Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Julio 2002
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UNIVERSIDAD DE VALENCIA
FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS QUMICAS
DEPARTAMENTO DE QUMICA ANALTICA
CERTIFICAN:
Que la presente Memoria, "Soluciones quimiomtricas para optimizar el anlisis
de parmetros qumicos en aguas", realizada en el Departamento de Qumica Analtica
de la Universidad de Valencia, constituye la Tesis Doctoral en la modalidad Europea de
Luis Antonio Tortajada Genaro
As mismo, certifican haber dirigido y supervisado tanto los diferentes aspectos del
trabajo como su redaccin.
Y para que conste a los efectos oportunos, firmamos la presente en Valencia a 30
de Julio de 2002
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A mi familia
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Saber y saberlo demostrar, es valer dos veces (Baltasar Gracin)
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NDICE
TTULO .................................................................................................................... i
INDICE ..................................................................................................................... vi
1. INTRODUCCIN ............................................................................................... 1
1.1.- Medioambiente ...................................................................................... 3
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3.-RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIN ......................................................................... 39
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LIST OF TABLES
Tabla 1: Concentraciones tpicas normales (g/L) de agua natural, agua de ro y
agua marina. ............................................................................................................................ 5
Tabla 2: Principales normativas medioambientales sobre la calidad del agua .......... 9
Tabla 3: Sustancias contaminantes de los vertidos en cauces pblicos....................... 10
Tabla 4: Parmetros qumicos de calidad de las aguas superficiales destinadas a la
potabilizacin tipoA2 (tratamiento necesario fsico y qumico normales y desinfeccin)....... 11
Tabla 5: Mtodos oficiales de anlisis fsico-qumicos de aguas potables.................. 11
Tabla 6: Mtodos de conservacin usados en muestras de agua................................. 13
Tabla 7: Mtodos analticos de medida usados en muestras de agua ......................... 13
Tabla 8: Clasificacin de las tcnicas quimiomtricas................................................ 20
Table 9: List of parameters and state of development (C: common method and A:
alternative method) being 0: useful 1: stabilisation 2: development y 3: research. Adapted
of Talanta 50 (1999) 759 .......................................................................................................... 24
Table 10: Comparison of main methods in trace element analysis. Source:
Environmental Analytical Chemistry........................................................................................ 37
Tabla 11: Listado de reactivos ..................................................................................... 43
Tabla 12: Valores de AS,j,k/j,k estimados en el intervalo 260-290 nm y valores de
(dA/d )Sm con m = 270 nm, para muestras de fenol. La desviacin estndar (s) est
tambin incluida para ambos valores....................................................................................... 63
Tabla 13: Valores de AS,j,k/j,k estimados en el intervalo 260-290 nm y valores de
(dA/d )Sm , para muestras de cresoles y clorofenoles. La desviacin estndar (s) est
tambin incluida para ambos valores....................................................................................... 63
Tabla 14: Comparacin de la recuperacin para disoluciones patrn de fenol .......... 64
Tabla 15: Predicciones estimadas para la disolucin concentrada y para las
muestras de agua de puerto no fortificadas obtenidas por el GHPSAM ................................. 67
Tabla 16: Parmetros de las regresiones nor,t frente nor,580 (n=161) para los
calibrados de fenol y o-en el intervalo 580-740 nm ................................................................. 68
Tabla 17: Valores de AS,j,k/j,k estimados en el intervalo 600-650 nm y valor de
(dA/d )Sm con m = 626 nm para las disoluciones de fenol y m = 614 nm para las
disoluciones de o-cresol............................................................................................................ 71
Tabla 18: Figuras de mrito: (a) fenol y (b) o-cresol sin etapa de preconcentracin 73
Tabla 19: Resultados en muestras de agua de (a) concentraciones y (b) porcentajes
de recuperacin ........................................................................................................................ 76
Tabla 20: Rango de trabajo y valor ptimo obtenido para diferentes variables
estudiadas para derivatizacin en disolucin .......................................................................... 93
Tabla 21: Parmetros de las regresiones btnor vs. bnor (n=36) en el intervalo 315-
350 nm....................................................................................................................................... 95
Tabla 22: Caractersticas analticas correspondiente a la determinacin de varias
poliaminas usando diferentes seales analticas mediante derivatizacin en disolucin. ...... 100
Tabla 23: Caractersticas analticas correspondiente a la determinacin de varias
poliaminas usando diferentes procedimientos y diferentes seales analticas. Para ms
detalles, ver seccin experimental ............................................................................................ 102
Tabla 24: Estudio comparativo de la sensibilidad usando la espermina como analito
....................................................................................................................................... 103
Tabla 25: Esquema de las diferentes etapas implicadas en la derivatizacin de
poliaminas en soportes slidos ................................................................................................. 103
Tabla 26: Resumen de las caractersticas ms relevantes de los diferentes
procedimientos ensayados ........................................................................................................ 104
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Tabla 27: Porcentajes de recuperacin para la formacin de derivados y retencin
en soporte en funcin del volumen de muestra procesado. Nmero de rplicas = 3............... 107
Tabla 28: Valores estimados de AS,j,k/j,k en el intervalo 350-380 nm y valores
(dA / d ) S m con m = 372-373 nm, para muestras IIa.1, IIb.1, IIIa.1 y IIIb.1.................... 128
Tabla 29: Predicciones de la concentracin CrO42- para la serie IIa (mg/L Cr) y
series IIb, IIIa y IIIb (g/L Cr) usando el GHPSAM................................................................ 129
Tabla 30: Predicciones de las concentraciones de CrO42- y HCrO4- para series IIa
expresadas en mg/L de Cr y series IIIa y IIIb expresadas en g/L de Cr usando el
GHPSAM para las dos formas del analito en el intervalo 290 - 340 nm................................. 130
Tabla 31: Predicciones de la concentracin total de cromo (VI) para las series IIa,
IIb, III y IIIb usando el GHPSAM............................................................................................. 134
Tabla 32: Predicciones de las concentraciones de CrO42- y HCrO4- expresadas en
mg/L de Cr las muestras de las series II y III, usando la constante de equilibrio pK = 5.5 y
la concentracin media de cromo (VI) obtenida por el GHPSAM .......................................... 134
Tabla 33: Resumen de determinaciones quimioluminiscentes por inyeccin en flujo
de iones metlicos en muestras de agua................................................................................... 143
Tabla 34: Descripcin de las disoluciones de mezclas de metales .............................. 146
Tabla 35: Descripcin de las disoluciones de mezclas de metales para calibracin .. 147
Tabla 36: Disoluciones de los interferentes en el estudio de la reduccin Cr(VI) a
Cr(III) ............................................................................................................................ 147
Tabla 37: Condiciones experimentales ptimas calculadas a partir de diferentes
estrategias de optimizacin ...................................................................................................... 148
Tabla 38: Composicin del material estndar de referencia SMR 1640: Agua
natural ........................................................................................................................... 149
Tabla 39: Parmetros analticos para la determinacin de Cr(III), Co(II) y Cu(II)
muestras no acidificadas en FIA: (a) doble logartmica y (b) lineal ....................................... 150
Tabla 40: Parmetros analticos para patrones no acidificados mediante
procedimiento en esttico ......................................................................................................... 151
Tabla 41: Parmetros analticos para la determinacin de Cr(III), Co(II) y Cu(II)
muestras acidificadas en HCl en FIA: (a) doble logartmica y (b) lineal................................ 152
Tabla 42: Parmetros analticos para la determinacin de Cr(III), Co(II) y Cu(II)
muestras en HNO3 en FIA........................................................................................................ 152
Tabla 43: Parmetros de calibracin doble logartmica para diferentes reactivos.... 155
Tabla 44: Precisin y exactitud en la prediccin de las mezclas de Cr(VI) y Cr(III) . 156
Tabla 45: Parmetros analticos para los diferentes montajes y diferentes mtodos
de regresin usando regresin directa: (a) altura de pico y (b) rea de pico. R2: coeficiente
de correlacin, se: desviacin estndar de la regresin y rmsec: raz de los cuadrados
medios de los errores de calibracin, RSD: desviacin estndar relativa .............................. 159
Tabla 46: Parmetros analticos para los diferentes montajes y diferentes mtodos
de regresin usando regresin inversa: (a) altura de pico y (b) rea de pico. R2: coeficiente
de correlacin, se: desviacin estndar de la regresin y rmsec: raz de los cuadrados
medios de los errores de calibracin, RSD: desviacin estndar relativa .............................. 160
Tabla 47: Concentracin de cromo (g/L) en muestras de agua mediante el mtodo
de referencia y el mtodo quimioluminiscente usando las celdas de flujo en espiral y en
nudo. Nmero de rplicas = 3 .................................................................................................. 162
Tabla 48: Parmetros de regresin univariada para regresin por mnimos
cuadrados (LS) y regresin de mnima mediana de los cuadrados (LMS) para diferentes
instrumentos, celdas de deteccin y para modos de inyeccin en esttico y en flujo. ............ 178
Tabla 49: Concentracin (g/L) y porcentajes de recuperacin de las formas de
cromo en muestras de agua dados por el mtodo de referencia y mediante transferencia de
calibracin considerando diversos factores experimentales. Nmero de rplicas = 3. .......... 183
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Tabla 50: Parmetros de regresin para los mtodos de calibracin univariantes:
(a) Instrumento A y (b) Instrumento B...................................................................................... 184
Tabla 51: Modelos de calibracin multivariante optimizados..................................... 187
Tabla 52: Prediccin de las muestras de agua: concentracin de Cr (III) y Cr total
(g/l) obtenida empleando NL-PLS como mtodo de calibracin para diferentes
condiciones de celda, instrumento o montaje........................................................................... 194
Tabla 53: Prediccin de las muestras de agua: Parmetros de comparacin entre el
mtodo propuesto y el mtodo de referencia, porcentajes de recuperacin para las
muestras fortificadas para diferentes condiciones experimentales. Nmero de rplicas = 3 . 195
Tabla 54: Prediccin de las muestras de agua: concentracin de Cr (III) y Cr total
(g/l) obtenida empleando la celda en nudo en el instrumento A para diferentes mtodos
de regresin. ............................................................................................................................. 197
Tabla 55: Prediccin de las muestras de agua: Parmetros de comparacin entre el
mtodo propuesto y el mtodo de referencia, porcentajes de recuperacin para las
muestras fortificadas para diferentes mtodos de regresin. Nmero de rplicas = 3 ........... 198
Tabla 56: Resumen de factores de estandarizacin estudiados ................................... 200
Tabla 57: Combinaciones para las diferentes transferencias de calibrados. Las
abreviaturas usadas: auto-transferencia (stand), factor celda (c), factor instrumento (i),
factor montaje (a), tiempo (t) y sus combinaciones.................................................................. 203
Tabla 58: (a) Concentracin (g/L) Cr (III) y Cr total para diferentes factores de
estandarizacin mediante DS y PDS como mtodos de estandarizacin y NL-PLS como
mtodo de calibracin. (b) Parmetros de comparacin entre los mtodos propuestos y el
de referencia y recuperaciones obtenidas para la cantidad adicionada ................................. 207
Tabla 59: Concentracin (g/L) de Cr (III) y Cr total obtenidas en condiciones de
transferencia tipo tiempo-celda: (a) DS y (b) PDS .................................................................. 209
Tabla 60: Parmetros de comparacin entre los mtodos propuestos y el mtodo de
referencia y recuperaciones obtenidas para la cantidad adicionada. (a) DS y (b) PDS......... 210
Tabla 61: Secuencias protocolo para el control de las vlvulas para los distintos
procedimientos en flujo: (a) Procedimiento montaje I, (b) Procedimiento montaje II (c)
Procedimiento montaje III ........................................................................................................ 224
Tabla 62: Cdigo y concentracin del conjunto estndar de calibracin (diseo 52).
Procedimiento esttico ............................................................................................................. 225
Tabla 63: Cdigo y concentracin de las mezclas binarias (diseo 52 incompleto).
Procedimiento en flujo.............................................................................................................. 225
Tabla 64: Modelos PLS para los conjuntos de calibracin en el intervalo lineal....... 230
Tabla 65: Modelos PLS para el conjunto de calibracin con diseo 52 ...................... 230
Tabla 66: Modelos PLS para la calibracin en condiciones de cido ntrico: (a)
Parmetros de calibracin y (b) Parmetros de validacin .................................................... 232
Tabla 67: Prediccin para el patrn estndar de referencia (n=5) ............................ 232
Tabla 68: Condiciones experimentales para las variables qumicas e
hidrodinmicas optimizadas ..................................................................................................... 233
Tabla 69: Parmetros para la determinacin unviariante y unicomponente .............. 234
Tabla 70: Modelos PLS y HPSAM para el conjunto de calibracin ........................... 236
Tabla 71: Predicciones de las muestras. Rplicas n=3 ............................................... 238
Table 72: SFA and FIA methods for the determination of phosphorus in natural waters
....................................................................................................................................... 246
Table 73: Protocol sequence of the SIA system FRP analysis ..................................... 250
Table 74: Optimum parameters for the SIA system by univariate optimisation........... 253
Table 75: Analytical figures of merit for FRP determination by SIA. Units: mol/L of P
....................................................................................................................................... 255
Table 76: Results for measurements taken on site (first campaign)............................. 258
Table 77: Results for measurements taken on site (second campaign) ........................ 259
Table 78: Results for measurements taken on site (third campaign) ........................... 259
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Table 79: Summary of phenolic compounds study ....................................................... 269
Table 80: Summary of amines study ............................................................................. 271
Table 81: Summary of chromium (VI) study................................................................. 272
Table 82: Summary of univariate chromium study ...................................................... 274
Table 83: Summary of multivariate chromium study ................................................... 275
Table 84: Summary of chromium and cobalt study ...................................................... 277
Table 85: Summary of phosphate study........................................................................ 278
Table 86: Summary of thesis results: Interested subjects............................................. 279
Table 87: Summary of thesis results: Chemometric strategies .................................... 280
Table 88: Summary of thesis results: Advantages of proposed methods ..................... 281
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figura 1: Esquema del movimiento de los contaminantes en el medioambiente......... 3
Figura 2: Ciclo del agua. Tipos de agua: (1) hielo, (2) agua edfica, (3) agua
atmosfrica, (4) agua subterrnea, (5) agua superficial y (6) agua salada. Procesos: (A)
transpiracin, (B) percolacin, (C) evaporacin, (D) escorrenta, (E) precipitacin y (F)
contaminacin........................................................................................................................... 4
Figura 3: Distribucin porcentual del agua en el sistema terrestre ............................ 4
Figura 4: Elementos del proceso de anlisis medioambiental..................................... 12
Figura 5: Clasificacin de los mtodos analticos para la especiacin ...................... 15
Figura 6: Clasificacin de los mtodos para la determinacin de compuestos orgnicos
....................................................................................................................................... 15
Figura 7: Dependencia de la desviacin estndar relativa aceptada en funcin de la
concentracin ........................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 8: State-of-art in water analysis: (a) Publication language, (b) Country
address, (c) Publication and (d) Temporal evolution............................................................... 21
Figure 9: State-of-art in water analysis: (a) environmental matrixes, (b) water
matrix, (c) analytical techniques and (d) molecular spectroscopy techniques ........................ 22
Figure 10: Number of publications per analyte or compound family in water samples
....................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 11: Planning of objectives................................................................................. 33
Figura 12: Espectrofotmetro HP8453 ........................................................................ 45
Figura 13: Equipos cromatogrficos HP1100 y HP1050 ............................................ 45
Figura 14: Fluormetro (a) modelo F-4500 y (b) modelo FP-750............................... 45
Figura 15: Detector quimioluminiscente CL-1525 ...................................................... 46
Figura 16: (a) FIAlab3500 y (b) Sistema analizador Skalar SanPlus ........................... 46
Figura 17: (a) pH porttil (b) Conductmetro porttil y (c) Equipo vaco-columnas
de extraccin............................................................................................................................. 47
Figura 18: (a) Software Borwin, (b) Fialab 5.0, (c) SPSS, (d) The Unscrambler, (e)
Matlab,(f) Visual Basic ............................................................................................................. 48
Figura 19: Reaccin p-aminofenol con compuestos fenlicos. El sustituyente X est
en posicin orto o meta respecto el grupo OH. ox = oxidante ................................................ 53
Figura 20: (a) Espectro hipottico especie X e interferencia Z (b) Representacin
AS'' , j / M 'j' frente j para Z, Z+X, Z+2X, Z+3X y Z+4X .......................................................... 55
Figura 21: (a) Espectro hipottico especie X, interferencia Z y muestra S (b)
Representacin Aj frente j para X, Z y S................................................................................ 56
Figura 22: (a) Relacin geomtrica de la absorbancia del interfernte (b)
Representacin incremento absorbancia frente concentracin de X ....................................... 57
Figura 23: Diagrama de flujo de los programas en Visual-Basic: GHPSAM de un
analito ....................................................................................................................................... 58
Figura 24: Puntos de muestreo para el anlisis de fenoles ......................................... 60
Figura 25: (a) Espectros UV-visible de disoluciones patrn de los analitos (10
mg/L): fenol, o-cresol, m-cresol, p-cresol, 4-cloro-fenol y 4-cloro-3-metilfenol. (b)
Espectros UV-visible de las muestras de agua no fortificadas (0) y fortificadas con 10 mg/L
de fenol (10) para diferentes volmenes de agua procesados (100 - 1000 mL) ...................... 61
Figura 26: Representacin AS'' , j / 'phenol '
, j frente j para agua de puerto no
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Figura 44: Espectro del derivado OPA-NAC-espermina calculado por diferencia .... 98
Figura 45: Constantes cinticas frente para la disolucin blanco y para una
disolucin con 40 mg/L de espermina. ..................................................................................... 99
Figura 46: Grfico de Shewart para la absorbancia entre das del derivado de
espermina (X) y del blanco reactivo (Q). Intervalo x 2s. Condiciones: derivatizacin en
disolucin (para ms detalles ver seccin experimental)......................................................... 100
Figura 47: Porcentajes de recuperacin obtenidos usando diferentes disolventes de
elucin. Condiciones: Retencin en soportes slidos (para ms detalles ver seccin
experimental) ............................................................................................................................ 101
Figura 48: Cromatograma correspondiente del derivado OPA-NAC-espermina (15
mg/L) obtenido mediante derivatizacin en columna (Procedimiento III) .............................. 103
Figura 49: Seal analtica para la formacin de derivados en soporte en funcin
del volumen de muestra procesado........................................................................................... 108
Figura 50: Diagramas de distribucin del cromo (VI) en funcin del pH y de la
concentracin: (a) cromato CrO42-; (b) hidrgeno cromato HCrO4-; (c) dicromato Cr2O72- . 114
Figura 51: Puntos de muestreo para el anlisis de cromo (VI) ................................... 117
Figura 52: Espectros hipotticos de un analito presente en dos formas qumicas X e
Y, de la interferencia global y de la muestra............................................................................ 118
Figura 53: Localizacin de los intervalos lineales en el espectro del interferente
(245-297 nm) basada en la especie X (a) o en la especie Y (b). En ambos casos la
ecuacin de la lnea recta entre 245-297 nm es y = 1 x + 1, lo que significa que cX = cY = 1 119
Figura 54: Representaciones AS /X frente Y /X (a) yAS /Y frente X /Y (b)
para los incrementos 241-261-x, siendo x variable entre 244-280.......................................... 120
Figura 55: Diagrama de flujo de los programas en Visual-Basic: GHPSAM de dos
analitos...................................................................................................................................... 122
Figura 56: Representacin hipottica AS'' , j / ''X , j frente j. para disoluciones a
diferente concentracin relativa cX : cY. La concentracin total es igual a 1 (lneas
discontinuas) o 3 (lneas continuas) ........................................................................................ 123
Figura 57: Representaciones hipotticas ec/c frente A de una serie de
concentraciones c para dos intervalos: interferente anulado (a) e interferente sin anular
(b). La lnea punteada representa el valor terico de sc/c para sA = 5x10-3 ............................ 124
Figura 58: (a) Espectros UV-visible de una disolucin 20 mg/L de cromo (VI) a pH
= 3 y pH = 9 y de muestras no fortificadas de agua de acequia y fortificadas con 5 mg/L de
cromo (VI) registradas con una celda de camino ptico de 1 cm y fortificadas con 300 L
de cromo (VI) registradas con una celda de camino ptico 5 cm. (b) Espectros UV-visible
de las muestras de agua de puerto no fortificadas y fortificadas con 200 g/L de cromo (VI)
registrados con una celda de camino ptico 5cm a pH = 8.2 y pH = 6.5 ............................... 125
Figura 59: Grficos de puntuaciones del PCA para disoluciones de Cr(VI) a pH = 3
y pH = 9 con concentraciones 0, 5, 10, 15 y 20 mg/L (dos rplicas) y a pH = 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5 y
7 con concentraciones 5 y 15 mg/l (dos rplicas). Tambin se muestra la puntuacin para
una disolucin muestra () con 17 mg/L de cromo (VI) a pH=5.25. ...................................... 126
Figura 60: Grficos AS'' , j / ''HCrO , j frente ''CrO2 / ''HCrO , j (a) y
4 4 ,j 4
'' ''
Figura 61: Grficos A S,j / M frente j para la adicin estndar de cromo (VI)
j
en las muestras de agua de acequia y de puerto y en muestras fortificadas: (a) Serie IIa. (b)
Serie IIb. (c) Serie IIIa. (d) Serie IIIb ....................................................................................... 132
Figura 62: Grfico de puntuaciones (a) y grfico de cargas (b) obtenidos mediante
PCA para los 25 incrementos A seleccionados de cada intervalo de la serie IIb y de los
patrones de Cr (VI) a pH = 3 y pH = 9. ................................................................................... 133
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Figura 63: Reaccin quimioluminiscente luminol-H2O2 .............................................. 140
Figura 64: Diagrama esquemtico del montaje FI usado para la determinacin de
cromo (III)................................................................................................................................. 144
Figura 65: Diagrama esquemtico de los montajes basados en el procedimiento de
inyeccin en flujo: celda de cuarzo (a), celda en hlice (b), celda espiral (c) y celda en
nudo (d) ..................................................................................................................................... 145
Figura 66: Diagrama esquemtico de los montajes basados en el procedimiento en
esttico: manual (a) y portador aire (b)................................................................................... 145
Figura 67: Diagrama esquemtico del montaje propuesto usando aire como
portador para la inyeccin de los reactivos y de la muestra para la determinacin
quimioluminiscente de Cr(III). Para la vlvula 1 (V1), el bucle de reactivo se llena en la
posicin 1 y el aire portador conduce el reactivo hacia la celda de deteccin en la posicin
2. Para la vlvula 2 (V2), el bucle de analito se llena en la posicin 1 y el aire portador
conduce la muestra hacia la celda de deteccin en la posicin 2. La posicin 1 de las
vlvulas est marcada. La lnea oscura muestra el flujo de descarga cuando la bomba
vaca la cubeta. ......................................................................................................................... 146
Figura 68: Puntos de muestreo para el anlisis de cromo (III)................................... 147
Figura 69: Efecto del pH en la intensidad quimioluminiscente relativa en funcin
del tiempo, registrado usando un procedimiento en esttico manual. La lnea discontinua
indica el mximo de intensidad quimioluminiscente para cada pH......................................... 148
Figura 70: Efecto de la concentracin de EDTA en la altura de pico para diferentes
iones metlicos: 10 g/L Cr(III), 25 g/L Co(II), 350 g/L Fe(II) y 1000 g/L Fe(III) ......... 149
Figura 71: Seal relativa para las diferentes condiciones experimentales 1: sin
acondicionamiento; 2: HCl 510-3; 3: HNO3 0.5; 4: EDTA 10-2; 5: EDTA 10-2 y HCl 510-3;
6: EDTA 510-3; 7: EDTA 510-3 y HCl 510-3; 8: EDTA 10-2 (portador) en KOH; 9: EDTA
10-2 (portador) tamponado; 10: EDTA 510-3 (portador), en KOH; 11: EDTA 510-3
(portador), tamponado; 12: EDTA 10-2 (portador) en KOH y HCl 510-3; 13: EDTA 10-2
(portador) tamponado y HCl 510-3; 14: EDTA 510-3 (portador) en KOH y HCl 510-3; 15:
EDTA 510-3 (portador) tamponado y HCl 510-3. Unidades de concentracin: mol/L........... 153
Figura 72: Porcentajes de recuperacin de la seal para distintas disoluciones
mezclas de metales. Las barras de error representan 3s de las rplicas................................. 154
Figura 73: Porcentajes de recuperacin de la seal para el material de referencia
certificado comparado con mezclas patrn para diferentes condiciones experimentales. Las
barras de error representan 3s de las rplicas ........................................................................ 154
Figura 74: Curva de calibracin para disoluciones de Cr(VI) y disoluciones
mezclas de Cr(III) y Cr(VI) para distintas concentraciones de HCl en la etapa de reduccin 156
Figura 75: (a) Intensidad quimioluminiscente (unidades arbitrarias) en funcin del
tiempo: celda de flujo de cuarzo (A), celda de flujo en hlice (B), celda de flujo en espiral
(C), celda de flujo en nudo (D), esttico manual (E) y esttico automtico (F)...................... 157
Figura 76: (a) Altura de pico y (b) rea de pico en funcin de la concentracin de
Cr(III): celda de flujo de cuarzo (A), celda de flujo en hlice (B), celda de flujo en espiral
(C), celda de flujo en nudo (D), esttico manual (E) y esttico automtico (F)...................... 157
Figura 77: Resultados de la determinacin de cromo (III) en diferentes muestras de
agua usando (a) altura de pico y (b) rea de pico: celda de flujo de cuarzo (A), celda de
flujo en hlice (B), celda de flujo en espiral (C), celda de flujo en nudo (D), esttico manual
(E) y esttico automtico (F) .................................................................................................... 161
Figura 78: Esquema de los mtodos de estandarizacin: (a) DS y (b) PDS ............... 172
Figura 79: Lneas de contorno PRESS de las superficies de respuesta al aplicar una
transferencia de calibracin entre la celda C (celda primaria) y celda A (celda secundaria)
para diferentes tamaos de subconjuntos: (a) 3, (b) 4 y (c) 5. Un patrn con una
numeracin alta significa alta concentracin de cromo. ......................................................... 179
Figura 80: Valores PRESS para la estandarizacin de celda y/o de instrumento
usando un modelo PDS............................................................................................................. 180
- xix -
Figura 81: Valores RMSEP para diferentes factores de estandarizacin. El nmero
de rplicas de transferencias de calibracin (n) y los valores crticos para los errores de
prediccin estn incluidos. ....................................................................................................... 181
Figura 82: Perfiles quimioluminiscentes con el tiempo para un patrn de 10 g L-1
de Cr (III) obtenidos mediante modos de inyeccin en esttico y en flujo............................... 182
Figura 83: (a) Registros quimioluminiscentes para el montaje en esttico, (b)
registros centrados por columnas y (c) registros autoescalados por columnas ..................... 186
Figura 84: (a) Registros con transformacin logartmica, (b) registros con
transformacin logartmica corregida, (c) registros con transformacin logartmica y
centrados por columnas y (d) registros con transformacin logartmica corregida y
centrados por columnas ........................................................................................................... 187
Figura 85: Comparacin de diferentes transformaciones logartmicas como
mtodos de preprocesado: (a) grficos de cargas de X para los modelos log1-PLS y log2-
PLS para el montaje en esttico. (b) Real frente prediccin para datos log y usando
modelos log1-PLS y log2-PLS. (c) Real frente prediccin para datos y usando modelos
log1-PLS y log2-PLS................................................................................................................. 188
Figura 86: RMSE para (a) las muestras de calibracin con todas las muestras de
calibracin (RMSEC1) y (c) con el subconjunto de muestras de calibracin (RMSEC2);
para (b) las muestras de prediccin con todos los datos usando validacin cruzada leave-
one-out (RMSEP1) y (d) con el subconjunto de muestras de validacin (RMSEP2). Nmero
de condiciones experimentales = 9........................................................................................... 191
Figura 87: Grfico de puntuaciones para los valores RMSEP obtenidos mediante
(a) validacin cruzada leave-one-out con varianza explicada en el bloque X de PCA1: 56.4
%, PCA2: 31.8 % y PCA3: 5.0 % y (b) mediante validacin cruzada test con varianza
explicada en el bloque X de PCA1: 57.2 %, PCA2: 29.9 % y PCA3: 12.7 %. ........................ 192
Figura 88: Dendograma para los valores RMSEP obtenidos mediante (a)
validacin cruzada leave-one-out. y (b) validacin cruzada test............................................. 194
Figura 89: Estadstico h de Madel (a) y estadstico k de Madel (b) para la
concentracin de Cr(III) y Cr total obtenidas mediante calibracin NL-PLS para diferentes
condiciones experimentales. Nmero de muestras = 8 con 3 rplicas. ................................... 196
Figura 90: Estadstico h de Madel (a) y estadstico k de Madel (b) para la
concentracin de Cr(III) y Cr total obtenidas para la celda en nudo en el instrumento A
para diferentes mtodos de calibracin. Nmero de muestras = 8 con 3 rplicas.................. 198
Figura 91: Diagrama de flujo de las etapas de calibracin, estandarizacin y
prediccin en la estrategia propuesta ...................................................................................... 199
Figura 92: Lneas de contorno PRESS de las superficies de respuesta para la
transferencia de calibracin entre la celda en espiral (celda primaria o referencia) y la
celda de flujo de fluorescencia de cuarzo (celda secundaria) para diferentes tamaos del
subconjunto: (a) 3, (b) 4 y (c) 5. Un patrn con una numeracin alta significa alta
concentracin de cromo. Mtodo estandarizacin: PDS. ........................................................ 201
Figura 93: (a) Registros quimioluminiscentes para las muestras del subconjunto
medidas con la celda en espiral en el instrumento A y tiempo t' (antes estandarizacin). (b)
Registros quimioluminiscentes para las muestras del subconjunto medidas con la celda en
nudo en el instrumento B y tiempo t y registros quimioluminiscentes transferidos usando
los mtodos DS y PDS para las muestras del subconjunto medidas con una celda en espiral
en el instrumento A y tiempo t(despus estandarizacin). ...................................................... 202
Figura 94: RMSEP para diferentes factores de estandarizacin. Estos valores
fueron calculados usando los mtodos de estandarizacin DS (a) o PDS (b) y usando
modelos NL-PLS. Se incluyen el nmero de rplicas de transferencias de calibracin menos
anmalos para cada factor.
Las abreviaturas usadas son: conjunto de calibracin (calib), validacin cruzada
leave-out-one (valid), auto-transferencia (stand), factor celda (c), factor instrumento (i),
factor montaje (a), factor tiempo (t) y sus combinaciones. ...................................................... 204
- xx -
Figura 95: Estadsticos de Madel para las concentraciones de Cr (III) y Cr total
obtenidos mediante NL-PLS como mtodo de calibracin para diferentes factores de
transferencia. Nmero de muestras = 8 con 3 rplicas. (a) estadstico h con DS, (b)
estadstico k con DS, (c) estadstico h con PDS y (d) estadstico k con PDS. Las
abreviaturas usadas son: factor celda (c), factor instrumento (i), factor montaje (a), factor
tiempo (t) y sus combinaciones................................................................................................. 208
Figura 96: Dendrograma de los valores de RMSEP para los diferentes mtodos de
calibracin: (a) mtodo DS y (b) mtodo PDS........................................................................ 209
Figura 97: Estadsticos de Madel para las concentraciones de Cr (III) y Cr total
considerando la transferencia tiempo-celda para los diferentes mtodos de calibracin.
