Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
ABSTRACT
Most iron ores occur in mine benches as complex mixtures of lithologies and ore types. This
significantly complicates their characterisation for both blast design and fragmentation modelling.
A great deal of technical and research effort has been applied to the development of models
to predict fragmentation from rock blasting. A number of quite useful engineering models are
currently available to blasting engineers and consultants, and more sophisticated approaches using
mechanistic descriptions of rock breakage continue to be developed and applied by researchers
and explosives companies.
The engineering or empirical models that are in more general use within the industry, such as the
Kuz-Ram model, require appropriate data if they are to generate useful fragmentation predictions.
Some of these models have reached significant sophistication and have made very useful
contributions to both routine blasting operations and the exploration of new blasting paradigms.
However, these models struggle to adequately deal with rock that is as complex as iron ore. This
paper reviews the characteristics of the most successful blast fragmentation models available to the
industry and discusses approaches to the derivation of suitable rock mass properties to adequately
describe blast fragmentation in a range of iron ores.
INTRODUCTION
It is obvious to argue that in order to design an effective blast, the mines operating life. The prediction of blast fragmentation
it is helpful to be able to predict how it will perform in the depends on the use of a model that adequately responds to
field. However, such predictions have always been, and to the breakage processes and outcomes that are of importance
some extent still remain, fairly imprecise. The aspects of blast to the mining operation and an adequate description of the
performance that are of most interest to an open pit mine relevant rock mass properties.
include fragmentation, swell, muck pile movement and damage
to adjacent benches. Rules of thumb, nomograms, empirical BLAST DESIGN
design rules and numerical models have been developed and
used over the years to address each of these blasting outcomes. Local experience
However, the design of most mine production blasts generally
A mining operation quickly develops a history of performance
relies on some relatively simple geometric relationships guided
that can be used to guide future designs. This can be
by observations from the field essentially design rules that
particularly effective in consistent geological environments
have been honed by trial and error.
where surprises are minimal. However, this process is always
This paper addresses one of these blast outcomes in a chasing its tail when conditions change or the required
particular type of mine the prediction of blast fragmentation blasting outcomes need to be varied. Industry experience
in open pit iron ore mines. Fragmentation in these operations can be of some assistance when designing for a greenfield
is of interest in order to: development, but this experience is unlikely to apply to the
avoid boulders or oversized fragments that reduce the detailed characteristics of the ores found in a new mining area.
efficiency of excavation and require secondary breakage
influence the proportion of fines in the run-of-mine (ROM) Traditional design rules
ore, which may affect the market into which the ore is sold The literature abounds with texts providing blast design
affect the distribution of ROM particle sizes, which may guidelines and rules. Although sometimes contradictory
influence the design and efficiency of ore processing because of the diverse background of the authors, general
operations. trends are evident in the design rules available. These
An understanding of the range of expected fragmentation guidelines can be used to relate the burden to the blasthole
outcomes is important to the design of ore handling and diameter, the burden to blasthole spacing via a spacing to
process plants prior to the commencement of operations as burden ratio, stemming lengths and subdrill lengths in terms
is the management of fragmentation performance throughout of multiples of the hole diameter and even the size of the
1. FAusIMM(CP), Consulting Mining Engineer, Scott Mine Consulting Services Pty Ltd, PO Box 5126, Kenmore Qld 4069. Email: andrew@scottmining.com.au
2. Senior Lecturer, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, University of Queensland, St Lucia Qld 4072. Email: i.onederra@uq.edu.au
granular material used to stem the holes. Figure 1 shows the FRAGMENTATION MODELS
style of nomograph published by Langefors and Khilstrom
(1978), which was a convenient way to capture these sorts of Development paths
relationships.
