Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Computers & Geosciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cageo

GIS-based multicriteria overlay analysis in soil-suitability evaluation for

cotton (Gossypium spp.): A case study in the black soil region of Central India
N. Walke a, G.P. Obi Reddy a,n, A.K. Maji a, S. Thayalan b
a
National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, Amravati Road, Nagpur 440 033, India
b
National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (RC), Hebbal, Bangalore 560 024, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study an attempt was made to characterize the soils of the Ringanbodi watershed, Nagpur
Received 15 June 2011 district, Maharashtra, Central India, for soil-suitability evaluation for cotton using geographic informa-
Accepted 16 August 2011 tion system (GIS)-based multicriteria overlay analysis techniques. The study shows that 8 soil series
Available online 8 September 2011
and 16 soil series associations in the study area and soils were classied into three orders, i.e., Entisol,
Keywords: Inceptisol, and Vertisol. The analysis reveals that the soil associations EF, FG, GH, and HG are
Cotton moderately suitable (S2), DE are marginally to moderately suitable, and CD are marginally (S3)
GIS suitable. However, soils BC are not suitable to marginally suitable (N2S3) and AB are
Landforms unsuitable (N2) for cultivation of cotton. The area analysis shows that for a cotton crop an area
Ringnabodi watershed
about 966.7 ha (49.1%) of TGA is moderately suitable and classied as S2. An area about 469.9 ha
Soils
(23.8%) of TGA is marginal to moderately suitable (S3S2). The marginally suitable soils for cotton are
Soil suitability
classied as S3 and cover an area about 35.2 ha (1.8%) of TGA. However, a 172.3 ha (8.7%) area is not
suitable (N2) to marginally suitable (S3) and a 326.9 (16.6%) area is not suitable (N2) for cotton because
of uncorrectable factors like soil depth, slope, etc. The study demonstrated that GIS-based multicriteria
overlay analysis of soil thematic parameters will be of immense help in soil-suitability evaluation for
cotton.
& 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Land evaluation using a scientic procedure is essential in

Knowledge of soils, their properties, and spatial distribution is
indispensable for agricultural development of any region as it
opens opportunities for a more rational management of the land
resources (Van Ranst, 1994). Information on the site character-
istics, landforms, and quality of the soils has been recognized as
an important requirement in the planning process for land-
suitability evaluation for different crops. Soil always develops in
an organized manner on any given landform and a very close
association exists between the different slope units of the land-
forms (Dent and Young, 1981a). Site-specic landform analysis is
a prerequisite for studying soils and their mapping in a systematic
manner. The task of gathering information on the soils has been
greatly synergized by enhanced spatial and temporal resolutions
of remote sensing data (Kudrat et al., 2000; Srivastava and
Saxena, 2004). It also helps to overcome the errors associated
with subjectivity in locating and plotting soil boundaries for
generating soil maps of inaccessible or hazardous areas.
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 91 0712 2500545; fax: 91 0712 2500534.
E-mail addresses: obireddygp@gmail.com,
obireddy@nbsslup.ernet.in (G.P.Obi Reddy).
assessing the potential and constraints of a given land parcel for
agricultural purposes (Rossiter, 1996). Various approaches of land
evaluation have been developed, and each has a specic metho-
dological procedure (Storie, 1954; Ricquter et al., 1970; FAO,
1976). The main objective of land evaluation is to appraise the
potential of land for alternative kinds of land use by a systematic
comparison of the requirements of the land use with the
resources offered by the land (Dent and Young, 1981b). In
contemporary land evaluation exercises, the geometric and
semantic denition of the land units and their performance
attributes are typically stored in a geospatial database in GIS.
Statistical and geospatial (GIS) tools are then used to assess the
land units and to present the results as suitability maps. Multi-
criteria decision-making forms the concepts, approaches, models,
and methods that aid in evaluation and are expressed by weights,
values, or intensities of preference (Barredo, 1996), which ulti-
mately lead to better decisions. In the last decade multicriteria
evaluation has received renewed attention in the context of GIS-
based decision-making (Pereira and Duckstein, 1993; Malczewski,
1996), which could be useful in solving conicts for individual or
groups interested in spatial contexts.
Weighted overlay analysis is a component of spatial modeling
using spatial multicriteria evaluation. Weighted overlay analysis

