Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Salama
Lecture 5
Sub-Transmission Lines and Non-Technical
Distribution Substations Design Factors
Objectives
This lecture deals with Sub-transmission lines and non-technical distribution substations design
factors. The objectives of this lecture are:
1- Identifying sub-transmission lines configuration.
2- Examining the relationship between sub-transmission line configuration and substations
operation and cost.
3- Investigating the impact of the sub-transmission line operating voltage level on its cost.
4- Discussing the non-technical distribution substation related aspects and their impact on its
design.
5- Studying the factors affecting the choice of substation physical location.
6- Evaluating the practical substation facilities costs.
1. Introduction
Distribution system is a part of the electric utility system that connect the bulk power source
(transmission system) to the customers service entrances (service drop ends) as shown in Fig. 1.
Distribution system components are critical parameters in the power delivery system because of the
proximity of distribution system to the customers. Distribution system is an expensive element of the
power network and it is characterized by higher power losses compared to other power system
components. A typical distribution system consists of several components (Fig.1):
Sub-transmission system
Primary system
Secondary system
Consumer serves facilities
Fig. 2 shows a double three-phase transmission circuits on the left of the figure, while there is a sub-
transmission circuit mounted on a wooden pole on the right of the Figure.
144
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
G e n e ra tin g s ta tio n
S te p -u p tra n s fo rm e r
T ra n s m is s io n s y s te m
B u lk p o w e r s u b s ta tio n
S u b tra n s m is s io n
s y s te m DS P rim a ry fe e d e rs
3 P rim a ry m a in
1 L a te ra ls
DT
S e c o n d a ry m a in s
C o n s u m e rs s e rv ic e s
145
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
In the following each component of the distribution system will be discussed briefly.
146
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
In this course each part of the distribution system will be discussed in details. In this lecture the sub-
transmission circuits and the distribution substation configuration and design will be discussed.
2. Sub-Transmission Circuits
DS DS DS DS
B u lk p o w e r B u lk p o w e r
DS
so u rce b u s so u rce b u s
DS DS DS DS
R a d ia l s u b - tr a n s m is s io n L o o p s u b - tr a n s m is s io n
DS DS DS
B u lk p o w e r B u lk p o w e r
so u rce b u s 1 so u rce b u s 2
DS DS DS
G r id s u b - tr a n s m is s io n
147
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
B u lk p o w e r s o u r c e b u s
To DS To DS
DS DS
S u b tr a n s m is s io n
c ir c u its
DS DS
148
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
B u lk p o w e r s o u r c e b u s
S u b tr a n s m is s io n
c ir c u its
To DS To DS
N .O .
DS DS
N .O .
DS DS
B u lk p o w e r s o u r c e b u s
T o lo o p c ir c u it
DS
S u b tr a n s m is s io n
c ir c u its
DS DS
149
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
continuity among all other configurations. However, it requires costly power flow control and
complicated protective coordination strategies [1].
B u lk p o w e r s o u r c e b u s e s
S u b tr a n s m is s io n
c ir c u its
DS DS DS
DS DS DS
1. For radial sub-transmission configuration the high voltage side of the substation has only one
incoming line for the two possible configurations as shown in Fig. 8. For Fig. 8.a there is no
transmission breaker. Therefore, the line and the substation high side are protected from a
breaker on the other end of the line. However in Fig. 8.b there is a breaker that can protect the
line and the high side of the substation.
150
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
I n c o m in g L in e I n c o m in g L in e
T ra n s m is s io n b re a k e r
DS DS
O u tg o in g f e e d e r s O u tg o in g f e e d e r s
2. For loop sub-transmission configuration the high voltage side of the substation has two
incoming lines as shown in Fig. 9. In Fig. 9.a there is no isolating transmission breaker.
Therefore, any fault will cause an interruption of the whole supply. However in Fig. 9.b, there
is a breaker for each incoming line that can isolate each line separately while maintaining the
supply from the other one. The system configuration in Fig. 9.b provides more reliable
operation than that of Fig. 9.a.