Nmero de muestras = 8 con 3 rplicas. (a) estadstico h con DS, (b) estadstico k con DS,
(c) estadstico h con PDS y (d) estadstico k con PDS ........................................................... 211
Figura 98: Seal analtica para el montaje de inyeccin en flujo y posterior parada
del flujo ..................................................................................................................................... 219
Figura 99: Seal analtica para el procedimiento en flujo continuo y posterior
parada del flujo......................................................................................................................... 220
Figura 100: Esquema del sistema para inyeccin en flujo y flujo detenido con
inyeccin de la muestra en flujo. V1: vlvula de 6 vas, V2: vlvula de 2 vas, PP: bomba
peristltica, D: detector, W: residuos, C: canal del portador, S: canal de la muestra, P:
canal del perxido, L: canal del luminol.................................................................................. 223
Figura 101: Esquema del sistema de flujo detenido con inyeccin de la muestra
durante un tiempo dado. V1: vlvula de 6 vas, V2: vlvula de 2 vas, PP: bomba
peristltica, D: detector, W: residuos, C: canal del portador, S: canal de la muestra, P:
canal del perxido, L: canal del luminol.................................................................................. 224
Figura 102: Localizaciones para la recogida de muestras en el anlisis simultneo
de cromo y cobalto.................................................................................................................... 226
Figura 103: Perfiles normalizados de intensidad quimioluminiscente frente tiempo.. 227
Figura 104: Esquema del estudio de calibracin......................................................... 228
Figura 105: Perfiles calculados a partir de las pendientes de las regresiones
lineales univariadas para el cromo y para el cobalto y perfil terico para una mezcla de 10
g/L de cromo y 10 g/L incluyendo error heteroscedstico. ................................................. 229
Figura 106: Grfico de puntuaciones para el modelo PLS-2 (datos centrados, 3
factores y 46 variables) para el conjunto de calibracin con un diseo 52 ............................. 231
Figura 107: Seal analtica para disolucin patrn de cromo (1g/L) y de cobalto
(1g/L) y para la muestra de agua en el montaje de flujo detenido en configuracin de
inyeccin discontinua (a) y continua (b) ................................................................................. 235
Figura 108: Predicciones de las mezclas binarias medidas en el montaje de flujo
detenido con configuracin de inyeccin: (a) Cr montaje II, (b) Co montaje II (c) Cr
montaje III y (d) Co montaje III................................................................................................ 237
Figura 109: Porcentajes de recuperacin para la muestra de agua fortificada en el
montaje de flujo detenido en configuracin de inyeccin discontinua (a) y continua (b) ....... 238
Figure 110: Sequential Injection Manifold for FRP. S: Microsyringe (2.5 mL), T:
Two-position valve, HC: holding coil (260 cm of 0.75 mm i.d. PTFE tubing), V:
Multiposition selection valve, CP: common port, R1: ammonium molybdate reagent, R2: tin
(II) chloride reagent and RC: reaction coil (40 cm of 0.75 mm i.d. PTFE tubing). ................ 250
Figure 111: Skalar SanPlus Analyser flow diagram for the determination of
phosphate. Detection wavelengths: analytical 880 nm and reference 1010 nm ...................... 251
Figure 112: Photographs of Tamar river (UK): (a) Calstock area, (b) South Ward
area, (c) Halton Quay area, (d) Weirquay area, (e) Saltash area and (f)HM Naval Base
area. .......................................................................................................................................... 251
Figure 113: Calibration graphs under optimum conditions: (a) univariate
optimisation and (b) multivariate optimisation. Error bars represent 3s from triplicate
measurements............................................................................................................................ 254
- xxi -
Figure 114: Salinity study: (a) Peak height as function of phosphate concentration
and water salinity, (b) Dependence of SI-peak registers for standard solution of 10 mol/L
of phosphate on salinity and (c) Slope and intercept of calibration curve as function of
water salinity. Error bars represent 3s from triplicate measurements .................................... 256
Figure 115: Map of Tamar estuary. Acknowledges to Environment Agency ............... 257
Figure 116: Map of sample locations: first campaign (a), second campaign (b) and
third campaign (c)..................................................................................................................... 257
Figure 117: FRP concentrations measured by SI and segmented flow analysis
(subsamples = 3). Error bars represent 3s from triplicate measurements: (a) first
campaign, (b) second campaign and (c) third campaign ......................................................... 260
Figure 118: (a) Distribution of salinity () and (b) FRP concentration (mol/L) in
Tamar Estuary (first campaign) ............................................................................................... 262
Figure 119: (a) Water parameters in different sampling stations and (b) Water
salinity vs. FRP concentration (first campaign). Units: FRP (mol/L), temperature (C),
dissolved oxygen (mg/L), conductivity (mS/cm) and salinity ()............................................ 263
Figure 120: PCA analysis (first campaign): (a) Loading plot and (b) Scores plot...... 263
Figure 121: FRP concentrations for the different sampling stations ........................... 264
- xxii -
- xxiii -
GLOSSARY OF ABREVIATURES
4-AAP 4-aminoantipyrine
AAS Atomic Absroption Spectroscopy
ANOVA Analysis of variance
AWWA American Water Works Association
BCR Bureau of Certified Reference materials
BCS British Chemical Standards
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CEN European Normalisation Comittee
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CRM Certified Reference Material
DRP Dissolved Reactive Phosphorous
DOP Dissolved Organic Phosphorous
DS Direct Standardisation
EDTA Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ETAAS Electrotermical AAS
FIA,FI Flow injection Analysis
FID Flame Ionization Detection
FRP Filterable Reactive Phosphorous
GC Gas chromatography
GHPSAM Generalised H-point Standard Addition Method
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography
HPSAM H-point Standard Addition Method
ICP-OES Inductively Couple Plasma Optical
Spectrometry
ICP-MS Inductively Couple Plasma Mass Spectrometry
ISO International Standardisation Organisation
LD Limit of Detection
LDA Linear Discrimination Analysis
LLE Liquid-liquid Extraction
LMS Least Median Squares
logPCR Logarithm-Principal Component Regression
logPLS Logarithm-Partial Least Squares
LS Least Squares
LWR Locally Weighted Regression
MLR Multiple Linear Regression
MPLR Multiparametric Linear Regression
MS Mass Spectrometry
NAA Neutron Activation Analysis
NAC N-acetyl-cysteine
NBS National Bureau of Standards
- xxiv -
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NL-PCR Nonlinear- Principal Component Regression
NL-PLS Nonlinear-Partial Least Squares
OPA o-phthaldehyde
PAH Poliaromatic hydrocarbons
PAP p-aminephenol
PCA Principal Component Analysis
PCR Principal Component Regression
PDS Piecewise Direct Standardisation
PLS Partial Least Squares
PRESS Predictive Residual Errors Sum of Squares
PTEF Polytetrafluoroethylene
QDA Quadratic Discrimination Analysis
rmsec Root Mean Squares Errors of Calibration
(univ)
RMSEC Root Mean Squares Errors of Calibration
(multi)
RMSEP Root Mean Squares Errors of Prediction
RSD Residual Standard Deviation
SDB Stirene divinyl bencene
SDS Sodium Dodecyl sulfate
SEP Standard Error of Prediction
SFA Segmented Flow Analysis
SIA, SI Sequential Injection Analysis
SIMCA Soft Iindependent Models of Class Analogy
SIMPLISM Simple to use interactive self-modellling
A mixture analysis
SMCR Self Modelling Curve Resolution
SPE Solid Phase Extraction
SPFA Spectral Factorial Analysis
SPLS Spline Partial Least Squares
SRM Standard Reference Material
SS,SM Suspended Solid
Step-MLR Stepwise Multiple Linear Regression
TFP Total Filterable Phosphorous
TON Total Organic Nitrogen
TOP Total Organic Phosphorous
TP Total Phosphorous
TRP Total Reactive Phosphorous
UVMA Ultraviolet Multiwavelenght Absorptiometry
XRF X-Ray Fluorescence
- xxv -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
1.- INTRODUCCIN
- 26 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- 27 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
Actividad antropognica
LITOSFERA ATMSFERA
HIDROSFERA
suelos
sedimentos
plantas terrestres
plantas acuticas
Especie humana
- 28 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
1
A E
3
2 D C
4 5
B 6 F
Figura 2: Ciclo del agua. Tipos de agua: (1) hielo, (2) agua edfica, (3) agua atmosfrica,
(4) agua subterrnea, (5) agua superficial y (6) agua salada. Procesos: (A) transpiracin, (B)
percolacin, (C) evaporacin, (D) escorrenta, (E) precipitacin y (F) contaminacin.
ros y
agua organismos
superficial vivos 2%
1% lagos
52%
- 29 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- 30 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
Se puede plantear las siguientes caractersticas especficas para cada tipo de agua.
Las aguas residuales urbanas e industriales son disoluciones acuosas complejas
que contienen una variada gama de compuestos orgnicos e inorgnicos, tanto disueltos
como en suspensin y contienen tambin microorganismos [i6]. Los principales
constituyentes de las aguas residuales urbanas, que incluyen tanto las de origen
domstico como industrial, son materia orgnica o fecal, compuestos refractarios,
surfactantes, grasas y aceites, sales, metales pesados, agentes complejantes y slidos en
suspensin.
Hay que resaltar que las aguas residuales industriales pueden contener
concentraciones puntuales muy elevadas de contaminantes. Esto puede originar
variaciones muy significativas en los equilibrios originando especies nuevas.
Actualmente, se estn incrementando los problemas de conservacin de la calidad
del agua subterrnea por fenmenos de salinidad, tanques subterrneos para
almacenamiento de sustancias txicas, actividades agrcolas, tanques spticos, pozos
petrolferos o drenaje de carreteras [i1].
Debido a la alta densidad de poblacin y ser fuente de recursos alimentarios, el
control de la contaminacin de las aguas costeras es muy importante [i1,i6,i13]. Reciben
la descarga directa de los ros, vertidos de barcos, liberacin de materiales de proteccin
de embarcaciones y descarga de los emisarios submarinos o conductos para el vertido de
aguas residuales al fondo marino, junto con la difusin desde sedimentos de origen
biolgico o la deposicin atmosfrica. Aparecen problemas de eutroficacin, de
bioacumulacin de metales txicos en los moluscos o contaminacin microbiana.
Hay que destacar finalmente la contaminacin marina, al ser este medio el mayor
y ltimo receptor de los contaminantes emitidos [i6,i13]. Una buena parte de la
contaminacin se concentra en la capa superficial porque la atmsfera es la principal
fuente aunque tambin proviene de los ros o difusin de los sedimentos o vertidos
concretos. A un nivel profundo se debe a la difusin desde la superficie o desde los
sedimentos. Este es el motivo por el que se estudian tanto gradientes horizontales (costa-
- 31 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
Las soluciones que se han aplicado para mejorar o conservar la calidad del agua
implican la creacin de plantas para el tratamiento de aguas [i1,i14].
- Potabilizacin del agua: Supone asegurar una calidad mnima para usos
domsticos y para su empleo como agua para beber. El agua se somete a diversos
procesos fsicos y qumicos y tambin se incluye la vigilancia de su distribucin.
- Tratamiento de aguas residuales: Supone la transformacin de un agua
procedente del alcantarillado urbano o industrial en agua que se vierte en el ciclo natural
del agua. Hay que resaltar que la mayora de los procesos de tratamiento han de estar
especficamente diseados para un tipo de agua residual. Por lo tanto, es necesario
conocer las caractersticas y concentracin de los contaminantes.
Tanto la contaminacin, como el estudio del ciclo hidrolgico as como la garanta
de la calidad del agua requieren de una aportacin multidisciplinar entre la que se incluye
el anlisis qumico.
- 32 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
Los problemas que plantea el anlisis del agua a la qumica analtica son:
- Bajas concentraciones del analito, a menudo por debajo de los lmites de
deteccin de los mtodos analticos.
- Matriz compleja con numerosos compuestos conocidos o desconocidos presentes
en la muestra.
- Interferencias debido al gran nmero de compuestos presentes.
- Contaminacin por las bajas concentraciones presentes y las caractersticas de la
muestra.
- Variabilidad de las muestras desde una gran complejidad como aguas residuales
con alto grado de contaminacin, aguas marinas con alto contenido de electrolitos,
pasando por el grupo de analitos a determinar y a aguas potables ms sencillas.
- 33 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- 35 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- 36 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
Medida
Evaluacin y Control Validacin
Tratamiento datos
Informacin
Interpretacin analtica
- Muestreo: supone obtener una porcin que sea representativa del objeto en
estudio. Sin embargo, en muestras de agua existen ciertas consideraciones dependiendo
de la especie estudiada como son la profundidad de la muestra, la cantidad necesaria
(nmero y tamao), la variabilidad temporal y espacial (planificacin), protocolo de
recogida y almacenaje (material, condiciones, dispositivo, aditivos), medidas in situ
[i9,i30,i32].
Hay que mencionar que existen dos modalidades de monitorizacin: muestreo en
lotes o discreto donde se toma un cierto volumen de muestra en unas condiciones
especficas y el muestro continuo donde se registra de forma prolongada el parmetro
analtico de inters generalmente con analizadores o sensores [i1].
En ocasiones es posible realizar el anlisis en el mismo punto de toma de muestra
con ensayos in situ o con analizadores porttiles pero normalmente se requiere transportar
la muestra al laboratorio e incluso almacenarla antes del anlisis [i1,i10]. Hay que
considerar las posibles reacciones qumicas, biolgicas o interacciones del analito con los
restantes constituyentes o con el material. Se necesita seguir un protocolo de
conservacin de muestras de aguas cuyos principales mtodos se muestran en la Tabla 6.
- 37 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- Tratamiento de datos: Los mtodos de medida generan una serie de valores que
tienen que transformase en resultados analticos tiles para la interpretacin
medioambiental de los mismos. En algunos casos se requiere una sencilla etapa de
clculo o de obtencin de modelos sencillos. Sin embargo, la utilizacin de mtodos
- 38 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- 39 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
electroanlisis, espect.
MTODOS
especficas electrnica
DE
Deteccin:
cromat. gases, cromat. espect. atmica
MTODOS
Directa Extraccin
MATERIA
ORGNICA Demanda bioqumica de oxgeno BOD
Demanda qumica de oxgeno COD
Indirecta Carbono orgnico total TOC
Demanda total oxgeno TOD
Halgeno orgnico total TOX
Compuestos mayoritarios
COMPUESTOS Anlisis de familias
ORGNICOS
Compuestos traza Anlisis de screening
Anlisis especficos
- 40 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- 41 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
10
-10
-30
-50
-70 concentracin
- 43 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- 45 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
russian
italian China
japanesse
french
other Italy
xinesse
german spanish
(c) (d)
1600
Int-J-Environ-
A nal-C hem
W ater-R es.A nal-C hem .
.anta.
Tal
1400
Fresenius-J- A nal-Lett.
C hem osphere
1200
A nal-C hem . A nalyst
J- Environ-Sci- 1000
C hrom atogr Technol.
M ar-C hem .
800
600
A nal-C him -
A cta. 400
M ikrochim - 200
book A cta. 0
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
technical
other report
year
Figure 8: State-of-art in water analysis: (a) Publication language, (b) Country address, (c)
Publication and (d) Temporal evolution
general
soil 11%
13%
natural
w ater
50%
54%
atomic
(c) (d) chem ilum inescence
spectr. other fluorim etry
20% classic
radioact 1% colorim etry
2% cromatogr
other 34%
14%
molecular
spectr.
electroch.
22%
techn.
espectrophotom etry
7%
Figure 9: State-of-art in water analysis: (a) environmental matrixes, (b) water matrix, (c)
analytical techniques and (d) molecular spectroscopy techniques
- 47 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
1400
1200
number of publications
1000
800
600
400
200
Figure 10: Number of publications per analyte or compound family in water samples
1.3.2.- PERSPECTIVAS
Se han establecido los analitos prioritarios para los que se deben desarrollar
estudios ambientales, mejorar los mtodos de anlisis o su tecnologa [i60], basndose en
criterios de toxicidad, persistencia, bioacumulacin o porque originan problemas en las
plantas de tratamiento de aguas. En la Tabla 9 se muestra la lista de parmetros y su
estado de desarrollo tanto del mtodo comn de anlisis como de las alternativas. Hay
que destacar que se incide sobre la necesidad de investigacin para su mejora en los
anlisis de coloides, nitrgeno total, fsforo total, metales pesados, fenoles, PAH, AOX,
toxicidad y lodos condicionales.
- 48 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
Table 9: List of parameters and state of development (C: common method and A:
alternative method) being 0: useable 1: stabilisation 2: development y 3: research. Adapted of
Talanta 50 (1999) 759
Parameters C A Parameters C A
Physical- Temperature 0 Nutrients Ammonium 1
Chemical pH 0 Nitrate 1
Parameters Conductivity 0 Phosphate 1
dissolved O2 0 Nitrogen total 3
ORP 0 Total P 3
Alkalinity 0 Biomass NADH 2
Solids Turbidity 0 Respirometry 2
TSS 2 Toxicity 3
Colloids 3 Active Biomass
Global TOC 1 1 Anaerobic Fatty acids 2
Parameters COD 1 process Digester Gas 2
BOD 2 1 Sludge Sludge Blanket 2
Specific Heavy metals, 3 Sludge 3
Compounds phenols,PAH,AOX conditionary
- 49 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
Las necesidades urgentes para los mtodos de rpida respuesta o para los sistemas
en lnea [i60] son: caracterizacin de cada fraccin de sustrato, medidas de slidos
totales suspendidos (influencia en la evolucin de la muestra entre el muestreo y el
anlisis en el laboratorio), discriminacin entre material biodegradable y no
biodegradable (control del impacto de la contaminacin), deteccin rpida y sencilla de
compuestos txicos o con efectos inhibidores (limitantes en los reactores de las plantas de
tratamiento o deteccin rpida de familias especficas de contaminantes), caracterizacin
- 50 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
- 51 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
[i29] D.A. Skoog, F.J. Holler and T.A. Nieman, Principios de Anlisis Instrumental,
McGrawHill, Madrid, 2000
[i30] P. Gy, Sampling for analytical purposes, Willey, NY 1996
[i31] M. Stoeppler, Sampling and Sample preparation. Practical guide for anlytical chemist,
Springer, Berlin, 1997
[i32] D. Rendell, Fluorescence and phosphorescence, Willey, NY 1987
[i33] M.C. Goldberg, Luminiscence applications, American Chemical Society, Washington
DC, 1989
[i34] P. Quevauviller, Method performance studies for speciation analysis, Royal Society
Chemistry, London 1998
[i35] M. Parkany, The use of recovery factors in trace analysis, Royal Society Chemistry,
London 1996
[i36] P.R. Loconto, Trace environmental quantitative analysis: principles, techniques and
applications, Marcel Dekker, NY 2001
[i37] M. Zief and J.W. Mitchell, Contamination control in trace element analysis, Willey,
NY 1976
[i38] B. Markert, Environmental sampling for trace analysis, VCH, Weinheim, 1994
[i39] A.G. Howard and P.J. Statham, Inorganic trace analysis : Philosophy and practice,
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1997
[i40] E. Prichar, G.M. MacKay, Trace analysis : a structured approach to obtaining
reliable results, RSC, London, 1996
[i41] K. Beyrmann, Organic trace analysis, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1984
[i42] M. Sargent and G. MacKay, Guidelines for achieving quality in trace analysis, RSC,
Cambridge, 1995
[i43] F.J. Millero, Physical Chemistry of Natural Waters, Jonh Willey, NY, 2001
[i44] AWWA, Water quality and Treatment 5th. . A Handbook of community water
supplies., McGraw-Hill, NY, 1999
[i45] P. Quevauviller, E.A. Maier and B. Griepink, Quality assurance for environmental
analysis, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1995
[i46] G. Kateman and L. Buydens, Quality control in analytical chemistry, Willey, NY
1976
[i47] E. Prichard, Quality in analytical chemistry laboratory, Willey, NY 1995
[i48] B. Griepink, Programme of the BCR on CRM [cerfitifed reference materials] for
environmental analysis, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. , 338 (1990) 486
[i49] B. Griepink, Some considerations with regard to the quality of results of analysis of
trace-element extractable contents in soil and sediment, Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem., 51 (1993)
123
[i50] Chemical safety data sheets, Royal Society Chemistry, London
[i51] J.W. Einax, Chemometrics in Environmetal chemistry, Springer, Amsterdam 1995
[i52] R.G. Brereton and J. Einax, Chemometrics in Environmental Chemitry. Statistical
Methods: Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Springer, Berlin, 1995
[i53] M.C. Ortiz, A. Herrero, L.A. Sarabia and M.S. Snchez, Curso de quimiometra y
cualimetra, Burgos, 2000
[i54] S.J. Haswell, Practical guide to chemometrics, Marcel Dekker, NY 1992
[i55] K.R. Beebe, R.J. Pell and M.B. Seasholtz, Chemometrics: a practical guide, Willey,
NY 1998
[i56] M. Blanco and V. Cerd, Quimiometra, Pub. Univ. Autnoma Barcelona, Bellaterra,
1988
[i57] J.C. Miller and J.N. Miller, Estadstica para Qumica Analtica, Addison-Wesley,
NY, 1993
[i58] R. Cela, Avances en Quimiometra Prctica, Pub. Univ. Santiago
Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, 1994
- 53 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
[i72] G.E Petts, River Flows and Channel Forms, 1 ed.: Blackwell Science Ltd. Oxford,
1996
[i73] B. Moss, A land awash with nutrients-the problem of eutrophitacation, Chemistry and
Industry, 1 (1996) 407
[i74] Phosphorus in the Global Environment: transfers, cycles and management. Ed. Holm
Tiessen, 1995
[i75] B. Wilson and B. Jones, The phosphate report: a life cycle study to evaluate the
environmental impact of phosphates and zeolite A-PCA as alternative builders in UK laundry
detergent formulations. Landbank, 1994
[i76] Phosphorus biogeochemistry in subtropical ecosystems, Ed. K.R. Reddy, G.A.
OConnor and C.L.
[i77] J.N lester and P.W.W Kirk, Management Strategies for phosphorus
in the environment, Lisbon, 1985
[i78] International Phosphorus transfer Workshop 2001, Plymouth, 2001
[i79] J.E. Zajic, Water pollution Vol.1, Ed. Marcel Dekker, NY, 1971
[i80] W. Maher and L. Woo, Procedures for the storage and digestion of natural waters for
the determination of filterable reactive phosphorus, total filterable phosphorus and total
phosphorus, Anal. Chim. Acta, 375 (1998) 5
[i81] R.L. Benson, I.D. McKelvie and T.H. Barry, Determination of total phosphorus in
waters and waste waters by online microwave-induced digestion and flow-injection analysis, Anal.
Chim. Acta, 291 (1994) 233
- 54 -
Captulo 1: INTRODUCCIN
[i82] D.M.W. Peat, I.D. McKelvie, G.P. Matthews, P.M. Haygarth and P.J. Worsfold,
Rapid determination of dissolved organic phosphorus in soil leachates and runoff waters by flow-
injection analysis with online photo-oxidation, Talanta, 45 (1997) 47
[i83] I.D. McKelvie, B.T. Hart, T.J. Cardwell and R.W. Cattrall, Spectrophotometric
determination of dissolved organic phosphorus in natural waters using inline photo-oxidation and
flow injection, Analyst, 114 (1989) 1459
- 55 -
Captulo 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
- 31 -
Captulo 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
- 32 -
Captulo 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
State-of-art Future
Research perspectives Legislation
projects
OBJECTIVES
Phenols River
Amines Coastal
Chromium Harbour
Cobalt Analytes Sample Estuarine
Phosphate selection selection Wastewater
Drinking
Method
selection
The trends in water analysis (Figures 8 and 9) and the number of papers per
analyte (Figure 10) have been also considered, pages 21-23.
After describing the scientific context of this research project, see Figure 11, the
general aims were proposed according to the following questions:
- What are the most interesting subjects in water analysis?
- What kind of samples can be selected?
- What kind of analytes must be studied?
- What kind of method is possible to propose?
- 33 -
Captulo 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
b) Origin of analytical signal: Different options for obtaining the most specific
analytical signal will be assessed. The best conditions for the study of the analytes will be
optimised in order to obtain selective, sensitive and reproducible response.
direct analysis (chapters 3.2.1 and 3.2.3, appendix 6b1, 6b5 and 6b6)
derivatisation (chapters 3.2.1, 3.2.2 and 3.3.4, appendix 6b2, 6b3 and 6b4)
catalytic action (chapters 3.3.1, 3.3.2 and 3.3.3, appendix 6b7, 6b8, 6b10, 6b11,
6b12 and 6b13)
The studied options in function of kind of register and relationship analytical signal
vs. time will be:
equilibrium analysis (chapters 3.2.1 and 3.2.3)
kinetic analysis (chapters 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.3.1, 3.3.2 and 3.3.3)
flow analysis (chapters 3.3.1, 3.3.2, 3.3.3 and 3.3.4)
c) Use of chemometric tools: The use of chemometric tool will permit the study of
different water analysis subjects. They are a powerful alternative for resolving difficult
chemical systems. This strategy will be presented in all chapters. It will be used for
solving problems in variable optimisation, variable selection, cancellation of
interferences, model selection, kinetic studies, calibration standardisation, simultaneous
analysis comparison of results or environmental interpretation.
This objectives will be achieved by using of different methods: statistical test for
comparison of averages and variances or localisation of aberrant classification methods,
optimisation methods, pattern recognition methods, robust regression methods and linear
and no linear regression models. In function of variable number used can be classified as:
univariate analysis (chapters 3.2.2, 3.3.1 and 3.3.4, appendix 6b3, 6b4, 6b7 and
6b8)
multivariate analysis (chapters 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.3, 3.3.2 and 3.3.3, appendix 6b1,
6b2, 6b4, 6b5, 6b6, 6b9, 6b10, 5b12 and 6b13)
Our research group has proposed new calibration models improving accuracy. This
thesis extends the options of the different methods mainly for the determination of
unknown samples. These models are compared to established multivariate calibration
methods. Standardisation and no linear calibration are also tested.
- 34 -
Captulo 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
a) Phenols
Phenol family is composed of aromatic alcohols [i23,i25,i69]. Cresols (methyl
groups) and compounds with nitro or halogen group have been specially studied for their
toxicological effects. The natural amount of phenolic compounds in water is low (1-10
g/L) except to water with high concentration in humic substances. Moreover, phenols
are affected by the action of micro-organisms and are transformed to CO2, water and
energy by biodegradation process. Then their presence is linked to industrial sources. The
number of phenolic compound in EPA contaminant lists is increasing. They are included
as contaminants or candidate contaminants.
Low concentrations produce a unpleasant taste to water. Lower than 1 mg/l can be
toxic for aquatic life [i10,i25]. Toxicological effects are predominantly upon the central
nervous system. Acute poisoning by phenol causes severe gastrointestinal disturbances,
- 35 -
Captulo 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
kidney failure, lung edema and convulsions. Key organs damaged by chronicle exposure
include spleen, pancreas and kidneys. Nevertheless, the human incidence uses to be
minimal.
General storage conditions are the use of Pyrex glass material, the optional addition
of NaOH to pH 12 or phosphoric acid, 4 C for 6 weeks. Although, several analytical
techniques have been used, their determination is based in spectrophotometry and
chromatography methods, mainly.
The topics tested appear in page 51.
b) Amines
Amine analysis is an interesting environmental topic [i25,i70]. Firstly, their
presence is due to their use as industrial intermediate or product or putrefaction processes.
The need to follow the progression into the environment stems from their inherent
carcinogenic or mutagenic behaviour and that they are readily biaccumulated. Conversion
of amines to nitrosoamines on reaction with nitriles presents still further hazard.
Secondly, their characteristics pose several analytical problems. Because amines are
polar, they are difficult to remove from water.
The determination can be approached via several routes, namely, direct gas
chromatography, concentration of amines on adsorbent followed by desorption,
separation and detection, and precolumn derivatisation prior to analysis. The addition of
ion paring agents facilitating solvent extraction or the ion-exchange solid phase extraction
have been proposed. The analysis of amines conduces to specific experimental problems
in GC or HPLC.
The specific study of polyamines in water samples provides an estimation of
natural sources of pollution. Comparing to other families of amines such as alquil amines,
aromatic amines or acyclic amines, polyamines are biogenic amines. Their presence in
water is mainly due to putrefaction of organisms.
The topics tested appear in page 81.
distribution) and 0.01-0.1 nmol/L for Co (surface depletation and depletation at depth
distribution). Defining the residence time of an element in the oceans as the average time
it spends in the sea before being removed into the sediment sink, the values are 6103
years (short level) for Cr and 3104 years (intermediate level) for Co. For example, Cr
fluxes to North Sea (T/year) are 277 from atmosphere, 590-630 from fluvial fluxes and
3382 from discharges and dumping fluxes. It may be concluded that shallow coastal are a
major receiving zone, and the health of coastal waters has given rise to much concern
over recent years.
Table 10: Comparison of main methods in trace element analysis. Source: Environmental
Analytical Chemistry.
FAAS ET-AAS ICP-OES NAA ICP-MS XRF
Multielement no no yes yes yes yes
Selectivity moderate good moderate good good good
Lineal range 102 103 103 103 108 102
Sample Volume (mL) 1-102 10-3-10-1 1-10 solid 1-10 solid
Matrix interference large moderate moderate moderate moderate moderate
Max. matrix conc. (%) >1 1 1 <1 0.1 <1
Precision >10 3-5 1-10 5-10 <5 1-10
Accuracy moderate good moderate good good good
Cost medium medium-high high very high high medium-high
LD Cr < 1 mg/L < 0.05 mg/L < 0.1 mg/L < 0.1 mg/L < 0.1 mg/L < 1 mg/L
LD Co < 0.1 mg/L < 0.05 mg/L < 0.1 mg/L < 0.1 mg/L < 0.05 mg/L < 1 mg/L
- 37 -
Captulo 2: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
d) Phosphate
The understanding of nutrient cycling is an important aspect of environmental and
biological processes. Nutrients are essential for biological activity in natural waters.
Therefore it is necessary to investigate their distribution, biogeochemical function and
behaviour [i72-i78]. Moreover, the eutrophication, the enrichment of water by plant
nutrients, is a worldwide problem. The connecting phosphorous transfer from agriculture
to the impacts in surface waters is also studied.
Not all forms of these elements are available to organisms. Therefore it is
important to distinguish between the various physico-chemical forms and their
concentrations in the environment. It is important to know where transformation occurs
and to what extent nutrient species are made available to organisms. For e.g. phosphorus
the most readily bioavailable form is ortho-phosphate, but phosphorus also exists as
condensed organic or inorganic phosphate, organic phosphate (sugars) and mineral
phosphate at concentrations often exceeding ortho-phosphate.
In seawater, concentrations range 1-3.5 mol/L (nutrient-type distribution) as
HPO42-, NaHPO4- o MgHPO4. The residence time is 1.8105 years (high level) [i13].
The determination of phosphate has some analytical characteristics [i79-i81].