0098-3004/$ - see front matter & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cageo.2011.08.020
 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118
assigns more importance to some criteria over others (Hailegebriel,
2007; Zelalem, 2007). It regards the spatial multicriteria analysis
inclusion of an explicit geographic component and is considered
different from conventional multicriteria techniques (Girard et al.,
2008). In general one of the more important uses of GIS is land use
suitability mapping and analysis (Malczewski, 2004). In order to
execute a multicriteria-based decision-making process, it is neces-
sary to generate alternatives and a ranking of alternatives accord-
ing to their degree of attractiveness (Janssen and Rietveld, 1990).
The integration of analytical techniques designed to work with
multicriteria evaluation problems within GIS could give more
functionality to the user (Carver, 1991). Consequently, the integra-
tion of multicriteria evaluation within a GIS context helps users to
improve decision-making processes. It is also a powerful approach
to land-suitability assessments (Joerin et al., 2001). Several case
studies have been reported from different terrain segments of the
globe on GIS applications in soil resource management and land-
use planning (Maji et al., 1998; Mc Cloy, 1995).
With advances in information and communication technology,
computer-based decision support models have been developed
for land evaluation (De La Rosa et al., 1992; Shim et al., 2002).
Development of a GIS-based thematic database on soils is vital in
crop-suitability analysis for optimal utilization of available
resources (Coleman and Galbraith, 2000). The topographic char-
acteristics, the climatic conditions, and the soil quality of an area
are the most important determinant parameters of land-suitabil-
ity evaluations. Land evaluation by map analysis techniques
can be accomplished with GIS (Burrough, 1986, 1987, 1989;
Kalogirou, 2002; Baja et al., 2002). Meijerink et al. (1988) devel-
oped a GIS-based theoretical framework for land evaluation and
the same has been applied in a number of studies (Zuviria,
Fig. 1. Location map of the study area.
109
Valenzuela, 1994; Zhou, 1995; Ramalho-Filho et al., 1997). GIS
allows the construction of models to produce soil-suitability
maps from a set of thematic maps (Harasheh, 1994). The potential
of the integrated approach in GIS for quantitative land evaluation
has been demonstrated earlier by several researchers (Beek et al.,
1997; Merolla et al., 1994). In this study an attempt has been
made to evaluate the soil resources of the Ringnabodi watershed,
Nagpur district of Maharashtra, Central India, in soil-site suit-
ability evaluation for cotton using multicriteria overlay analysis
techniques in GIS. The attempt involves analysis of landforms,
characterization of physico-chemical properties of soils, geospa-
tial database generation, and evaluation-based multicriteria over-
lay analysis techniques in GIS using modied soil-suitability
criteria for cotton (Sehgal et al., 1989a).
2. Study area
The study area of the Ringnabodi watershed is located in the
subhumid tropical climate of Nagpur district, Maharashtra, Cen-
tral India, and extends from 211060 to 211 080 latitude and 781400
to 781 430 E longitude and it covers an area of about 1971.0 ha
(Fig. 1). The elevation of the area ranges from 400 to 535 m above
mean sea level (MSL). Geologically the area is covered by different
basaltic lava ows of lower Eocene to Upper Cretaceous (65Ma),
commonly known as Traps. The mean annual temperature is
26.6 1C and total annual precipitation is 1099 mm, nearly 87% of
which is received during the southwest monsoon period (June
September). The length of the growing period (LGP) calculated
using 0.5 PET (FAO, 1976) is about 170 days in a year having a
110 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118
distinctive moist (35 days), humid (104 days), and moderately dry
(31 days) period.
3. Materials and methods
The methodology followed in the study is to achieve the
following objectives in order to derive the soil suitability for a
cotton crop. The objectives are: (i) to inventory and characterize
the soil resources through remotely sensed data and/or conven-
tional methods and generate various GIS-based thematic maps,
which inuence the agriculture potential for cotton, (ii) to
categorize the thematic features based on their potential and
limitations with respect to suitability for cotton, and (iii) to adopt
the suitable GIS-based model for data integration with the
relevant logical conditions to identify suitable areas for cotton.
3.1. Data used in soil resource inventory
In order to delineate distinct landform units, satellite ima-
geries of Indian Remote Sensing (IRS)IC Linear Image Self
Scanning (LISS)III with a spatial resolution of 23.5 m pertaining
to November 1999 and March 2000 of the study area were used in
conjunction with topographical sheets (1:50,000 scale). The
standard false color composites (FCC) were generated using bands
2, 3, and 4 in Geomatica image analysis software (PCI, 2003). The
satellite imageries were visually interpreted based on textural
and tonal variations to analyze and delineate the distinct land-
form units in association with contour crenulations and drainage
parameters. A detailed geomorphological site analysis has been
carried out prior to the soil survey to understand the broad
landforms, land use, and their relationship with soils following
the procedure by Wright (1972, 1973, 1993). Preeld interpreted
map units were checked and relationships between image char-
acteristics and landforms were established. Representative ped-
ons were identied in each landform unit to study the effective
soil depth or 150 cm depth, whichever appears earlier. A three-
tier approach, viz. image interpretation, eld surveys, and labora-
tory investigations, and cartography and GIS, was adopted in the
soil resource inventory, soil data analysis, mapping, and spatial
database generation in GIS (Sehgal et al., 1989b).
3.2. Soil prole examination and sample analysis
Soil proles were studied landform-wise for their morphology
(Soil Survey Staff, 1995). From the typifying pedons, samples were
collected horizon-wise for laboratory characterization. The studied
pedons were tentatively classied using the USDA System of Soil
Classication (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). The analysis of physico-
chemical characteristics of soils was carried out in the laboratory.
A particle size analysis was carried out by the international pipette
method (Piper, 1966) using sodium hexameta-phosphate as a
dispersing agent. The textural class was determined using the
USDA textural triangle. The bulk density was determined by the
dry clod coating technique (Black, 1965). Moisture retention at 33
and 1500 kPa was determined by using a pressure-plate apparatus
(Black, 1965). Available water-holding capacity (AWC) in soil was
determined using expressions modied by Coughlan et al. (1986).
The soil reaction (pH of 1:2.5 soil water suspension) was deter-
mined by a glass electrode pH meter (Jackson, 1958). Electrical
conductivity (Ec) of soil water suspension was determined using a
conductivity bridge (Richards, 1954). Organic carbon was deter-
mined by the Walkley and Black rapid titration method (Piper,
1950). Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) was estimated by the rapid
titration method (Piper, 1966). The cation-exchange capacity was
determined by saturation of the soils with 1 N sodium acetate
(pH 8.2). Excess sodium acetate was removed by washing with 95%
ethanol until the supernatant had an EC of 4055 mmhos/cm. The
adsorbed sodium was then replaced by the ammonium acetate
(pH 7.0) solution and the sodium concentration from the leachate
was determined by ame photometry (Jackson, 1958).
3.3. Generation of thematic database in GIS
The most useful application of GIS in resource data analysis is
to overlay various thematic maps to derive useful results. The
factors which could inuence land-suitability evaluation for
cotton have been dened and a thematic database on landforms,
slope, rainfall distribution, soil pH, calcium carbonate, electric
conductivity, available phosphorus, organic matter, cation-
exchange capacity, soil texture, soil depth, and surface stones
has been generated in GIS (AGROMA, 1999). Soil attribute data
were entered and a thematic database was generated keeping the
landform units as a main domain in GIS. Individual columns are
created for various soil parameters with their own domains
(classes) like depth, slope, drainage, etc. Attribute polygon opera-
tions are applied to generate various themes. Thematic informa-
tion on slope, soil erosion, soil drainage, soil texture, surface
stoniness, coarse fragments, CaCO3, and OC was generated. The
present study has utilized the analytical capabilities of GIS in the
evaluation of soil suitability for cotton.
3.4. Soil-suitability evaluation using GIS
Some conventional approaches in integration of different para-
meters are inadequate to visualize complex scenarios in crop-
suitability evaluation. In general one of the more important uses of
GIS is land-use suitability mapping and analysis (Malczewski,
2004). In the study, the soil-site suitability for cotton has been
evaluated as per the methodology given in the FAO framework on
land evaluation (FAO, 1976, 1985), modied by Sehgal et al
(1989a). The FAO framework for land evaluation provides a
standard set of principles and concepts on which national and
regional land evaluation systems can be constructed. In the FAO
Framework for Land Evaluation (FAO, 1976), each land area is
assigned a suitability for a land use, from the 5-member set SA{S1,
S2, S3, N1, N2}{highly suited, moderately suited, marginally suited,
unsuited for economic reasons, unsuited for physical reasons}. The
process of assessment of land suitability for cotton involves
matching the requirements of cotton crop with the properties of
the particular land unit. For cotton crop, land unit was created from
the overlay process of the dened theme layers or land qualities on
which the suitability is based. Land classed as highly suitable is the
best land for the specied use; moderately suitable land is clearly
t for the use but has limitations, and marginally suitable land falls
near to (but above) the limit for suitability. Land that is not suitable
is clearly impractical to overcome or not at an acceptable form. The
suitability map has resulted from the spatial overlay of factors in
the study area. The land qualities are matched with the crop
requirements and classied into different suitability classes, and a
suitability map for cotton was prepared.
Assessment of the land suitability requires integration of a
multidisciplinary database. The CROP-suitability model predomi-
nantly uses geographically referenced input data; therefore, a
linkage with GIS is a prerequisite for its accuracy and efcient use.
A geospatial database on slope, soil depth, soil erosion, soil
drainage, soil texture, surface stoniness, coarse fragments, CaCO3,
and OC layers was generated in a GIS framework. A modied
version of climatic and soil-site suitability criteria for cotton
based on a matching exercise between specic crops or land-
use requirements and land attributes was followed (Table 1)
(Sehgal et al., 1989a).
 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118 111

Table 1
Climatic and soil-site suitability criteria for cotton.