Scott, Chitombo and Kleine (1993) provide a useful
Many of these design rules have been refined and focused background to the status of fragmentation modelling 20 years
over the years and have been made available in industry ago. This paper reviewed the fragmentation models available
handbooks and courses, conference papers, textbooks and at the time and suggested a path for their future development.
advice from consultants. A problem with these design rules The development of models to predict fragmentation from
is that they offer advice on how to develop blast designs that blasting has since followed the two distinct paths they
would generate satisfactory or good fragmentation when identified:
blasting the type of rock in which the author had experience,
1. an empirical or engineering approach that captures
but not specific or tailored blasting outcomes.
relationships between known rock mass properties, blast
These design rules are able to provide guidance to overcome designs and the subsequent blasting results
common blasting problems (eg avoiding excessive oversize 2. a mechanistic or fundamental approach that focuses on
by improving the energy distribution within the blast) or the underlying physics of the detonation behaviour of
influence the fragmentation outcome (eg using higher velocity explosives and rock breakage.
of detonation explosive to increase the proportion of fines in
the muck). However, they are still not able to predict what the Empirical or engineering approaches
particle size distribution of the blasted muck is likely to be As summarised in Figure 2, steady progress is evident in the
when a particular blast design is applied to a particular rock development of empirical fragmentation models. The starting
mass. In fact, the rock and its properties are provided minimal point can be traced back to Rosin and Rammler (1933), who
influence in most blast design guidelines. derived the original function adopted by both Kuznetsov
(1973) and Cunningham (1983) to model blast fragmentation.
Bond (1959) also contributed by proposing ways to predict
the mean fragment size, while Johnson (1962) developed
an empirical relationship based on simple crater tests. The
introduction of parameters that linked blast geometry and
charging configurations to fragmentation and resulted in the
Kuz-Ram model (Cunningham, 1983, 1987, 2005) has been
the mainstay of practical blast fragmentation modelling for
the past 30 years. The success of the Kuz-Ram model when
compared with most other approaches is due to its use of
most of the basic blast design parameters in a form that can
be reasonably quantified or estimated from field data, the fact
that it can be executed on a calculator or Excel spreadsheet
and that it can generate reasonable results for simple blasting
FIG 1 Example of a blast design nomograph. situations.
Further modifications to the Kuz-Ram model were intro determination of fragmentation modelling parameters such
duced in the late 1990s, when developments in fragmentation as mean fragment size, fines cut off points and fragmentation
modelling saw the introduction of two component modelling uniformity indices. These modelling parameters are
approaches. This allowed for improvements in the prediction determined for any given combination of pattern geometry,
of fine fragmentation (Scott et al, 1998; Kanchibotla, Valery and explosive charging arrangement and rock mass conditions.
Morrell, 1999; Djordjevic, 1999; Thornton, Kanchibotla, and As shown in Figure 3, the extent of breakage (defined by
Brunton, 2001). Over the years, two component approaches both crushing and fracturing zones) is discretely estimated
have also been improved through the introduction of more on predefined layers along the length of a blasthole. The
accurate ways of predicting the potential volume of crushed number of layers per blasthole can be defined by the user and
material resulting from the crushing and shearing stages depends on the degree of variability associated with both the
of blasting (Onederra, 2004). These have also incorporated rock mass and explosive charging condition.
the Swebrec function proposed by Ouchterlony et al (2006).
It is likely that this model, or models of its type, will find
Developments in the prediction of very fine size fractions (to
useful application within the industry in future years.
one micron) have also been documented by Scott, Michaux
and Onederra (2009).
Mechanistic or fundamental approaches
Incorporating rock mass variability Several attempts have been made to simulate the dynamic
fracturing process, fragment formation and displacement in
Notwithstanding the successful implementation of empirical
blasting. The numerical methods currently used are based
fragmentation models, their common constraint is that
on finite element, finite difference and discrete element
they are unable to explicitly consider changes in rock mass
conditions and charging configurations. Current models analysis techniques. They have been applied in isolation and
assume homogenous and isotropic conditions, with only in combined forms. In most cases, shock wave propagation
mean values used as input parameters. As an attempt to and the fracturing process have been modelled with finite
consider the inherent variability of rock mass input data, element and finite difference codes. Discrete element codes
stochastic techniques such as those documented by Thornton, have mainly been applied to model particle motion or
Kanchibotla and Esterle (2001) and Onederra, Mardones and rock movement problems. In all three types of numerical
Scherpenisse (2010) have been successfully applied. However, techniques, the geometry of the rock mass is divided into a
these techniques do not consider the influence of actual number of small elements or zones using a process referred to
rock mass variability on final breakage and fragmentation as discretisation. The behaviour of each element/zone in the
outcomes. As they are built upon current empirical models, the model is governed by a constitutive law. If the constitutive
stochastic approaches still do not take into account the three- law is appropriate and all of the relevant mechanisms are
dimensional distribution of explosive charges typical of non- represented, the model is expected to behave in the same way
uniform patterns and charging geometries such as stemming as the material being represented. The difference between the
length variations and decking. As a way of addressing these three numerical approaches is in the treatment of the elements
limitations, a layered fragmentation modelling approach has and how the behaviour of each is summed to represent the
been developed and is currently undergoing evaluation and problem as a whole.