General storage conditions (maximum 2 days) are polyethylene containers and addition of
HNO3 to 4C [i1]. Even, the nomenclature of phosphorus species is based on the
capability to form phosphomolybdate in its analysis. Phosphorus can be functionally
defined as total phosphorus (TP), total reactive phosphorus (TRP), filterable reactive
phosphorus (FRP), total filterable phosphorus (TFP) and particulate phosphorus (PP).
Many researchers believe that filterable reactive phosphorus (FRP) or total filterable
phosphorus (TFP) better represents bio-available phosphorus in predicting algal growth
rates. FRP and TFP are normally defined as the phosphorus present in the filtrate of the
water sample passed through a 0.45 m filter before and after digestion [i82,i83].
Although there is considerable controversy over what filtration through a 0.45 m filter
actually measures.
The topics tested appear in page 243.
- 38 -
Captulo 3: RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIN
- 40 -
Captulo 3.1: CONSIDERACIONES GENERALES
- 41 -
Captulo 3.1: CONSIDERACIONES GENERALES
- 42 -
Captulo 3.1: CONSIDERACIONES GENERALES
- 43 -
Captulo 3.1: CONSIDERACIONES GENERALES
3.1.1.- REACTIVOS
Los reactivos empleados y su grado de pureza se indica en cada captulo y se listan
en la Tabla 11. Las casas comerciales fueron Aldrich-Chemie (Alemania), Baker
(Holanda), BDH (Reino Unido), Decon (Reino Unido), Fluka (Suiza),Guinama (Espaa),
Lichrosolv (Alemania), Merck (Alemania), Panreac (Espaa), Prolabo (Francia), Skalar
(Reino Unido), Scharlau (Espaa) y Sigma (USA). Para el manejo de estos reactivos se
consultaron las fichas de toxicidad y precauciones.
Cancerigeno
Inflamable
Corrosivo
Oxidante
Irritante
Nocivo
Toxico
Reactivo Empresa
- 44 -
Captulo 3.1: CONSIDERACIONES GENERALES
- 45 -
Captulo 3.1: CONSIDERACIONES GENERALES
3.1.2.- APARATOS
El listado de aparatos e instrumentos empleados es:
- Espectrofotmetro de fila de diodos Hewlett-Packard HP8453 UV - visible,
(USA) equipado con una celda de cuarzo de camino ptico de 1 cm o 5 cm. El
espectrofotmetro estaba conectado a un PC Hewlett-Packard Vector XM 5/90,
controlado por el software G1115AA.
- 47 -
Captulo 3.1: CONSIDERACIONES GENERALES
Figura 17: (a) pH porttil (b) Conductmetro porttil y (c) Equipo vaco-columnas de
extraccin
- 48 -
Captulo 3.1: CONSIDERACIONES GENERALES
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figura 18: (a) Software Borwin, (b) Fialab 5.0, (c) SPSS, (d) The Unscrambler, (e)
Matlab,(f) Visual Basic
- 49 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 50 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 51 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 52 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 53 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
3.2.1.1.- INTRODUCCIN
A) CONSIDERACIONES SOBRE EL ANLISIS DE FENOLES
El fenol y sus derivados son serios contaminantes del agua. Pequeas cantidades
de fenoles influyen directamente en el sabor y el olor del agua. La contaminacin
medioambiental procede de la industria por la manufactura de tintes, papeles, plsticos,
medicamentos, y antioxidantes o por el uso de fenoles como pesticidas e insecticidas,
tambin destaca el uso como desinfectantes. Las leyes en muchos pases limitan la
concentracin de fenoles en el agua potable. El lmite superior para fenoles totales en
agua potable est fijado en 0.5 g/L por la Directiva EU 80/778, en aguas para bao el
lmite es 50 g/L por 76/160/CEE y en agua superficial dirigida a la extraccin de agua
potable est situado entre 1 - 100 g/L por 75/440/CEE.
El mtodo de referencia est basado en la reaccin oxidativa de acoplamiento con
4-aminoantipirina (4-AAP) y medida de absorbancia a 510 nm [1]. Este reactivo tiene
algunos inconvenientes como que los fenoles para-substituidos pueden no ser
determinados y adems requiere una destilacin preliminar de la muestra para separar los
interferentes. El lmite de deteccin es 0.5 g/L con el mtodo de extraccin con
cloroformo y 1g/L con el mtodo fotomtrico directo. Tambin hay que mencionar que
los reactivos son muy txicos y con impacto medioambiental severo.
El mtodo definitivo es el acoplamiento de la cromatografa gaseosa y la
espectrometra de masas con una extraccin previa, tal como extraccin lquido-lquido
[2], derivatizacin extractiva de dos fases tipo isobutoxi con la subsecuente extraccin en
fase slida [3], microextraccin en fase slida [4] o extraccin en fase slida de
membrana [5]. Los lmites de deteccin de estos procedimientos varan en el intervalo 0.1
- 1 g/L.
Otros mtodos analticos propuestos para la determinacin de fenoles incluyen
procedimientos espectrofotomtricos que conllevan la reaccin con BrI [6],
cromatograpa gaseosa-FID [1,7], HPLC [8,9], tcnicas electroqumicas [10] y
quimioluminiscentes [11]. Se han descrito montajes FIA con extraccin en fase slida en
lnea y reaccin con 4-AAP [12-14]. Adems, se ha usado el mtodo de absorcin
ultravioleta de multilongitud de onda (UVMA) para corregir la seal de fondo [15]. Los
lmites de deteccin de estos mtodos se sitan entre 0.2 - 50 g/L.
En muchos casos, los compuestos formados sufren una evolucin con el tiempo.
Puede tratarse de la reaccin de formacin del derivado o la reaccin de degradacin del
compuesto formado. En este caso, la determinacin implica un estudio cintico de la
reaccin implicada.
Los registros multivariados de absorbancia, en el equilibrio o en funcin de tiempo
de la seal nativa o de la seal del derivado, han permitido la resolucin de varios
sistemas qumicos. El uso de metodologas matemticas, incluyendo la regresin no
lineal y lineal [21], mnimos cuadrados parciales [22], filtro de Kalman no lineal o
extendido [23], anlisis factorial [24] y mtodo de adicin estndar del punto H (ver
captulo II.B.2), ha permitido estimar concentraciones y/o las constantes de velocidad.
Algunos de estos mtodos han sido aplicados para la determinacin de la cintica o
concentracin de compuestos fenlicos como el filtro de Kalman [25], redes neuronales
artificiales [26], mnimos cuadrados parciales [27,28], o anlisis factorial [29].
En el presente captulo se plantea el anlisis de fenoles de acuerdo a las dos
alternativas mencionadas. Con la finalidad de obtener determinaciones libres de errores se
estudi la aplicabilidad de herramientas quimiomtricas. En este sentido, el grupo de
investigacin en que est inscrita la presente tesis, ha demostrado como el mtodo de
adicin estndar del punto H generalizado (GHPSAM) puede estimar la concentracin
de analito libre de error en una muestra donde estn presentes interferentes desconocidos.
El mtodo est basado en la localizacin en el espectro interferente de intervalos de
espectro en la regin espectral medida.
La determinacin de fenoles mediante la medida de la absorbancia nativa implic
varias etapas. Primero se estudi una etapa de extraccin en fase slida previa en soportes
slidos de estireno-divinil benceno para alcanzar niveles de concentracin adecuados.
Posteriormente se trat la seal multivariante de acuerdo con la metodologa del
GHPSAM para eliminar los interferentes directos y efectos matriz. Se ha estudiado las
posibilidades de esta metodologa como una alternativa a los mtodos existentes para la
estimacin de la concentracin de fenoles (fenol, o-cresol, m-cresol, p-cresol, 4-
clorofenol y 4-cloro-3-metilfenol) en aguas naturales y en aguas residuales.
La determinacin de compuestos fenlicos mediante la medida de la absorbancia
resultante de la formacin de derivados implic la reaccin con p-aminofenol (PAP) en
presencia de NaOH y KIO4. La forma benzo-quinoneimina del PAP reacciona en medio
alcalino con la posicin para no bloqueada de los compuestos fenlicos. Por ataque
electroflico del fenolato a la posicin C4, dando lugar al correspondiente leuco-colarante
que es oxidado a un indo-colorante.
OH OH OH OH
PAP
-
NH2 NH2 OH ox
NH N
+
X X
X
Compuesto
fenlico OH OH OH
- 55 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 56 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
AX,j 8
Interferencia Z
A'' S / X''
absorbancia
AZ,j AX,l 4
AZ,k
AZ,l 0
j k l
longitud de onda
-2 longitud de onda
Muestra S 0.005
AX =0
AX,j=AX,k
absorbancia
dA/d
0
Interferencia Z Z
X
Especie X -0.005
AS,max=AZ,max
-0.01 S
j max k
longitud de onda -0.015
analito aadida (el subndice i indicara el patrn de la adicin estndar) y MX,j, MX,k y MX,l
son las pendientes de las rectas de calibracin tipo adicin estndar a j, k y l del analito
X para un tiempo t.
Teniendo en cuenta los parmetros, p y q, ver Figura 22
k j k
p= q= l [ec. 9]
l j l j
se pueden definir dos rectas como diferencias ponderadas entre AS,j y AS,l y entre
AS,j y AS,k:
q AS,k,j = q (AS,k - AS,j) = q Mk,j c X0 + q (AZ,k - AZ,j) + q Mk,j c iX
p AS,l,k = p (AS,l - AS,k) = p Ml,k c X0 + p (AZ,l - AZ,k) + p Ml,k c iX [ec. 10]
Estas dos rectas permiten el clculo de la concentracin del analito a partir de la
abscisa del punto de interseccin entre ambas o punto H (-cH, AH), donde cH es igual a
c 0X , la concentracin del analito en la muestra a un tiempo t dado.
q AS ,k , j p AS ,l ,k AX0 ,k q AX0 , j p AX0 ,l
cH = = [ec. 11]
q M k ,l p M l ,k q M j + p Ml Mk
Para optimizar los resultados, se seleccionan longitudes de onda que hagan mximo
el denominador de la ecuacin [ec. 11] (mayor seal del analito frente al ruido o pequeas
desviaciones de la linealidad del interferente).
- 58 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
(a) (b)
k- j q (Ak-Aj)
AZ,j
AZ,j-AZ,k
-cH
AZ,k
AH
absorbancia
AZ,k-AZ,l
AZ,l
l- k
p (Al-Ak)
absorbancia
incremento
j k l
longitud de onda conc de X aadida
Figura 22: (a) Relacin geomtrica de la absorbancia del interfernte (b) Representacin
incremento absorbancia frente concentracin de X
- 59 -
CLCULO
CENTRAL
DERIVADA A y parmetros CLCULO
filtro + orden derivada-smooth
CLCULO tabla A/
GRFICA
A/ vs nm
SMOOTH
CLCULO
todas las intervalo parmetros
bsqueda
TRAMOS muestras confianza crit d + int min
tramos
LINEAL LINEALES
muestra a parmetros lineales
syx
muestra crit syx+ int min
tabla
tramos
entrada tramo entrada
calibrado manual etiquetas parmetros
SELECCIN crit r2 +
TROS TROS adicin int min
entrada tramo confirmacin
estndar
automtica del tramo
nuevo
t CLCULO
seleccin tros seleccin
tabla tabla
referencia conc + desv
mayor pendiente listado conc + desv tros
- Muestreo
Las muestras de agua de puerto (Valencia, Espaa) fueron fortificadas con fenol
(0.075-0.75 mg L-1) o con un compuesto fenlico (0.03 y 0.12 mg L-1); el pH se ajust a 3
con una solucin concentrada de H3PO4. El volumen de agua procesada vari entre 100 y
1000 mL; los analitos se preconcentraron en un cartucho de extraccin en fase slida
como se ha descrito anteriormente.
- 61 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- Tratamiento de datos
Los clculos para la regresin por mnimos cuadrados parciales (PLS) se realizaron
con el paquete estadstico The Unscrambler. Para el desarrollo de los clculos para el
GHPSAM, se utiliz un programa escrito en lenguaje VisualBasic (Microsoft Excel).
- 62 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Absorbancia (U.A.)
100m l(10)
0.6 4-C l-fenol 2.0 250m l(10)
4-C l-3-m etilfenol 500m l(10)
1.5 (4)
1000m l(10)
0.4
1.0 (3)
(8)
(2) (7)
0.2
(2) (3) (4) 0.5 (1)
(5 (5) (6)
(1) (6)
0.0 0.0
220 240 260 280 300 320 220 240 260 280 300 320
(nm ) (nm )
Figura 25: (a) Espectros UV-visible de disoluciones patrn de los analitos (10 mg/L):
fenol, o-cresol, m-cresol, p-cresol, 4-cloro-fenol y 4-cloro-3-metilfenol. (b) Espectros UV-visible
de las muestras de agua no fortificadas (0) y fortificadas con 10 mg/L de fenol (10) para
diferentes volmenes de agua procesados (100 - 1000 mL)
- 63 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
60
40 intervalo 260-290 nm
A"s/ " (mg / L )
m uestra fortificada
20
m uestra no fortificada
-20
220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320
(nm )
A pesar del ruido, las seales en el intervalo 260-290 nm fueron consideradas como
adecuadas para el clculo de la concentracin de fenol. Las posibles divisiones por cero
(puntos de inflexin para el analito, ver Figura 25) deben ser localizadas con la finalidad
de eliminarlas debido a que originan valores de cociente anormalmente altos.
Los grficos AS, j j frente j proporcionan una estimacin previa de la
concentracin de analitos siendo igual al valor constante de la correspondiente ordenada.
Sin embargo, esas predicciones estarn afectadas por un error, dado que son obtenidas
usando segundas derivadas y se incrementa el cociente ruido-seal. Estos valores por
tanto no sern definitivos, pero son adecuados para la seleccin del intervalo lineal de la
interferencia y para obtener una estimacin inicial de la concentracin de analito.
Las Tablas 12 y 13 muestran los valores estimados de AS,j,k/j,k y los valores del
espectro de primera derivada para la muestra de agua de puerto a la longitud de onda de
- 64 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
mxima absorbancia de cada especie (m). Los valores estimados de AS,j,k/j,k estaban
incluidos en el intervalo (dA/d )m 3 s( (dA/d )m ). Los resultados obtenidos para
S S
- 65 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 66 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 67 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
(a) fenol
G HPSA M
A s-A b
100 HPLC
80
% recuperacin
60
40
20
0
100 0.3 100 0.75 250 0.3 500 0.06 1000 0.075 1000 0.03
volum en procesado (m L) / concentracin (m g / L )
(b) G HPSA M
100 A s-A b
p -cresol HPLC
80
4- C l-3- m etilfenol
o -cresol m -cresol
% recovery
60
40 4- C l-fenol
20
() ()
0
0.12 0.03 0.12 0.03 0.12 0.03 0.12 0.03 0.12 0.03
concentration (m g L-1 )
Figura 27: Comparacin de los porcentajes de recuperacin para las muestras de agua de
puerto fortificadas con fenol (a) y fortificadas con otros compuestos fenlicos (b). Comparacin
de los valores obtenidos por el GHPSAM, por la diferencia de absorbancia entre muestra
fortificada (AS,m) y no fortificada (Ab,m) a la longitud de onda de mxima absorbancia de cada
especie (m) y por HLPC. El smbolo () indica una seal inferior al lmite de deteccin
- 68 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Tabla 15: Predicciones estimadas para la disolucin concentrada y para las muestras de
agua de puerto no fortificadas obtenidas por el GHPSAM
analito volumen agua cextracto GHPSAM Cmuestra GHPSAM
(mL) (mg L-1) (mg L-1)
fenol 100 -0.35 0.17 -0.0105 0.005
250 -0.38 0.15 -0.0046 0.0018
500 1.2 0.2 0.0072 0.0012
1000 0.9 0.5 0.0027 0.0015
1000 1.8 0.4 0.0054 0.0012
o-cresol 250 -0.6 0.07 -0.0072 0.0008
1000 -1.4 0.2 -0.0042 0.0006
m-cresol 250 -0.1 0.11 -0.0012 0.0013
1000 -0.7 0.4 -0.0021 0.0012
p-cresol 250 -0.08 0.07 -0.0010 0.0008
1000 0.6 0.2 0.0018 0.0006
4-cloro-3- 250 -0.06 0.19 -0.001 0.002
metilfenol 1000 1.1 0.6 0.0033 0.0018
4-clorofenol 250 0.15 0.1 0.0018 0.0012
1000 0.9 0.5 0.0027 0.0015
Estas estimaciones estn de acuerdo con las que se obtuvieron con el mtodo
cromatogrfico. Las seales obtenidas fueron inferiores a tres veces la seal del ruido. En
la Figura 28 se representa un ejemplo de una muestra de agua de puerto no fortificada y
fortificada con 0.3 mg/L de cada compuesto fenlico. Se puede observar que las seales
cromatogrficas de las muestras de agua al tiempo de retencin de cada analito, fueron
similares al limite de deteccin, incluso para dos volmenes procesados diferentes.
20000
15000
mV
10000
5000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
tiem po (m in)
DERIVADOS
- Consideraciones iniciales sobre la seal en funcin del tiempo
El objetivo es el estudio de la cintica del analito en la reaccin de varios
compuestos fenlicos con p-aminofenol y KIO4 en presencia de NaOH, sabiendo de la
evolucin del reactivo absorbente y evitando su contribucin a la seal total. El fenol y o-
cresol fueron escogidos como modelos de compuestos fenlicos. El fenol es el
contaminante medioambiental ms comn y el o-cresol se eligi como ejemplo de los
compuestos fenlicos bisustituidos.
La Figura 29 muestra los espectros en funcin del tiempo para la disolucin del
blanco reactivo y para las disoluciones patrn. Como puede observarse el mximo del
espectro se localiza a = 626 nm para el derivado del fenol y a = 614 nm para el
derivado del o-cresol. Para estas longitudes de onda, la proporcin de absorbancia de
reactivo respecto la absorbancia total se sita entre 10 - 80 %.
Se observa un comportamiento espectral lineal de la disolucin del blanco en
funcin de la longitud de onda para distintos tiempos. Adems, se observan cambios en la
forma espectral siendo esta evolucin mayor para longitudes de onda bajas. Este
comportamiento espectral del blanco puede describirse como una lnea cuya pendiente y
ordenada se incrementan en funcin del tiempo.
Tabla 16: Parmetros de las regresiones nor,t frente nor,580 (n=161) para los calibrados de
fenol y o-en el intervalo 580-740 nm
Tiempo 20 140 220 300 420
reaccin (s)
Fenol b 1,08 0,09 1,04 0,06 1,03 0,05 1,02 0,03 1,00 0,03
a -0,09 0,06 -0,05 0,04 -0,03 0,03 -0,02 0,02 -0,01 0,02
R2 0,9990 0,9995 0,9997 0,9998 0,9999
sYX 0,12 0,08 0,07 0,05 0,04
o-cresol b 1,02 0,02 1,02 0,06 1,03 0,04 1,05 0,01 1,04 0,08
a -0,05 0,15 -0,05 0,12 -0,06 0,10 -0,06 0,07 -0,05 0,06
R2 0,993 0,996 0,997 0,998 0,999
sYX 0,30 0,24 0,20 0,15 0,12
- 70 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
(c)
(b)
(a)
Figura 29: Espectro en funcin del tiempo para la disolucin del blanco de reactivos (a),
una disolucin patron de 5 mg/L de fenol (b) y una disolucin patrn de 5 mg/L de o-cresol (c)
- 71 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
8.33 8.33
20 10.0 20
10.0
10 10
0 0
500
550
600
650
700
750
500
550
600
650
700
750
(nm) (nm)
Figura 30: Representacin AS'' , j / 'j' frente j para el blanco de reactivos (a) y
disoluciones patrn (b) despus de 300 s del mezclado de los reactivos-analito, siendo 'j' la
derivada segunda de la pendiente de la curva de calibrado despus de 580 s del mezclado
para el espectro de primera derivada para los diferentes tiempos a la longitud de onda del
mximo del analito de cada especie (m). Los valores estimados de AS,j,k/j,k (n = 23
para el fenol y n = 12 para o-cresol) estuvieron incluidos en el intervalo (dA/d )m 3
S
- 72 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
6 (a)
5
GHPSAM analito
4
3
c (mg/L)
0
GHPSAM reactivo
-1
-2
PLS reactivo
-3 tiempo (s)
0 200 400 600
6 (b)
GHPSAM analito
5
A-A b
4 PLS analito
3
c (mg/L)
0
GHPSAM reactivo
-1
-2 PLS reactivo
-3 tiempo (s)
0 200 400 600
Figura 31: Cintica del derivado del analito y cintica del reactivo no cancelada obtenidas
de la predicciones empleando como referencia la curva de calibracin despus de 580 s del
mezclado de los reactivos siendo (a) fenol y (b) o-cresol. Los mtodos de regresin son:
calibracin univariada basada en diferencias (AS,m(t) - Ab,m(t)) (m = 626 nm para el derivado
del fenol y m = 614 nm para el derivado del o-cresol), mtodo GHPSAM y mtodo PLS.
escala de tiempos. GHPSAM opera adecuadamente con este tipo de datos como se ha
establecido previamente.
Tabla 18: Figuras de mrito: (a) fenol y (b) o-cresol sin etapa de preconcentracin
(a)
seal t a b R2 syx 3*syx/b N/S
(b)
seal t a b R2 syx 3*syx/b N/S
- 76 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
(a) 1.0
A
0.8
concentracin fenol
B
0.6 C
( g/L)
D
0.4
0.2
0.0
1
1+
2+
3+
4+
5+
6+
7+
- 77 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
(b) 1.0
A
concentracin o-cresol
0.8
B
0.6
C
( g/L)
0.4 D
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+
muestras muestras fortificadas
Figura 33: Concentracin de fenol (a) and o-cresol (b) en muestras y en muestras
fortificadas calculada por diferentes mtodos. A: HPLC rea de pico, B: PLS bilineal, C: PLS t =
4 min and D: GHPSAM t = 4 min
- 78 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
3.2.1.5.- CONCLUSIONES
personal cualificado. Por lo tanto su utilizacin sera recomendable como tcnica de alerta
en laboratorios que desarrollen vigilancia de vertidos, control peridico o continuo de
calidad. Sera especialmente til en el anlisis de entrada en una planta de tratamiento del
agua tanto de potabilizacin como de tratamiento de aguas residuales. La presencia de
compuestos como los fenoles alteran notablemente las etapas basadas en el tratamiento
microbiolgico porque afectan a los microorganismos. En consecuencia se requieren
tcnicas de vigilancia que alerten de la presencia de ciertos niveles de estos compuestos.
- 81 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
3.2.2.6.- CONCLUSIONS
- 81 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 82 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
3.2.2.1.- INTRODUCCIN
A) CONSIDERACIONES SOBRE EL ANLISIS DE AMINAS
Se han encontrado aminas en gran nmero y variedad de muestras
medioambientales. Son constituyentes de los ciclos naturales, as la mayora de especies
acuticas excretan amoniaco y compuestos orgnicos de nitrgeno o son originados por
actividades microbiolgicas [39]. Son resultado de la descomposicin de alimentos como
el pescado [40]. Tambin pueden tener procedencia antropognica a travs de vertidos de
plantas industriales, aplicaciones agrcolas (piensos y fertilizantes), emisiones de
automviles, tratamientos de depuracin y de aguas residuales comunes [41]. Son
materias primas o intermedios qumicos en la produccin de otros productos qumicos
como polmeros, frmacos, etc... Las aminas alifticas y las poliaminas se caracterizan
por ser sustancias olorosas y precursores de N-nitrosaminas, que son cancerognicas [42-
45].
En consecuencia, las autoridades para la proteccin del medioambiente exigen la
monitorizacin analtica en medios acuticos de estos compuestos. Las aminas de baja
masa molecular se encuentran en estas muestras a muy bajos niveles, en la mayora de
casos por debajo de g/L. Por lo que es necesario el desarrollo de mtodos analticos
suficientemente sensibles.
El mtodo Kjendahl es el mtodo de referencia para el anlisis de nitrgeno
orgnico (estado trinegativo) de modo que las aminas aparecen en esta fraccin. Se basa
en la conversin de los grupos aminos en sulfato de amonio en presencia de c. sulfrico,
sulfato de potasio y catalizado por sulfato de mercurio. El amoniaco generado en medio
bsico se destila y absorbe en cido para su determinacin colorimtrica o valoracin [1].
- 83 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Cadaverina Espermidina
NH2 NH2 NH2 NH NH2
Putrescina Espermina
NH2 NH2 NH2 NH NH NH2
Figura 34: Estructura de las poliaminas
O
intermediario amina derivado
- 84 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 85 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
absorbancia
Ai
AX,i
Especie Y
Especie X
absorbancia
AY ,i AY ,j
Aj
AX,j
i j AH
longitud de onda
conc de X aadida
-c H
Figura 36: (a) Espectros hipotticos de una mezcla binaria de X e Y. (b) Representacin de
las rectas obtenidas aplicando el mtodo HPSAM a las dos longitudes de onda seleccionadas
- 86 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
TROS parmetros:
de
HPSAM ANULACIN % diferencia
INTERFERENTE coeficiente R2
CLCULO
seleccin tros
anulacin interferente
CLCULO
curvas de calibracin del
analito e interpolacin
muestras
Tabla
concentracin
desviacin
listado
SELECCIN
TROS
MAYOR Tabla tros seleccionados:
PENDIENTE
concentracin desviacin
ANALITO
Figura 37: Diagrama de flujo del programa en Visual-Basic: HPSAM de una mezcla
binaria
- 87 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 88 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 89 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- Muestreo
Las muestras fueron recogidas en la playa de La Patagona (Alboraya, Valencia) y
sometidas a tres protocolos de preconcentracin y medida.
Opcin (i): Preconcentracin del analito y formacin de derivados en disolucin.
Se pasaron volmenes de muestra entre 0.2 - 100 mL a travs del soporte slido o
cartucho. Posteriormente, se elua con 2 mL cido actico 0.2 mol/L. El eluato se
mezclaba con 0.8 mL de OPA-NAC 7.4 10-3 mol/L, 60 L de NaOH 5 M y 0.2 mL de
tampn borato (0.8 mol/L, pH =8). La seal espectrofotomtrica se realizaba de acuerdo
al Procedimiento I.
Opcin (ii): Procedimiento de formacin de derivados en disolucin seguida de
retencin en un soporte slido. Se sigui un protocolo similar al descrito en el
Procedimiento II, pero el volumen de muestra era 0-100 mL.
Opcin (iii): Procedimiento de formacin de derivados en soportes empaquetados.
Se sigui el Procedimiento IV (opcin A) pero modificado varindose el volumen de
muestra entre 0-100 mL.
- 90 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
150
seal (mV)
150
140 140
130 130
120
120
0 2 4 6
0 2 4 6
tiem po (m in) tiem po (m in)
- 92 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Tabla 20: Rango de trabajo y valor ptimo obtenido para diferentes variables estudiadas
para derivatizacin en disolucin
Condiciones Rango estudiado Valor ptimo
% OPA/NAC 0 100 50
pH tampn 6-10 8.0
Concentracin tampn (mol/L) 0 - 0.08 0.025
% MeOH 2.7-7.5 4 6.5
Exceso reactivo (%) 0 80 20 60
Tiempo de reaccin (s) Espermina 0 1500 60
Espermidina 0 -360 180
Putrescina 180 - 600 180
Cadaverina 180 - 600 180
2 30 0.8
k (min -1)
k (min -1)
25
A333
1.5 0.6
20
15 0.4
1
10 k
0.2
0.5 5 A
0 0
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
6 8 10
pH conc. tam pn borato (m ol/L)
(c)
- 93 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
(b)
(a)
Figura 41: Espectros en funcin del tiempo para la disolucin de blanco reactivo (a) y
disolucin patrn de espermina 40 mg/L (b) en condiciones de exceso de reactivo OPA-NAC
- 94 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Como puede observarse el mximo del espectro del derivado se localiza a = 333
nm. La disolucin del blanco reactivo presenta una pequea variacin de la forma
espectral en funcin del tiempo para longitudes de onda inferiores. La prdida de seal es
del 8 % entre 60 y 150 s.
Como el espectro del derivado solapa con el espectro del reactivo para cada
tiempo, se obtuvo una estimacin de la forma del espectro del isoindol en funcin del
tiempo. Para cada longitud de onda del intervalo 315-350 nm, se clculo la
correspondientes curvas de calibrado univariada del analito, que correspondan a una
repuesta lineal para cada tiempo y longitud de onda. Las ordenadas en el origen, matriz
(641), representan la evolucin del reactivo con el tiempo independiente de la
concentracin de amina, coincidiendo perfectamente con el blanco reactivo.
parmetros de la regresiones para los datos obtenidos de acuerdo con la opcin (exceso
de espermina) como con la opcin (exceso de OPA-NAC) estn mostrados en la Tabla
21. Como puede observarse la unidad est incluida en el intervalo de confianza de la
pendiente y el cero est incluido en el intervalo de confianza de la ordenada para un nivel
de significacin del 95 %. Esto hecho indica que la forma espectral del derivado de
espermina, o al menos la seal dependiente con la concentracin de amina, no presenta
evolucin en funcin del tiempo. Si el espectro cambiase de forma parcial o totalmente no
se obtendran representaciones lineales o de pendiente unidad y ordenada cero,
respectivamente.
Tabla 21: Parmetros de las regresiones btnor vs. bnor (n=36) en el intervalo 315-350 nm
Tiempo 20 50 80 110 140
Reaccin (s)
Exceso b 1,01 0,02 1,014 0,014 1,011 0,014 1,007 0,014 0,998 0,012
Espermina a -0,010 0,014 -0,014 0,012 -0,014 0,012 -0,008 0,012 -0,001 0,011
R2 0,9990 0,9993 0,9993 0,9993 0,9994
sYX 0,003 0,003 0,003 0,003 0,002
Exceso b 0,98 0,02 0,981 0,03 0,989 0,02 0,991 0,017 0,997 0,012
OPA-NAC a 0,02 0,02 0,02 0,02 0,01 0,02 0,011 0,016 0,002 0,011
R2 0,998 0,998 0,998 0,9991 0,9996
sYX 0,004 0,004 0,003 0,003 0,002
- 95 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
30 e-6
A"/ " x 10 3 (M)
10 10
40
5 5
0 0
310
320
330
340
350
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
(nm) (nm)
Figura 42: Representacin Aj/j frente j para disoluciones patrn despus 60 s, siendo
j la derivada segunda del coeficiente de absorcin molar del reactivo a 60 s: (a) en condiciones
de exceso de espermina y (b) en condiciones de exceso de OPA-NAC.
- 96 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Adems, como las bases tericas establecen, estos grficos tambin proporcionaron
una estimacin inicial de las concentraciones del reactivo en las diferentes disoluciones.
El valor estimado correspondi con el valor del cociente AS'' , j / M 'j' . En condiciones de
exceso de espermina, la concentracin de reactivo proporcionada fue prxima a cero para
todas las disoluciones con diferentes cantidades de espermina. Se comprob, por tanto,
como se anulaba la contribucin del derivado para este intervalo, ver Figura 42a.
Para las disoluciones en condiciones de exceso de OPA-NAC, la concentracin
estimada fue similar a la concentracin inicial aadida para todas la disoluciones patrn,
ver Figura 42b. No se observaron diferencias significativas con el aumento en la
concentracin de espermina que indicarn un posible consumo de OPA-NAC.