Soilsite characteristics Degree of limitation

0 1 2 3 4

(None) (Slight) (Moderate) (Severe) (Very severe)

S1 S2 S3 N1 N2

Climatic characteristics
 Total rainfall (mm) 1200 1000850 850700 700550 o550
1000
 Rainfall growing season (mm) 1000850 850750 750600 600500 o500
 Rainfall during ripening period o 25 25050 5075 75100 4100
 Length of growing period (days) 210180 180150 150120 120100 o100
 Mean temp. growing season (1C) 2826 2624 2422 2220 o24
 Mean max temp. growing season 3532 3228 2826 2624 o24
(1C)
 Mean min temp. growing eason 34 3034 o 30
(1C)
 Mean R.H. in growing season o 50 5060 6070 7080 4 80
July (beginning) o1 o1 12 23 34
August (end) o1 12 23 3 4

Site characteristics
 Slope (%) 01 12 23 35 58
 Erosion e0 e1 e2 e2e3 e3
 Drainage
Fine & Mod. Well Well Moderately well Imperfect, somewhat Poor, Very poor
excess excess
Coarse soils Imperfect Imperfect Moderately well Well
 Flooding F0 F0 F0 F1 F2
 PAWC (mm/m) 4200 150200 100150 50100 o 50
 Stoniness (Surface) o3 315 1540 4075 4 75

Soil characteristics
 Texture c,sc (ne) cl,sicl,sc,sic(s) (F,loamy, l,sil,csl,scl (F.loamy, sl,ls,fs (coarse loamy) s (sandy) c (m), sic(m)
F.silty) V.ne) (V.ne)
Coarse fragments (Vol %)
within 50 cm o5 515 1540 4075 475
below 50 cm 515 1540 4075 475
 Depth (cm) 4120 120180 8050 5025 o25
 CaC03 (%) o 10 1020 2030 3040 4 40
 Gypsum (%) o3 35 510 1015 1525 425

Soil fertility
 CEC (soil)(cmol(p )kg1) 412 812 o8 o8
 BS 480 5080 3550 o35
 O.C. (%) Kaol soil 42 1.02.0 0.51.0 o0.5
(015 cm) Non Kaol 41.0 1.00.5 o 0.5
 ECe (dS m  1) o2 24 48 815 4 15
Loamy texture o 10 1015 1525 2540 4 40
 ESP
Fine texture o5 510 1015 1525 4 25

Modied version of earlier model based on multivariate regression yield model (after Sehgal et al. (1989a)).

Matching of the land attributes with specic crop growth
requirements and denition of the preliminary suitability classes
was worked out. The soil-suitability analysis process was designed
in GIS to integrate different thematic information. It allows users to
assign relative priority to the importance of each piece of informa-
tion in the overall suitability with knowledge-based criteria and
other environmental factors needed for the suitability analysis
(Totolo, 1995; AGROMA, 1999). In GIS following a relative suitability
class, the classes in different layers were classied based on their
suitability class in a scale 05. The relative classes consist of highly
suitable (S1), moderately suitable (S2), marginally suitable (S3), and
not suitable (N). A multicriteria overlay analysis model was
adopted in GIS to assign the class and theme-wise weights for input
parameters and the weighted layers were integrated. In the multi-
criteria overlay analysis model in GIS, the effective nine parameters
were considered. The class and theme-wise weights were assigned
in the model. After assigning of the weights, the nine parameters
were integrated and the nal map was generated, and thus we
obtained the cumulative values for the class-wise weights assigned
in the input parameters. The multicriteria overlay analysis model
uses the theme-wise weights basically to assign the importance of
each input theme in calculating the overall suitability cumulative
value. In the composite layer, the higher the cumulative value, the
least suitable the soil unit, whereas, the lower the cumulative value,
the higher the suitably of the unit. Based on the relative cumulative
values the nal map was reclassied and various suitability classes
for cotton were delineated. In the nal map, if the cumulative value
is less than 7, it was categorized as highly suitable (S1); if the value
is between 8 and 12 it was categorized as moderately suitable (S2);
if the value is between 13 and 17, it was categorized as marginally
suitable (S3) and if the cumulative value is more than 18, it was
classied as not suitable (N2).
112 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118
4. Results
4.1. Landform characterization
The distinct landforms identied in the watershed are summit
crest, escarpments, isolated mounds, denuded plateau spurs, foot
slopes, main valley side slopes, upper sector, lower sector, and
narrow drainage oor. The summit crest occurs almost all along
the perimeter of the watershed and occupies the highest position
with slope varying between 1% and 3%. Escarpments occurs
immediately below the summit crest with steep slopes predomi-
nating (3050%). Rigorous slope-wash processes dominate due to
the presence of the extreme steep slope. Isolated mounds are
found mainly on the lower central portion of the watershed and
they are dissected and denuded in nature. Denuded plateau spurs
occur mainly on the western portion of the study area, immedi-
ately below the summit crests and escarpments. Foot slopes occur
immediately below the escarpments, mostly as an elongated zone
with slopes from 3% to 8%. This unit has been subdivided as upper
and lower sectors based on the difference in relief amplitude
position in topo-sequence and differences in geomorphic pro-
cesses. The upper sector occurs immediately below the denuded
plateau spurs. The slope angles are much shallower, having
concave curvatures. Lower sector is the zone of obstruction of
drainage networks wherein the fourth order deeper colluvic-
alluvial lls. This subunit has an average slope of about 35%.
Narrow drainage oor occurs on the lowest portion of the study
area on either side bordered by lower sectors of the main valley
side slopes (Fig. 2).
4.2. Soil morphological and physico-chemical properties
The eld survey reveals that soils pertaining to summit crest,
escarpments, and isolated mounds show dark brown (7.5 YR
hues) colors, which may be due to the release of an oxidized form
of iron resulting from weathering-limited and well-drained
Fig. 2. Landforms map of study area.
conditions. The soils of denuded plateau spurs, foot slopes, upper
and lower sectors of main valley side slopes, and narrow drainage
oor are dark brown to very dark grayish brown (10 YR hues). The
texture of the soils varies from clay loam to clay because of ne-
grained basaltic parent material. The soils on summit crest,
escarpment, isolated mounds, denuded plateau spurs, and foot
slope have a clay loam texture throughout the depth, while the
soils developed on lower elevations where the ner particles are
transported and deposited at stabilized slope result in a high clay
content (Sharma and Roychaudhari, 1988). It is observed that
medium strong to medium moderate subangular blocky struc-
tures were found in soils A, C, D, E, and H. In soils F and G
subangular blocky structures were found in only the surface
horizon but in the subsurface horizon angular blocky structures
were found which are wedge-shaped natural structural aggre-
gates. This may be due to swell-shrink phenomenon of smectitic
clay present in these soils.
The physical characteristics of soils reveal that the soils
developed on summit crest, escarpment, isolated mounds, and
denuded plateau spurs are shallow ( o50 cm) and cover
1004.3 ha of area (51%) of TGA. Upper and lower sectors of main
valley side slopes and narrow drainage oors are deep to very
deep ( 4100 cm) and cover an area of about 49% of TGA. The
coarse fragments are more in soil A and soil B which are at a
higher elevation than the soils formed on a lower elevation like
soils C, D, E, F, G, and H. The presence of coarse fragments is
directly related to a topographic situation on a sequence (Challa
and Gaikawad, 1986). The particle size distribution shows that
the majority of the soils have a fairly high amount of clay
compared to sand and silt fractions. Soils F and G, which represent
the upper and lower sectors of main valley side slopes and soil H,
which represents the narrow drainage 195 oor have a higher
clay content amounting to 62%, 60%, and 50%, respectively. In
general, the increasing trend of clay is observed down the
slope but a narrow drainage oor, which is situated at a much
lower position than the lower sectors has a lesser clay percentage.
 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118 113