I n c o m in g L o o p L in e I n c o m in g L o o p L in e
T r a n s m is s io n b r e a k e r s
DS DS
D is tr ib u tio n b r e a k e r s D is tr ib u tio n b r e a k e r s
O u tg o in g f e e d e r s O u tg o in g f e e d e r s
Loop circuits provide different service reliability based on the incoming line segmentation inside the
substation as shown in Table 1.
151
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
N .C . N .C .
N .C . N .C .
N .O .
O u tg o in g fe e d e rs
In c o m in g L in e s
N .C .
N .C . N .C .
N .O .
O u tg o in g fe e d e rs
152
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
configurations:
a- The substation low side has no effect on N .C . N .C .
N .O .
the protection and service reliability. D is trib u tio n
b reak ers
b- The whole substation loading will be
feed from one transformer and one line. O u tg o in g fe e d e rs
In c o m in g L in e s
N .C .
- In case of one line failure, the two N .C .
N .O .
transformers are still in service.
N .C . N .C .
N .O .
In c o m in g L in e s
N .C . N .C .
N .C .
N .C . N .C .
N .O .
O u tg o in g fe e d e rs
I n c o m in g L in e s
N .C . N .C . N .C . N .C .
O u tg o in g f e e d e r s
153
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
Table 2 Relative capital cost of 40MVA substation for different lines configurations
2.3 Investigating the Impact of the Sub-Transmission Line Operating Voltage Level on Its
Cost [3]
The most common sub-transmission configuration used in practice is the loop type shown in Fig. 6.
The cost of sub-transmission lines and their termination requirement at the substation high voltage side
are related to the high voltage level used as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Relative cost of the line and its associate terminating facilities as function of its voltage [3]
154
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
3. The line and substation high voltage side requirements costs increases, as the insulation
requirement increases. However, the cost/MW decreases as the power transmitted increases.
3. Distribution Substations
In General, a substation in an electric utility identity interconnects components (generators,
transmission lines, distribution lines and other utility system) of that utilitys system. For example,
distribution substation receives power from high voltage transmission or sub-transmission and
distributes this power at low voltage among several primary distribution circuits. Also, substation
connects the system between different voltage levels in the same sector, for example 13.8 kV and 34.5
kV in the distribution system. Substations are considered to be the least expensive facility in the
electric system with respect to other system component such as transmission and distribution feeders
costs. However, their proficient design and operation will reduce the overall cost of the system due to
the increased reliability the substation offers to the transmission and distribution (T&D) systems.
Normally, substation construction requires a large piece of land to contain the large amount of
equipment the substation has to house.
1. Normal Substation: It has all the three parts of the substation which are installed over- or
under-ground. It can be in the open air or enclosed in a building.
2. Substation Unit: It has all parts of a normal substation cased in one single package. It is metal
weatherproof housing including the three substation parts separately. It has its own protection.
It is considered as modules.
3. Mobile Substations: It is similar to the substation unit but can be moved on large tractor and
placed at certain locations near transmission and distribution circuits. These mobile substations
provide maximum reliability and energy continuity following major outages of existing
substations [2, 4]. Its capacity is up to 40 MVA due to size and weight constraints. It takes from
3-6 hours to be interconnected and energized [3].
155
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
1. Step the voltage level down to a lower voltage levels between two parts of a distribution system
(distribution substation).
2. Isolate a faulty utility component or disconnect a component from the rest of the electric utility
system for a scheduled maintenance or repair.
3. Switch utilitys components in and out the system to control power flow (i.e. switching for
contingency situations).
4. Monitor the equipment and circuits operation. It provides voltage, current and power data for
the system operation center. It also houses the protective devices.
5. Offer site for communications and additional devices storage.
6. Provide electric power sources for reactive power (capacitor banks, synchronous condensers) to
improve power factor and voltage control.
1. Generating Station Substation: This substation steps up the generation voltage (15-23 kV) to
the transmission system voltage (69-500 kV).
2. Transmission Step Down Substation: This substation interconnects different parts of the
transmission system operating at different voltage levels
4. Distribution Step Down Substation (Bulk Power Substation): This substation interconnects
transmission system with the distribution system. Transmission system and distribution system
operate at different voltages.