validation. This newly developed model is called iFrag and Sophisticated finite element/discrete element hybrid codes
is an improved version of a methodology first proposed by such as ELFEN, commercially developed and marketed by
Onederra (2004) that has also been successfully incorporated Rockfield Software Ltd, can perform both two- and three-
into a fragmentation model for underground ring blasting dimensional analysis of stress, fracturing and in-flight block
applications. interaction during the blasting process. The codes capabilities
The iFrag model is based on a combination of well- were improved with the integration of the MBM2D model
established and newly derived empirical rules that allow the developed by Munjiza and Owen (1992), Owen, Munjiza and
Bicanic (1992) and Minchinton and Lynch (1996). In MBM2D, and the parameters required by the algorithms involved are
the detonation process is modelled using a non-ideal complex. The data driving the thermodynamic codes and
detonation code called CPeX, which provides the velocity dynamic response of the rock substance in both their sonic
of detonation and borehole pressure history as inputs to the and supersonic states require sophisticated laboratory testing
MBM2D model. and analyses.
A discrete element code that has been used to model the It is simply not yet practical to obtain these data for
combined mechanical effect of stress waves and high- the complex environment of an operating mine. Simpler
pressure gas flow is the particle flow code PFC3D developed approaches are required.
by Itasca Inc (Potyondy, Cundall and Sarracino, 1996). In
this technique, a model is composed of distinct particles that Empirical approaches
displace independently from one another and interact only A detailed discussion about historical approaches to quantify
at contacts. PFC3D allows finite displacements and rotations the blasting characteristics of a rock mass is provided
of discrete bodies (including complete detachments) and by JKMRC (1996a) and is still relevant today. Most early
recognises new contacts automatically as the calculation approaches sought to identify a rock mass factor or
progresses. Results from these attempts support the view that coefficient that could be inserted into a general formula to
particle flow codes can be successfully implemented in an generate the required blast design parameter or fragmentation
advanced blasting model.
outcome. An example of this is the rock factor in the Kuz-
In general, the success of earlier models indicated that an Ram model, which was based on a general assessment of the
improved code that could simulate detonation, rock fracture competence of the rock mass to be blasted. In the Kuz-Ram
and finally displacement must incorporate fundamental model, a rock factor of seven represented medium rocks, ten
principles of detonation theory (ideal and non-ideal), stress represented hard, fissured rocks and 13 represented very
wave propagation and interaction in a jointed rock mass, hard, weakly fissured rocks.
gas flow, the ability to model continuum and discontinuum
A more systematic approach was provided by Lilly (1986),
behavior, and the ability to explicitly consider the effect of
who introduced a number of rock mass parameters to generate
different boundary conditions. This has been achieved within
a rock factor for Cunninghams Kuz-Ram model to more
the Hybrid Stress Blasting Model (HSBM), for which final
appropriately describe the blasting properties of iron ore.
validation and commissioning is currently being conducted.
Lillys approach has proven to be very practical, relying on
The HSBM can be described as a sophisticated blast modelling the field assessment of rock mass structure (massive, blocky
research tool. The code has been under development for the or friable), joint plane spacing, joint plane orientation relative
last 11 years as part of an international collaborative research to the blast volume and the density and strength of the rock.
project funded by a consortium of companies comprising Estimates of these parameters were combined by a formula
explosive and equipment suppliers and major mining houses. to generate a single rock factor for use in both blast design
Over the course of its development, several improvements (related to powder factor) and the Kuz-Ram fragmentation
and modifications have been made to both the detonation model.
and geomechanical modelling components in order to
improve calculation speed and the size of the problem that A number of variants of Lillys index have been generated
can be modelled. A detailed description of the framework and by various workers. Perhaps the most useful form of Lillys
validation work is given by Furtney, Cundall and Chitombo index uses the approach adopted by Bickers et al (2001) shown
(2009) and Onederra et al (2013). in Figure 4. The rock mass description follows the geological
strength index approach developed by Hoek, Marinos and
Codes such as the HSBM are still limited to research
Benissi (1998). In this application, the blastability index
applications because they are computationally demanding
(BI), or rock factor (RF), has been modified by combining
and require specialist input for calibration. Todays practical
the original rock mass description and joint plane spacing
problems have to be tackled using simpler approaches.
parameter into a single rating. The joint plane orientation,
rock density influence and rock strength parameters remain
THE BLASTING PROPERTIES OF A ROCK MASS as documented by Lilly.