The bulk density values of soils vary from 1.33 to1.79 mg/m3. The
variation in bulk density of these shrink-swell soils varies with
moisture content and may be due to a high content of an
expanding type of clay minerals present. The increase of bulk
density with soil depth may be due to overburdening pressure
causing compaction in the subsurface horizons (Ahuja et al.,
1988). Similar results have been reported by many authors from
clay texture soils of Central India (Dhale and Jagdish Prasad, 2009;
Lingade et al., 2008). The surface soils are less compact probably
due to a high amount of organic matter and plant root concentra-
tion (Coughlan et al., 1986). The AWC values in the study area
vary from 97.9 to 199.5 mm and are related to clay content and
organic matter. The AWC values have been found to increase with
increasing depth and clay content of the soils (Antony et al.,
1981). The soils on the denuded plateau spurs have low AWC and
soils on narrow drainage oors have high AWC with an area of
43% of TGA. These soils with medium AWC are spread over area of
about 24.3% of TGA. Low AWC is found in undulating lands, which
cover an area around 32.6% of TGA (Table 2).
The chemical characteristics of soils shows that the overall pH
values of the studied soils range from 6.0 to 8.3, suggesting that
soils are slightly acidic to slightly alkaline. It may be concluded
that the pH of the soils decreases with increasing altitude (Minhas
and Bora, 1982). The data on electrical conductivity show that the
soils of the study area are very low in soluble salt concentration
with electrical conductivity ranging between 0.07 and
0.2 dS m  1. This suggests that soils have no salinity hazards. It
indicates that these soils are free from salts and hence they are
responsive to fertilizer and management practices (Richards,
1954). The organic carbon content in the soils of the study area
ranges from 0.85 to 0.21%. Soil B contains more organic carbon
than other soils because of fallow and vegetative cover on the
surface (Table 3). Soils in the study area are developed from
basaltic parent material and have a calcium carbonate range of
5.024.8%. The increasing trend for calcium carbonate content is
found to be associated with decreasing topographic situations
(Kaushal et al., 1986). Cation-exchange capacity of soils varies
from 26.6 to 57.1 cmol(p)kg  1 and they are related to clay and
organic matter content. These high values of CEC are attributed to
the smectite type of clay minerals and high amounts of clay (Pal
and Deshpande, 1987). The sum of the exchangeable bases (Ca2 ,
Mg2 , Na , and K 226) contributes nearly 90% of the cation-
exchange capacity of these soils. The presence of these bases in
sufcient quantity in the soil is favorable for plant growth. In the
soils of the study area the major dominant cation is Ca2 . It varies
between 12.7 and 38.5 cmol(p)kg  1. In all the soils the domi-
nant cation is Ca2 followed by magnesium, potassium, and
sodium. Magnesium varies between 3.6 and 14.3 cmol(p)kg  1.

Table 2
Physical properties of soils.

Horizon Depth (cm) Coarse Particle size distribution Textural class Bulk density Moisture retention AWC (%) AWC (mm)
fragment (%) (Mg m  3)
Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) 33 kPa (%) 1500 kPa (%)

Pedon 1 SoilA: Summit crest (Clayey, mixed, hyperthermic Lithic Ustorthents)

A 06 51 35.4 25.5 39.1 cl 1.58 37.9 29.2 8.7 137.4
Ac 633 61 34.8 25.4 39.8 cl 1.62 37.4 28.9 8.5 137.7

Pedon 2 SoilB: Escarpment (Clayey, mixed, hyperthermic Lithic Ustorthents)

A1 011 48 38.5 28.5 33.0 cl 1.41 28.9 21.7 7.2 101.5
Ac 1145 27 35.5 28.0 36.5 cl 1.37 36.3 28.5 7.8 106.8

Pedon 3 SoilC : Isolated mounds (Clayey, mixed, hyperthermic Lithic Haplustepts)

Ap 015 34 36.2 25.2 38.6 cl 1.59 24.7 17.7 7.0 111.3
Bw 1527 25 29.2 31.5 39.3 cl 1.45 36.3 26.2 10.1 146.4

Pedon 4 SoilD: Denuded plateau spurs (Fine, smectitic, hyperthermic (cal) Typic Haplustepts)
A 014 3 38.4 25.1 36.5 cl 1.66 24.0 16.0 8.0 132.8
Bw1 1425 40 37.4 23.1 39.5 cl 1.68 18.5 14.4 4.1 68.8
Bw2 2546 48 27.0 32.5 40.5 cl 1.67 22.7 16.2 6.5 108.5

Pedon 5 SoilE: Foot slopes (Fine, loamy. Mixed, hyperthermic (cal) Typic Haplustepts)
Ap 012 17 42.2 26.3 31.5 cl 1.44 25.0 18.2 6.8 97.9
Bw1 1228 20 45.6 19.4 35.0 cl 1.36 33.4 22.6 10.8 146.8
Bw2 2840 35 43.1 18.4 38.5 cl 1.42 30.0 21.0 9.0 127.8
Bw3 4058 29 48.9 22.6 28.5 cl 1.46 26.8 19.5 7.3 106.5
Bw4 5881 13 42.4 28.1 29.5 cl 1.38 33.3 21.5 11.8 162.8
Bw5 81120 20 38.6 29.8 31.6 cl 1.33 30.9 18.5 12.4 164.9
Bc 120140 47 36.6 26.9 36.5 cl 1.38 26.4 17.8 8.6 118.6

Pedon 6 SoilF: Upper sector of main valleyside slopes (Fine, smectitic, hyperthermic (cal) Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 017 21 19.4 22.6 58.0 c 1.65 30.9 23.1 7.8 128.7
Bw 1735 33 16.0 13.5 70.5 c 1.75 42.6 33.6 9.0 157.5
Bss1 3550 24 15.7 18.3 66.0 c 1.77 48.9 39.0 9.9 175.2
Bss2 5096 23 22.6 20.9 56.5 c 1.79 38.9 29.2 9.7 173.6
Bc 96120 25 22.9 30.1 47.0 c 1.58 36.4 25.6 10.8 170.6

Pedon 7 SoilF: Lower sector of main valleyside slopes (Very ne, smectitic, hyperthermic (cal) Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 018 12 12.7 29.7 57.6 c 1.71 40.0 29.0 11.0 188.1
Bw 1847 19 9.3 24.4 66.3 c 1.76 45.8 35.2 10.7 188.3
Bss1 4770 12 10.8 22.7 66.5 c 1.78 46.7 35.6 11.1 197.5
Bss2 70105 39 13.4 35.6 51.0 c 1.66 40.6 32.8 7.9 131.1