Estimacin de la concentracin
La concentracin de OPA-NAC pudo ser calculada aplicando las ecuaciones del
GHPSAM en el intervalo localizado. La seleccin de conjuntos de tres longitudes de
onda (i, j y k) se bas en el criterio de una distancia entre las tres longitudes de onda
superior a 2 nm. La predicciones finales se obtuvieron como media de los resultados
proporcionados por los 25 incrementos de absorbancia con mayor valor Ak - q Aj - p Al en
el espectro del reactivo.
La concentracin de OPA-NAC tambin pudo ser calculada aplicando las
ecuaciones del HPSAM. En este caso, se localizaron parejas de longitudes de onda que
presentaran el mismo valor de pendiente de la calibracin univariada (bi = bj). Por
consiguiente, los incrementos de absorbancia slo dependern del OPA-NAC. El criterio
operativo de seleccin de las parejas se bas en que las diferencias entre ambas
longitudes de onda no fueran superiores a 4 nm y que las diferencias entre valores de b
fueran inferiores al 2 %. Las predicciones finales se obtienen como media de los
resultados proporcionados por los 25 incrementos de absorbancia con mayor valor (k - j)
en el espectro del OPA-NAC.
(a) (b)
-0.015 6 0.14 6
disolucin reactivo disolucin reactivo
5 0.12 5
0.10
-0.010 4 disolucin 40 mg/L 4
c x 10 3 (mol/L)
c x 10 3 (mol/L)
disolucin 40 mg/L
Aj -Ak
Ak-qAj -pAl
0.08
t=60 s 3 t=60 s 3
0.06
t=150 s
-0.005 2 2
0.04
t=150 s
1 0.02 1
0.000 0 0.00 0
nm ero de increm ento nm ero de increm ento
- 97 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Estimacin de la cintica
Utilizando el GHPSAM y HPSAM, se ha probado que la cintica del reactivo
OPA-NAC no est afectada por la cintica del isoindol de espermina. Por lo tanto, la
cintica del reactivo OPA-NAC se puede establecer directamente a partir de la disolucin
del blanco reactivo o mediante las seales GHPSAM o HPSAM a partir de cualquier
disolucin incluso en presencia del derivado de espermina.
Puesto lo anterior de relieve, al no existir efecto sinrgico y considerando que la
absorbancia en el intervalo de trabajo es aditiva, la cintica del derivado OPA-NAC-
espermina puede establecerse por diferencia directa. La seal del derivado ser la
diferencia entre la absorbancia total (AS) y la absorbancia del reactivo obtenida de una
disolucin blanco de OPA-NAC (Ab) con garanta de calidad por la aplicacin del
GHPSAM. La Figura 44 expone el espectro del derivado OPA-NAC-espermina formado
en condiciones de exceso de reactivo. La constante cintica de degradacin se puede
establecer para cada longitud de onda como se muestra en la Figura 45. El valor
calculado es coincidente con el valor en la seccin anterior para la derivatizacin en
disolucin sin retencin.
- 98 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
derivado
-0.0015 excOPA
-0.002
-0.0025
Figura 45: Constantes cinticas frente para la disolucin blanco y para una disolucin
con 40 mg/L de espermina.
- 99 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
0.4
absorbancia
0.2
0.0
1 2 2 2 4 5 6 7 13 14 15 18 36
das
Figura 46: Grfico de Shewart para la absorbancia entre das del derivado de espermina
(X) y del blanco reactivo (Q). Intervalo x 2s. Condiciones: derivatizacin en disolucin (para
ms detalles ver seccin experimental)
- 100 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
agua tampn MeCN MeOH MeCN- MeOH- MeCN- MeOH-
agua HCl tampn tampn
- 101 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
min despus de la retencin. Estos resultados eran similares a los obtenidos por Saito et
al. [90].
Por tanto, la retencin de los productos de reaccin en soportes slidos afecta la
velocidad de reaccin siendo menor la velocidad de degradacin de los productos en la
columna, incrementando la estabilidad de los productos de reaccin. Adems, la
constante de velocidad de la reaccin de degradacin despus de la elucin era de (10
3) 10-3 min-1 inferior a la obtenida para la derivatizacin en disolucin sin retencin,
probablemente porque se elimina parte del exceso de reactivo que como se ha comentado
afecta a dicha velocidad.
Las propiedades analticas obtenidas operando en las condiciones optimizadas se
muestran en la Tabla 23 (Procedimiento II).
- 102 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
250
patrn de
200 espermina
seal (mV)
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6
tiem po (m in)
- 103 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 105 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 106 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 107 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
100
volumen (mL)
50
25
10
Figura 49: Seal analtica para la formacin de derivados en soporte en funcin del
volumen de muestra procesado
- 108 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
3.2.2.6.- CONCLUSIONES
- Se ha estudiado la formacin de derivados OPA-NAC con diferentes poliaminas
(cadaverina, putrescina, espermidina y espermina). Se ha evaluado el efecto de diferentes
variables sobre la reaccin, como el pH de reaccin o concentraciones de los reactivos,
optimizndose las mejores condiciones de medida
- Se ha observado la inestabilidad de los derivados, destacando especialmente el
derivado de la espermina. Se ha realizado una nueva aportacin estudiando la presencia o
ausencia de efectos sinrgicos entre el exceso de reactivo y el derivado. GHPSAM y
HPSAM han cancelado la contribucin del derivado OPA-NAC-espermina para evaluar la
evolucin del reactivo para diferentes concentraciones de analito. Al no detectarse efectos
sinrgicos, se ha establecido con garanta de calidad la cintica de reaccin, por tanto, se
ha demostrado tambin las ventajas del mtodo GHPSAM para evaluar la cintica sin
errores sistemticos.
Para la aplicacin del HPSAM se ha desarrollo un programa que permite la
aplicacin del mtodo en un entorno accesible, de manejo sencillo, con rpida obtencin
de resultados (< 15 s) y muy flexible.
- Se han ensayado diferentes procedimientos de formacin de derivados: en
disolucin, en disolucin seguida de retencin en soportes slidos, en el sistema
cromatogrfico o en soporte empaquetado. El estudio ha sido enfocado a la estabilidad de
la reaccin de los productos, sensibilidad y versatilidad del procedimiento. Se han
evaluado las condiciones ptimas, las propiedades analticas, las ventajas y desventajas de
todas las opciones. Al compararse las caractersticas ms relevantes se ha establecido las
posibilidades de cada una de las opciones propuestas
As por ejemplo y basndose en los experimentos realizados, la formacin de
derivados usando cartuchos C18 ha demostrado ofrecer ventajas sobre otros
procedimientos ensayados, ya que supone un incremento de la estabilidad de los
derivados OPA-NAC.
- Se han adaptado las distintas opciones para proponer diferentes procedimientos
para la determinacin de poliaminas en muestras de agua. Se han ensayado la
preconcentracin del analito, la preconcentracin del derivado y la formacin del
derivado en el soporte usando cartuchos de fase slida. Se han establecido los parmetros
analticos, de modo que para un factor de preconcentracin 1:50, los lmites de deteccin
alcanzados son 4 g/L, permitiendo alcanzar concentraciones de poliaminas en aguas
entre el lmite de deteccin y 100 g/L.
La seleccin del procedimiento depende de los objetivos especficos del anlisis
como coste o frecuencia. La preconcentracin del derivado o formacin de derivados en
soportes empaquetados proporcionan ventajas en trminos de selectividad,
reproducibilidad, estabilidad del derivado o contaminacin de la muestra.
- Los ensayos realizados sobre muestras de agua reales han sido satisfactorios.
Para evaluar la aplicabilidad del mtodo se ha realizado ensayos de recuperacin, el
mtodo de adicin estndar y el mtodo Youden. No se ha observado ningn efecto de la
matriz sobre la determinacin.
Finalmente destacar que los mtodos descritos se pueden considerar pioneros para
el anlisis de poliaminas en muestras de agua de forma econmica, rpida y en
condiciones de calidad.
- 109 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
3.2.3.5.- CONCLUSIONS
- 112 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 113 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
3.2.3.1.- INTRODUCCIN
A) CONSIDERACIONES EN EL ANLISIS DE CROMO (VI)
Frecuentemente, se introducen metales en el ciclo del agua procedentes de
desechos industriales. Muchos de esos iones son txicos para el hombre y su vertido debe
ser monotorizado y controlado de forma cuidadosa. El cromo puede encontrarse como Cr
(III) y Cr (VI). El Cr (III) es menos txico. Se ha demostrado la toxicidad del Cr (VI)
presente en aerosoles al daar la piel y el sistema respiratorio, causando cncer de
pulmn, sin embargo los efectos txicos del Cr(VI) en agua de consumo no estn bien
documentados [111].
La determinacin de cromo (VI) se hace particularmente necesaria en aguas
procedentes de industrias de electroplateado qumico, pinturas, pigmentos, fungicidas,
agentes para curtir, tintes... y adems su concentracin pueda ser usada como medida
alternativa de la demanda qumica de oxgeno [112].
- 114 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
(a) (b)
100 100
% %
0 1E-03 0 1E-03
3 4 3 4
5 5 6
6 7 1E+00 7 1E+00
8 8 9
pH 9 pH c (m ol/L)
c (m ol/L)
(c)
100
0 1E-03
3 4 5 6 7 1E+00
8 9
pH
c (m ol/L)
- 115 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Desde 1995 se han realizado estudios por el grupo de investigacin en el que est
inscrita la presente tesis, proponindose el mtodo de adicin estndar del punto H
generalizado (GHPSAM, generalized H-point standard addition method), para estimar
con un error muy bajo la concentracin del analito en una muestra en la que uno o ms
interferentes desconocidos estn presentes. Como se ha mencionado en captulos
anteriores, se basa en la localizacin de intervalos espectrales lineales para la
interferencia global y el uso de seales analticas que eliminan su contribucin.
- 116 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 117 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
- 118 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
1.0 muestra
Absorbancia
interferente
forma Y
0.5
forma X
0.0
200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375
Longitud de onda
Si el comportamiento espectral del interferente Z (AZ,j) puede ser descrito por una
lnea recta con ordenada en el origen a y pendiente b en el intervalo de longitudes de
onda 1-m, entonces:
AZ,j = a + b j j [1, m] [ec. 12]
La absorbancia de la muestra S a cada longitud de onda del intervalo seleccionado
ser la suma de las absorbancias de X a concentracin cX, de Y a concentracin cY y de Z.
La concentracin total del analito puede expresarse como c = cX + cY.
AS,j = AX,j + AY,j + AZ,j = cX X,j + cY Y,j + a + b j [ec. 13]
donde AX,j y AY,j son las absorbancias a j de X e Y respectivamente X,j y Y,j son
los coeficientes de absortividad molar de X e Y (o las pendientes de las curvas de
calibrado) a j considerando una celda con camino ptico de 1 cm.
d 2 AX , j d 2 AY , j d 2 AZ , j
AS' ' , j = + + = c X 'X' , j + cY 'Y' , j [ec. 14]
d 2
d 2
d 2
280
245
297
245
297
Figura 53: Localizacin de los intervalos lineales en el espectro del interferente (245-297
nm) basada en la especie X (a) o en la especie Y (b). En ambos casos la ecuacin de la lnea
recta entre 245-297 nm es y = 1 x + 1, lo que significa que cX = cY = 1
- 120 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
2.5
1.5
2.0
X
1.5 1.0
A
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0 0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Y / X X / Y
Figura 54: Representaciones AS /X frente Y /X (a) yAS /Y frente X /Y (b) para los
incrementos 241-261-x, siendo x variable entre 244-280.
- 121 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
CLCULO X y Y
CENTRAL
parmetros
CLCULO
DERIVADA A, X y Y derivada-smooth
filtro + orden
nuevo
TROS tramo CLCULO
seleccin tros seleccin
tabla tabla +regresin
referencia conc + desv
mayor listado conc + desv
pendiente
Figura 55: Diagrama de flujo de los programas en Visual-Basic: GHPSAM de dos analitos
- 123 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
1. 1.00:0.00
2. 0.75:0.25
determinacin 3. 0.50:0.50
forma X + forma Y determinacin 4. 0.25:0.75
5. 0.00:1.00
determinacin forma X
forma X 6. 3.00:0.00
7. 2.25:0.75
8. 1.50:1.50
9. 0.75:2.25
10. 0.00:3.00
"
A"s/
10
9
8
7
6
4 5
2 3
1
(nm )
Figura 56: Representacin hipottica AS'' , j / ''X , j frente j. para disoluciones a diferente
concentracin relativa cX : cY. La concentracin total es igual a 1 (lneas discontinuas) o 3 (lneas
continuas)
- 124 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
0.1 0.1
ec / c
ec / c
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0
-0.1 -0.1
A A
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
- 125 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
1.0 (a)
(f)
(e) (h) (b)
0.5 (d)
(c)
(g)
0.0
250 275 300 325 350 375 400
(nm )
0.2
A (u. A.)
(c)
(f) (b)
(a)
0.1 (e) (d)
0.0
250 275 300 325 350 375 400
(nm )
Figura 58: (a) Espectros UV-visible de una disolucin 20 mg/L de cromo (VI) a pH = 3 y
pH = 9 y de muestras no fortificadas de agua de acequia y fortificadas con 5 mg/L de cromo (VI)
registradas con una celda de camino ptico de 1 cm y fortificadas con 300 L de cromo (VI)
registradas con una celda de camino ptico 5 cm. (b) Espectros UV-visible de las muestras de
agua de puerto no fortificadas y fortificadas con 200 g/L de cromo (VI) registrados con una
celda de camino ptico 5cm a pH = 8.2 y pH = 6.5
- 126 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
15 c = 15 m g/L
pH = 5
c = 10 m g/L
10
c = 5 m g/L
PC 2
pH = 5.5
5
0 pH = 6
pH = 6.5
-5 pH = 7
pH = 9
-10
-20 -10 0 10 20 30
PC 1
- 127 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
onda medidas para las disoluciones de la serie I, dos intervalos parecieron ser adecuados
para el clculo de la concentracin de CrO42-. Estos intervalos fueron 270-290 nm y 325-
340 nm. A pesar del ruido en las seales, el intervalo 350-380 nm tambin pudo
considerarse adecuado. El ruido en esta regin es debido a la presencia de puntos de
inflexin en el espectro del analito. Cuando el espectro de segunda derivada del analito
tiende a cero el cociente anterior tiende a infinito. Los cocientes AS' ' , j / 'CrO
'
2
,j 4
presentaron el mismo valor para todos las disoluciones procesadas en el intervalo 310-
320 nm. Esto se debe al hecho de que en este intervalo la relacin ''CrO2 , j / ''HCrO , j es
4 4
igual a la unidad. Dicha situacin se explic en el apartado anterior. Por lo tanto, este
intervalo permite estimar la concentracin total de cromo (VI).
340 nm, respectivamente. Para ambas series, los valores de los cocientes en el intervalo
350-380 nm fueron consistentes con la concentracin de CrO42- adicionada.
0 500
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-20000
"x / "y
0
-40000 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
"y/ "x
-60000 -500
Figura 60: Grficos AS'' , j / ''HCrO , j frente ''CrO2 , j / ''HCrO , j (a) y AS' ' , j / 'CrO
'
2
,j
4 4 4 4
Tabla 29: Predicciones de la concentracin CrO42- para la serie IIa (mg/L Cr) y series IIb,
IIIa y IIIb (g/L Cr) usando el GHPSAM
intervalos intervalos
muestra 270-290 325-345 350-380 muestra 265-290 325-345 350-380
IIa.0 0.219 0.012 -0.01 0.02 -0.14 0.05 IIIa.0 27.9 1.8 63 3 -6 13
IIa.1 4.650 0.012 4.48 0.02 4.47 0.04 IIIa.1 234.3 1.9 273 3 201 10
IIa.2 6.688 0.007 6.51 0.02 6.61 0.06 IIIa.2 420 2 474 3 407 14
IIa.3 8.497 0.011 8.35 0.02 8.49 0.05 IIIa.3 615 2 663 3 606 15
IIa.4 10.31 0.02 10.14 0.02 10.45 0.08 IIIa.4 801 3 855 4 794 17
IIa.5 12.03 0.02 11.83 0.04 12.29 0.07 IIIa.5 1028 3 1084 3 1020 7
IIa.6 13.89 0.02 13.62 0.03 14.09 0.13
muestra 270-290 325-345 350-380 muestra 265-290 325-345 350-380
IIb.0 138 7 116 6 -16 16 IIIb.0 -24 4 23 5 -10 9
IIb.1 392 7 370 5 251 19 IIIb.1 123 3 159 6 147 7
IIb.2 545 8 528 9 406 17 IIIb.2 260 4 276 6 289 6
IIb.3 727 8 699 14 624 25 IIIb.3 414 4 404 6 426 28
IIb.4 869 17 834 16 766 23 IIIb.4 551 3 543 7 618 25
IIb.5 1115 12 1054 18 927 52 IIIb.5 716 3 677 13 778 14
- 130 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Tabla 30: Predicciones de las concentraciones de CrO42- y HCrO4- para series IIa
expresadas en mg/L de Cr y series IIIa y IIIb expresadas en g/L de Cr usando el GHPSAM para
las dos formas del analito en el intervalo 290 - 340 nm
AS/X vs Y/X AS/Y vs X/Y
muestra CrO42- HCrO4- CrO42- HCrO4-
IIa.0 0.1480 0.0018 0.285 0.004 0.1469 0.0017 0.287 0.003
IIa.1 4.665 0.003 0.317 0.008 4.668 0.003 0.31 0.008
IIa.2 6.738 0.003 0.415 0.007 6.74 0.003 0.41 0.007
IIa.3 8.569 0.003 0.472 0.007 8.571 0.003 0.467 0.006
IIa.4 10.435 0.003 0.605 0.007 10.436 0.002 0.602 0.006
IIa.5 12.179 0.002 0.757 0.006 12.181 0.002 0.752 0.006
IIa.6 14.010 0.002 0.875 0.005 14.012 0.002 0.87 0.005
IIIa.0 35 0.3 - 34.5 0.3 -
IIIa.1 238.6 0.4 - 238.2 0.4 -
IIIa.2 432.6 0.5 - 432.4 0.4 -
IIIa.3 629.4 0.3 - 629 0.3 -
IIIa.4 806.3 0.6 - 805.8 0.5 -
IIIa.5 1036.7 0.6 - 1036.4 0.5 -
IIIb.0 65.5 1.9 -44 4 65.3 1.8 -43 4
IIIb.1 220 2 44 219.9 1.9 54
IIIb.2 352.9 1.7 83 3 352.9 1.6 83 3
IIIb.3 517 2 117 5 517 2 117 5
IIIb.4 652.2 1.6 182 3 651.9 1.5 183 3
IIIb.5 809.3 1.2 282 2 808.7 1.1 284 2
Para la serie IIb, donde tambin hay que considerar un gran cociente entre la seal
del interferente y la seal del analito, las curvas de calibracin obtenidas no fueron
lineales r2 < 0.99 y syx > 7. Esto se interpret como que el interferente desconocido no era
totalmente lineal en el rango de longitudes de onda de modo que las predicciones estaran
afectadas por un error, por lo tanto la concentracin del analito no pudo ser estimada.
- 131 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Para muestras de agua de acequia (serie II) y agua de puerto (serie III), los
intervalos lineales para la interferencia desconocida fueron 270-340 y 350-380 nm y 270-
345 y 350-380 nm, respectivamente. Los grficos obtenidos pueden observarse en la
Figura 61.
La concentracin del analito, Cr (VI) total, puede obtenerse seleccionando tres
longitudes de onda incluidas en los intervalos anteriores y aplicando las ecuaciones del
GHPSAM. Siguiendo este procedimiento, fueron estimadas las predicciones del Cr (VI)
total en todas las muestras. Se obtuvieron resultados adecuados en todos los casos
excepto en la serie IIb. Con la finalidad de mejorar las predicciones de Cr (VI) en esta
serie (con alta relacin seal interferente-seal analito), se realiz un nuevo estudio.
Teniendo en cuenta la anchura de los intervalos 270-340 y 270-345 nm, se decidi
fraccionarlos en pequeos intervalos (270-290, 290-320 y 320-340 nm) para comprobar
la linealidad del espectro del interferente para la serie IIb.
- 132 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
(a) IIa.0
(b)
IIb.0
IIa.1 IIb.1
40
IIa.2 4500 IIb.2
35 IIa.3 IIb.3
IIa.4 IIb.4
30 IIa.5 3500 IIb.5
20 2500
15
1500
10
5
500
0
-5 -500
(nm ) (nm )
1500
1000 1000
500 500
0 0
-500 -500
(nm ) (nm )
Figura 61: Grficos AS'' , j / M ''j frente j para la adicin estndar de cromo (VI) en las muestras de agua de acequia y de puerto y en muestras
fortificadas: (a) Serie IIa. (b) Serie IIb. (c) Serie IIIa. (d) Serie IIIb
- 133 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
PC2 (2.0 %)
PC2 (2.0 %)
(a) (b)
350-380
PC1 (97.9 %)
c total = 2 mg/L
PC1 (97.9 %)
Figura 62: Grfico de puntuaciones (a) y grfico de cargas (b) obtenidos mediante PCA
para los 25 incrementos A seleccionados de cada intervalo de la serie IIb y de los patrones de Cr
(VI) a pH = 3 y pH = 9.
- 134 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
Tabla 31: Predicciones de la concentracin total de cromo (VI) para las series IIa, IIb, III
y IIIb usando el GHPSAM
muestra conc adicionada conc predicha muestra conc adicionada conc predicha
(g/L) (g/L) (g/L) (g/L)
IIa.0 0 (0.16 0.03) 103 IIb.0 0 -31 26
IIa.1 5 103 (4.98 0.04) 103 IIb.1 300 277 20
IIa.2 7 103 (7.20 0.05) 103 IIb.2 500 445 16
IIa.3 9 103 (9.17 0.04) 103 IIb.3 700 685 21
IIa.4 11 103 (11.18 0.04) 103 IIb.4 900 873 20
IIa.5 13 103 (13.08 0.04) 103 IIb.5 1100 1063 19
IIa.6 15 103 (15.04 0.04) 103
IIIa.0 0 -2 6 IIIb.0 0 6 23
IIIa.1 200 208 5 IIIb.1 200 214 30
IIIa.2 400 399 5 IIIb.2 400 393 23
IIIa.3 600 595 6 IIIb.3 600 591 34
IIIa.4 800 783 8 IIIb.4 800 797 31
IIIa.5 1000 1016 4 IIIb.5 1000 1012 27
- 135 -
Captulo 3.2: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN ESTTICO
3.2.3.5.- CONCLUSIONES
- Se establecen una serie de caractersticas generales nuevas para el GHPSAM.
Nuestro estudio demuestra que el GHPSAM proporciona la concentracin del un analito,
en presencia de interferencias desconocidas, incluso cuando las seales analticas son
contribucin de diferentes formas relacionadas a travs de un equilibrio.
Para determinar la concentracin de las diferentes formas qumicas del analito, se
debe considerar sus contribuciones en las expresiones generales del GHPSAM como se
ha desarrollado en el presente captulo. Pero la misma metodologa sera aplicable al
estudio de especies que se encuentren en un equilibrio dependiente de las condiciones
puntuales de la matriz acuosa o especies implicadas en un proceso cintico. Incluso la
aplicacin para el anlisis simultneo de especies diferentes parece viable si se cumplen
las condiciones de aplicacin.
El mtodo solamente fallar cuando la absorbancia del analito es lineal en el
intervalo de longitudes de onda estudiado y no ser aplicable cuando no se localicen
tramos lineales para la interferencia global. En el resto de casos, el GHPSAM es capaz de
corregir la absorbancia de la interferencia desconocida. La calibracin propuesta aporta
ventajas respecto otros mtodos como el PLS donde la presencia de interferencias no
modeladas origina fallos crticos en la prediccin.
Se ha desarrollado un programa que permite la aplicacin del mtodo para dos
formas del analito en un entorno muy accesible, de manejo sencillo, con una rpida
obtencin de resultados (< 30 s) y muy flexible que complementa el mtodo descrito para
un solo analito.
- 137 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.- PROCEDIMIENTOS EN
FLUJO
- 137 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 138 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.1.6.- CONCLUSIONS
- 139 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 140 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.1.1.- INTRODUCCIN
La determinacin de elementos traza en ciertas aguas medioambientales requiere
de tcnicas analticas con alta sensibilidad y selectividad. Para la determinacin de iones
metlicos se han utilizado tcnicas unielementales como la espectroscopa de absorcin
atmica electrotrmica o tcnicas multielementales como la espectroscopa de emisin
atmica acoplada o no a la espectrometra de masas.
La quimioluminiscencia, resultante de emisiones transitorias originadas por una
reaccin, es tambin un mtodo interesante para la determinacin de iones metlicos a
niveles de traza o subtrazas. La quimioluminiscencia suministra sensibilidad y
selectividad y su acoplamiento a la inyeccin en flujo (FI, flow injection) conduce a
mtodos rpidos y reproducibles en la inyeccin de muestra y mezclado de los reactivos.
Estos factores, junto con el bajo coste y simplicidad hacen a la determinacin
quimioluminiscente o su combinacin con FI extremadamente interesante para el anlisis
de trazas.
Entre las reacciones quimioluminiscentes destaca la reaccin entre el luminol y un
oxidante, generalmente el perxido de hidrgeno, en medio bsico que est catalizada por
algunos iones metlicos, produciendo una emisin quimioluminiscente a =425nm.
O O
NH -
H2O2 O
- + N2 + h
NH O
OH-
NH2 O NH2 O
Figura 63: Reaccin quimioluminiscente luminol-H2O2
- 141 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Por otra parte y tal como puede deducirse de la Tabla II.1, las condiciones de
conservacin de las muestras difieren de unos autores a otros, y modifican los intervalos
de aplicabilidad de las reacciones quimioluminiscentes. La conservacin de muestras es
un problema analtico interesante porque la estabilidad completa para cada constituyente
nunca puede ser alcanzada. Despus de la toma de muestra, los mtodos de conservacin
solamente retardan los cambios qumicos y biolgicos [1]. La adsorcin en las paredes de
los recipientes se produce en muestras almacenadas en condiciones no cidas y no
refrigeradas. Las muestras deben ser almacenadas sin acidificar pero enfriadas para
preservar la distribucin original de las especies [150]. Independientemente de la
temperatura de almacenaje, muchos autores recomiendan la acidificacin inmediatamente
despus del muestreo si se estudian iones metlicos.
El anlisis inmediato se recomienda siempre para el anlisis de muestras de aguas.
Tambin se usa un almacenaje breve de la muestra filtrada a temperatura baja. En estos
casos la medida se realiza sin ninguna etapa de acondicionamiento de muestra adicional,
el anlisis de aguas embotelladas o de ciertas muestras industriales complejas se realiza
- 142 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 143 -
Tabla 33: Resumen de determinaciones quimioluminiscentes por inyeccin en flujo de iones metlicos en muestras de agua
Ref Iones Reaccin Etapa Consideraciones del mtodo Concentracin Tipo de muestra
(*) (g/L) de agua
[155] Mn(II) luminol-H2O2 S muestra acidificada con cido actico-acetato de amonio pH=5.0 Mn: 0.05-0.5 marina
[156] Fe(II) luminol-H2O2 S H3PO4 en disoluciones patrn/muestra pH=6 Fe: 10-70 -
[157] Co(II) luminol-H2O2 S patrones en 0.01mol/L HCl Co: 0.05-4
Cu(II) fase mvil cido oxlico pH=4.2 Cu: 20-200 -
Fe(II) Fe Semicuant
[158] Fe(III) brillante sulfoflavina- H2O2 S estndar in 510-3 mol/L HCl muestra acidificada a pH=5.5 Fe: 0.02-5.6 marina
[159] Fe(III) luminol-H2O2 S muestra acidificada con cido actico-acetato de amonio pH=3.0 Fe(III): 0.005-0.1 ocenica
[160] Cr(VI) luminol-hexaciano ferrato(II) S - Cr: 0.04-1 residual
[161] Co(II) cido glico-H2O2 S muestras con cido frmico-formato de amonio pH=3.6 Co: 0.0006-1 referencia y marina
[162] Mn(II) luminol-H2O2 S patrones en 0.1mol/L HCl Mn: 0.002-110 referencia, y marina
[163] Fe(II, III) luminol-O2 S patrones en HCl a pH=3.5 Fe: 0.001-1 naturales
[164] Fe(II,III) luminol-O2 S patrones/muestras en 0.1mol/L HCl Fe: 0.002-0.56 ocenica y marina
[165] Fe(II) brillante sulfoflavina- H2O2 S patrones en HCl muestra adicin de tampn acetato (pH=4.4) Fe: 0.05-11 lluvia, potable, ro
Total Fe y costera
[166] Co(II) pirogalol-H2O2-NaOH, S 0.01 mol/L HCl purificado en disoluciones patrn Co: 5-850 estuario
Fe(II,III) Fe: -
[167] Cr(III) luminol - H2O2-in haluro No con / sin EDTA Cr: 0.005-5.2
Fe(II) Fe: 0.6-56 -
Co(II) Co: 0.06-59
[168] Co(II) luminol -IO4- No muestras acidificadas con H3PO4 adicin de 8-quinolinol Co: 0.01-12 potable y
Mn(II) (determinacin Mn) y citrato sdico (determinacin de Co y Mn) Mn: 0.02-9 contaminada
[153] Cr(III) luminol-H2O2 No 10-4 mol/L EDTA y 310-4 mol/L H3PO4 en disoluciones Cr: 0.01-6 mineral, potable,
patrn/muestra 10-3 mol/L EDTA aadido a disolucin H2O2 contaminada
[169] Mn(II) TCNQ-O2-OH-EosinY No anlisis inmediato (no acidificadas), disol. vesicular DDAB Mn: 4 - 4000 potable
[170] Fe(II) luminol-IO4- No muestras no acidificadas, o-fenantrolina activador (determ. Fe) Fe: 0.003-0.1 subsuelo
Mn(II) TEA enmascarante (determ. Mn) Mn: 0.005-0.1 potable
[171] Cr(III) luminol-H2O2 No H3PO4 disoluciones en patrn/muestras (pH=3.7) Cr: 0.5-500 potable
10-4 mol/L EDTA, 0.1 mol/L CO32- y 0.3 Br- portador (pH=10.8)
[172] Cu(II) fenantrolina- H2O2 No patrn acidificado con HCl a pH=3 muestra acidificada a pH=2 Cu: 0.006-0.45 agua de mar
[173] Cr(III) luminol-H2O2 No 10-3 mol/L EDTA en disoluciones patrn/muestra Cr: 5.2-5200 natural
(*) Etapa de preconcentracin
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- Procedimiento FI
El montaje de inyeccin en flujo utilizado que se muestra en la Figura 64, es
similar al descrito por Escobar et al. [153]. Los caudales de luminol y H2O2 se mezclaron
primero en el sistema en flujo y despus con la muestra, que era insertada en un portador
que consista en una disolucin de EDTA o disolucin tampn. La distancia entre la
ltima unin tipo T y la celda de deteccin era de 4 cm.