The value of Lillys approach is that it incorporates many
Concept of the properties that are important to blasting performance,
It seems trite to suggest that the fragmentation expected from including rock substance strength, rock mass structure and
any blast will be heavily dependent on the properties of the density. The form of the index also suits the assessment of
rock mass to be blasted. However, most empirical models these parameters in the field because each of them is the result
rely on a simple rock factor to describe the influence of of a field-based estimate rather than a refined measurement.
the rock mass properties on the blasting outcome. Previous,
current and emerging mechanistic models need to use explicit A successful empirical approach
rock mass properties that require sophisticated laboratory
measurements and detailed rock mass structural data if The following describes the application of an advanced
realistic outcomes are to be generated. The industry has been empirical fragmentation model and the characterisation of the
caught between excessively simple rock mass descriptions rock mass upon which it relies. The original Kuz-Ram model
for the empirical models and excessively complex data had the following shortcomings:
requirements for the mechanistic models. it relied on a simplistic description of the rock mass
(represented as a qualitative rock factor)
Data required by mechanistic models it tended to overestimate the coarse end of the resulting
The detailed mechanistic models attempt to honour the size distribution because it did not adequately respond to
actual physics of the dynamic loading applied to a structured the structure of the rock mass
rock mass and the response of the rock mass in terms of its it tended to significantly underestimate the fine end of the
subsequent breakage and movement. The detailed behaviour resulting size distribution because it was forced to fit a
of the explosive depends on the response of the rock mass Rosin-Rammler distribution curve.
FIG 4 Modified blastability index based on the geological strength index approach (Bickers et al, 2001).
TABLE 2
Example of different types of iron ores and their relative blasting performance.
Ore type Appearance Boulders/truck 80% passing (mm) 50% passing (mm) Fines <15 mm (%)
advanced, but the provision of suitable data to enable them Munjiza, A and Owen, R J, 1992. Discrete element models of rock
to generate useful outcomes in practical blasting situations blasting, Engineering Modelling, 5:6573.
remains a challenge. OBrien, R, 2009. Australias iron ore product quality [online], Geoscience
Australia. Available from: <http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.
REFERENCES au/mapping/files/australianironorequality.pdf>.
Bickers, C F, Dunbar, C T, LeJuje, G E and Walker, P A, 2001. Wall Onederra, I, 2004. A fragmentation modelling framework for
control blasting practices at BHP Billiton Iron Ore Mt Whaleback, underground ring blasting applications, Fragblast: International
in Proceedings EXPLO 2001, pp 93102 (The Australasian Institute Journal of Blasting and Fragmentation, 8:177200.
of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne). Onederra, I, Furtney, J, Sellers, E and Iverson, S, 2013. Modelling
Bond, F, 1959. The work index in blasting, Quarterly of the Colorado blast induced damage from a fully coupled explosive charge,
School of Mines, 54(3):7782. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 58:7384.
Cunningham, C V B, 1983. The Kuz-Ram model for prediction or Onederra, I, Mardones, F and Scherpenisse, C, 2010. Application of
fragmentation from blasting, in Proceedings First International stochastic approach to blast fragmentation modelling, Mining
Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 439453 (Lulea Technology, 119:221232.
University of Technology: Lulea). Ouchterlony, F, Olsson, M, Nyberg, U, Andersson, P and Gustavsson,
Cunningham, C V B, 1987. Fragmentation estimations and the L, 2006. Constructing the fragment size distribution of a bench
Kuz-Ram model four years on, in Proceedings 2nd International blasting round, using the new Swebrec function, in Proceedings
Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 475487 (Society 8th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
for Experimental Mechanics: Bethel). pp332344 (Taylor & Francis Group: Abingdon).