Pedon 8 SoilH: Narrow drainage oors (Fine, smectitic, hyperthermic (cal) Vertic Haplustepts)
Ap 016 3 39.4 17.4 43.2 c 1.71 23.2 13.3 9.9 169.2
Bw1 1631 2 36.4 16.0 47.6 c 1.73 25.3 15.4 9.9 171.2
Bw2 3145 15 33.5 17.2 49.3 c 1.75 26.7 16.9 9.8 171.1
Bw3 4574 33 31.5 18.7 49.8 c 1.74 15.3 6.6 8.7 151.3
Bc 74125 38 29.5 20.2 51.5 c 1.75 35.6 24.2 11.4 199.5
114 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118

Soil exhibits a slight variation in its base saturation percentage
(88.097.1%). High values of exchangeable calcium and magne-
sium are the cations contributing to this base saturation.
Based on eld morphology and laboratory characterization,
eight distinct soils have been identied and classied into three
orders, viz. Entisol, Inceptisol, and Vertisol (Soil Survey Staff,
1999). As per the International Union of Soil Sciences Working
Group WRB (2006), the identied three soil orders in the study
area have been classied as Leptosols, Cambisols, and Vertisols.
Soil A and soil B, which are formed on summit crest and
escarpment, respectively, qualify for the order Entisols and
classied under subgroup Lithic Ustorthents. Soils C, D, E, and H
are classied under order Inceptisols; soil C formed on isolated
mounds is classied under subgroup Lithic Haplustepts; soil D
and soil E formed on denuded plateau spurs and footslopes,
respectively, are classied under subgroup Typic Haplustepts;
and soil H developed on narrow drainage oors is classied under
subgroup Vertic Haplustepts. Two soils, soils F and G, developed
on upper and lower sectors of main valley side slopes, respec-
tively, are classied under the order Vertisols and subgroup Typic
Haplusterts (Fig. 3).
4.3. Soil-site suitability evaluation for cotton
In order to evaluate the soil-site suitability for cotton, the
results obtained on climate and soil parameters in the study area
are summarized in Table 4. The class and theme-wise weights
assigned in the multicriteria overlay analysis model in GIS for the
input parameters in soil-suitability evaluation and the cumulative
weight of parameters are shown in Table 5. The GIS-based
analysis reveals that soils EF, FG, GH, and HG with moderate
limitations of relative humidity in the growing season, slope, and
drainage rank moderately suitable (S2) for cotton. Soils DE with
severe to moderate limitations of depth and organic carbon are
marginally to moderately (S3S2) suitable. Soils CD with severe
limitations of depth and slope are marginally (S3) suitable.
However, soils BC are not suitable to marginally suitable
(N2S3) and AB are unsuitable (N2) for cultivation of cotton
due to severe erosion and shallow depth (Fig. 4). The limitations
of soil depth and coarse fragments are uncorrectable while those
pertaining to fertility and erosion can be corrected by the
application of amendments and introducing improved agronomic
and conservation practices. The area analysis reveals that for a

Table 3
Chemical properties of soils.

Horizon Depth pH EC CaCO3 OC Exchangeable cations Sum of cations CEC (cmol ESP BSP
(cm) (1:2.5) (1:2.5) (%) (%) (cmol(p )kg  1) (p )kg  1) (%) (%)
(dS m1) Ca2 Mg2 Na K
(cmol(p )kg  1) (cmol(p )kg  1) (cmol(p )kg  1) (cmol(p )kg  1)

Pedon 1 SoilA: Summit crest (Clayey, mixed, hyperthermic Lithic Ustorthents)

A 06 6.3 0.20 Nil 0.55 28.0 3.6 0.27 2.16 34.1 36.1 0.74 94.5
Ac 633 6.6 0.13 Nil 0.51 30.0 3.9 0.21 0.82 35.6 37.1 0.56 95.9

Pedon 2 SoilB: Escarpment (Clayey, mixed, hyperthermic Lithic Ustorthents)

A1 011 6.3 0.14 Nil 0.97 17.8 9.7 0.21 0.48 28.2 30.0 0.7 94.0
Ac 1145 6.0 0.06 Nil 0.82 19.3 10.8 0.42 0.12 30.7 33.0 1.27 93.2

Pedon 3 SoilC: Isolated mounds (Clayey, mixed, hyperthermic Lithic Haplustepts)

Ap 015 6.4 0.06 Nil 0.80 14.8 9.9 0.21 0.96 25.9 26.6 0.78 97.5
Bw 1527 6.4 0.15 Nil 0.72 21.2 11.4 0.42 0.24 33.3 34.5 1.21 96.6

Pedon 4 SoilD : Denuded plateau (Fine, smectitic, hyperthermic (cal) Typic Haplustepts)
A 014 7.7 0.11 4.9 0.40 23.3 6.4 0.29 1.18 31.2 33.9 0.85 92.1
Bw1 1425 7.9 0.11 4.9 0.22 25.6 4.9 0.92 0.55 32.0 34.9 2.63 91.6
Bw2 2546 8.1 0.12 5.2 0.19 26.2 6.0 0.53 0.75 33.6 36.8 1.44 91.3

Pedon 5 SoilE: Foot slopes (Fine, loamy. Mixed, hyperthermic (cal) Typic Haplustepts)
Ap 012 7.1 0.15 5.7 0.70 22.0 4.5 0.48 0.60 27.7 30.2 1.58 91.4
Bw1 1228 7.7 0.16 6.5 0.38 22.3 6.5 0.70 1.07 30.7 33.4 2.09 91.6
Bw2 2840 7.8 0.15 6.1 0.43 22.4 7.3 0.80 1. 09 31.7 35.1 2.27 90.2
Bw3 4058 7.8 0.15 5.8 0.24 16.3 7.6 0.81 0. 98 25.7 27.2 2.97 94.2
Bw4 5881 7.8 0.18 6.7 0.32 12.7 8.8 0.97 1.08 23.6 25.6 3.78 92.2
Bw5 81120 7.9 0.22 11.7 0.11 13.7 9.1 0.07 0.48 24.4 27.0 3.96 90.4
Bc 120140 7.8 0.19 12.3 0.19 12.9 9.2 1.24 1.01 24.4 26.9 4.06 90.7

Pedon 6 SoilF: Upper sector of main valleyside slopes (Fine, smectitic, hyperthermic (cal) Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 017 8.2 0.15 23.4 0.72 34.9 10.6 0.19 0.84 46.5 51.2 0.37 90.8
Bw 1735 8.2 0.14 22.2 0.68 35.5 11.2 0.62 0.42 47.7 53.8 1.15 88.8
Bss1 3550 8.3 0.14 26.2 0.64 36.0 12.3 0.81 0.37 49.5 54.8 1.47 90.3
Bss2 5096 8.4 0.13 25.8 0.49 32.7 13.5 0.94 0.26 47.5 56.4 1.66 84.3
Bc 96120 8.5 0.14 25.4 0.32 22.7 12.0 0.86 0.06 35.6 39.1 2.19 91.2