Bomba
Instrumento
H2O2
celda
Luminol deteccin
Vlvula
EDTA Inyeccin Detector
Muestra
Desecho
Figura 64: Diagrama esquemtico del montaje FI usado para la determinacin de cromo
(III)
Las disoluciones empleadas fueron las siguientes: EDTA 0.01 M en 0.04 mol/L de
KOH, luminol 1.2 10-3 mol/L en 0.3 mol/L de disolucin tampn HCO 3 CO 23
ajustada a pH 10.8 y perxido de hidrgeno 0.1 mol/L.
Se usaron diferentes celdas en flujo cuyo esquema se muestra en la Figura 65. La
celda de cuarzo convencional (celda A) tena un camino ptico de 1.5 mm (Hellma,
Alemania). Otras celdas ensayadas consistan en montajes fabricados en el propio
laboratorio de tubera transparente de politetrafluoroetileno cuya longitud era de 50 cm y
con dimetro interno de 0.8 mm. En la celda en hlice (celda B), la tubera fue enrollada
en un soporte de 1.5 cm de longitud y 7.5 mm de dimetro. Las dimensiones de la celda
- 145 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- Procedimiento en esttico
Los montajes estudiados se muestran en la Figura 66. La disolucin de reactivos
fue preparada en la celda de cuarzo. Las concentraciones fueron de 4 10-4 mol/L de
luminol, 3.3 10-2 mol/L de perxido, 3.3 10-3 mol/L de EDTA y 0.1 mol/L de
disolucin tampn de HCO 3 CO 23 a pH 10.8. En el montaje E (Figura 66a), las
disoluciones de Cr (III) fueron inyectadas a travs del septum con una jeringa y el
mezclado de los reactivos se consigui con un agitador.
Se emple un segundo montaje (montaje F, Figura 66b) basado en una bomba
peristltica como sistema de inyeccin. La bomba era utilizada para conducir la
disolucin de cromo (III) a la celda que contena la mezcla reactiva mediante la
manipulacin de una vlvula de inyeccin. El portador usado fue una corriente de aire
con velocidad de flujo de 5 mL/min.
(a) (b)
jeringa tubo entrada
septum tapa
celda cuarzo
celda cuarzo
agitador
agitador
presente en la celda de deteccin (120 s). En esta ltima etapa, la bomba peristltica opera
conduciendo la disolucin en sentido opuesto.
reactivo V1 V2 celda
desecho
deteccin
aire analito
desecho
- Disoluciones patrn
En todos los casos, el volumen de inyeccin fue de 200 L. La concentracin de
patrn de cromo (III) de la disolucin madre era 250 mg/L. Las disoluciones de trabajo de
Cr (III) (0 - 50 g/L) fueron preparadas diariamente por dilucin de la anterior
disolucin.
Adems de las disoluciones unicomponentes de los distintos metales en estudio, se
prepararon diferentes disoluciones bicomponentes y tricomponentes, descritas en la
Tabla 34.
- 147 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- Muestras reales
Se analiz un material estndar de referencia SMR 1640 que corresponde a una
muestra de una agua natural tomada en Clear Creek, CO. Los valores de los elementos
traza estn certificados por el instituto nacional de patrones y tecnologa de Estados
Unidos (NIST).
Las muestras de agua de ro, agua potable y agua contaminada fueron tomadas de
diferentes localizaciones en el rea de la ciudad de Valencia (Espaa). Las muestras
fueron filtradas con un filtro de membrana de 0.45 m. El material empleado haba sido
lavado en bao cido.
Para los clculos de optimizacin multivariada (simplex) se emple un programa
escrito en Visual Basic.
- 148 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
12.00
11.00
pH
10.00
9.00
8.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
tiempo (s)
Figura 69: Efecto del pH en la intensidad quimioluminiscente relativa en funcin del
tiempo, registrado usando un procedimiento en esttico manual. La lnea discontinua indica el
mximo de intensidad quimioluminiscente para cada pH.
- 149 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Tabla 38: Composicin del material estndar de referencia SMR 1640: Agua natural
Figura 70: Efecto de la concentracin de EDTA en la altura de pico para diferentes iones
metlicos: 10 g/L Cr(III), 25 g/L Co(II), 350 g/L Fe(II) y 1000 g/L Fe(III)
- 150 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 151 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Las sensibilidades alcanzadas son del mismo orden que las obtenidas en las
condiciones anteriores tanto para el sistema en flujo como para el procedimiento en
esttico utilizando cualquiera de los fluormetros.
- 152 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
de 3 fueron 3, 3.5 y 10 g/L para Cr, Co y Cu. En presencia de EDTA y para el Cr(III), se
obtuvo la misma sensibilidad.
Para el procedimiento en esttico es necesario neutralizar la muestra. Los
resultados ptimos se obtuvieron con una concentracin de Na2CO3 de 0.2272 mol/L
considerando una dilucin 7/10 de la muestra. Las rectas de calibrado obtenidas son y = (-
0.4 0.2) + (0.38 0.01) cCr (r2= 0.99, syx = 1.5) and y = (-0.2 0.2) + (0.54 0.01) cCo
(r2= 0.99, syx = 1).
- 153 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- Evaluacin de la aplicabilidad
La Figura 71 muestra la seal que se obtiene para las diferentes condiciones
estudiadas utilizando el montaje en FI. Si bien la seal quimioluminiscente de cada metal
es funcin del procedimiento de almacenaje y de la presencia de agente enmascarante este
influencia es pequea para el caso del Cr(III). Por lo que controlando las condiciones, es
posible incrementar la especificidad de la determinacin de Cr minimizando las seales
de Co y Cu. No se necesit la neutralizacin para el procesado de las disoluciones
almacenadas en las diferentes opciones ensayadas. Por tanto, la adecuada seleccin de las
condiciones experimentales permite la determinacin selectiva para Cr(III) o la
evaluacin conjunta de Cr, Co y Ni.
Cr
Co
Cu
Seal relativa
10
11
12
13
14
15
1
procedim iento
Figura 71: Seal relativa para las diferentes condiciones experimentales 1: sin
acondicionamiento; 2: HCl 510-3; 3: HNO3 0.5; 4: EDTA 10-2; 5: EDTA 10-2 y HCl 510-3; 6:
EDTA 510-3; 7: EDTA 510-3 y HCl 510-3; 8: EDTA 10-2 (portador) en KOH; 9: EDTA 10-2
(portador) tamponado; 10: EDTA 510-3 (portador), en KOH; 11: EDTA 510-3 (portador),
tamponado; 12: EDTA 10-2 (portador) en KOH y HCl 510-3; 13: EDTA 10-2 (portador)
tamponado y HCl 510-3; 14: EDTA 510-3 (portador) en KOH y HCl 510-3; 15: EDTA 510-3
(portador) tamponado y HCl 510-3. Unidades de concentracin: mol/L
- 154 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
140
120
% recuperacin
100
Cu
80
Co
60 Cr
40
20
0
s-10
s-11
s-12
s-13
s-14
s-15
s-16
s-1
s-2
s-3
s-4
s-5
s-6
s-7
s-8
s-9
Figura 72: Porcentajes de recuperacin de la seal para distintas disoluciones mezclas de
metales. Las barras de error representan 3s de las rplicas
Se estudi la seal que originaba el material de referencia SMR 1640, agua natural
conservada en condiciones cidas (HNO3 0.5 mol/L). El contenido en elementos
metlicos es del orden de 7-1000 g/L, como se muestra en la Tabla 38. Se analiz por el
procedimiento en esttico adicionando carbonato previamente y por el modo FI. Se
evaluaron las distintas condiciones comparando la seal proporcionada por mezclas
patrn de los metales. Se lograron buenos porcentajes de recuperacin de la seal como
puede observarse en la Figura 73. nicamente contribuan significativamente a la seal
total el Cr y el Co.
esttico FI FI FI FI
adicin HNO3 sin acidificar adicin HCl adicin HNO3 adicin HNO3
140
120
% recuperacin
100
80
60
40
20
0
sin EDTA
sin EDTA
EDTA
EDTA
EDTA
- 155 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 156 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
4000
Cr(VI)
3500
Cr(III)+Cr(VI)
3000
HCl 5 10-3 mol/L
2500 Cr(III)+Cr(VI)
seal
2000
Cr(VI)
1500
1000
HCl 10-3 mol/L
500
0
0 5 10 15 20
concentracin Cr ( g/L)
- 157 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5
tiempo (s)
Figura 75: (a) Intensidad quimioluminiscente (unidades arbitrarias) en funcin del tiempo:
celda de flujo de cuarzo (A), celda de flujo en hlice (B), celda de flujo en espiral (C), celda de
flujo en nudo (D), esttico manual (E) y esttico automtico (F)
rea de pico
C
B
20 B 50
10 25
A A
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
3+ 3+
Cr ( g/L) Cr ( g/L)
Figura 76: (a) Altura de pico y (b) rea de pico en funcin de la concentracin de Cr(III):
celda de flujo de cuarzo (A), celda de flujo en hlice (B), celda de flujo en espiral (C), celda de
flujo en nudo (D), esttico manual (E) y esttico automtico (F)
- 158 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 159 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Tabla 45: Parmetros analticos para los diferentes montajes y diferentes mtodos de
regresin usando regresin directa: (a) altura de pico y (b) rea de pico. R2: coeficiente de
correlacin, se: desviacin estndar de la regresin y rmsec: raz de los cuadrados medios de los
errores de calibracin, RSD: desviacin estndar relativa
(a) celdas de flujo proced. esttico
cuarzo hlice espiral nudo jeringa bomba
Regresin log a -1.23 0.06 -0.71 0.07 -0.67 0.04 -0.25 0.05 -0.19 0.03 -0.48 0.09
doble a 0.06 0.02 0.19 0.03 0.22 0.02 0.57 0.06 0.64 0.04 0.33 0.07
logartmica b 1.00 0.05 1.18 0.06 1.22 0.04 1.04 0.04 1.03 0.02 1.08 0.07
o R2 0.98 0.99 0.995 0.992 0.997 0.972
potencial se 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.09
rmsec 2.63 2.71 1.58 1.74 1.77 2.1
b0 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.11 0.07 0.05 -0.11 0.18 0.13 0.18 0.27 0.12
Regresin b1 0.05 0.02 0.24 0.02 0.30 0.02 0.68 0.04 0.66 0.03 0.33 0.02
lineal R2 0.98 0.984 0.997 0.99 0.992 0.99
se 0.03 0.14 0.07 0.34 0.28 0.15
rmsec 0.48 0.46 0.18 0.38 0.32 0.35
b0 0.14 0.01 -0.1 0.4 -0.9 0.3 1.1 0.9 0.65 0.17 1.6 1.6
Regresin b1 0.023 0.242 0.515 0.377 0.507 -0.04 0.02
0.002 0.006 0.005 0.014 0.002
polinomial b2 103 0.9 0.2 43 -1 2 65 51 12 10
R2 0.992 0.99 0.992 0.99 0.998 0.97
se 0.1 1.0 0.9 1.5 0.6 2.0
rmsec 2.23 1.58 1.48 1.94 0.74 2.9
LD 1.05 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.6
RSDintra 4.7 4.3 4.2 4.9 5.8 5.4
RSDinter 12.1 13.0 12.4 12.3 11.5 12.7
- 160 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Tabla 46: Parmetros analticos para los diferentes montajes y diferentes mtodos de
regresin usando regresin inversa: (a) altura de pico y (b) rea de pico. R2: coeficiente de
correlacin, se: desviacin estndar de la regresin y rmsec: raz de los cuadrados medios de los
errores de calibracin, RSD: desviacin estndar relativa
(a) celdas de flujo proced. esttico
cuarzo hlice espiral nudo jeringa bomba
Regresin log a 1.23 0.02 0.61 0.03 0.55 0.02 0.24 0.04 0.19 0.02 0.46 0.05
doble a 16.93 0.91 4.08 0.31 3.53 0.18 1.75 0.14 1.55 0.08 2.91 0.36
logartmica b 0.98 0.05 0.84 0.04 0.81 0.02 0.96 0.03 0.97 0.02 0.9 0.06
o R2 0.98 0.99 0.995 0.992 0.997 0.97
potencial se 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.08
rmsec 2.57 2.39 1.6 1.85 1.7 2.41
b0 -0.58 0.52 -0.2 0.47 -0.21 0.18 0.22 0.37 -0.2 0.3 -0.8 0.4
Regresin b1 18.5 1.5 4.02 0.3 3.33 0.10 1.45 0.09 1.5 0.08 2.97 0.17
lineal R2 0.98 0.98 0.997 0.99 0.992 0.99
se 0.62 0.59 0.23 0.49 0.41 0.45
rmsec 0.48 0.45 0.18 0.38 0.32 0.35
b0 -1.6 1.2 0.72 1.5 2.0 1.0 -1.4 1.0 -0.7 0.2 -1.1 0.3
Regresin b1 24 4 3.42 0.17 1.86 0.09 2.08 0.03 1.75 0.02 3.37 0.02
polinomial b2 103 -2689 300 -56.9 0.4 3.6 0.2 -18.1 0.2 -11.4 0.2 -55.0 0.2
R2 0.993 0.99 0.992 0.993 0.999 0.998
se 1.76 2.12 1.79 1.68 0.79 1.03
rmsec 1.43 1.73 1.46 1.37 0.64 0.84
- 161 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
contaminada
120 120
concentracin ( g/L)
concentracin ( g/L)
contaminada
80 80
40 ro 1
40
ro 1
ro 2
ro 2
ro 3
ro 3
0 mineral
0 mineral
A B C D E F A B C D E F
montajes montajes
- 162 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Una muestra real de agua potable fue analizada por el mtodo en estudio y por el
mtodo de referencia basado en la difenilcarbazida [1]. En este ltimo mtodo se
requiere la oxidacin previa de Cr (III) a Cr (VI). La Tabla 47 expone los resultados
obtenidos para la muestra y para la muestra fortificada. Como puede observarse en la
Tabla 47, los resultados obtenidos con la celda en nudo fueron consistentes con los datos
obtenidos con el mtodo de referencia y con la ampliamente establecida celda de flujo
plana y en espiral.
- 163 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.1.6.- CONCLUSIONES
- Se han obtenido las condiciones experimentales ptimas para la reaccin de
oxidacin del luminol por perxido de hidrgeno catalizada por iones metlicos. Las dos
estrategias de optimizacin univariada y multivariada han proporcionado valores
similares. Tambin se ha analizado la influencia de variables tan crticas como el pH y la
concentracin de EDTA. Se deben emplear reactivos de calidad alta, es decir que la
riqueza sea elevada para obtener lmites de deteccin ptimos.
impulsar el portador que es aire. El montaje basado en la inyeccin con jeringa necesita
un dispositivo adicional que permita inyectar la muestra en condiciones de ausencia de
luz y disponer de un sistema de agitacin. El uso de aire como portador evita
parcialmente este dispositivo accesorio para la inyeccin de la muestra. Adems este
ltimo sistema ha sido automatizado con un dispositivo conmutador.
Los parmetros analticos de los modelos de calibracin para los procedimientos en
esttico fueron similares a los obtenidos para la celda en nudo cuando se emplea la
jeringa y peores cuando se utiliza el sistema de bombeo. No obstante, con la celda en
nudo se obtienen mejores velocidades de anlisis y mejores valores de repetibilidad.
3.3.2.1.- INTRODUCTION
A) CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
B) STANDARDISATION METHODS. THEORETICAL
BACKGROUND
- Direct standardisation
- Piecewise direct standardisation
C) CALIBRATION MODELS. THEORETICAL
BACKGROUND
- Univariate methods
- Principal component regression (PCR)
- Partial least squares regression (PLS)
- Non-linear variants of PLS and PCR
- Locally weighted regression
- Stepwise multiple linear regression (stepwise-MLR)
- L-PCR and L-PLS with logarithmic preprocessing
3.3.2.2.- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
- Apparatus and reagents
- FI procedure
- Batch procedure
3.3.2.3.- CALIBRATION TRANSFER IN LINEAR INTERVAL
- Localisation of linear interval: robust univariate calibration
- Optimisation of transference parameters
- Standardisation factors
- Application: determination in water samples
3.3.2.4.- MULTIVARIATE CALIBRATION FOR NON-LINEAR
DATA
- Non-linear univariate calibration model
- Pre-processing and optimisation of multivariate calibration
models
- Prediction ability of calibration models
- Application: determination in water samples
3.3.2.5- CALIBRATION TRANSFER FOR NON-LINEAR DATA
- Scheme of proposed methodology
- Optimisation of transference parameters
- Standardisation factors
- Application: determination in water samples
- Comparison to other models of calibration
3.3.2.6.- CONCLUSIONS
- 168 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.2.1.- INTRODUCCIN
A) CONSIDERACIONES EN EL ANLISIS MULTIVARIADO
En el captulo anterior se han mencionado las ventajas de las determinaciones
basadas en reacciones quimioluminiscentes. El desarrollo de estos mtodos abre la
posibilidad a anlisis rpidos, altamente sensibles usando instrumentacin de bajo coste,
caractersticas que resultan valiosas cuando se han de procesar un nmero elevado de
muestras. As ocurre en la monitorizacin de la concentracin de elementos traza en
aguas naturales y particularmente en el caso del cromo. Sin embargo, hay que considerar
varios aspectos cuando se pretenden obtener resultados analticos de calidad.
- No es siempre posible utilizar un modelo de calibracin establecido para la
prediccin de nuevas muestras.
- La relacin entre la concentracin y la seal es no lineal en varios anlisis
quimioluminiscentes, especialmente cuando se necesita un amplio intervalo til de
concentraciones.
En ambos sentidos se han planteado soluciones haciendo uso de registros
multivariados que permiten lograr modelos ms robustos. Esta opcin aporta mayor
informacin que el uso de datos univariados y en consecuencia se mejoran los resultados
de los modelos de calibracin y de las predicciones [182-184].
- 169 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a)
(b)
XAs
XBA
XAi bi F
XBs
Wi
- Mtodos univariados
La aproximacin clsica o directa y la aproximacin inversa son los dos modos
para construir el modelo que relaciona las medidas (x) y las concentraciones (y). El modo
directo relaciona las medidas con las concentraciones: x = f(y), mientras el inverso es y =
f(x).
- 172 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Las hiptesis bsicas del modelo son: la relacin entre la variable predictora y la
respuesta es lineal en el intervalo de aplicabilidad; la variable predictora no es aleatoria,
es decir, est medida sin error o su error es despreciable frente al de las respuestas; los
errores en las respuestas siguen distribuciones normales, son independientes e igualmente
distribuidos con media cero.
El PLS no lineal (NL-PLS, nonlinear partial least squares) y PLS "perfilado" o (S-
PLS, spline partial least squares) son ejemplos de mtodos donde se incluye una relacin
nolineal interna en el algoritmo. Mientras NL-PLS aplica un suavizado para modelar la
relacin interna, S-PLS usa perfilados de regresin bivariados no adaptativos para lograr
el mismo objetivo. NL-PLS de segundo orden utiliza un polinomio cuadrtico: u = c0 + c1
t + c2 t2 + h. S-PLS de segundo orden la expresin u = b0 + b1 t + b2 t2 + b j+ 2 (t z j ) 3+
j
donde (t-zj)+3 = 0 si t < zj donde zj son las coordenadas de los J-nudos del suavizado.
- 174 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3
(x , x ) 3 (x p , x i )
wi ( x p ) = 1 si 0
p i
1
d (x ) d (x p ) [ec. 33]
p
wi ( x p ) = 0 en caso contrario
- 175 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
del ajuste del modelo al incluir ms variables y todos los trminos de la regresin
implicados son significativos.
El conjunto de predictores (X) puede corresponder con la matriz de datos originales
(step-X), incorporar trminos no lineales como los cuadrados de las variables originales
(step-XX2) o usar una transformacin no lineal como el preprocesado logartmico (step-
logX).
- 176 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 177 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Ortiz y col. [213] han propuesto una secuencia computacional para la calibracin.
El procedimiento numrico explota la capacidad de la regresin LMS para detectar el
grupo de datos experimentales alineados y la ptima precisin y exactitud de las
estimaciones propuestas por la regresin LS.
Tabla 48: Parmetros de regresin univariada para regresin por mnimos cuadrados
(LS) y regresin de mnima mediana de los cuadrados (LMS) para diferentes instrumentos, celdas
de deteccin y para modos de inyeccin en esttico y en flujo.
Instrumento A Modelo b1 b0 syx R2
celda A LMS 40.5 53 13 0.999
LS 41.6 0.9 50 5 13 0.993
celda B LMS 48.3 61 18 0.999
LS 48 0.9 59 5 12 0.995
celda C LMS 133 -23 82 0.994
LS 129 3 3 20 60 0.992
celda D LMS 158 101 46 0.999
LS 160 2 97 15 44 0.997
Instrumento B Modelo b1 b0 syx R2
celda A LMS 0.020 0.039 0.03 0.978
LS 0.024 0.002 0.019 0.008 0.02 0.964
celda B LMS 0.213 0.142 0.08 0.999
LS 0.223 0.005 0.102 0.026 0.07 0.992
celda C LMS 0.297 0.154 0.09 0.999
LS 0.290 0.006 0.174 0.029 0.08 0.994
celda D LMS 0.459 0.086 0.17 0.999
LS 0.480 0.006 0.005 0.044 0.13 0.997
procedimiento LMS 0.58 0.21 0.21 0.996
en esttico LS 0.59 0.01 0.11 0.09 0.20 0.997
- 178 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
nmero de patrn
nmero de patrn
10 10 10
(a) (b)
patrn seleccionado (c)
patrones seleccionados patrones seleccionados
5 15 5 5
9 y 15 3, 9 y 15
Figura 79: Lneas de contorno PRESS de las superficies de respuesta al aplicar una
transferencia de calibracin entre la celda C (celda primaria) y celda A (celda secundaria) para
diferentes tamaos de subconjuntos: (a) 3, (b) 4 y (c) 5. Un patrn con una numeracin alta
significa alta concentracin de cromo.
- 179 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- Factores de estandarizacin
Se evaluaron las transferencias de calibracin en el intervalo lineal. Inicialmente,
se estudi la transferencia univariada y recalibracin directa con solo tres patrones. Los
resultados no fueron robustos y presentaron valores de PRESS altos. La interpolacin
PLS directa o la estandarizacin multivariada con el modelo clsico de calibracin fueron
aplicadas proporcionando resultados inadecuados especialmente cuando se consideraron
datos obtenidos con diferentes instrumentos.
Se aplicaron los mtodos DS y PDS para lograr la estandarizacin usando los
parmetros ptimos para la transferencia y modelos PLS para la calibracin. El primer
factor estudiado fue la transferencia de calibracin entre celdas de deteccin. Los valores
de PRESS del modelo PDS fueron menores que los valores obtenidos con el modelo DS.
En la Figura 80 se exponen los valores de PRESS obtenidos con el modelo PDS.
4
valorPRESS
3
D
2 C
B
A Instrum ento B
1
D
C
0
A B
B C
D A Instrum ento A
Instrum ento A A
B C
D
situacin prim aria Instrum ento B situacin secundaria
referencia transferida
Figura 80: Valores PRESS para la estandarizacin de celda y/o de instrumento usando un
modelo PDS
- 180 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Un anlisis de la varianza de dos factores (two way ANOVA) aplicado a los datos
de PRESS mostr que se obtenan resultados robustos independientemente de la celda de
deteccin usada en el instrumento primario o en el instrumento secundario. Para el factor
celda de deteccin en el instrumento primario, los resultados fueron Fcal, Inst. A = 0.72 y Fcal,
Inst. B = 0.08 mientras que el valor crtico es F3,9 = 3.863 para un nivel de probabilidad de
= 0.05. Para el factor celda de deteccin en el instrumento secundario, los resultados
fueron Fcal, Inst. A = 3.27 y Fcal, Inst. B = 2.18 mientras que el valor crtico es F3,9 = 3.863 para
un nivel de probabilidad de = 0.05. Los valores de PRESS obtenidos para las diferentes
transferencias de calibracin fueron idnticos a los de los modelos de calibracin propios
en el instrumento primario. Esto significa una perfecta transferencia cuando el factor
considerado es instrumento y/o celda de deteccin. Sin embargo, existen diferencias de
PRESS al considerar los otros factores ensayados en la transferencia de calibracin como
son los modos de inyeccin en esttico o en flujo o el tiempo.
0.8
n=24
Criterio 15%
n=8 n=24 n=8
valorRMSEP
Criterio 5%
0.2
FACTORES
- 181 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
5 procedimiento
en flujo
seal
0
0 2 4 6 8
tiem po (s)
- 182 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 183 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
En la Tabla 50, se muestran los coeficientes de los modelos para las nueve
situaciones experimentales. Tambin se incluyen los coeficientes R2 y los errores estndar
de la regresin. En todos los casos se obtuvieron buenos modelos.
Tabla 50: Parmetros de regresin para los mtodos de calibracin univariantes: (a)
Instrumento A y (b) Instrumento B
(a) celda A celda B celda C celda D
regresin b0 1.57 0.06 1.63 0.06 1.91 0.03 2.26 0.05
doble logartmica b1 1.12 0.05 1.14 0.05 1.19 0.03 0.99 0.05
directa R2 0.990 0.991 0.997 0.988
(log d) syx 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.07
regresin b0 -1.38 0.11 -1.40 0.11 -1.60 0.06 -2.26 0.16
doble logartmica b1 0.88 0.04 0.87 0.04 0.84 0.02 1.00 0.05
inversa R2 0.990 0.991 0.997 0.988
(log i) syx 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.07
regresin b0 -4 21 -3 42 -17 127 -89 210
polinmica b1 42 3 45 6 105 18 180 29
directa b2 0.5 0.1 0.9 0.1 1.7 0.4 0.6 0.6
(pol d) R2 0.999 0.998 0.996 0.992
syx 32 63 192 317
regresin b0 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.9
polinmica b1 0.020 0.002 0.017 0.002 0.008 0.002 0.006 0.002
inversa b2 (-1.7 0.2) 10-6 (-1.3 0.3) 10-6 (-0.26 0.04) 10-6 (-0.1 0.07) 10-6
(pol i) R2 0.999 0.996 0.997 0.992
syx 0.6 1 0.8 1.4
- 184 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
En la Figura 84, se muestra el efecto de estas transformaciones para los datos del
montaje en esttico. Aunque el clculo del logaritmo es una transformacin comn para
pasar de datos no lineales a datos lineales, se reduce la diferencia entre variables. Ya que
se reduce la influencia de las variables con valores grandes y se incrementa la influencia
de las variables con valores ms pequeos.
Como puede observarse en las grficas, se obtienen registros casi paralelos para los
datos transformados y centrados. En esta situacin se ensalza el efecto de las variables
con un alto cociente ruido-seal. La correccin del logaritmo propuesta compensa este
efecto porque la influencia de cada variable se relaciona con los datos originales.
- 185 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a) (b)
25
40
20
35
30 15
25 10
20 5
z ij
xij
15 0
10 -5
5 -10
0 -15
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
tie m po (s ) tie m po (s )
(c)
3
1
z ij
-1
-2
0 2 4 6 8
tie m po (s )
Figura 83: (a) Registros quimioluminiscentes para el montaje en esttico, (b) registros
centrados por columnas y (c) registros autoescalados por columnas
- 186 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a ) (b)
2 1.5
1 1.0
0 0.5
-1 0.0
log x ij
z ij
-2 -0.5
-3 -1.0
-4 -1.5
-5 -2.0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
tie m po (s ) tie m po (s )
(c)
(d)
1.6
1.0
1.2
0.5
0.8
i
log x ij .
0.0
z ij
0.4
-0.5
0.0
-0.4 -1.0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
tie m po (s ) tie m po (s )
Figura 84: (a) Registros con transformacin logartmica, (b) registros con transformacin
logartmica corregida, (c) registros con transformacin logartmica y centrados por columnas y
(d) registros con transformacin logartmica corregida y centrados por columnas
- 187 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
0.2 1.5
log y predicho
x-cargas
0.1
log (y1)
0.5
log (y2)
0.0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
tiem po (s) log y real
(c)
70
60
50
y predicho
40
30
20 y1
10 y2
0
0 20 40 60
y real
- 188 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Los grficos boxplots de estos errores para las nueve diferentes condiciones
experimentales estn representados en la Figura 86. Los valores crticos calculados
incluyendo el 2.5 %, 5 % y 10 % de error bias positivo o negativo para cada
concentracin fueron 0.53, 1.06 y 2.12, respectivamente.
Los mejores modelos son NL-PCR, NL-PLS y S-PLS como puede observarse en la
Figura 86. De acuerdo a estos resultados, estos mtodos proporcionan errores de
prediccin similares con valores inferiores al 5 % y con una baja dispersin, adems los
valores fueron similares para RMSEC1 y RMSEC2 y RMSEP1 y RMSEP2. Sin embargo,
el tiempo de clculo de la regresin S-PLS es superior a las regresiones NL-PCR y NL-
PLS. Se obtuvieron buenos resultados de RMSEC1 y RMSEC2 para LWR0, LWR2, step-
X y step-XX2 pero los valores de RMSEP1 y RMSEP2 fueron malos. Los peores modelos
en prediccin fueron obtenidos con los mtodos con transformacin logartmica. La
transformacin logartmica corregida proporcion mejor capacidad predictiva que los
modelos con transformacin logartmica no corregida.
- 190 -
3.5 (a) 3.5 (b)
3 3
2.5 2.5
RMSEC
RMSEP
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
log1PCR
log2PCR
log1PCR
log2PCR
stepXX2
log1PLS
log2PLS
stepXX2
log1PLS
log2PLS
NL-PCR
NL-PCR
NL-PLS
NL-PLS
steplog
steplog
L-PCR
L-PCR
S-PLS
S-PLS
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
stepX
stepX
log-d
pol-d
log-d
pol-d
log-i
pol-i
log-i
pol-i
3.5 (c) 3.5 (d)
3 3
2.5 2.5
RMSEC
RMSEP
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
log1PCR
log2PCR
log1PCR
log2PCR
stepXX2
log1PLS
log2PLS
stepXX2
log1PLS
log2PLS
NL-PCR
NL-PCR
NL-PLS
NL-PLS
steplog
steplog
L-PCR
L-PCR
S-PLS
S-PLS
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
stepX
stepX
log-d
pol-d
log-d
pol-d
log-i
pol-i
log-i
pol-i
Figura 86: RMSE para (a) las muestras de calibracin con todas las muestras de calibracin (RMSEC1) y (c) con el subconjunto de muestras de
calibracin (RMSEC2); para (b) las muestras de prediccin con todos los datos usando validacin cruzada leave-one-out (RMSEP1) y (d) con el
subconjunto de muestras de validacin (RMSEP2). Nmero de condiciones experimentales = 9
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(b)
Stepwise-MLR
non-linear
univariate pol
unviariate-log
logarithm
linear corrected
Figura 87: Grfico de puntuaciones para los valores RMSEP obtenidos mediante (a)
validacin cruzada leave-one-out con varianza explicada en el bloque X de PCA1: 56.4 %, PCA2:
31.8 % y PCA3: 5.0 % y (b) mediante validacin cruzada test con varianza explicada en el bloque
X de PCA1: 57.2 %, PCA2: 29.9 % y PCA3: 12.7 %.