5. Distribution Substation (DS): This substation interconnects different parts of the distribution
system and it may include transformation of different distribution voltage levels.
A typical substation system is a set of equipment electrically connected together to perform the
substation function. A single line diagram of a distribution substation is shown in Fig. 10. The sub-
156
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
transmission line entered the substation and terminated at dead-end structure. This terminated line is
connected to a disconnected switch mounted on the same structure which can be used to disconnect the
substation from the incoming line. The disconnecting switch is connected to a high-side buswork
where a voltage and current transformers are used to measure the incoming electric quantities and
provide relevant values for meters and relays. This high-side bus is connected to the CB that protects
the substation power transformer. The power transformer low voltage side is connected to a secondary
breaker that is connected to the substation low-side bus. This bus is connected to primary distribution
feeders with breakers. These feeders exit in the substation in the underground ducts (feeders getaway).
A m m e te r
Pow er
D is c o n n e c tin g tra n s fo rm e r
B us D ra w o u t
s w itc h
S u b tra n s m is s io n CB b re a k e r
c irc u its
C u rre n t
V o lta g e tra n s fo rm e r
tra n s fo rm e r D is trib u tio n
V o ltm e te r fe e d e r b re a k e r
M e ta l-C la d S w itc h g e a r
The substation layout and its associated facilities can be classified into four fundamental parts shown
by one of Figs. 11.a, and b.
These equipments and arrangements will be discussed in the following section according to the
classification given in Fig. 11.a [6]:
157
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
H ig h s id e
T h e s ite
(b u s w o rk & p ro te c tio n )
(F e n c e /w a ll)
S w itc h y a rd
T h e s ite
(F e n c e /w a ll)
Pow er
T ra n s fo rm e rs
C o n tro l b u ild in g
L o w s id e
(b u s w o rk & p ro te c tio n )
O u tg o in g fe e d e rs O u tg o in g fe e d e rs
158
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
159
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
The majority of fuses in distribution systems operate on the expulsion principle. The
expulsion type distribution Cutouts are a common protection for overhead primary
distribution systems and are classified as enclosed fuse cutouts, open fuse cutouts.
The Nominal current of the fuse should be greater than the maximum continuous load
current, an overload percentage should be allowed. In case of power transformers, fuse
should be selected above inrush curve and below thermal limit.
Power fuses are identified by the letter E and are employed where system voltage is 34.5KV
or higher. The symmetrical short circuit of the fuse should be equal to or greater than the
symmetrical fault current calculated for the point of installation of the fuse. When two or
more fuses are used the one nearest to the load is called the main protection and that upstream
towards the source is called back up.
Typical reclosers are designed to have up to three open-close operations. One fast & two
delayed and after these a final open operation to lock out the sequence as per the following
curves. One further closing operation by manual means is usually allowed. The new reclosers
with microprocessor- based controls may have keyboard selectable time/current curves which
160
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
enable an engineer to produce any curve to suit the co-ordination requirements for phase and
earth faults.
A typical sequence of a recloser operation for permanent faults is as per drawings. The first
shot is carried out in instantaneous mode in order to clear temporary faults before they cause
any damage. The three later shots operate in timed manner.
Reclosers can be classified based on the following: Single phase and three phase mechanisms
with hydraulic or electronic operation, Oil, Vacuum or SF6
Reclosers are used at the following points on a distribution network. In substations, in main
feeder circuit, to permit sectioning of long lines and in branches to prevent the opening of the
main circuit due to fault on the branch.
When installing reclosers , it is necessary to take into account the following factors: 1.
System voltage, 2. Short circuit level, 3. Maximum load current, 4. Minimum short circuit
within the zone protected by a recloser, 5. Coordination with protective devices, 6.
Sensitivity of operation for earth fault.
Sectionalizers count the number of operations of the recloser during fault conditions then
open and isolate the faulty section while the recloser is open. If fault is temporary the
sectionalizer counter will reset to its normal position after the circuit is reclosed. If fault
is permanent the counter will count the next opening of the recloser. If recloser is set for four
operations and will go to lock out, the sectionalizer will be set to trip during open operation
following the third tripping of recloser.