Pedon 7 SoilG : Lower sector of main valleyside slopes (Very ne, smectitic, hyperthermic (cal) Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 018 7.6 0.16 10.5 0.60 38.5 10.3 0.44 0.36 49.6 53.7 0.81 92.5
Bw 1847 7.6 0.18 12.0 0.45 36.1 12.3 0.91 0.38 49.7 54.4 1.67 91.3
BSS1 4770 7.8 0.19 16.5 0.39 35.6 14.0 1.27 0.84 51.7 57.1 2.22 90.4
BSS2 70105 7.9 0.25 18.7 0.28 28.2 14.3 1.3 0.30 44.1 48.1 2.69 91.7

Pedon 8 Soil H : Narrow drainage oors (Fine, smectitic, hyperthermic (cal) Vertic Haplustepts)
AP 016 7.6 0.15 6.8 0.58 31.7 6.2 0.22 0.75 38.9 42.1 0.52 92.4
BW1 1631 7.7 0.15 6.8 0.32 33.3 7.1 0.56 0.78 41.7 46.0 1.21 90.7
BW2 3145 7.8 0.16 10.3 0.28 33.4 7.7 0.62 0.81 42.6 46.9 1.32 90.8
BW3 4574 7.9 0.14 19.6 0.15 31.3 6.9 0.47 0.56 39.3 42.5 1.1 92.5
BC 74125 7.8 0.17 20.9 0.09 35.4 6.7 0.78 1.20 47.1 50.5 1.54 93.2
 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118 115

Fig. 3. Soil map of study area.

Table 4
Soil site characteristics of studied soils.

Soil A B C D E F G H

Climatic characteristics
 Total rainfall (mm) 1098.7 1098.7 1098.7 1098.7 1098.7 1098.7 1098.7 1098.7
 Rainfal growing season (mm) 989 989 989 989 989 989 989 989
 Length of growing period (days) 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170
 Mean temp. growing season (1C) 26.8 26.8 26.8 26.8 26.8 26.8 26.8 26.8
 Mean max temp.growing season (1C) 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1
 Mean min temp. growing eason (1C) 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5
 Mean R.H. in growing season 65.08 65.08 65.08 65.08 65.08 65.08 65.08 65.08

Site characteristics
 Slope (%) 38 3050 13 815 38 38 38 01
 Erosion e3 e4 e2 e2 e2 e2 e2 e1
 Drainage Excessive Excessive Well Somewhat excessive Well Mod. well Mod. well Mod. well
 Flooding F0 F0 F0 F0 F0 F0 F0 F0
 AWC (mm/m) 137 104 127 105 139 164 171 177
 Stoniness (Surface) 4075 1540 315 o3 o3 o3 o3 o3

Soil characteristics
 Texture C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C C C
 Coarse fragments (Vol%)
within 50 cm 59 32 29 33 20 20 15 7
below 50 cm 5 6 9 18
 Depth (cm) 33 45 27 46 140 120 105 125
 CaC03 (%) Nil Nil Nil 5.0 8.6 24.8 14.9 15.9
 Gypsum (%)
Soil fertility
 CEC (soil) (cmol(p )kg  1) 36.9 32.2 30.1 35.5 28.5 51.6 52.8 46.7
 BS 95.7 93.4 97.1 91.6 91.4 88.0 91.4 92.4
 O.C. (%) Kaol soil 0.5 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.2
 ECe (dS m  1) 0.14 0.07 0.1 0.11 0.18 0.13 0.2 0.15
pH (1:2.5) 6.5 6.0 6.4 7.9 7.7 8.3 7.7 7.7

cotton crop an area about 966.7 ha (49.1%) of TGA is moderately about 35.2 ha (1.8%) of TGA. However, 172.3 ha (8.7%) area is not
suitable and classied as S2. An area about 469.9 ha (23.8%) of suitable (N2) to marginally suitable (S3) and 326.9 (16.6%) area is
TGA is marginal to moderately suitable (S3S2). The marginally not suitable (N2) for cotton because of uncorrectable factors such
suitable soils for cotton are classied as S3 and cover an area as soil depth and slope.
116 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118

Table 5
Class and theme wise weights for the studied soils in multi-criteria overlay in GIS.

Soil A B C D E F G H Layer weight

Site characteristics
 Slope (%) 3 4 2 3 2 2 2 0 15
 Erosion 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 1 15
 Drainage 4 4 0 3 0 2 2 2 15
 Flooding 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Stoniness (Surface) 3 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 10

Soilcharacteristics
 Texture 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 10
 Coarse fragments (vol%) 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 5
 Depth (cm) 3 3 3 3 0 0 1 0 20
 CaC03 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 5

Soil fertility
 CEC (soil) (cmol(p )kg  1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 BS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 O.C. (%) Kaol soil 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 3 5
 ECe (dS m  1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Cumulative value 22 22 13 17 10 12 12 8
 Suitability class for dominant soil N2 N2 S3 S3 S2 S2 S2 S2
 Suitability class for soil association N2N2 N2S3 S3S3 S3S2 S2S2 S2S2 S2S2 S2S2

If the cumulative value o7 S1; 812 S2; 1317S3 and 418 N2.
S1, highly suitable; S2, moderately suitable; S3, marginally suitable; and N2, not suitable.

Fig. 4. Soil suitability for cotton.