- 192 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
En las Figura 88a y 88b, se representan los dendrogramas para los valores
RMSEP obtenidos mediante validacin cruzada leave-one-out y mediante validacin
cruzada en el subconjunto de prediccin, respectivamente. Considerando NL-PLS como
el mtodo de referencia, ya que es el que proporciona menores errores de prediccin, el
orden de conexiones al cluster podr considerarse como el orden de capacidad de
prediccin. El orden aproximado es: mtodos no lineales, mtodos de regresin local,
mtodos lineales y de seleccin por pasos y finalmente los mtodos de transformacin
logartmica. Las variantes PCR y PLS de todos los mtodos de regresin ensayados
proporcionaron errores de prediccin similares, en consecuencia aparecieron unidos en
los dendrogramas. Otra pareja de mtodos que estuvieron ntimamente relacionados en
estos grficos fueron LWR2 y S-PLS. Una posible razn es que ambos mtodos realizan
una calibracin ponderada basada en la distancia entre muestra y los puntos de
calibracin. Adems, las pequeas diferencias en la robustez de los mtodos han sido
ensalzadas con el anlisis de agrupamientos.
- 193 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Figura 88: Dendograma para los valores RMSEP obtenidos mediante (a) validacin
cruzada leave-one-out. y (b) validacin cruzada test
Los resultados fueron comparados con los valores obtenidos mediante el mtodo de
referencia. El mtodo de referencia implica la reaccin con la difenilcarbazida en
disolucin cida [1]. En este mtodo, la concentracin de Cr (VI) es obtenida por media
directa y la concentracin de Cr total tras una oxidacin previa. La concentracin de Cr
(III) se calcul por diferencia.
Tabla 52: Prediccin de las muestras de agua: concentracin de Cr (III) y Cr total (g/l)
obtenida empleando NL-PLS como mtodo de calibracin para diferentes condiciones de celda,
instrumento o montaje.
muestra 1 m. fortificada 1 muestra 2 m. fortificada 2
2.5 g/l Cr(III) 20 g/l Cr(III)
2.5 g/l Cr(VI) 20 g/l Cr(VI)
Cr(III) Cr Cr(III) Cr Cr(III) Cr Cr(III) Cr total
total total total
Mtodo Referencia 1.5 0.3 1.7 0.2 3.2 0.3 6.1 0.4 1.8 0.3 1.6 0.4 20.2 0.2 40.8 0.9
Instr. cuarzo 1.2 0.2 1.3 0.3 3.3 0.2 5.6 0.2 2.0 0.2 1.1 0.2 22.2 0.5 40.6 1.4
A hlice 1.3 0.4 1.4 0.2 3.3 0.3 5.8 0.5 2.0 0.2 0.8 0.2 18.3 0.8 40.6 0.5
espiral 1.6 0.2 1.7 0.2 3.4 0.4 5.7 0.9 2.0 0.2 1.3 0.1 19.9 0.4 41 2.4
nudo 1.7 0.2 2.0 0.3 3.5 0.2 6.6 0.9 1.9 0.2 2.4 0.2 19.9 0.9 39.7 1.5
Instr. cuarzo 1.5 0.5 1.8 0.2 3.5 0.5 6.2 0.2 2.3 0.2 1.7 0.2 19.3 0.2 41 2
B hlice 1.4 0.2 1.5 0.2 3.4 0.4 6.2 0.6 2.2 0.2 1.7 0.1 20.3 0.7 38.6 2.1
espiral 1.6 0.4 1.8 0.2 3.8 0.4 6.1 0.7 2.1 0.2 2.2 0.3 - 38 2
nudo 1.7 0.4 1.7 0.2 3.6 0.4 6.0 0.2 1.4 0.2 2.1 0.1 18.1 0.5 39.2 0.5
en - - - - 1.4 0.2 1.7 0.8 22.8 1.5 38.3 1.1
esttico
Nmero de rplicas de muestra 3
- 194 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 195 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a) 3
1%
5%
2
estadstico - h
-1
-2
-5%
-1%
-3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
celda-m ontaje
(b) 3
2 1%
estadstico - k
5%
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
celda-m ontaje
Figura 90: Estadstico h de Madel (a) y estadstico k de Madel (b) para la concentracin
de Cr(III) y Cr total obtenidas mediante calibracin NL-PLS para diferentes condiciones
experimentales. Nmero de muestras = 8 con 3 rplicas.
La Tabla 55 incluye los valores de RMSEP calculados como diferencia entre los
mtodos de referencia y quimioluminiscente. Tambin incluye las recuperaciones
obtenidas para la cantidad adicionada y los parmetros de las regresiones lineales entre
concentraciones del mtodo propuesto y del mtodo de referencia (cmtodo propuesto frente
cmtodo de referencia).
Tabla 54: Prediccin de las muestras de agua: concentracin de Cr (III) y Cr total (g/l)
obtenida empleando la celda en nudo en el instrumento A para diferentes mtodos de regresin.
- 196 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Como puede observarse los mejores resultados se obtuvieron para NL-PCR, NL-
PLS, S-PLS y LWR2. Este hecho que est de acuerdo con las conclusiones establecida en
el apartado previo basadas en los valores RMSEP. Las recuperaciones alcanzadas fueron
- 197 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a)
4
1%
3
5%
2
estadstico - h
-1
-5%
-2
-1%
-3
m todo regresin
(b)
3
estadstico - k
2
1%
5%
1
m todo regresin
Figura 90: Estadstico h de Madel (a) y estadstico k de Madel (b) para la concentracin
de Cr(III) y Cr total obtenidas para la celda en nudo en el instrumento A para diferentes mtodos
de calibracin. Nmero de muestras = 8 con 3 rplicas.
- 198 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
SITUACIN SITUACIN
PRIMARIA-REFERENCIA SECUNDARIA
conjunto
validacin
conjunto subconjunto
conjunto
calibracin transferencia
muestra
mtodo mtodo
calibracin estandarizacin
conjunto conjunto
validacin muestra
transferido transferido
modelo
calibracin
Estudio de
factores Prediccin
estandarizacin muestras
Figura 91: Diagrama de flujo de las etapas de calibracin, estandarizacin y prediccin
en la estrategia propuesta
- 200 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
50
20
40
15
30
(a)
20 10
Patrn fijado
10
23
5
0
nmero patrn
20 20
15 15
(b)
10 Patrones fijados 10
15 y 23 (c)
Patrones fijados
5 5
5, 15 y 23
Figura 92: Lneas de contorno PRESS de las superficies de respuesta para la transferencia
de calibracin entre la celda en espiral (celda primaria o referencia) y la celda de flujo de
fluorescencia de cuarzo (celda secundaria) para diferentes tamaos del subconjunto: (a) 3, (b) 4 y
(c) 5. Un patrn con una numeracin alta significa alta concentracin de cromo. Mtodo
estandarizacin: PDS
de subconjunto). El incremento de la ventana del mtodo PDS tiene una dbil influencia
en el valor de PRESS resultante. Por lo tanto, el ptimo tamao de ventana fue de 7 de
acuerdo al menor error de prediccin y al menor tiempo de computacin.
En estas condiciones, la transferencia de los registros con el tiempo result efectiva
para el subconjunto de patrones. En la Figura 93 se muestra un ejemplo de esta
transferencia del registro intensidad quimioluminiscente frente tiempo. En este caso, el
subconjunto se haba medido en diferentes condiciones experimentales de instrumento,
celda y tiempo. Como puede deducirse de la grfica, los registros obtenidos en las
condiciones secundarias (Figura 93b) y despus de la estandarizacin con el mtodo DS
o PDS encajaban perfectamente con los registros obtenidos en las condiciones primarias
(Figura 93a).
7000 35 DS
30
40 mg/ml PD S
6000
5000 25
40 mg/ml
4000 20
3000 15
2000 10
10 mg/ml
1000 10 mg/ml
5
5 mg/ml
0
0 5 mg/ml
0 2 4 6 8
0 2 4 6 8
tiem po (s) tiem po (s)
Figura 93: (a) Registros quimioluminiscentes para las muestras del subconjunto medidas
con la celda en espiral en el instrumento A y tiempo t' (antes estandarizacin). (b) Registros
quimioluminiscentes para las muestras del subconjunto medidas con la celda en nudo en el
instrumento B y tiempo t y registros quimioluminiscentes transferidos usando los mtodos DS y
PDS para las muestras del subconjunto medidas con una celda en espiral en el instrumento A y
tiempo t(despus estandarizacin).
- Factores de estandarizacin
Todas las situaciones a tiempo t fueron consideradas como situaciones primarias y
se obtuvieron los modelos de calibracin para cada situacin de referencia. Se aplicaron
los mtodos DS y PDS para lograr la estandarizacin de los patrones medidos en una
situacin instrumental diferente usando los parmetros de transferencia ptimos. La
Tabla 57 muestra el diseo de posibles combinaciones estableciendo como situacin
primaria tiempo t, montaje o , instrumento A o B, y celda de flujo 1, 2, 3 o 4. Los
valores de prediccin fueron calculados usando el modelo de calibracin de cada
situacin de referencia. La raz del error cuadrado medio de prediccin (RMSEP) se
consider como el parmetro adecuado para medir la calidad del proceso de transferencia
de calibracin. RMSEP = (PRESS/n)1/2 donde n indica el nmero de muestras ensayadas.
Los valores de RMSEP se obtuvieron para factores de estandarizacin como celda
de deteccin, instrumento, montaje o tiempo usando NL-PLS como mtodo de
calibracin. Para cada factor, hay un nmero diferente de combinaciones posibles,
consecuentemente un nmero diferente de posibles transferencias de calibracin.
- 202 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 203 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.5 (a)
2.5
2
SEP
1.5
0.5
9 9 9 24 8 24 8 8 8 23 8 24 4 4 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 24 8 24 8 8
0
stand
calib
valid
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-a
t-a
t-a
t-c
t-c
t-c
a-i
c-i
a
t-i
t-i
t-i
c
t
i
3.5 (b)
2.5
2
SEP
1.5
0.5
9 9 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 24 8 24 3 3 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 24 8 24 8 8
0
stand
calib
valid
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-a
t-a
t-a
t-c
t-c
t-c
a-i
c-i
a
t-i
t-i
t-i
c
t
i
Figura 94: RMSEP para diferentes factores de estandarizacin. Estos valores fueron
calculados usando los mtodos de estandarizacin DS (a) o PDS (b) y usando modelos NL-PLS.
Se incluyen el nmero de rplicas de transferencias de calibracin menos anmalos para cada
factor.
Las abreviaturas usadas son: conjunto de calibracin (calib), validacin cruzada leave-
out-one (valid), auto-transferencia (stand), factor celda (c), factor instrumento (i), factor montaje
(a), factor tiempo (t) y sus combinaciones.
- 204 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 205 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 206 -
Tabla 58: (a) Concentracin (g/L) Cr (III) y Cr total para diferentes factores de estandarizacin mediante DS y PDS como mtodos de estandarizacin
y NL-PLS como mtodo de calibracin. (b) Parmetros de comparacin entre los mtodos propuestos y el de referencia y recuperaciones obtenidas para la
cantidad adicionada
(a) Mtodo DS PDS
Referencia tiempo tiempo- tiempo- tiempo- montaje montaje- tiempo tiempo- tiempo- tiempo- montaje montaje-
celda instr. celda- instr. celda instr. celda- instr.
instr. instr.
Rplicas de - 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 24 8 24 8 8
transferencias
muestra 1 Cr(III) 1.5 0.3 1.5 0.2 1.5 0.2 1.5 0.2 1.5 0.2 - - 1.5 0.2 1.4 0.2 1.5 0.3 1.4 0.3 - -
Cr tot 1.7 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 - - 1.7 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 - -
m- 1 Cr(III) 3.2 0.3 3.7 0.3 3.7 0.4 3.7 0.4 3.7 0.4 - - 3.7 0.3 3.6 0.3 3.7 0.4 3.7 0.4 - -
fortificada
2.5 g/l Cr(III) Cr tot 6.1 0.4 6.3 0.2 6.3 0.2 6.3 0.3 6.3 0.2 - - 6.2 0.2 6.2 0.2 6.3 0.3 6.3 0.3 - -
2.5 g/l Cr(VI)
muestra 2 Cr(III) 1.8 0.3 1.9 0.2 2.1 0.2 2.1 0.2 2.0 0.2 1.7 0.2 1.7 0.2 1.3 0.2 1.2 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.2 0.2 2.0 0.4 1.9 0.3
Cr tot 1.6 0.4 0.9 0.2 1.0 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 1.2 0.3 1.1 0.4 1.0 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.8 0.3
m- 2 Cr(III) 20.2 0.2 21.7 0.2 21.0 0.6 21.2 0.5 21.0 0.7 21.3 0.9 20.2 0.2 19.3 0.8 19.5 0.7 20.4 0.6 19.7 0.6 19.5 1.0 15.6 0.8
fortificada
20 g/l Cr(III) Cr tot 40.8 0.9 38 1 39 2 37 3 37 1 38 4 41 3 41 2 41 1 41 1 41 1 37 1 43 2
20 g/l Cr(VI)
instr. = instrumento. Nmero de rplicas = 3
(b) DS PDS
tiempo tiempo- tiempo- tiempo- montaje montaje- tiempo tiempo- tiempo- tiempo- montaje montaje-
celda instr. celda- instr. celda instr. celda- instr.
instr. instr.
rmsep 1.03 0.81 1.45 1.27 1.31 0.25 0.47 0.42 0.4 0.39 2.07 2.59
ordenada 0.3 1.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 -0.4 0.5 -0.9 0.4 -0.2 0.2 -0.2 0.2 -0.1 0.2 -0.2 0.2 -0.4 0.4 -1.3 1
pendiente 0.96 0.07 0.96 0.05 0.92 0.07 0.93 0.06 0.97 0.08 1.02 0.05 1.01 0.03 1.01 0.03 1.01 0.03 1.01 0.03 0.92 0.06 1.04 0.15
R2 0.995 0.998 0.994 0.996 0.994 0.997 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.996 0.980
syx 1.0 0.7 1.1 1.0 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.9 2.3
% recup. m-1 Cr(III) 89 15 88 17 88 16 88 17 68 5 65 7 87 15 88 15 91 18 92 18 47 24 50 23
% recup. m-1 Cr total 94 5 93 5 93 6 94 5 53 10 52 12 92 4 92 4 94 7 93 7 55 4 32 11
% recup. m-2 Cr(III) 99 1 95 3 96 3 95 4 98 5 93 1 90 4 91 4 96 3 93 3 87 5 68 4
% recup. m-2 Cr total 94 1 95 6 90 8 91 2 93 10 99 7 100 4 100 4 100 4 100 3 89 3 104 4
instr. = instrumento. . Nmero de rplicas = 3
(a) 3 (b) 3
1%
2 5%
2 1%
estadstico - h
estadstico - k
1
5%
-1
1
-2
-5%
-1%
-3 0
t t-c t-i t-i-c a a-i t t-c t-i t-i-c a a-i
factores transferencia factores transferencia
(c) 3 (d) 3
1%
2 5%
2 1%
estadstico - h
estadstico - k
1
5%
-1
1
-2
-5%
-1%
-3 0
t t-c t-i t-i-c a a-i t t-c t-i t-i-c a a-i
factores transferencia factores transferencia
Figura 95: Estadsticos de Madel para las concentraciones de Cr (III) y Cr total obtenidos mediante NL-PLS como mtodo de calibracin para
diferentes factores de transferencia. Nmero de muestras = 8 con 3 rplicas. (a) estadstico h con DS, (b) estadstico k con DS, (c) estadstico h con PDS y (d)
estadstico k con PDS. Las abreviaturas usadas son: factor celda (c), factor instrumento (i), factor montaje (a), factor tiempo (t) y sus combinaciones.
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a) (b)
Figura 96: Dendrograma de los valores de RMSEP para los diferentes mtodos de
calibracin: (a) mtodo DS y (b) mtodo PDS.
- 211 -
(a) 3 3
(b)
1%
2
5%
estadstico - h
1 2
estadstico - k
0
-1 1
-5%
-2
-1%
-3 0
log1PCR
log2PCR
NL-PCR
L-PCR
log1PLS
log2PLS
NL-PLS
S-PLS
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
steplogX
stepXX2
stepX
log1PCR
log2PCR
NL-PCR
L-PCR
log1PLS
log2PLS
NL-PLS
S-PLS
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
steplogX
stepXX2
stepX
m todo regresin m todo regresin
(c) 3 3
(d)
1%
2
5%
estadstico - h
1 2
estadstico - k
0
-1 1
-5%
-2
-1%
-3 0
log1PCR
log2PCR
NL-PCR
L-PCR
log1PLS
log2PLS
NL-PLS
S-PLS
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
steplogX
stepXX2
stepX
log1PCR
log2PCR
NL-PCR
L-PCR
log1PLS
log2PLS
NL-PLS
S-PLS
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
steplogX
stepXX2
stepX
m todo regresin m todo regresin
Figura 97: Estadsticos de Madel para las concentraciones de Cr (III) y Cr total considerando la transferencia tiempo-celda para los diferentes
mtodos de calibracin. Nmero de muestras = 8 con 3 rplicas. (a) estadstico h con DS, (b) estadstico k con DS, (c) estadstico h con PDS y (d)
estadstico k con PDS
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.2.6.- CONCLUSIONES
A pesar de que la reaccin quimioluminiscente entre el luminol y el perxido de
hidrgeno catalizada por Cr (III) ha sido ampliamente descrita en la bibliografa
cientfica, la etapa de calibracin no ha sido estudiada con detalle. Por lo tanto, en este
captulo se han intentado responder las siguientes preguntas:
- Cmo localizar el intervalo lineal de respuesta, si existe una dependencia no
lineal entre la seal y la concentracin cuando se considera el intervalo til de
concentraciones?
- Aporta ventajas la calibracin multivariada frente la calibracin univariada
tradicional?
- Qu modelos de calibracin podran emplearse en el intervalo lineal y en el
intervalo no lineal?
- Cmo se pueden comparar la robustez de los modelos frente a diferentes
condiciones experimentales y cul sera la clasificacin de los modelos en trminos de
prediccin?
- Aporta ventajas la estandarizacin multivariada frente a la recalibracin?
- Es posible una transferencia de calibracin cuando la respuesta sigue una
relacin lineal o no lineal y qu criterios se deben emplear para la seleccin de
parmetros?
- Est afectada la robustez de los mtodos de regresin en estas condiciones?
- Cul es el efecto en la prediccin de muestras reales en trminos de exactitud y
precisin?
Ninguna de estas preguntas se haba planteado en el rea del anlisis
quimioluminiscente aunque la importancia de este tipo de estudio est extensamente
demostrada porque muchas determinaciones estn basadas en la relacin entre seal y
concentracin no lineal. El uso de unos buenos modelos de calibracin es importante
para la obtencin de resultados exactos y precisos aunque la validez de los modelos de
calibracin es limitada. Adems aunque en otras reas se haba estudiado la
estandarizacin multivariada con respuestas lineales y la calibracin multivariada con
modelos no lineales, la combinacin estandarizacin y calibracin multivariada en
presencia de no linealidad es un estudio original. La solucin propuesta ana las ventajas
de modelos exactos y flexibilidad en diferentes condiciones experimentales con reduccin
de los esfuerzos experimentales
- El intervalo de concentraciones con respuesta lineal ha sido localizado mediante
un mtodo de calibracin robusta. Esta opcin es una aproximacin rigurosa y efectiva
para delimitar el rango de concentraciones donde se pueden aplicar modelos lineales en
condiciones de garanta.
- En este captulo se han expuesto las posibilidades de la calibracin multivariada
frente a calibracin univariada para relaciones entre seal y concentracin lineales o no
lineales.
Los mtodos univariados ensayados han sido regresiones lineales, doble
logartmicas y regresiones polinmicas en sus aproximaciones directa e inversa. A pesar
de proporcionar resultados bastante aceptables, los parmetros analticos en trminos de
prediccin son mejorados con el uso de mtodos multivariantes. Esto se debe bsicamente
al uso de mayor informacin, al emplearse ms variables y minimizar la influencia del
ruido inherente del registro. Paralelamente, la robustez asociada a estos parmetros es
intrnsecamente inferior como han puesto de manifiesto muchos autores.
- 213 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 214 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 215 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.3.- SIMULTANEOUS
ANALYSIS OF CHROMIUM AND COBALT
3.3.3.1.- INTRODUCTION
A) CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT SIMULTANEOUS
ANALYSIS
B) COMMUTATION IN FLOW ANALYSIS
C) THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF HPSAM
FOR STOPPED-FLOW
- HPSAM for flow injection manifold
- HPSAM for continuous flow manifold
3.3.3.4.- CONCLUSIONS
- 215 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 216 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.3.1.- INTRODUCCIN
A) CONSIDERACIONES SOBRE EL ANLISIS SIMULTNEO
Existen numerosas estrategias para la determinacin simultnea de mezclas
sin la incorporacin de una etapa de separacin. Generalmente se buscan
diferencias en la reactividad qumica o en la evolucin con el tiempo.
En los mtodos quimioluminiscentes, se han propuesto varias estrategias
para la determinacin simultnea de diferentes especies quimioluminiscente
luminol-H2O2. Generalmente se requieren procedimientos de pre-tratamiento o
separacin. Se ha descrito el uso de agentes enmascarantes [168], separadores en
fase membrana [216] o limpieza de muestra con resinas intercambiadoras de iones
[217]. La cromatografa inica con deteccin quimioluminiscente ha sido propuesta
para la determinacin simultnea de alguno metales [218,219]. Sin embargo la
limitacin es la incompatibilidad de la fase mvil con las condiciones de reaccin
requeridas para la reaccin post-columna [157]. Se ha usado un detector basado en
un dispositivo de carga acoplada para la adquisicin del perfil espectral
quimioluminiscente completo. La determinacin simultnea se alcanza empleando
la discriminacin por longitud de onda o por resolucin matemtica [220,221]. El
uso de dos reacciones diferentes ha sido descrito para la determinacin de cobalto y
hierro en el mismo montaje [166]. La emisin diferenciada en el tiempo tambin ha
sido utilizada para la determinacin de cobalto y cobre [222].
- 217 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
X
A X,1,2 > 0
A Y,1,2 = 0
Y
t1 t2 tiempo
Figura 98: Seal analtica para el montaje de inyeccin en flujo y posterior parada
del flujo
- 219 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
X
A Y,1 / A Y,2 > K1,2
t1 t2 tiempo
- 221 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- Procedimiento en esttico
Se emple el montaje descrito en la Figura 66(a). La mezcla de reaccin fue
preparada en la propia celda de cuarzo. Las concentraciones fueron 4 10-4 mol/L
de luminol, 3.3 10-2 mol/L de perxido, 3.3 10-3 mol/L de EDTA y 0.1 mol/L de
disolucin tampn de HCO3 CO32 a pH 10.8. Las disoluciones patrn o las
muestras fueron inyectadas a travs del septum con una jeringa y la mezcla se
consigui con un agitador. En todos los casos, el volumen de inyeccin fue 200 L.
- Procedimientos en flujo
Las disoluciones patrn de cromo o cobalto fueron preparadas diariamente
por dilucin de las disoluciones madre en HCl 2 10-3 mol/L. El luminol (1.2 10-4
mol/L) se prepar en disolucin de carbonato (0.01 mol/L pH 10.8). La
concentracin de perxido hidrgeno fue 0.01 mol/L.
- 222 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
C 3.5
= 0.8 mm
S 1.2 V1
L 1.2 40 cm
10 cm V2 10 cm
P 1.2
50 cm
W W W
Figura 100: Esquema del sistema para inyeccin en flujo y flujo detenido con
inyeccin de la muestra en flujo. V1: vlvula de 6 vas, V2: vlvula de 2 vas, PP: bomba
peristltica, D: detector, W: residuos, C: canal del portador, S: canal de la muestra, P:
canal del perxido, L: canal del luminol.
C 1.2
10 cm = 0.8 mm
S 2.8 V2 V1
10 cm
L 1.2
50 cm
P 1.2
W
W W
Figura 101: Esquema del sistema de flujo detenido con inyeccin de la muestra
durante un tiempo dado. V1: vlvula de 6 vas, V2: vlvula de 2 vas, PP: bomba
peristltica, D: detector, W: residuos, C: canal del portador, S: canal de la muestra, P:
canal del perxido, L: canal del luminol.
Tabla 61: Secuencias protocolo para el control de las vlvulas para los distintos
procedimientos en flujo: (a) Procedimiento montaje I, (b) Procedimiento montaje II (c)
Procedimiento montaje III
(a)
Etapa Tiempo (min) Vlvula Accin Descripcin
2(r-1) + 1 1.1r + 0.1 V1 AB Insercin de muestra (rplica r)
2r + 2 1.1r + 0.4 V1 BA Llenado bucle de muestra
V2 en posicin A para toda la secuencia
(b)
Etapa Tiempo (min) Vlvula Accin Descripcin
2r +1 1.4(r-1)+0.1 V2 AB Insercin de muestra (rplica r)
2r + 2 1.4(r-1)+0.3 V1 AB Parado del flujo
2r + 3 1.4(r-1)+0.45 V1 BA Llenado bucle de muestra
2r + 4 1.4(r-1)+1.0 V2 BA Activacin del flujo
(c)
Etapa Tiempo (min) Vlvula Accin Descripcin
1 0.1 V2 AB Insercin canal de muestra
2r + 2 1.1(r -1)+0.5 V1 BA Parado del flujo (rplica r)
2r + 3 1.1(r -1)+0.5 V1 AB Activacin del flujo
n - V2 BA Reiniciado
- Conjuntos de calibracin
Para el procedimiento en esttico se analizaron diferentes conjuntos de
calibracin en funcin del intervalo de concentraciones: zona con respuesta lineal y
zona con respuesta no lineal.
Tabla 62: Cdigo y concentracin del conjunto estndar de calibracin (diseo 52).
Procedimiento esttico
Cr(III) \ Co (II) 0 20 40 60 80
(g/L)
0 00 01 02 03 04
20 10 11 12 13 14
40 20 21 22 23 24
60 30 31 32 33 34
80 40 41 42 43 44
- 225 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- Muestreo
Todo el material de vidrio, frascos de recogida y almacenaje y cualquier otro
material empleado tanto de vidrio como de plstico fueron sometidos a un
procedimiento de limpieza. Despus del aclarado con agua nanopure fueron
sumergidos en un bao de cido clorhdrico al 10 % al menos durante 12 horas y
posteriormente aclarados con agua nanopure nuevamente.
Las muestras fueron recogidas en diferentes puntos del rea de Valencia, se
filtraron con un filtro de membrana de acetato de celulosa de dimetro de poro 0.45
m. Las muestras fueron acidificadas con HCl 510-3 mol/L excepto las que
procedan de aguas residuales de industrias metalrgicas para las que este
tratamiento no era recomendado por sus caractersticas (S2-). Se aplic el
tratamiento de reduccin descrito en el captulo II.C.2.
Sobre una muestra de agua ro se realizaron ensayos de recuperacin. Se
prepararon tres muestra fortificadas con 1+0, con 0+1 y con 1+1 g/L de Cr(III) y
de Co(II), respectivamente.
- Clculos
Los datos fueron alineados en funcin a la seal del mximo de emisin.
Para todos los clculos, se emplearon los paquetes estadsticos Unscrambler
(CAMO) and Matlab for Windows (Math Works). Algunos clculos multivariados
se realizaron con subrutinas modificadas de la PLS-Toolbox (Eigenvector
Research). Para la aplicacin del HPSAM se utiliz el programa escrito en Visual
Basic descrito en el captulo II.B.2.
- 226 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 227 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
regin de regin de
formacin destruccin
15 variables 46 variables
0.8
seal normalizada
0.6
0.4 Cr
0.2
Co
0
0 2 tiempo (s) 4 6
Figura 103: Perfiles normalizados de intensidad quimioluminiscente frente tiempo
Registros
unicomponentes
Registros bicomponentes
Aproximacin emprica
ALES
Registros unicomponentes
Registros bicomponentes
- 228 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
a) Respuesta lineal:
El diseo experimental en la regin de respuesta lineal consista en
disoluciones patrn unicomponente de cromo (III) o cobalto (II) que variaban 0 -
20 g/L y 0 - 80 g/L, respectivamente. Se quera modelar la respuesta de ambos
metales para poder predecir simultneamente muestras que contuvieran ambos
metales. Se plantearon dos aproximaciones para evaluar la aditividad de las
seales producidas por la presencia de ambos metales.
- Aproximacin emprico-terica: El conjunto de calibracin terico est
compuesto por registros bicomponentes obtenidos de registros experimentales
unicomponentes.
- Aproximacin emprica: El conjunto de calibracin est compuesto
nicamente por registros experimentales unicomponentes.
En la aproximacin emprico-terica, se realiz la regresin lineal univariada
entre la seal quimioluminiscente obtenida frente a la concentracin del metal para
cada tiempo. El conjunto de valores de la pendiente a cada tiempo constituy el
registro quimioluminiscente de dicho metal. El conjunto de calibracin (registros
bicomponentes) se construy a partir de la suma numrica de las correspondientes
repuestas de cada metal. Se adicion un error heterocedstico para evitar el
sobreajuste de los modelos. Dicho error simulado fue generado como ruido
aleatorio del mismo orden de magnitud que la reproducibilidad de las seales. La
Figura 105 muestra los registros de las pendientes calculados para el cromo y para
el cobalto y la seal terica para una mezcla de 10 g/L de cromo y 10 g/L de
cobalto incluyendo error heteroscedstico.
- 229 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
1.0 10
mezcla + ruido
0.9 9
0.8 8
seal pendientes 0.7 7
seal mezcla
0.6 6
0.5 pendiente Cr 5
0.4 4
0.3 3
0.2 2
0.1 1
pendiente Co
0.0 0
0 2 4 6
tiempo (s)
Tabla 64: Modelos PLS para los conjuntos de calibracin en el intervalo lineal
% Varianza Explicada
SEP SEP
calibracin validacin
Variables factores bloque X bloque Y bloque Y Cr Co Cr Co
Cr Co
Aprox. PLS-1 1-61 2 98.70 99.88 99.90 0.8 2.7 1.7 4.9
emprica 16-61 2 99.92 94.22 99.71 5.9 7.6 6.4 11.4
terica PLS-2 1-61 2 98.70 99.89 0.8 2.7 1.7 4.9
16-61 2 99.92 99.36 6.0 7.5 6.7 11.2
Aprox. PLS-1 1-61 2 99.98 99.98 99.99 1.5 4.3 2.7 7.7
emprica 16-61 2 99.99 95.65 99.58 6.2 9.3 7.7 12.5
PLS-2 1-61 2 99.98 99.99 1.5 4.3 2.7 7.7
16-61 2 99.99 99.35 6.2 9.3 7.7 12.4
- 230 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
b) Respuesta no lineal:
Se estudi el diseo 52 de la Tabla 62. Las concentraciones de cromo y
cobalto de las disoluciones unicomponente y bicomponente variaban en el intervalo
0 - 80 g/L para ambos metales.
- 231 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3
4-0
2
4-4
1
PC2
0 Cr
0-0
-1
-2
Co
0-4
-3
-100 -50 0 50 100
PC1
- Validacin de la exactitud
Para la validacin de los modelos se analiz un material estndar de
referencia SRM 1640 que es una agua natural que contiene 17 elementos metlicos
a niveles de traza cuyo contenido est certificado por diferentes tcnicas en
diferentes laboratorios.
