 25 2728
radiant heat 8990
radiative forcing 109
rate compensation heat detectors 26 29
rate-of-rise heat detectors 26 27 29
ratings (fire-rated barriers) 5
ratios (foam mixtures) 8586
RDP (registered design professionals) 17 18
re-commissioning 20
recessed sprinklers 54
reflashing 97
registered design professionals (RDP) 17 18
regulations (extinguishing agents) 113
remodeling buildings 15 20
remote annunicators 24
remote areas (hydraulics) 74
repairs 22
replacing parts 22
reservoirs 32
residential sprinklers 54 56
residue 97
resolution logs 18
restraints (sprinkler systems) 57
retro-commissioning 20
rock sites 15
rocket propellant 29
roof holes 31
room design method (sprinklers) 58
room integrity tests 113

Index Terms Links
roughness of pipes 6465

rubber, storage 48
safety
clean agents 110
safety of life at sea (SOLAS) 89
saponification 104 106
Sapphire (FK-5-1-12, 3M Novec 1230) 33 108 110
113
scales (weight) 98
sectional control valves 4142
self-restoring detectors 26
semiautomatic dry standpipes 43 45
sensors 24
shelters, construction 15
shutoff pressure (fire pumps) 35
sidewall sprinklers 53 5556
signaling line circuits 24
single-fluid water mist systems 9192
sizing
pumps 37
SLC (signaling line circuits) 24
smoke 910
smoke alarms 4
smoke barriers 6
smoke control 10
smoke detectors
choosing 29

Index Terms Links
smoke detectors (Cont.)

designing systems 24 25
locating 30
standards 4
types of 27
smoke evacuation systems 24
smoke inhalation 910
smoke pencil tests 113
smoke-stop doors 14
smothering fires 31 83 97
106
soda acid 116
sodium 96 107 115
sodium bicarbonate 103
SOLAS (safety of life at sea) 89
spacing sprinklers 56
spare pumps 37
sparks 9
special design areas (sprinklers) 58
speed of fires 28 48
spot detectors 26 30
sprinkler heads 5254
sprinkler systems
alarms 5455
area modifications 7980
basis of design 48
compared to water mist systems 94
components and materials 5255
coverage 74
design and construction documents 58
designing 4750 5758 7377
drains 57

Index Terms Links
sprinkler systems (Cont.)

hangers and restraints 57
history 47
hose stations and 44
hydraulics (See formulas and hydraulic calculations)
hydropneumatic tanks 3839
installation and location 5557
maritime 89
NFPA hazard classes 67
pipe materials 54
pressure and 3839
during remodels 15
sizing 5758
standards
NFPA 13 3 67 25
47 5758 73
7879
UL 199 4
UL 1626 4
UL 1767 4
temporary 14
testing 22 59
types of 4850 5354
water flow detection 25
stabilizers 9
stack effects 10
stairwells
designing 13
pressurization 10

Index Terms Links
standards. See codes and standards

standpipe and hose systems 4245
analyzing requirements for 4243
classes of 43
flow rates 44
hose connections 4445
materials for 45
pressure example 64
providing during construction 14
standards 3 45
testing 45
types of 4344
start points (pumps) 38
steam 83 90
steam turbines 36
stop points (pumps) 38
storage
clean agents 112
dry chemical systems 105
storage spaces
sprinklered 48
storage tanks 32 87
strobe lights 6 24
structural stability of buildings 5
submittal review comments 18 19

Index Terms Links
suction head 36 37
suction lift 35
surface fires 103
system manuals 18 19
tall buildings 10 24
tamper switches 28
tanks 32 3839 87
96
temper switches 55
temperature
cooling combustion 32
foam applications 87
freezing (See freezing temperatures)
hydraulic calculations 61
sprinkler heads and 52
sprinkler ratings 53
test data reports 18 19
testing
in commissioning 17 19
foam systems 87
for inspections 2122
integrated testing 2021
standards 3 17 2021
87
Index Terms Links
textile mills 47
thermal sensitivity 53
thermodynamics 63
third-party testing 18
three times rule 56
timers (pump) 36
titanium 31 96 115
total flooding
clean agents 111
dry chemicals 104105
total head 36
training documentation 18
transporting extinguishing agents 113
trash chutes 58
travel distance (fire extinguishers) 116
trip tests 59
triple point pressure (CO2) 95
turbines 91
twin-agent systems 103
twin-fluid water mist systems 92 94
Types 1, 2 or 3 foam dischargers 87
UL (Underwriters Laboratory) 34
fire pump listings 35
foam dischargers (UL Type 1, 2, 3) 87
ratings (fire extinguishers) 115
standards
UL 199: Standard for Automatic Sprinklers for
Fire Protection Service 4