5. Discussion
The analysis of morphological and physico-chemical proper-
ties of the pedons surveyed shows that they are strongly linked
not only to the climate but also to their position in the landscape.
The black cotton soils are not necessarily the most suitable soils,
since these clayey soils, rich in montmorillonite, are difcult to
manage, being too sticky when wet and too hard when dry to
produce a good tilth. Under rain-fed conditions, cotton has been
observed to give the best yield in deep, ne textured soils having
a good structure. Very ne soils, having 60% or more of clay
content with massive structures, and coarse loamy/sandy soils are
considered to be critical for cotton cultivation (Sehgal, 1990). In
soils even with a deep rooting system the maximum yield could,
however, be obtained in soils having 200 mm or more of plant-
available water capacity (PAWC). The major limitation in cotton
cultivation is water logging. For successful growth of cotton, a soil
depth of 100200 cm has been observed to be optimum while less
than 100 cm depth is not economical for a good growth of cotton
(Bhaskar et al., 1987; Sehgal, 1991).
The analytical capabilities of GIS used in this study in combi-
nation with state-of-the-art overlay analysis methods helped to
 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118
develop crop suitability for cotton by utilizing expert knowledge.
This is enabled by using expert knowledge instead of evaluation
models based on empirical data and, on the other hand, by
utilizing the data-processing capabilities of GIS. GIS-based crop-
suitability analysis indicates that in the present study the major-
ity of the area is moderately suitable for cultivation of cotton and
the suitability of land can be improved by adopting intensive farm
methods of cultivation. The suitability classes for cotton crop can,
however, be improved if the severity of limitation such as erosion,
fertility, and water availability is improved by adopting suitable
soil conservation or amelioration measures. However, severity of
limitation(s) due to permanent characteristics, such as soil depth,
slope, and stoniness, may not easily be correctable. The study
indicates that about 966.7 ha (49.1%) of TGA is moderately
suitable and classied as S2 for cotton crop. However, 326.9
(16.6%) area is not suitable (N2) for cotton cultivation. The
integrated GIS-based model provides more than site-specic
and spatially explicit maps of site suitability for cotton in the
study area. Besides the land/soil characteristics, socio-economic,
market, and infrastructure characteristics are the other driving
forces that inuence crop selection.
6. Conclusions
GIS-based soil-suitability analysis for cotton reveals that an
area about 966.7 ha (49.1%) is moderately suitable (S2), 469.9 ha
(23.8%) is marginal to moderately suitable (S3S2), 35.2 ha (1.8%)
is marginally suitable (S3), 172.3 ha (8.7%) is not suitable (N2) to
marginally suitable (S3), and 326.9 ha (16.6%) is not suitable (N2)
for cotton in the study area because of uncorrectable factors such
as soil depth and slop. The soil associations EF, FG, GH, and H
G are moderately suitable and soils DE are marginally to
moderately suitable. The study indicates that about 966.7 ha
(49.1%) of TGA is moderately suitable (S2), where cotton crop
productivity can be improved with better management practices.
Soils CD are marginally suitable, soils AB are not suitable
for cotton due to the limitation of topography, wetness, and
physical properties of soil. The soils, which are marginally
suitable, are due to the severe limitations of soil depth and
slope. The soils which are not suitable have severe limitations of
topography, wetness, and soil characteristics. The study demon-
strate that the generation of a geospatial database on soil
parameters in GIS and multicriteria overlay analysis was found
to be immense help in integrated analysis of soil parameters in
soil-suitability evaluation for cotton crops. Potential and limita-
tions of land were assessed by studying various thematic para-
meters to manage the natural resources and to adopt alternate
land-use plans, particularly where the cultivation of cotton crop is
not feasible in the watershed. The cotton-suitability map can be
overlaid with the village administrative boundaries and can be
used to show specic locations or sublocations, where the cotton
crop is suitable. The generated GIS-based thematic maps could be
used by extension scientists and farmers to choose a cotton crop
for specic areas to enhance crop productivity.
Acknowledgments
The rst author is grateful to the Director, National Bureau of
Soil Survey and Land Use Planning for his encouragement in
completion of the M.Sc. dissertation work. Authors are also
thankful to Mr. Sunil Meshram and Mrs. Rohini Watekar for their
support in GIS analysis and word processing, respectively. The
authors are highly grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their
valuable suggestions to improve the manuscript.
117
References
AGROMA, 1999. AGROMA, Ver. 7.0, GIS Software. PCI, Ontario, Canada.
Ahuja, P.A., Ojanuga, A.G., Olsen, K.R., 1988. Soil-landscape relationship in the
SokotaRima basin, on a small watershed. Journal of Hydrology 99, 307318.
Antony, P.C., Katre, R.K., Varghese, T., 1981. Soil moisture depletion pattern in
black soils (Chromusterts) with wheat and gram under dryland conditions.
Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 29, 423427.
Baja, S., Chapman, D.M., Dragovich, D., 2002. A conceptual model for dening and
assessing land management units using a fuzzy modeling approach in GIS
environment. Environmental Management 29, 647661.
Barredo, C.J.I., 1996. Sistemas de Informacion Geograca y evaluacion multicriterio
en la ordenacion del territorio. RA-MA Editorial, Madrid, Espana.
Burrough, P.A., 1986. Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land
Resources Assessment. Oxford University Press, New York.
Burrough, P.A., 1987. Mapping and map analysis: new tools for land evaluation.
Soil Use & Management 3, 2025.
Burrough, P.A., 1989. Fuzzy mathematical methods for soil survey and land
evaluation. Journal of Soil Science 40, 477492.
Beek, K., De Bie, K., Driessen, P., 1997. Land information and land evaluation for
land use planning and sustainable land management. Land Chatham 1, 2744.
Bhaskar, K.S., Lal, S., Challa, O., Madavi, S.H., 1987. Effect of soil depth on cotton
yield. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural University 12, 139140.
Black, C.A., 1965. Methods of Soil Analysis, Parts I and II. American Society of
Agronomy, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA, p. 770.
Carver, S.J., 1991. Integrating multi-criteria evaluation with geographic informa-
tion systems. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 5,
321339.
Challa, O., Gaikawad, S.T., 1986. Soils in a catena from Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 34, 543550.
Coleman, A.L., Galbraith, J.M., 2000. Using GIS as an Agricultural Land Use Planning
Tool. Bulletin No. 2, Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Science,
Virginia Tech., Blacksburg, Virginia.
Coughlan, K.J., McGarry, D., Smith, G.D., 1986. The physical and mechanical
characterization of Vertisols. In: Proceedings of the First Regional Seminar
on Management of Vertisols under Semi-arid Conditions, IBSRAM Proceedings
No. 6, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 89106.
De La Rosa, D., Moreno, J.A., Garcia, L.V., Almorza, J., 1992. MicroLEIS: a micro-
computer-based Mediterranean land evaluation information system. Soil Use
and Management 8, 8996.
Dent, D., Young, A., 1981a. Soil survey and land evaluation. Soil Use and Manage-
ment 7 (4), 239246.
Dent, D., Young, A., 1981b. Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. George Allen and
Unwin Ltd., London, p. 278.
Dhale, S.A., Jagdish Prasad, 2009. Charaterization and classication of sweet