Para construir el modelo de calibracin se prepararon disoluciones
unicomponentes en las mismas condiciones que el patrn certificado. Usando los
registros quimioluminiscentes (centrados en columnas) como bloque X, se
construyeron los modelos PLS cuyos parmetros se incluyen en la Tabla 66.
Tabla 66: Modelos PLS para la calibracin en condiciones de cido ntrico: (a)
Parmetros de calibracin y (b) Parmetros de validacin
(a) % varianza explicada SEP Calibracin
Modelo Variables Factores bloque X Y- Cr Y- Co Cr Co total
PLS-1 1-61 4 99.94 99.94 99.80 0.7 1.2 1.0
16-61 3 99.93 99.94 96.63 0.7 5.1 2.1
PLS-2 1-61 4 99.94 99.47 1.7 2.3 3.7
16-61 3 99.94 99.47 0.9 5.6 4.6
- 232 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
selectiva para cromo y cobalto frente otros interferentes y similar intensidad entre
ambos metales. Hay que destacar que el empleo de reactivos de calidad elevada es
fundamental, porque la presencia de impurezas conlleva a resultados drsticamente
errneos, como ya se ha comentado en la otra parte de la presente memoria.
Los tiempos de parada del flujo fueron 0.15 min para el montaje II y 0.4 min
para el montaje III. Las frecuencias de insercin, expresadas en tiempo para cada
rplica, fueron 1.1 min para el montaje I, 1.4 min para el montaje II y 1.1 min para
el montaje III. Las secuencias optimizadas se exponen en la Tabla 61.
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 235 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
seal
200 200
150 150 pendiente Cr
inyeccin
100 pend. Cr 100
50 pend. Co 50 pendiente Co
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
tiempo (min) tiempo (min)
Figura 107: Seal analtica para disolucin patrn de cromo (1g/L) y de cobalto
(1g/L) y para material de referencia (1:25) en el montaje de flujo detenido en
configuracin de inyeccin discontinua (a) y continua (b)
- 236 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
- 237 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a) 3 (b) 3
real real
PLS PLS
2 HPSAM 2 HPSAM
conc Co (mg/L)
conc Cr (mg/L)
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
00
01
20
22
03
13
04
42
44
00
01
20
22
03
13
04
42
44
(c) 3 (d) 3
real real
PLS PLS
2 HPSAM 2 HPSAM
conc Co (mg/L)
conc Cr (mg/L)
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
00
01
20
22
03
13
04
42
44
00
01
20
22
03
13
04
42
44
- 238 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
120 120
% recuperacin
% recuperacin
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
C r1 C o1 C r1+C o1 C r1+C o1 C r1 C o1 C r1+C o1 C r1+C o1
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.3.5.- CONCLUSIONES
- En este captulo se ha estudiado la determinacin simultnea de cromo y
cobalto empleando un procedimiento no automtico y uno automtico.
En primer lugar, se ha puesto de manifiesto las diferencias entre las seales
generadas por cada metal. Se ha observado que el cobalto presenta una cintica de
destruccin de la especie emisora mayor. De modo que las diferencias aparecen
fundamentalmente en la regin de descenso de la seal quimioluminiscente. Se ha
demostrado la robustez de la seal con la concentracin, principio de partida
necesario para la determinacin simultnea.
En ambos casos se ha evaluado la capacidad de modelar las respuestas
generadas mediante mtodos de calibracin multivariantes. Posteriormente se han
validado los modelos estudiando predicciones sobre mezclas que contenan ambos
metales en distintas concentraciones.
Finalmente, se ha aplicado a la determinacin de cromo y cobalto en un
material de referencia certificado y diversas muestras.
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.4.5.- CONCLUSIONS
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.4.1.- INTRODUCTION
A) CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT PHOSPHATE ANALYSIS
The determination of phosphate has a fundamental importance in environmental
studies and not only for the determination of phosphate in aquatic ecosystems. The
determination of most commonly measured forms of phosphorous nearly always involves
conversion to orthophosphate. Moreover, many environmental conclusions depend of this
determination. The values obtained are used to evaluate biological and environmental
effects e.g. bioavailability and nutrients budget calculations. Concentrations of phosphate
in waters can vary from less than 0.01 mg/L in very clean waters to over several mg/L in
wastewaters [264].
The storage of water samples for nutrients analysis has been a problem that has
tormented researchers for more than 40 years. Many techniques are described in the
literature for the storage of water samples prior to nutrient determination [265,266]. Is
evident from all the studies that success of any one storage technique can be dependent
upon the type of sample water tested, whether it be estuarine, coastal, river water or open
ocean water. The physical and biological characteristics of these water types are quite
different and could therefore affect the concentration of nutrients in different ways [265].
B) CHARACTERISTICS OF METHOD
- Spectrophotometric method
The chemical basis of spectrophotometric methods for determination of phosphate
in water samples lies in the reaction between orthophosphate ions with molybdate in an
acidic medium in order to form an heteropolyacid. In most of the methods used, detection
is undertaken either on the molybdophosphate reduction product (molybdenum blue
method) or on yellow vanadomolybdate complex, the former being currently adopted in
the official methods [264,267]. Murphy and Riley [268,269] improved the ascorbic acid
method by adding Sb(III) to the reactant solution, thereby establishing one of the methods
most commonly used as a reference method [270-273].
Then, the methods consists in the formation of 12-molybdophosphoric acid and
reduction in the presence of antimony by either ascorbic acid or stannous chloride
followed by colorimetric quantification of the intensely coloured phosphomolybdenum
blue [274-277].
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
A significant number of flow techniques has been published using this reaction
[281]. In Table 72, segmented flow analysis (SFA) and flow injection analysis (FIA)
methods for the determination of phosphorus in natural waters are summarised.
Table 72: SFA and FIA methods for the determination of phosphorus in natural waters
Meth Reductor/ Molybdate/ Flow rate Remarks Ref
Reagent 1 Reagent 2 (ml/min)
od
FIA 5x10-4 M crystal violet 0.1 mol/L sodium molybdate 1.5 Crystal violet [268]
SFA 11 g/L ascorbic acid 0.23 g/L potassium antimony 1.0 [282]
+ 70 ml acetone tartrate + 6 g/L ammonium
molybdate
FIA 8.9x10-4 mol/L SnCl2 + 0.015 8.1x10-3 mol/L ammonium [283]
M hydrazine sulphate + 0.41 heptamolybate + 0.41 M H2SO4
mol/L H2SO4
FIA 80 g ascorbic acid + 100 g 10 g ammonium heptamolybate 1.1 reverse FIA [284]
glycerol in 1 l H2O in 0.4 M HNO3
FIA 0.008 g/L SnCl2 in 0.450% 1.55 g/L ammonium molybdate 0.31 preconcentr. [285]
(v/v) H2SO4 conc in 0.135% (v/v) H2SO4 conc KCl carrier
FIA 2 g/L NH4VO3 in 100 ml 20 g/L ammonium molybdate 1.6 AES [286]
ICP 6 M HNO3 detection
- Interferences
No interferences problems are likely with unpolluted saline and fresh waters. The
possibility of interference should, however, be considered, particularly with polluted
samples and at phosphate levels close to the limit of detection [287]. The major cations
and anions of sea water have very little effect if ascorbic acid is used as reductant. A salt
error of <1 % have been reported at a salinity of 36 [269].
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
Therefore, the method is relatively free from interferences from the major cations
and anions of freshwaters, including many of those capable of forming heteropoly acids
with molybdate ion. Thus, no interference is caused by 10 mg/L silicate-silicon.
Interference from Si can be considerably reduced by carrying out the spectrophotometric
measurements 6-10 min after addition of the mixed reagent, as the kinetics of the
formation of the molybdenum blue complex with silicate are relatively slow. It is also
stated that silica causes negligible interference in the determination of phosphate at room
temperature as the formation of silicomolybdenum blue is inhibited by the high
[H+]/[Mo] ratio used. However, simultaneous determination of phosphate and silicate in
water can be achieved. The mutual interference between both analytes can be eliminated
by selection of the appropriate acidity and by a sample segmentation with oxalic acid
[288].
The presence of arsenate is a potential source of serious errors at high As/P ratios,
as it forms an analogous heteropoly blue complex (arsenomolybdenum blue complex)
[289]. The molar absorbance is similar to that of the P complex. Interferences from As(V)
can be eliminated by reduction to arsenite (As(III)) with an acidic mixture of bisulphite
and thiosulphate [287]. Although, arsenates will not interfere seriously because their
concentration natural is low.
Several ions which commonly occur in natural waters such as Al3+, Cu2+, Ca2+,
Zn , NH4+ or Fe3+ can combine with orthophosphate and some organic species to form
2+
complexes and precipitates. However, the amounts of these ions generally present in river
water are much smaller than the necessary amount to cause interference [275].
Since the determination of phosphate is carried out under moderately acid
conditions there is some risk that naturally occurring labile organic phosphates may
undergo hydrolysis, and thus cause interference. However, test carried out using sugar
phosphates and other labile phosphorous compound have given little evidence that
significant hydrolysis occurs [290].
- Other methods
Three main disadvantages suffer the methods based on spectrophotometric
measurement as phosphomolybdate: low sensitivity, interference from several other
anions e.g. arsenic and silicon and acid-induced hydrolysis of labile organic and
condensed phosphorous species. Various techniques have used to enhance sensitivity and
specificity. But detection limit lower than 0.5 mol/L is required for measurement of
phosphate in natural waters.
Ion pair methods: At low pH certain basic dye compounds and some organic
compounds can form complexes with the phosphomolybdate complex. Malachite green,
methyl violet, rhodamine B, crystal violet or quinine are examples of such
substances.[271,275,291,292]. Malachite green has been shown to enhance the
sensitivity by as much as 30 times, but is not widely used because of problems with
instability of the ion association complex. The ion pair complex formed can be detected
by either spectrophotometry or fluorimetry. Application of a sensitive ligth-scattering
method for the determination of trace amounts of phosphate as a porphyrin-
phosphomolybdate ion pair has also been reported [293].
Extraction methods: A variety of solvent extraction techniques have been applied
to spectrophotometric phosphate analysis either, before or after the reduction step, to
improve detection limits and minimise interferences. Amyl alcohol, butan-1-ol, butan-2-
- 247 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
ol, benzene, chloroform, toluene or butyl acetate are some of the solvents frequently used
for this purpose [291].
Enzymatic methods: For orthophosphate analysis in natural waters, enzymes have
been used recently and are ready for application in selected waterbodies [283,294,295].
At least two enzymatic methods for orthophosphate determination have been reported.
Pettersson utilized the inhibitory effect of orthophosphate on the hydrolysis of alkaline
phosphatase substrates. On the other hand, Stevens applied an enzymatic technique to the
determination of orthophosphate over the range of 2-66 mol/L of P in natural waters but
the basis for this determination was the reaction of orthophosphate with glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate to produce 1,3-diglycerophosphate in the presence of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate dehydrogenase and oxidized nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide. Reduce
nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide formed by this process is detected
spectrophotometrically as formazin and used as a measure of orthophosphate [271,272].
Both these enzymatic orthophosphate methods give consistently lower results than
phosphomolybdate methods when applied to natural waters.
Chromatographic techniques: The separation of orthophosphate by virtue of its
charge or mass/size, have been reported extensively, and would satisfy the requirement
for specific orthophosphate measurement. Ion chromatography can be used for phosphate
separations, but is generally slow, relatively insensitive and usually unsuited to samples
with high ionic strength unless some matrix modification is performed [296-298]. Gas
chromatography methods development for analysis of organophosphorus pesticides and
nucleic acids can be adapted for phosphate analysis in water. Burchfield reports on a
method that reduces phosphate compounds to phosphine by molecular hydrogen at a high
temperature. Matthews et al. also used gas chromatography but with another type of
detector. This method was developed for water analysis and has a sensitivity of about 33
mol/L P [271]. The determination of different ions by ion-exclusion chromatography
has lately proved to be a useful tool in routine water analysis [285]. However, so far, the
detection limit for orthophosphate is not satisfactory for low concentrations in natural
waters. Capillary electrophoresis techniques [299] or extraction chromatography [298]
have also been applied to orthophosphate analysis.
Electrochemical methods: These include direct methods using phosphate specific
electrodes and indirect methods involving calcium [300], cadmium [301] or lead [302]
ion selectiveelectrodes. A number of amperometric methods have also been described
[303,304].
Preconcentration methods: Significant preconcentration of DRP and other
dissolved species prior to spectrophotometric detection can be achieved using ion
exchange, adsorption or coprecipitation. Freeman et al. achieved a detection limit of 0.13
mol/L P using FI with on-line ion exchange preconcentration of orthophosphate [305].
Phosphomolybdenum blue can also be preconcentrated prior to detection, using solvent or
gel-phase extraction techniques.
Automated spectrophotometric methods: Segmented continuous flow techniques
or sequential injection analysis using photometric detection have been applied extensively
to the analysis of DRP and TP (post digestion) [306].
Miscellaneous methods: Flame spectroscopic, fluorimetric, gas chromatographic,
inductively coupled plasma, turbidimetric [307] and other methods are also used for
phosphorus determination. Radiobiological bioassays for orthophosphate are also
available.
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
S Auxiliary Sample
Waste
RC
Carrier
Detector
Waste
Figure 110: Sequential Injection Manifold for FRP. S: Microsyringe (2.5 mL), T: Two-
position valve, HC: holding coil (260 cm of 0.75 mm i.d. PTFE tubing), V: Multiposition selection
valve, CP: common port, R1: ammonium molybdate reagent, R2: tin (II) chloride reagent and RC:
reaction coil (40 cm of 0.75 mm i.d. PTFE tubing).
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
water. Chloroform (0.08 % v/v) was added to prevent bacterial activity. Samples were
stored in the fridge at 4 oC.
The standards solutions (0.5 4 mol/L of phosphate) were prepared form stock
solution by dilution with appropriate volumes of Milli-Q water and low nutrient seawater
(LNS, Ocean Scientific International, UK) immediately prior to analysis.
Mixing Waste
mL/min Mixing
Ascorbic 0.42
Molybdate 0.42
Waste 60 C
Flowcell
Air
1.40
0.60
From 0.80 Waste
Autosampler
Figure 111: Skalar SanPlus Analyser flow diagram for the determination of phosphate.
Detection wavelengths: analytical 880 nm and reference 1010 nm
(a)
(d)
Figure 112: Photographs of Tamar river (UK): (a) Calstock area, (b) South Ward area, (c)
Halton Quay area, (d) Weirquay area, (e) Saltash area and (f)HM Naval Base area.
- 251 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
for a propulsion rate higher than 60 L/s, the registered peaks were exceedingly narrow
and, therefore, the inaccuracy involved in its detection was increased. A flow rate of 60
L/s was selected to dispense flow to the detector.
For the SI manifold for FRP analysis, the optimum parameters are summarised
in Table 74, according to univariate optimisation.
Table 74: Optimum parameters for the SIA system by univariate optimisation
PARAMETERS VALUE
NH4Cl concentration (carrier) 0.1 M
SnCl2 concentration 0.2 g/L
Molybdate concentration 10 g/L
Sample volume 400 L
Molybdate reagent volume 200 L
SnCl2 reagent volume 250 L
Holding coil length 260 cm
Reaction coil length 40 cm
Flow rate 60 L/s
Volume dispensed towards detector 2100 L
- Simplex optimisation
As it can be seen in the previous section, there is a significant dependence of
response on some parameters. A multivariate optimisation was carried on in order to
redefine the optimum and consider the simultaneous effect of parameters.
- 253 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
0.6 0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
peak height
peak height
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
phosphate concentration ( mol/L) phosphate concentration ( mol/L)
Figure 113: Calibration graphs under optimum conditions: (a) univariate optimisation and
(b) multivariate optimisation. Error bars represent 3s from triplicate measurements
Table 75: Analytical figures of merit for FRP determination by SIA. Units: mol/L of P
Univariate optimum Simplex optimum
a 0.023 0.006 0.037 0.008
b 0.011 0.002 0.014 0.002
R2 0.998 0.997
syx 0.005 0.006
LOD 0.3 0.7
RSDintra 4.96 6.13
RSDinter (standard) 2.04 5.57
RSDinter (slope) 4.78 -
- Salinity study
The application of the SI method to the analysis of waters with salinity index
higher than 10 has been evaluated. Different standard solutions were prepared from
stock solution of phosphate by dilution with appropriate volumes of Milli-Q water
and low nutrient seawater.
The response surface (peak height), calculated from five replicates, as a
function of phosphate concentration and water salinity is represented in Figure 114a.
The SI-peak registers for standard solution of 10 mol/L of phosphate prepared in
different salinity conditions is shown in Figure 114b. The slope and intercept of the
different calibration curves are shown in Figure 114c. It can be seen that the slope is
not a function of water salinity, while the intercept depends on the salinity value.
Then, the determination of samples is possible using the appropriate
calibration curve according to the salinity value of the sample. However, the method
is dependent on the water salinity.
- 255 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a)
0.04
parameter
0.10 0.03
0.02 slope
0.05
0.01
0
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 10 20 30
time (s) salinity (o/oo)
Figure 114: Salinity study: (a) Peak height as function of phosphate concentration and
water salinity, (b) Dependence of SI-peak registers for standard solution of 10 mol/L of
phosphate on salinity and (c) Slope and intercept of calibration curve as function of water salinity.
Error bars represent 3s from triplicate measurements
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(A) (B)
1
3,4 2
3
2,5 4
5
6
6
7
8
1
9
10
Figure 116: Map of sample locations: first campaign (a), second campaign (b) and third
campaign (c).
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
The total filterable phosphorus was determined using the proposed sequential
injection procedure and a segmented flow analyser. The segmented flow analysis is
based in the same reaction but using ascorbic acid as reductant, is also a flow system
and has widely used as reference method to P determination.
Different calibration curves were used for the calculation of sample
concentration as a function of the sample salinity. The results of SI and Skalar
systems are shown in Figure 117a.
As can be seen, in all cases the agreement between the reference method and SI
method was excellent, independent of the sample location, salinity or other parameter.
However, the segmented flow method provides better values for reproducibility than the
sequential method.
A paired t-test showed that there was no significant difference between the two
methods at 95 % confidence interval. The correlation between both methods has been
also calculated. The comparison curve had a slope of 1.0 0.2 and an intercept of 0.0
0.2. Then, the unit was included in the confidence interval of the slope and the zero was
included in the confidence interval of the intercept (95%, n=8). As R-squared indicated
the correlation between the methods was good.
The accuracy of the method was also evaluated by a recovery study. An amount of
1 mol/L of phosphate was spiked to River Tamar samples. In all cases, good recovery
values for spiked phosphate (83-104 % range) were obtained, independently of the
sample location.
- Second campaign
In this study, samples were taken from the river Tamar (UK) in six locations
(20/09/01). The sample locations are marked in the Tamar Estuary and Tamar River
maps (Figure 116b). The tide characteristics were high water 8:41 AM 5.6 m and low
water 2:34 AM 1.8 m.
Different parameters were measured on site as pH, water temperature,
conductivity, salinity and suspended particulate material. Results taken are listed in Table
77.
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
The total filterable phosphorus was determined using the proposed sequential
injection procedure and Also the segmented flow analyser.
Different calibration curves were used for the calculation of sample
concentration as a function of the sample salinity. The results of SI and SF systems
are shown in Figure 117b. As can be seen, in all cases the agreement between the
reference method and SI method was excellent, independent of the sample location,
salinity or other parameter.
A paired t-test showed that there was no significant difference between the two
methods at 95 % confidence interval. The correlation between both methods has been
also calculated. The comparison curve had a slope of 0.9 0.2 and a intercept 0.1 0.3.
Then, the unit was included in the confidence interval of the slope and the zero was
included in the confidence interval of the intercept (95%, n=6). As R-squared indicated
the correlation between the methods was good.
- Third campaign
In this study, samples were taken from the river Tamar (UK) in ten locations (24/09/01).
The sample locations are marked in the Tamar Estuary and Tamar River maps (Figure
116c). The tide characteristics were high water 10:56 AM 4.6 m and low water 4:59 AM
1.8 m.
The value of the parameters measured on site as pH, water temperature, conductivity,
salinity and suspended particulate material are given in Table 78.
Time 11:40 12:00 12:40 13:10 15:00 15:40 16:30 17:00 17:40 18:25
Location Gunnis- Morwell Morwell Calstock Halton Weir Parson Saltash Carew Drake
lake Rocks Quay Quay Quay Quay point Island
Grid 5031' 5030' 5030' 5029' 5028' 5027' 5026' 5025' 5024' 5021'
reference N N N N N N412' N N N N
412'W 411'W 412'W 412'W 414'W W 412'W 412'W 413 409
W W
pH 7.12 7.29 7.25 7.36 7.36 7.30 7.50 7.50 7.60 7.60
T (C) 15.4 15.29 16.1 16.5 16.8 17.2 16.8 16.8 16.2 16.8
Salinity 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 35 35 35
()
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Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
(a)
2.0 skalar
sia
1.5
concentration ( mol/L)
1.0
0.5
0.0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
sample
(b)
2.5 skalar
sia
2.0
concentration ( mol/L)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
sample
(c)
2.5 skalar
sia
2.0
concentration ( mol/L)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
sample
Figure 117: FRP concentrations measured by SI and segmented flow analysis (subsamples
= 3). Error bars represent 3s from triplicate measurements: (a) first campaign, (b) second
campaign and (c) third campaign
- 260 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
reference method and SI method was excellent, independent of the sample location,
salinity or other parameter.
A paired t-test showed that there was no significant difference between the two
methods at 95 % confidence interval. The correlation between both methods has been
also calculated. The comparison curve had a slope of 0.9 0.2 and a intercept 0.2 0.3.
Then, the unit was included in the confidence interval of the slope and the zero was
included in the confidence interval of the intercept (95%, n=10). As R-squared indicated
the correlation between the methods was good.
- 261 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
of the estuary and decreases at lower part of the estuary. The measured values vary
gradually from 1.2 mol/L (station number 1) to 0.6 mol/L (station number 8).
(a) (b)
Figure 118: (a) Distribution of salinity () and (b) FRP concentration (mol/L) in Tamar
Estuary (first campaign)
The quantitative relation between the found FRP concentration and the other
quality water parameters was studied. The quality water parameters are represented for
the different sampling stations, see Figure 119a. There is an evident relation between
quality parameters of the river water and the location. The FRP was also plotted versus
salinity in Figure 119b.
A relation between salinity and FRP can be established except for three stations:
S3, S5 and S6. The possible explication to this difference can be found in the catchment
characteristics (e.g. human activity, geography, environment conditions) of the sampling
points. The station S3 was in area with small depth and a lot of vegetation where the
influence of the tide is important. Moreover, the sampling point was near to St. Mellion
Stream. The stations S5 and S6 were close to Cargreen sewage treatment station, which
can contribute as a point source discharge. It is also the confluence of Tamar and the
Tavy rivers. Then in this point, some contributions can produce changes in the FRP
concentration as mixing of two river sources, more exchange sediment-P and soluble-P,
etc. Moreover the tide effect is presented in estuary water when the monitoring is carried
on in different time. Therefore, different factors can be contributed to the difference
between these stations and the rest of stations.
- 262 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
FRP concentration
water parameter
1.0 1.0 S2
30 S7
S4
T S3
20
0.5 0.5 S8
pH
10
dissolved oxygen
0 0.0
0.0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
0 10 20 30 40
sample locations salinity ( o/oo)
Figure 119: (a) Water parameters in different sampling stations and (b) Water salinity vs.
FRP concentration (first campaign). Units: FRP (mol/L), temperature (C), dissolved oxygen
(mg/L), conductivity (mS/cm) and salinity ()
(a) (b)
PC2
S6
conductivity
S4
salinity S1
S2
S7 PC1
PC1
S5 S8
dissolved oxygen
pH S3
Figure 120: PCA analysis (first campaign): (a) Loading plot and (b) Scores plot
According to the results, the variability of data can be explained with only one
component and with similar contribution of different variables (high correlation). Each
sample is ordered in function of location sampling sequence. The variance explained by
the second variable can be interpreted as residual variability in the samples. Samples S3
and S6 have a high score value in this component while the rest of samples the value is
small. It is similar conclusion than the differences observed in previous paragraph.
- 263 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
In conclusion, a high correlation has found between some water quality parameters
(salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen and conductivity, even FRP concentration) for the
different sampling locations. An almost linear relationship can be established except for
some sampling locations. Therefore, the water quality can be qualitatively described
knowing the sampling position, but it is limited for punctual environments.
The quantitative relation between the found FRP concentration and the other
quality water parameters was studied for the second campaign and third campaign. No
relation between quality parameters of the river water and the location was found if all the
samples are included in the study. The presence of outliers is very probable. The size of
sample data is not enough to obtain accurate environmental interpretation. Moreover
some quality water parameters could not measured.
The quantitative relation between the found FRP concentration and the other
quality water parameters has been studied for the different campaigns. For the first
campaign some correlations were obtained. However the results for second and third
campaigns have shown bad correlations for the same parameters, although some quality
water parameters could not measured.
These results indicate that the data size is small, then the presence of outliers
produces a big influence in correlation coefficients. Moreover the relation FRP
concentration and the other quality water parameters is not linear for all interval. The
values for the first campaign are in the linear region. The interval of values is wider for
the second and third campaign. Therefore, bad correlations for linear model have been
obtained for these campaigns.
In Figure 121, the FRP values have been plotted for the different locations and for
the three campaigns.
1stcam p.
2.50 2nd cam p.
3rd cam p.
FRP concentration ( mol/L)
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
locations
- 264 -
Captulo 3.3: PROCEDIMIENTOS EN FLUJO
3.3.4.5.- CONCLUSIONS
The results from the work done for this project lead to the following general
conclusions:
- A SI-manifold for filterable reactive phosphorus (FRP) determination in natural
waters has been developed. The detection of phosphorus species was performed
spectrophotometrically after reaction to phospholmolybadate blue.
- Univariate optimisation of the SIA system was carried out. The effect of SI-
manifold and chemical variables has evaluated. The parameters for which an optimisation
was performed were carrier composition, ammonium molybdate concentration, tin(II)
chloride concentration, volume of sample, ammonium molybdate volume, tin(II) chloride
volume, length of holding and reaction coils, flow rate towards the detector and volume
dispensed towards the detector.
- Multivariate optimisation of the most influential variables was also performed.
The parameters for which a simplex optimisation was carried out were volume of sample,
ammonium molybdate volume, tin(II) chloride volume and flow rate towards the
detector. Similar results were obtained to univariate optimisation. Then, no significant
simultaneous effects between these variables can be considered.
- The analytical figures of merit were determined for the optimal conditions. The
signal is linear from 0.5 to 25 mol/L of P, the precision of the SIA system for FRP
determination is 4.96 % (n=10) and the detection limit achieve for the SIA system is 0.5
mol/L of P. The SIA method is suitable for FRP determination because normal levels of
posphorus in river water are below 3 mol/L of P and above 0.75 mol/L of P.
- The Schlieren effect was minimised using ammonium chloride as carrier and
using a reference wavelength. However, the effect of salinity was studied in order to
apply the method in estuary samples. A relationship between salinity, phosphorus
concentration and signal was observed. Therefore, the FRP determination was able to
carried out.
- The Tamar estuary catchment was sampled and several samples with different
salinities were submitted for FRP determination by SIA. The samples were analysed after
filtration through a 0.45 m cellulose acetate membrane filter. Different sampling
campaigns were performed.
- The effect of estuary samples was evaluated by spiking water samples from the
different locations. Results showed that the influence of the matrix as insignificant as the
recoveries were quantitative.
- The comparison between the SI method and the SFA method (reference
method) confirmed the suited of the method to determinate FRP in estuary waters.
Results showed that the methods do no give significantly different values for the same
phosphorus concentration within a 95 % confidence interval in any of different
campaigns.
- Finally, a brief interpretation of FRP values in Tamar estuary was performed.
Correlations between water quality parameters and locations were found. A PCA model
with high variance explained for sample parameters was also obtained. These results can
be useful for environmental modelling studies of Tamar estuary.
- 265 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
4.- CONCLUSIONS
- 267 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
- 268 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
The first procedure involves solid-phase extraction in BondElut PPL cartridges and
data handling of the UV-visible spectrophotometry measurements. The spectral regions
where the unknown interferent behaviour can be considered as linear are found and the
analyte concentration free from bias error is estimated. The percentages of recovery of
phenols in spiked samples were similar to those obtained by HPLC. Cresols or
- 269 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
chlorophenols can be also determined in real samples by this method. The concentration
range tested was 0.075 - 12.5 mg/L and the limits of detection found were in the 2.4 - 5.4
g/L range. The method has been applied to real harbour water samples. The results
obtained are compared to those provided by HPLC.
GHPSAM is also proposed for first time to kinetic analysis. The analyte
concentration is estimated independently of reagent consumption respect analyte
concentration and/or reagent evolution with time and/or presence of interference in
unknown samples.
The method was applied to the reaction of phenol and o-cresol with p-aminophenol
and KIO4 in presence of NaOH. Pseudo-first order kinetic behaviour of the reaction
products is observed. The unbiased formation rate constants of phenol and o-cresol
derivatives have been calculated.
The analytical figures of merit were determined. Detection limits achieved were
0.02 g/L of phenol and 0.02 of o-cresol using a preconcentration factor of 10.
Repeatability values were 3.7 % for phenol and 2.0 % for o-cresol and reproducibility
values were 6.9 % and 3.5 %, respectively. Accurate and precise results have been
obtained when the method was applied to real samples.
- Analysis of amines
In this chapter, o-phthalaldehyde-N-acetylcysteine derivatization is studied in order
to determinate polyamines (cadaverine, putrescine, spermidine and spermine) in water
samples. The summary of the study of amines appears in Table 80 and the results in
appendix 6b3 and 6b4.
A kinetic study of OPA-NAC-amine derivatives is performed. Two conditions are
evaluated: reagent excess and amine excess. The generalized H-point standard-additions
method (GHPSAM) and H-point standard-additions method (HPSAM) are applied. The
cancellation of derivative contribution demonstrates no-difference in OPA-NAC
concentration and any synergism effect was detected.
A comparative study of different derivatization procedures has been performed in
order to improve the stability of the reaction products OPA-NAC-polyamines. A kinetic
spectrophotometric and fluorimetric study of the OPA-NAC reagent and OPA-NAC-
polyamine isoindol is described. Procedures such as solution derivatization, solution
derivatization followed by retention on a packing support, derivatization on different
packing supports and on column derivatization, have been optimised and compared. The
degradation rate constant (k) of the derivative was dependent on the procedure used. The
results obtained showed that forming the derivate on the packing support (C18) has several
advantages with regard to the other studied procedures, such as lower degradation rate
and higher stability, being it the recommended procedure. The different derivatization
procedures have been used to study the stability of the reaction products OPA-NAC-
polyamines formed in urine matrix using spermine as model compound. Similar results
were obtained for standard solutions and urine samples.
The advantages and limitations of different pre-concentration procedures are
analysed by using of solid phase cartridges (C18). The experimental conditions for analyte
or derivative pre-concentration are optimised. Derivatization on packing support is also
proposed. Recovery assays, standard addition method and Youden are studied. Good
results were obtained in water samples.