161
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
The nominal voltage and current of a sectionalizer should be equal to or greater than the
maximum values of voltage or load at the point of installation. The short circuit capacity
(momentary rating) should be equal or greater than the fault level at the point of installation.
Disadvantages:
1. More costly than fuse cutouts and demand more maintenance.
2. Their failure rate could be greater than that of fuse cutouts.
162
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
The circuit breaker can be classified on the basis of the arc extinction e.g. by air as in air circuit
breaker ACB, Oil as in oil circuit breaker OCB, and Sulfur Hexa fluoride SF6 in SF6 breaker and
also Vacuum circuit breaker.
The circuit breakers used at distribution systems are air circuit breakers and oil circuit
breakers for high voltage and molded case circuit breaker for low voltage. Overcurrent and
other fault sensing generally opens the circuit breaker [5].
163
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
The substation capacity is calculated based on the transformers capacity housed in this substation.
Therefore for a substation having three transformers (two 25 MVA and one 35 MVA), the two
ways to identify the substation capacity are as follow [3]:
1- Some electric utilities consider the sum of all transformers capacity to represent the
substation capacity. Therefore, the substation capacity is 2 x 25 + 1 x 35 = 85 MVA.
164
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
2- Others electric utilities take the contingency calculations point of view to determine the
substation capacity. Therefore, the substation capacity is 2 x 150% x 25 = 75 MVA. This is
calculated based on a worst-case contingency, which assumes the loss of power supplied by
the 35 MVA transformers. This analysis assumes that the two 25 MVA transformers are
overloaded by 50% for 4 hours.
Power transformers can be considered as a way for substation planning by introducing the
transformer unit concept. A unit is a transformer with its associated equipment (site preparation,
grounding, buswork, racks, switches, breakers, monitoring and control equipment, cooling, oil and
fire protection equipment). However, this unit is not cased in one assembly as in the substation unit
case. For example:
Power transforms can be autotransformers; however, due to its low impedance it has high fault
current. Autotransformers are cheaper than the normal power transformer [5].
Some utilities employ low-side voltage switcher. The low side voltage switcher includes switches,
breakers and buswork. Voltage switcher can be installed in air or enclosed in a cabinet (metal-clad
switchgear). In this structure the breaker is mounted on wheels and can be draw out [5].
165
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
LTC equipped transformer provides a variation of plus or minus 10% of the low-side winding
voltage. Equipment is installed to sense the voltage level at the low side and automatically vary the
tap setting to obtain the desired voltage value. The LTC transformer can adjust the voltage level in
two cases as follow [3]:
166
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
Capacitor banks and reactors each installed individually or together. Capacitor banks are
installed at substation to supply capacitive power by switching them on and off.
Current limiting reactor installed on distribution feeders to limit the fault current by adding
impedance to the feeder source impedance.
167
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
1. Building architectural, structural and space conditioning system: It includes walls, roof,
painting, structural steel frames, supports and providing clean uniform temperature and
humidity by using heating and air conditioning and ventilating devices. It is included in a
building shape; in this case it is called a cottage substation.
2. Building grounding, raceway, and lightning and communication systems: It is similar and
connected to the switchyard grounding, raceway, and lightning and communication systems.
168
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
Old relays are mechanically operated with a spinning of a disc however the new relays are
electronically operated [5]. There are several relay types such as [5]:
169
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
170
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
4. Substation Location
The substation location is selected to contain the high- and low-side equipments, transformers and their
associated equipment, outgoing feeders and all other auxiliary service equipment. This location is
related to the substation area to be electrically served. The most optimal substation location for the
least overall cost is not the optimal one for the most optimal electrical performance, or optimal
substation capacity, or that of optimal substation service area. The selection of substation location is a
screening process. All possible locations in the required service area are selected first. This process is
followed by rejecting the unsuitable locations and providing the candidate substation areas. These
locations can be further classified as candidate sites and sites left for future evaluations. The candidate
sites are evaluated to obtain the most optimal substation locations (sites). Therefore, the optimal
substation location is determined by each system needs as it is affected by the several following
factors:
1. The system voltage level: Taking the voltage level into consideration affect the piece of land
required to have a proper access for the incoming sub-transmission lines and outgoing primary
distribution feeders (physical size, insulation and number). System voltage level also affects the
size of the equipment required in the substation switchyard area such as power transformers and
their associated measurement and protective devices and as a result the substation control building.