Cunningham, C V B, 2005. The Kuz-Ram fragmentation model 20 Owen, D R J, Munjiza, A and Bicanic, N, 1992. A finite element
years on, in Proceedings EFEE World Blasting Conference, pp 201 dicrete element approach to the simulation of rock blasting
210 (European Federation of Explosives Engineers: London). problems, in Proceedings 11th Symposium on Finite Element Methods
in South Africa, pp 3958 (FRD/UCT Centre for Research in
Djordjevic, N, 1999. Two-component of blast fragmentation, in Computational and Applied Mathematics: Rondebosch).
Proceedings 6th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, pp 213219 (South African Institute of Mining and Palmstrom, A, 2005. Measurements of and Correlations between
Metallurgy: Johannesburg). block size and rock quality designation (RQD). Tunnels and
Underground Space Technology, 20:362377.
Furtney, J K, Cundall, P A and Chitombo, G P, 2009. Developments
in numerical modeling of blast induced rock fragmentation: Potyondy, D O, Cundall, P A and Sarracino, R S, 1996. Modelling of
updates from the HSBM project, in Proceedings 9th International shock and gas-driven fractures induced by a blast using bonded
Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 335342 (Taylor assemblies of spherical particles, in Proceedings 5th International
& Francis Group: Abingdon). Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 5562 (Balkema:
Rotterdam).
Hoek, E, Marinos, P and Benissi, M, 1998. Applicability of the
geological strength index (GSI) classification for very weak and Rosin, R and Rammler, E, 1933. Laws governing fineness of powdered
sheared rock masses. The case of the Athens Schist Formation, coal, Journal of the Institute of Fuel, 7:2936.
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 57(2):151160 Scott A, Chitombo, G and Kleine, T, 1993. The challenge of the
Johnson, J B, 1962. Small-scale blasting in mortar, 22 p, volume 6012, prediction and control of fragmentation in mining, in Proceedings
US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines R1 6012. 4th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
pp507517 (Balkema: Rotterdam).
Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre (JKMRC), 1996a.
Open Pit Blast Design Analysis and Optimisation (ed: A Scott), Scott, A, David, D, Alvarez, O and Veloso, L, 1998. Managing fines
pp112145 (University of Queensland: Brisbane). generation in the blasting and crushing operations at Cerro
Colorado Mine, in Proceedings Mine to Mill Conference, pp141
Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre (JKMRC), 1996b. 148 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
Mineral Comminution Circuits Their Operation and Optimisation Melbourne).
(ed: T Napier-Munn), pp 4994 (University of Queensland:
Brisbane). Scott, A, Michaux, S and Onederra, I, 2009. Characterising dust
generation from blasting, in Proceedings 9th International
Kanchibotla, S S, Valery, W and Morrell, S, 1999. Modelling fines in Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 663671 (Taylor
blast fragmentation and its impact on crushing and grinding, in & Francis Group: Rotterdam).
Proceedings EXPLO 99, pp 137144 (The Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne). Scott, A, Morrell, S and Clark, D, 2002. Tracking and quantifying
value from mine to mill improvement, in Proceedings Value
Kuznetsov, V, 1973. The mean diameter of fragments formed by Tracking Symposium, pp 7784 (The Australasian Institute of
blasting rock, Soviet Mining Science, 9(2):144148. Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Langefors, U and Khistrom, B, 1978. The Modern Technique of Rock Thornton, D, Kanchibotla, S and Brunton, I, 2001. Modelling the impact
Blasting, third edition, 405 p (John Wiley and Sons: New York). of rockmass and blast design variation on blast fragmentation, in
Lilly, P, 1986. An empirical method of assessing rock mass blastability, Proceedings EXPLO 01, pp 331345 (The Australasian Institute of
in Proceedings Large Open Pit Mining Conference, pp 4144, Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
8992 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Thornton, D M, Kanchibotla, S S and Esterle, J S, 2001. A frag-
Melbourne). mentation model to estimate ROM size distribution of soft rock
Minchinton, A and Lynch, P M, 1996. Fragmentation and heave types, in Proceedings 27th Annual Conference on Explosives and
modelling using a coupled discrete element gas flow code, in Blasting Techniques, pp 4153 (International Society of Explosives
Proceedings 5th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Engineers: Cleveland).
Blasting, pp 7180 (Balkema: Rotterdam). White, D, 1977. Predicting fragmentation characteristics of a block
caving orebody, MSc thesis (unpublished), University of Arizona,
Tucson.