Index Terms Links
UL (Underwriters Laboratory)
standards (Cont.)
UL 217: Standard for Smoke Alarms 4
UL 268: Smoke Detectors for Fire Alarm Systems 4
UL 300: Fire Testing of Fire Extinguishing Systems
for Protection of Commercial Cooking Equipment 105
UL 1254: Standard for Pre-Engineered Dry
Chemical Extinguishing System Units 103
UL 1626: Standard for Residential Sprinklers
for Fire Protection Service 4
UL 1767: Standard for Early-Suppression Fast-
Response Sprinklers 4
UL 2127: Standard for Inert Gas Clean Agent
Extinguishing System Units 107
UL 2166: Standard for Halocarbon Clean Agent
Extinguishing System Units 107
UL 2167: Standard for Water Mist Nozzles for
Fire Protection Service 90
UL 2351: Standard for Spray Nozzles for Fire
Protection Service 4
ultraviolet detectors 29
ultraviolet light 28
Underwriters Laboratory. See UL (Underwriters
Laboratory)
unlocking doors 24
upright sprinklers 53 5556
uranium 107
urea-potassium bicarbonate 103
valuables 48 49 93
96

Index Terms Links
valves
friction losses 65
inspections 21
sprinkler systems 55 59
testing 22 59
vane-type water flow alarm 54
vapors 83
velocity 36 6263
ventilation equipment
detectors and 24 29
dry chemicals and 104
HVAC systems 6
water mist systems and 90 93
venting carbon dioxide systems 100101
vertical turbine pumps 35
viscosity 6162
visibility 98
voice instructions 6
volume (carbon dioxide) 99
volume (water) 61
walls, fire-rated 5 58
warnings (carbon dioxide) 98
warranties 19
water
density 61
hydraulic calculations (See formulas and
hydraulic calculations)
hydrocarbons and 11

Index Terms Links
water (Cont.)
temporary sources of 14
viscosity 6162
wet water 11
water-driven foam proportioners 86
water flow alarms 22 30 5455
water flow detectors 24 25 28
water heaters 23
compared to other systems 94
designing 9294
extinguishing fires 8990
history 89
pressure 92
standards 89 9091
technical issues 94
types of 9192
water motor gongs 5455
water-reactive liquids 83
water-reactive metals 105
water spray systems 94
water tanks 32
weight
carbon dioxide cylinders 98
water 61 64
welding 1415
wet chemical extinguishing agents 33 105106
wet pipe sprinkler systems 48 49 50
57 79
wet standpipe systems 43
wet water 11

Index Terms Links
wetting agents 116

worst-case fires 6
zirconium 115

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Fire

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

Copyright 2016 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers

Figure 5-1 Continuous-Line Fixed-Temperature Heat Detector .........................................26

Table 4-1 Test and Inspection Frequency of Water-Based Suppression Systems........ 22

Table 12-1 Foam Characteristics ............................................................................................. 84

1: FIRE PROTECTION FUNDAMENTALS ...................................................................... 1

Planning Phase ...................................................................................................... 19

Hose Connections ...................................................................................................... 44

Results of Assumptions and Simpliications ........................................................... 62

UL supports manufacturers, regulatory authorities, building owners, and insurance com-

PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

DETECTION AND NOTIFICATION

Basic Chemistry and

u Wood and all wood products

can be accomplished through either an absorption or a saturation process. Impregnation

u he use of open lames and welding/cutting equipment should be properly supervised.

Owners Project Requirements

u Identiies the commissioning scope

plan should include post-occupancy testing requirements based on an assessment of the

Table 4-1 Test and Inspection Frequency of Water-Based Suppression Systems

signaling requirements for carbon monoxide sensors. he details of these requirements

located in a ire-rated control room, which is intended to be continuously attended. If the

DETECTOR LOCATION AND SPACING

u he main control switch shall be automatic.

Table 7-1 Centrifugal Fire Pump Component Sizing Data

Private Mains, Standpipes,

STANDPIPE AND HOSE SYSTEMS

u Which class of standpipe is required?

Figure 9-1 Wet Pipe Sprinkler System

the sprinkler opening and the water

are stored and accidental water discharge may

tifreeze solution and is connected Drop, Approved A

to a water supply. he antifreeze 5 feet indicating

and lows to the alarm-giving device. Anoth-

Table 9-3 Spacing for Standard Pendent and Upright Sprinklers

Hanging and Restraint Requirements

Hydraulically Calculated Systems

Figure 9-8 Design Area Curve Example

underground mains are shown in Table 9-7. 12 3,520

Basic Hydraulics for

Using Equation 10-1:

The Hazen-Williams Equation

WATER EXITING THE PIPE

Table 10-5B Water Flow Table, 1-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Table 10-5C Water Flow Table, 1-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Table 10-5D Water Flow Table, 2-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Table 10-5E Water Flow Table, 2-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Table 10-5F Water Flow Table, 3-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Table 10-5G Water Flow Table, 4-inch Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Figure 11-1 Plan View of Sprinkler System

Figure 11-2 Hydraulically Most Remote Area

Beginning the Calculation

Figure 11-3 Hydraulic Node Points

From Equation 10-2:

Table 11-2 Equivalent Lengths of Common Fittings (for Schedule 40 Pipe), ft

Figure 11-4 Illustration of Density/Area Method Calculation

Table 11-3 Step 1 of the Example Calculation in NFPA 13 Format

S1 10 ft 5.6 19.6 gpm 1 in. 14 120 12.25

Table 11-4 Steps 1 and 2 of the Example Calculation in NFPA 13 Format

S1 10 ft 5.6 19.6 gpm 1 in. 14 120 12.25

Table 11-6 Common Area Modiications

Figure 11-5 Example 11-1 Plan View

Alcohol-Resistant Aqueous Film-Forming Foam