171
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
2. The voltage regulation: The location has to be chosen so that minimum voltage regulation is
required and therefore less voltage regulation devices are needed (capacitor banks and tap
changers).
3. Sub-transmission lines and primary distribution feeders costs: The substation location has to
be located at/or near to the load center of the substations service area to minimize the sub-
transmission and feeders initial costs and therefore their running cost such as power losses.
4. Cost of land: This cost includes the cost of land purchasing and preparing depending on the
chosen location. The land size is from 100s feet2 (for one-transformer substation) to 10s acres
(for combined transmission-distribution substation) [3]. Possible land availability for substation
expansion in the future to cover the forecasted load growth must also be determined. This
location must not face any human, regulations, governmental and natural obstacles. The chosen
site has to have enough space for feeders getaway. A comparison between substation
applications and costs varies widely depending on the substation size and type as discussed in
Table 4.
For dense urban areas where the cost of land is very expensive, substation utilizes
undergrounds both transmission and distribution feeders can be installed in a basement of a
172
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
large building. Therefore, special requirements for the space and clearance and GIS equipment
are required.
5. Site preparation and feeder getaway: The site slope, rock and draining affects the cost of land
required for substation and its infrastructure. Feeders getaways require clearance and the
underground soil may affect the cost of underground structure for feeders getaways.
6. Load growth rates and load forecasting: The load density affects the substation location
choice and its possible interconnection with other substation to satisfy the reliability and supply
continuity requirements.
7. Weather exposure: Sites located on hilltops are more likely exposed to lightning and weather
conditions which will raise the substation O&M costs and protection requirements.
1. Minimum site: The minimum substation economical capacity is 0.25 of the substation high
side voltage level. For example, a substation with high side voltage level of 69 kV can serve
minimum capacity of 17 MVA.
2. Site cost: The site cost increases as the high- or low-side voltage level increases.
3. Capacity cost: The four part of a substation has a linear cost proportional to the capacity if the
substation serves more than the minimum economical capacity.
4. High-side cost: The cost of high-side substation depends on the voltage level as follows:
i- Above 138 kV:
Increasing the voltage level increases the high-side cost by 1.25 power of the voltage
level. For example, 230 kV high-side cost is approximately 2.35 more cost of the 115
kV cost ((230/115)1.25 = 2.37).
173
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
5. Low-side cost: The cost of low-side substation increases as the square root of the primary
voltage level. For example, 34.5 kV low-side cost is three times of 4 kV cost ((34.5/4)0.5 =
(8.625)0.5 = 3).
6. Transformer cost: The cost varies approximately halfway between low- and high-side cost
variations.
The substation cost percentage can vary widely for each substation part and its location according to
Table 5 [3]. Table 6 provides practical costs for different distribution substations applications and sizes
[3].
174
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
- 12 MVA loading
- All underground
175
Lecture 5: Sub-Transmission Lines ECE6606PD M.M.A. Salama
References:
[1] T. Gnen, Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986.
[2] Westinghouse Electric Corporation: Electric Utility Engineering Reference Book- Distribution
Systems, vol. 3, East Pittsburgh, Pa., 1965.
[3] H. L. Willis, "Power Distribution Planning Reference Book," Marcel Dekker, New York, vol. 1,
1997.
[4] Beaty, H. Wayne, Electric power distribution systems: a non-technical guide, Tulsa, Okla.:
PennWell, 1998.
[5] R. E. Brown, "Electric Power Distribution Reliability," Marcel Dekker, New York, 2002.
[6] J.R. Lusby, Fundamental concepts in substation design, Rural Electric Power Conference, 1993.
Papers Presented at the 37th. Annual Conference, 25-27 April 1993, pp. D2/1 - D225.
176