orangegrowing soils of Jalna district, Maharashtra. Journal of the Indian
Society of Soil Science 57, 1117.
FAO, 1976. A Framework for Land Evaluation. Soils Bulletin 32, FAO, Rome, p. 72.
FAO, 1985. GuidelinesLand Evaluation Irrigated Agriculture. Soil Bulletin No. 55
FAO, Rome, 231 pp.
Girard, L.F., Cerreta, M., De Toro, P., 2008. Integrated spatial assessment: a multi-
dimensional approach for sustainable planning. In: MTISD 2008Methods,
Models and Information Technologies for Decision Support Systems, Universita
del Salento, Lecce, p. 1820.
Harasheh, E.H., 1994. Agricultural Applications of Remote Sensing and Geographic
Information System in Land Use and Land Suitability Mapping. AARS, ACRS,
Agriculture/Soil, GIS development.net, pp. 14.
Hailegebriel, S., 2007. Irrigation Potential Evaluation And Crop Suitability Analysis
using GIS and Remote Sensing Technique in Beles sub Basin, Beneshangul
Gumez region. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
International Union of Soil Sciences Working Group WRB, 2006. World reference
Base for Soil Resources 2006. World Soil Resources Reports No. 103, FAO,
Rome.
Jackson, M.L., 1958. Soil Chemiqcal Analysis. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey 498 pp.
Janssen, R., Rietveld, P., 1990. Multi-criteria analysis and geographical information
systems. An application to agricultural land use in the Netherlands. In:
Scholten, H.J., Stillwell, J.C.H. (Eds.), Geographical Information Systems for
Urban and Regional Planning, Dordrecht., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The
Netherlands, pp. 129139.
Joerin, F., Theriault, M., Musy, A., 2001. Using GIS and outranking multi-criteria
analysis for land use suitability assessment. International Journal of Geogra-
phical Information Science 10 (8), 321339.
Kalogirou, S., 2002. Expert systems and GIS: an application of land suitability
evaluation. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 26, 89112.
Kaushal, G.S., Tembhare, B.R., Sinha, S.B., 1986. Morphology and taxonomy of black
soils under Bargi irrigation project in Madhya Pradesh. Journal of Indian
Society of Soil Science 34, 329333.
Kudrat, M., Sinha, A.K., Manchanda, M.L., 2000. Multilevel Soil Mapping using IRS-
1C WiFS, LISS III and PAN Data. Indian Space Research Organization, Bangalore,
India.
Lingade, S.R., Rajeev Srivastava., Jagdish Prasad., Saxena, R.K., 2008. Occurrence of
sodic Vertisols in Nagpur district, Maharashtra. Journal of the Indian Society of
Soil Science 56, 231232.
118 N. Walke et al. / Computers & Geosciences 41 (2012) 108118
Maji, A.K., Krishna, N.D.R., Challa, O., 1998. Geographical information system in
analysis and interpretation of soil resource data for land use planning. Journal
of Indian Society of Soil Science 46, 260263.
Malczewski, J., 1996. A GIS-based approach to multiple criteria group decision-
making. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 10 (8),
955971.
Malczewski, J., 2004. GIS-based land-use suitability analysis: a critical overview.
Progress in Planning 62, 365.
Mc Cloy, K.R., 1995. Resource Management Information System. Taylor & Francis
Ltd, London.
Meijerink, A.M., Valenzuela, C.R., Stewart, A. (Eds.), 1988. ILWIS: The Integrated
Land And Watershed Management Information System ITC Publication,
Number 7.
Merolla, S., Armesto, G., Calvanese, G., 1994. A GIS application for assessing
agricultural land. ITC Journal 3, 264269.
Minhas, R.S., Bora, N.C., 1982. Distribution of organic carbon and the forms of
nitrogen in a topographic sequence. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science
30, 133139.
Pal, D.K., Deshpande, S.B., 1987. Characteristics and genesis of minerals in some
benchmark Vertisols of India. Pedologie 37, 259275.
PCI, 2003. Geomatica, Image Analysis System, Version 9.0. GIS Software, PCI,
Ontario, Canada.
Pereira, J.M.C., Duckstein, L., 1993. A multiple criteria decision-making approach to
GIS based land suitability evaluation. International Journal of Geographical
Information Systems 7 (5), 407424.
Piper, C.S., 1950. Soil and Plant Analysis. Inter Science Publishers, Inc, New York, p. 368.
Piper, C.S.Piper, 1966. Soil and Plant Analysis. Hans Publishers, Bombay.
Ramalho-Filho, A., Oliveira, R.P., De, Pereira, L.C., 1997. Use of geographic
information systems in (planning) sustainable land management in Brazil:
potentialities and user needs. ITC Journal 3, 295301.
Richards, L.A. (Ed.), Diagnosis and improvements of saline and alkaline soils.
Agril. Handbook, 60. , USDA, Washington, D.C, p. 160.
Ricquter, J., Bramao, D.L., Cornet, J.P., 1970. A New System of Soil Appraisal in
Terms of Actual and Potential Productivity. Soil Resource Development
Conserve Service FAO, Rome, Italy.
Rossiter, D.G., 1996. A theoretical frame work for land evaluation. Goederma 1996
(72), 165190.
Sehgal, J.L., 1991. Soil-site suitability evaluation for cotton. Agropedology 1, 4955.
Sehgal, J.L., 1990. Soil Resource Mapping of India and its Applications for Land Use
Planning, 25. NBSS Publication, NBSS&LUP (ICAR), Nagpur, Maharashtra, pp. 79.
Sehgal, J.L., Challa, O., Gajja, B.L., Yadav, S.C., 1989a. Suitability of swell-shrink soils
of india for crop growth. In: Van Cleemput et al., (Ed.). Proceedings of 25th
Anniversary, Ghent, Belgium, ITC-Ghent Publication Sr. No. 1, pp. 2953.
Sehgal, J.L., Saxena, R.K., Vadivelu, S., 1989b. Field ManualSoil Resource Mapping
of Different States, 2nd Edn.Technical Bulletin, 13. NBSS Publications, Nagpur,
India.
Sharma, J.P., Roychaudhari, C., 1988. Soil-landform relationship in basaltic terrain.
Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 36, 755760.
Shim, J.P., Warkentin, M., Courtney, J.F., Power, D.J., Sharda, R., Carlsson, C., 2002.
Past, present and future of decision support technology. Decision Support
Systems 33, 111126.
Soil Survey Staff, 1995. Soil Survey Manual, USDA Handbook No. 18Government
Printing Ofce, Wasington, D.C..
Soil Survey Staff, 1999. Soil taxonomy, a basic system of soil classication for
making and interpreting soil surveys, Agricultural Handbook No. 4362nd edn.
USDA, National Resource Conservation Service 871pp.
Srivastava, R., Saxena, R.K., 2004. Technique of large-scale soil mapping in basaltic
terrain using satellite remote sensing data. International Journal of Remote
Sensing 25 (4), 679688.
Storie, R.E., 1954, Land classication as used in California. In: Proceedings of 5th
International Soil Conference, Leopoldville, III, pp. 407412.
Totolo, O., 1995. The Use of a Geographic Information System GIS (SPANS) to
Facilitate Detailed Valuation of Soil and Land. Ph.D. Dissertation, Wye College,
University of London.
Van Ranst, E., 1994. Modelling land production potentialsa new wave in land
suitability assessment. In: New Waves in Soil Science. Refresher Course for
Alumni of the International Training Centre for Post-graduate Soil Scientists of
the Ghent University, Harare, University of Zimbabwe, Publications series 7,
ITC, Ghent.
Wright, R.L., 1972. Some perspective in environmental planning in developing
countries. Geoforum 10, 1518.
Wright, R.L., 1973. An examination of the value of the site analysis in eld studies
in tropical Australia. Zeilschrift Fur Geomorphologie17 2, 156184.
Wright, R.L., 1993. Some application of geomorphology in soil survey for land use
planning. In: Dent, D.K., Deshpande, S.B. (Eds.), Land Evaluation for Land Use
Planning, 42. , NBSS Publication, Nagpur, India, pp. 2841.
Zelalem, A., 2007. Land Use/Land Cover Dynamics and Vegetation Vulnerability
Analysis: A Case Study of Arsi Negele Wereda. Unpublished Masters Thesis,
Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Zhou, Q., 1995.The integration of GIS and remote sensing for environmental and
land resource management. In: Proceedings of GIS AM/FM ASIA95 Conference,
1820 August 1995, Bangkok, C-2, pp. 19.
Zuviria, M.De, Valenzuela, C.R., 1994. Mapping land suitability for coffee with
ILWIS. ITC Journal 3, 301307.