- 270 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
- 271 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
GHPSAM is used in order to obtain the total Cr(VI) and chromate concentration in
water samples which matrices are completely unknown. Moreover, a new methodology,
which is a modification of the GHPSAM, is proposed for the simultaneous determination
of the two major chemical forms of Cr(VI) present in the sample. The methods are based
on the location of spectral intervals where the behaviour of the interferent absorbance can
be considered as linear. From these intervals the analyte concentration free from bias
error can be estimated. Spiked samples of dig and harbour water measured in the UV-
visible spectral region have been tested to check the background signal cancellation.
- 272 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
- 274 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
- 275 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
- 276 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
In the second part of the chapter, two stopped-flow manifolds have proposed for
simultaneous determination of chromium and cobalt in water samples. Automated
procedures based on multicommutation systems have emphasised the differences of their
catalytic effect in luminol-hydrogen peroxide chemiluminescence reaction. A more rapid
decay of signal was observed for Co for both configurations (discontinuous injection or
continuous injection). The influence of chemical and hydrodynamic variables has been
- 277 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
studied in order to establish the robustness of method. The analysis rate was lower 1.5
min/replicate. HPSAM provides a simple claibration model contributing to develop an
anlyser for chromium and cobalt.
Chemometric tools have employed for the resolution of their contributions. Partial
least squares (PLS) and H-point standard additions method (HPSAM) have used as
multivariate calibration models. The percentages of explained variance were 97-99 %
(two factors). PLS and HPSAM have provided similar results. Standard mixtures, spiked
samples and a certified reference material have validated the proposed strategy. The
applicability has been demonstrated by the determination of Cr and Co concentration in
different water samples. The best results have been obtained for continuous injection
providing more robust predictions. Detection limit = 0.2 g/L
- Analysis of phosphate
Table 85 summarises the phosphate study. A SI-manifold for filterable reactive
phosphorous (FRP) determination in natural waters has been developed. The
spectrophotometric detection of phosphorous species was performed after reaction with
molybdate and SnCl2. The effect of chemical and hydrodynamic variables has been
evaluated by univariate and simplex optimisation. Analytical figures of merit were
determined (linear interval 0.5-25 mol/L, precision 5%, LOD 0.3 mol/L of P). The
Schlieren effect was minimised by using of NH4Cl and a reference wavelength. The
salinity effect was modelled.
Different sampling campaigns were performed in Tamar estuary catchment. The
method was validated by recovery assays and a reference method (segmented flow
analyser). In all cases, precise and accurate results were obtained. A brief interpretation of
FRP values in Tamar estuary was carried out. Correlation between water quality
parameters were found and PCA model provided the most significant variables.
- 278 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
Chromium
Chromium
Chromium
Chromium
Phosphate
Phenols
Amines
-Cobalt
mutiv
univ
(VI)
Automatization Batch X X X X
of analytical method Flow X X X X
Signal source Direct analysis X X
Derivatization X X X
Catalytic action X X X
S vs. t Batch-equilibrium X X
Kinetic X X X X X
Flow X X X X
Analyte Organic X X
Inorganic X X X X X
Water samples Harbour X X X
Lake X
River X X X X
Coast X X X
Estuary X
Potable-groundwater X X
Residual X X X
Dig X
Specific study of Sampling campaign X X
analytical step Storage study X
Preconcentracion X X
Pretreatment X X X
Previous derivatization X X
Register system design X X
Optimisation X X X X
Selection calibration model X X X X X
Validation X X X X X X X
Validation Recovery assays X X X X X X X
Quality assurance Statistical Control X X X X
Study of error sources X X X X
Reference method X X X X
CRM X X X
Theoretical modelling X
Artificial matrix X X X
GLP X X X X X X X
Harozous precautions X X X X X X X
- 279 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
Different chemometric tools have been described in order to optimise the analysis
of water chemical parameters. This tools applied in different analytical context have
included statistical test, classification methods or calibration methods. Different models,
approaches, data pre-treatment or variable selection criteria have been used.
Nowadays, the analytical chemistry imposes the adaptation of the analytical
method to programmable instrumentation and data management. Then, these
characteristics have been emphasised in every chapter with the development or
improvement of software programmes and the adaptation of instrumental context.
The different specific and general chemometric solutions or strategies described in
this thesis project are summarised in Table 87.
Chromium
Chromium
Chromium
Chromium
Phosphate
Phenols
Amines
-Cobalt
mutiv
univ
(VI)
Chemometric HPSAM X X X
methods GHPSAM X X X
ANOVA X
Standardisation X
Comparison of means X X X X
Comparison of variance X X X X
PLS X X X
Control chart X
PCA X X X X
Robust regression X
No linear regression X X
Simplex X X
Cluster analysis X
Variable number Univariate X X X
Multivariate X X X X X
Software utilisation Commercial programs X X X X X X
Improved programs X X
Developed programs X X X X
Application Optimisation X X X
Chemometric Signal selection X X X X
methods Interference cancellation X X X
Kinetic studies X X X
Standardisation X
Selection of model X X X
Calibration X X X X X X X
Simultaneous analysis X X
Comparison of results X X X X X
Interpretation X
cost. Speciation of chromium (VI) has carried out using GHPSAM. Moreover, a new
design of a chemiluminescence flow cell has been performed. The application of
multivariate calibration models is a new strategy for chemiluminescence analysis being
possible the use of standardisation methods. Finally an analyser have been proposed for
analysis of chromium and/or cobalt. For phosphate analysis, an alternative method has
been proposed with a low consumption of reagents.
Chromium
Chromium
Chromium
Chromium
Phosphate
Phenols
Amines
-Cobalt
mutiv
univ
(VI)
Suitability for in-situ analysis X X X X X X
Environmental care X X X X X X X
Simple instrumentation X X X X X X X
Cheap analysis X X X X X X X
Non-qualified personnel X X X X X X
Suitable LD X X X X X X
- 281 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
- Analysis of amines
- The first suggestion is more water sample analysis. The number of samples
should increase in order to demonstrate the applicability of method in water control. A
sampling campaign is already planning. Some sampling locations have been found where
the monitoring of polyamine can be useful. They correspond to points where the pollution
for natural waste or waste putrefaction is observable.
- Establish a storage protocol for amines in water samples is a valuable project.
The comparison of different preservative addition, different store temperature or different
sampling-store containers should be performed. Additionally, the options of the on-field
derivatization or in-field retention in supports could be improved.
- 282 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
In fact, most of these suggestions are part of the project is developing nowadays.
Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology has already supported the project about the
determination of amines in water samples.
The internationally recognised experience of the research group in amine analysis
with different methods and different matrix guarantee the acquisition of accurate and
precise results.
Like the published papers about the amine determination in pharmaceutical,
beverage and biological fluid matrix, the future papers may be used as analytical
reference for many authors.
- 283 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
- Analysis of phosphate
- In future research, a deeper investigation in order to solve different problems of
the determination. The study of Schlieren effect on the phosphorus determination could
be completed and therefore the sensitivity of the method could be improved. The
influence of the water salinity is very important in the intensity of the signal. The
development of a method that it can be applied for FRP determination in estuary waters
independently of salinity value would be useful. Other solution for the study of influence
of the water salinity and correction of Schlieren effect can be multivariable methods. The
use of calibration models using salinity values and FRP concentration information can be
interesting. These methods would reduce the experimental effort. Other
spectrophotometric methods with SIA can be done for FRP determination as using
ascorbic acid as reductant. An interference study (silicate and arsenate in particular)
would be very important for samples likely to contain elevated levels of those parameters.
- Some sampling aspects could be considered. More monitoring in Tamar estuary
and Plymouth coastal region will provide environmental information of phosphorus
availability. Therefore, the interpretation of more samples and the correlation with
locations and other water quality parameters will obtain important conclusions. The
evaluation of FRP in Valencia area will be an ambitious research project. Another
interesting area could be the application of the SIA method to the determination of
phosphorus in oceanic and seawater samples.
- The evaluation of different phophorous species can be improved. The
development of a SIA system for the FRP determination is achieved in this thesis.
However, determination of TRP, TFP and TP with SIA system could be developed by
combining various sample treatment procedures with SIA (in-line or on-line).
- The environmental interpretation of historical data 1974-1997 in the Tamar
catchment is also proposed. The overall aim will be to characterise relationships between
environmental parameters from 1974 to 1997 in Tamar catchment. Values of different
environmental parameters in this area will be evaluated. The variables that will studied
include climatic parameters, physical, chemical and biological parameters of water: Rain
fall, Water temperature, River flow rate, Suspended solids (SS), Total oxidised nitrogen
(TON), Filterable reactive phosphate (FRP) and Chlorophil A. The specific objectives
will be: evaluation of annual and seasonal trends, perform studies of variables correlation,
analysis univariate and multivariate of data (linear regression, PCA, LDA) and evaluation
of a seasonal model or a model with lower frequency (weeks).
- A very interesting determination is the estimation of organic dissolved
phosphorous (DOP) in water samples. In fact, this study has been started and a SI
manifold for dissolved organic phosphorus determination in water has been proposed.
The organic phosphorus compound is photooxided using an oxidant reagent and UV-
irradiation.
- 286 -
Captulo 4: CONCLUSIONS
- Global analysis
The final proposal is the most ambitious challenge but is unfortunately less
probable and realistic project, also. It supposes a global estimation of environmental
situation in Valencia area because the information is not enough, nowadays. This project
could be the total application of research experience and proposed methods for
monitoring and modelling water quality in this urban, industrial, agricultural and coastal
area. The planning and performance of this environmental study need the contribution of
the specialists in different scientific areas such as biology, geology or chemistry.
Although, the studied analytes cover different organic and inorganic compounds, the
selection of chemical parameters must be increased. The correct selection of sampling
points is a critical point in terms of representativiness and future environmental
management decisions. Together with proposed methods, the development of new
analytical methods must be performed. The information provides for these chemical
parameters will combine with other studies including climatic physical and biological
parameters of water. A methodical monitoring of quality water will permit the
interpretation of temporal, seasonal or spacial evolutions and the detection of new sources
of pollution. The resolution of practical and operative problems from the application of
this study could complete the initial objectives.
- 287 -
Captulo 5: REFERENCES
5.- REFERENCES
- 289 -
Captulo 5: REFERENCES
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Captulo 5: REFERENCES
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triphosphate ions by flow-injection analysis with the lead-ion-selective electrode as detector, Anal.
Chem., 58 (1986) 608
[303] T. Yao, N. Kobayashi and T. Wasa, Amperometric flow-injection system with an
immobilized enzyme reactor for the highly selective detection of phosphate and online
amplification by substrate recycling, Anal. Chim. Acta, 238 (1990) 339
[304] S. Hinkamp and G. Schwedt, Determination of total phosphorus in waters with
amperometric detection by coupling of flow-injection analysis with continuous microwave oven
digestion, Anal. Chim. Acta, 236 (1990) 345
[305] P.R. Freeman, I.D. McKelvie, B.T. Hart and T.J. Cardwell, Flow-injection technique
for the determination of low levels of phosphorus in natural waters, Anal. Chim. Acta, 234 (1990)
409
[306] M.T. Downes, Water Res., 12 (1978) 743
[307] B.M. Simonet, F. Grases and J.G. March, Determination of phosphate in urine by
sequential-injection analysis, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem., 369 (2001) 96
[308] Tamar estuary and tributaries. Consultation report. Enviroment Agency. 1996
[309] S. Knox, Estuarine and Coastal Shelf Science, 13 (1981) 357
[310] B. Moldan and J. Cerny, Biogeochemistry of Small Catchments, ed. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 2000
[311] K.R. Dyer, Estuaries 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, Chischester, 2000
- 305 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
6.- APNDICES
- 308 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
- 309 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
- 311 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
6.2.- PAPERS
The results of this thesis have produced some scientific papers. Some of them are
published in international analytical or environmental journals. Other are submitted for
publication or in redaction step. Nevertheless, the paper drafts are included.
- 312 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
- 313 -
UNPUBLISHED PAPER
ABSTRACT
The generalized H-point standard-additions method (GHPSAM) is proposed for first time to kinetic
analysis. The analyte concentration is estimated independently of reagent consumption respect analyte
concentration and/or reagent evolution with time and/or presence of interference in unknown samples.
The method was applied to the reaction of phenol and o-cresol with p-aminophenol and KIO4 in
presence of NaOH. Pseudo-first order kinetic behaviour of the reaction products is observed. The
unbiased formation rate constants of phenol and o-cresol derivatives have been calculated.
The analytical figures of merit were determined. Detection limits achieved were 0.02 g/L of phenol
and 0.02 of o-cresol using a preconcentration factor of 10. Repeatability values were 3.7 % for phenol and
2.0 % for o-cresol and reproducibility values were 6.9 % and 3.5 %, respectively. Accurate and precise
results have been obtained when the method was applied to real samples.
* Correspondence author
E-mail: pilar.campins@uv.es Fax: +34-96 386 43 22
INTRODUCTION measurement at 510 nm [12]. The detection limit is
Phenolic compounds may be found in 0.5 g/L with chloroform extraction method and 1
industrial wastewaters, natural water and potable g/L with direct photometric method.
water supplies. Their origin is linked to industrial Nevertheless, PAP reagent was chosen for
activities and painting wastes. Levels of 1 mg/L of providing easy, sensitive and selective
phenolic compounds in water are toxic and must derivatization of phenolic compounds. Even both
be controlled. The concentration of phenols in reagents are not useful for the determination of
drinking water is limited in most countries. The para-substituted phenols, 4-APP also requires
upper limits for total phenol are fixed by some EU- preliminary long-time distillation of the sample.
Directives at 0.5 g/L in drinking water, at 50 The preconcentration step for PAP determination
g/L in bathing water and at 1-100 g/L for is only needed for samples with low phenolic
surface water intended for the abstraction of concentration. According reference 13, limit of
drinking water. detection using PAP is 0.97 g/L of phenol.
Unbiased UV-visible methods could be used as Although, the coupling of gas chromatography
screening sample methods in order to reduce costs and mass spectrometric detection with a previous
and saving time in the laboratory. It is important extraction step [14-17] can be considered as the
when a high number of samples must be definitive method. The range of detection limits of
processed. Our research group has demonstrated these methods is 0.1 1 g/L.
how the generalized H-point standard addition The combination of a preconcentration step
method (GHPSAM) [1] can isolate the unbiased with styrene divinyl benzene cartridges and the
analyte signal in a sample where unknown treatment of the native analytical signal for
interferents are present. The method is based on phenols by GHPSAM has been also proposed [18].
the location of linear spectral intervals for the Detection limits were 2.4 g/L (phenol) and 4.8
global interference in the entire spectral region g/L (o-cresol) at preconcentration factor 333. The
measured when equilibrium measurements are present paper besides to translate the GHPSAM to
considered. kinetic methods, improves the spectrophotometric
The simultaneous recording of absorbance as a determination decreasing the concentration factor
function of time has permitted the resolution of needed.
several chemical systems. The use of mathematical
methodologies including non-linear and linear THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
regression [2], partial least-squares [3], non-linear The GHPSAM makes it possible to estimate
or extended Kalman filter [4], factor analysis [5] the concentration of an analyte in presence of an
and H-point standard addition method [6] has unknown interferent. The first step to apply the
allowed to estimate the concentrations and the rate GHPSAM is the location of linear intervals in the
constants. Some of these methods have applied for interferent spectrum for each time.
determining phenolic compound kinetics or Let us assume that X is the analyte or its
concentration as Kalman filter [7], artificial neural selected form to be determined and Z is the
networks [8], partial least-squares [9-10], or factor unknown global interference. If the spectral
analysis [11]. behaviour of the interferent Z (AZ,j) in the range of
In this paper, GHPSAM is now proposed to wavelengths 1-m, can be described as a straight
obtain the unbiased analyte kinetics and to line with an a intercept and a b slope at a given t
determinate analyte concentration free from bias then it can be written:
error. For a mixture of the derivatized compound AZ,j = a + b j j [1, m] [eq. 1]
X and the excess of reagent R, the evaluation of The absorbance of the sample S at each
kinetic data matrix is obtained. The matrix wavelength in the interval selected will be the sum
dimensions of spectrophotometric data are time, of the absorbances of X at a concentration cX and
wavelength and analyte concentration. The spectral of Z at time t:
regions where reagent R can be considered as
AS,j = AX,j + AZ,j = MX,j cX + a + b j [eq. 2]
linear are found and compound X concentration is
where AX,j is the absorbance at j of X at time t
estimated. The presence or absence of synergism
and Mj is the molar absorption coefficient and the
can be established. The method was applied to the
determination of the kinetics of the analyte in the optical path product (or related measure) at j of
reaction of phenolic compounds with p- the analyte X at time t.
aminophenol (PAP) in presence of NaOH and The second derivative absorbance of the
KIO4. The method was also applied to determine sample with regard to the wavelength in this
phenol and o-cresol in different water samples. interval is:
The reference method for the determination of d 2 AX , j d 2 AY , j
AS'' , j = + = M j'' c X [eq. 3]
phenols is based on the oxidative coupling reaction d2 d2
with 4-aminoantipyrine (4-AAP) and absorbance Equation [eq.3] can be re-written as:
AS'' , j Two parameters, p and q, can be defined as:
''
= cX [eq. 4] k j l k
M j p= q= [eq. 9]
Thus, when plotting the values of the ratio
l j l j
AS'' , j / M ''j vs. j for each time, constant values and also two lines can be defined as the
weighted differences between AS,j and AS,l and
equal to the analyte concentration will be obtained between AS,j and AS,k
in those intervals where the interferent spectrum q AS,j,l = q (AS,j - AS,l) = q Mj,l
presents a linear behaviour for each time.
c X0 + q (AZ,j - AZ,l) + q Mj,l c iX
In a previous work, it was reported a
complementary procedure for the location of linear p AS,j,k = p (AS,j - AS,k) = p Mj,k c X0 + p
intervals in the interferent spectrum. This (AZ,j - AZ,k) + p Mj,k c iX [eq. 10]
procedure can be translated to kinetic analysis
considering a given time. The linearity of the These two lines permit the calculation of the
interferent, Z, was located by considering the value concentration of the analyte from the abscissa of
of the sample first derivative spectrum equal to the their intersection point, the so-called H point (-cH,
0
value of the first derivative of the interferent at the AH), where cH is equal to c X , the analyte
wavelength of the maximum absorbance (m) of concentration in the sample at a given time t:
the analyte, X. q AS , j ,l p AS , j ,k
dA
S
dA
Z cH = =
= [eq. 5] q M j ,l p M j ,k
d m d m [eq. 11]
AX0 ,k q AX0 , j p AX0 ,l
Selecting a couple of wavelengths j and k
where the analyte presents the same absorbance
q M j + p Ml Mk
(AX,j = AX,k) for a time t, the absorbance increment From this expression we can optimise the
AS,j,k can be written as: wavelengths (j, k and l) to be those that make
AS,j,k=AZ,k + AX,k - AZ,j - AX,j=AZ,k - AZ,j [eq. 6] bigger the denominator in equation [eq. 11], in
Dividing AS,j,k by the corresponding j,k, a order to obtain the most accurate results.
value equal to the sample first derivative at m will Let us consider the spectrum of global
be obtained if the interferent is linear in this interference changes in function of time but the
wavelength interval, for this time t. spectral behaviour in [1, m] range is linear for
every time value. Using GHPSAM increments, the
AS , j ,k AI , j AI ,k dA
S
Table I: Parameters of nor,t vs. nor,580 regressions (n=161) for phenol and o-cresol calibrations in the interval 580-740 nm
Reaction time 20 140 220 300 420
(s)
Phenol b 1,08 0,09 1,04 0,06 1,03 0,05 1,02 0,03 1,00 0,03
a -0,09 0,06 -0,05 0,04 -0,03 0,03 -0,02 0,02 -0,01 0,02
R2 0,9990 0,9995 0,9997 0,9998 0,9999
sYX 0,12 0,08 0,07 0,05 0,04
o-cresol b 1,02 0,02 1,02 0,06 1,03 0,04 1,05 0,01 1,04 0,08
a -0,05 0,15 -0,05 0,12 -0,06 0,10 -0,06 0,07 -0,05 0,06
R2 0,993 0,996 0,997 0,998 0,999
sYX 0,30 0,24 0,20 0,15 0,12
8.33 8.33
20 10.0 20
10.0
10 10
0 0
500
550
600
650
700
750
500
550
600
650
700
750
(nm) (nm)
Figure 2: Representation AS'' , j / 'j' vs. j for reagent blank and standard solutions after 300 s of merging the reagents, being
''
j the slope of the calibration curve after 580 s of merging the reagents.
The wavelength couples lying on both sides of of (dA/d )m indicate that the interferent
S
(dA/d )Sm
AS,j,k/j,k s(AS,j,k/j,k)
Reaction time (s)
3 s (dA/d)
Phenol 20 -0.0012 0.0002 -0.0012 0.0002
m = 626 nm 140 -0.0014 0.0003 -0.0013 0.0002
220 -0.0018 0.0003 -0.0017 0.0002
300 -0.0024 0.0004 -0.0022 0.0002
420 -0.0040 0.0006 -0.0031 0.0003
580 -0.0066 0.0012 -0.0047 0.0018
o-cresol 20 -0.0020 0.0005 -0.0014 0.0004
m = 614 nm 140 -0.0029 0.0008 -0.0028 0.0007
220 -0.0033 0.0008 -0.004 0.0008
300 -0.0038 0.0008 -0.0034 0.0007
420 -0.0053 0.0007 -0.0048 0.0011
580 -0.0072 0.0006 -0.0089 0.0027
Concentration estimation: kinetic studies size. Bad predictions were estimated when the
The concentration of the analyte can be absorbance values of the interval 700 - 740 nm
estimated by applying the GHPSAM equations for were included. These results can be interpreted as
600 - 740 nm interval, and for the different weak loss of linear spectral behaviour of the
subintervals, using the absorbance registers after reagent blank along with an increase noise-signal
580 s as reference standards. The selection of the relation. For each time the concentration of
three wavelength sets (Ak, Aj, Al) is based on the analytes was calculated using GHPSAM
following criteria: a distance between the three calibration curve at 580 s. The GHPSAM
wavelengths greater than 4 nm and a determination predictions for phenol derivative and for o-cresol
coefficient (r2) for the resulting calibration curve derivative are shown in Figure 3. It also includes
(Ak - q Aj - p Al vs. c) greater than 0.995. The final the residual blank signal no explained by the
predictions are obtained as an average of the GHPSAM given as analyte concentration. As can
results provided by the 50 absorbance increments be seen, GHPSAM avoids the blank signal
with the highest slope of the calibration curve. successfully for all times assayed.
Robust predictions were obtained in the 600 -
700 nm interval, independently the subinterval
6 (a) 6 (b)
analyte GHPSAM
5 5
analyte GHPSAM A-A b
4 4 analyte PLS
3 3
c (mg/L)
analyte PLS
c (mg/L)
2 A-A b 2
1 1
0 0
reagent GHPSAM reagent GHPSAM
-1 -1
-2 -2 reagent PLS
reagent PLS
-3 time (s) -3 time (s)
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Figure 3: Analyte derivative kinetics and non-cancelled reagent kinetics obtained of the predictions using as reference the
calibration curve after 580 s of merging the reagents for univariate difference (AS,m(t) - Ab,m(t)) calibration (m = 626 nm for phenol
derivative and m = 614 nm for o-cresol derivative), GHPSAM method and PLS regression. (a) phenol and (b) o-cresol
Other methods were used to estimate the GHPSAM predictions. However, reagent blank
concentration of the analyte as function of time absorbance at different times needs to be also
using as reference the calibration curve after 580 s measured. GHPSAM only requires measuring the
of merging the reagents. Univariate difference phenolic solution.
method and PLS regression were employed. PLS model was obtained using as calibration
At maximum absorbance of the phenolic set the absorbance data for t = 580 s and the
derivative spectrum, the difference between prediction set contained the spectrum measured a
derivative absorbance and reagent blank single time value (t). The estimated analyte
absorbance (AS,m(t) - Ab,m(t)) was calculated for concentration and residual blank concentration as
each time. The analyte derivative kinetics function of time present a great prediction error,
estimated using as reference t = 580 s is shown in see Figure 3. This multivariate regression does not
Figure 3. The results using the absorbance values permit to modelling the different features in
at m = 626 nm for phenol derivative and at m = reagent blank or in an unknown matrix, as
614 nm for o-cresol derivative are similar to
evolution in time scale. GHPSAM can work well Figures of merit for the phenolic
with those data as established previously. determinations
Finally, the analyte concentration variation as Phenol and o-cresol standards covering the
function of the reaction time was evaluated. range 0 20 g/L were measured without
Pseudo-first order kinetic behaviour of the reaction preconcentration step. The linear calibration graph
products is observed. The formation rate constant parameters for different reaction times are
of phenol derivative is k = (64 2) 10-3 min-1 (t summarised in Table IV. GHPSAM method
> 2 min). Whereas o-cresol derivative has an initial provides similar o better results than univariate
region with a formation rate constant of k = (54 calibration in maximum absorbance wavelength.
10) 10-3 min-1(t < 2 min). Moreover GHPSAM provides better noise/signal
Therefore, the GHPSAM is a multivariate ratio (N/S) and limits of detection (3 sYX / b).
method that permits to isolate the analyte time Standards covering the range 0 2 g/L including
evolution using only a single calibration curve. preconcentration step (factor 10) were analysed.
This strategy avoids the measurement of the blank Regression parameters were a ratio around 10
with time because achieves the cancellation of regarding regression parameters showed in Table
reagent contribution. III. Detection limits achieved were 0.02 g/L of
phenol and 0.02 of o-cresol.
Table III: Figures of merit: (a) phenol and (b) o-cresol without preconcentration step
(a) t a b R2 syx 3*syx/b N/S
A626 20 0.002 0.008 0.015 0.007 0.611 0.011 2.19 0.16
140 0.006 0.005 0.068 0.004 0.9893 0.006 0.28 0.09
260 0.009 0.005 0.119 0.004 0.9966 0.006 0.16 0.08
380 0.013 0.004 0.165 0.003 0.9988 0.005 0.09 0.08
500 0.017 0.004 0.209 0.003 0.9994 0.005 0.07 0.08
590 0.020 0.003 0.240 0.003 0.9997 0.004 0.05 0.08
GHPSAM 20 0.0015 0.0001 0.0013 0.0001 0.9911 0.0001 0.26 1.16
140 0.0098 0.0007 0.015 0.0006 0.9953 0.0009 0.19 0.65
260 -0.0002 0.0002 0.0059 0.0002 0.9971 0.0003 0.15 0.03
380 0.0000 0.0001 -0.0031 0.0001 0.9991 0.0001 0.08 0.01
500 -0.0001 0.0001 -0.0029 0.0001 0.9995 0.0001 0.06 0.03
590 -0.0001 0.0001 0.0024 0.0001 0.9999 0.0001 0.03 0.04
As it can be seen, good results have obtained Reproducibility values (RSDintra) were 6.9 % for
for a reaction time superior to 4 minutes for both phenol and 3.5 % for o-cresol.
compounds. This reaction time was chosen for Analysis rate, defined as the number of
determination of phenolic compounds in real analysed samples an hour including
samples. preconcentration step was 4 samples/hour (3
The limit of detection established as 3 times of replicates). This value is similar to cromatographic
standard deviation of the blank solution (n=5) in methods and better than methods based on
concentration units provided similar values to distillilation and 4-aminoantipyrine colorimetry.
show in Table III. Repeatability of the method
was calculated by five measures of a 0.5 mol/L Phenolic compound determination in water
phosphate standard (with preconcentration step). samples
Repeatability values (RSDinter) were 3.7 % for In this study, samples were taken from the
phenol and 2.0 % for o-cresol. Reproducibility was LAlbufera lake (Valencia, Spain) in seven
calculated from the response of 0.5 mol/L locations. The sample locations are marked in
phosphate standard measured with LAlbufera map (Figure 4) and different
preconcentration step in different days (n=3, k=3). parameters taken are listed in Table IV. The
extension of the lake is about 2000 Ha. Some
irrigation ditches and urban and industrial 4 min of reaction (PLS t = 4 min) or every spectra
wastewater channels are presented. Environmental until 4 min of reaction (PLS bilineal).
studies are interesting in this area because its Figure 5 shows results of phenol and o-cresol
importance to the survival of some biological for the different methods. The GHPSAM results
species. are in agreement with HPLC results and PLS
results. A paired t-test showed that there was no
significant difference between GHPSAM-HPLC
and both PLS-HPLC methods at 90 % confidence
interval.
(a) 1.0
A
0.8
phenol concentration
B
0.6 C
( g/L)
D
0.4
0.2
0.0
1+
2+
3+
4+
5+
6+
7+
samples spiked samples
(b) 1.0
Figure 4: Sampling map: LAlbufera (Valencia, Spain)
A
o- cresol concentration
0.8
B
Water samples and spiked samples were 0.6
C
( g/L)
preconcentrated and analysed for reaction with 0.4 D
(HPLC method using peak area as analytical Figure 5: Concentration of phenol (a) and o-cresol (b) in
signal) [19]. samples and spiked samples calculated by different methods. A:
PLS methods were also employed for phenol HPLC area peak, B: PLS bilinear, C: PLS t = 4 min and D:
GHPSAM t = 4 min
and o-cresol determination. PLS regression [9] has
been proposed to estimate the concentration of
The accuracy of the method was also evaluated
phenolic compounds by derivatization with PAP-
by a recovery study. An amount of 0.5 mol/L of
KIO4. The concentration in each time can been
phenol or o-cresol was spiked to samples. In Table
estimated using the PLS regression model
IV, the measured recoveries for spiked phenolic
calculated for each single time. Also, the PLS
compound are summarised for every method. In all
regression can been applied using bilinear data,
cases, good recovery values (74-109 % range)
where each matrix vector contains all the spectra
were obtained for GHPSAM, independently of the
corresponding to each solution in a sequential
sample location. These results are similar to those
order. In this case, X-block contained spectra after
provided by HPLC and PLS methods.
Table IV: Results in water samples: (a) concentration and (b) recovery percentages
(a) Spiked concentration
localisation pH SM* (mg/L) phenol o-cresol
(g/L) (g/L)
1 Massanassa 7.57 27.5 0.5 0.5
2 Gola del Pujol 8.93 90.8 0.5 0.5
3 El Saler 8.26 121.6 0.5 0.5
4 El Palmar 7.51 31.8 0.5 0.5
5 El Perello 8.58 76.7 0.5 0.5
6 Rac de lOlla 9.56 90.0 0.5 0.5
7 El Palmar 9.11 166.7 0.5 0.5
Received 11 September 2000; received in revised form 4 May 2001; accepted 4 May 2001
Abstract
A comparative study of different derivatization procedures has been performed in order to improve the stability of the
reaction products o-phthalaldehydeN-acetylcysteine (OPANAC) polyamines. Procedures such as solution derivatization,
solution derivatization followed by retention on a packing support, derivatization on different packing supports and
on-column derivatization, have been optimized and compared. The degradation rate constant (k) of the derivative was
dependent on the procedure used and on the analyte. For the spermine (the most unstable isoindol tested) k was 862310 22
min 21 in solution versus 7.761.1310 24 min 21 on the (C 18 ) solid support. The results obtained showed that forming the
derivative on the packing support (C 18 ) gave the best results following this procedure: conditioning the cartridges with
borate buffer (1 ml, 0.5 M, pH 8), retention of the analyte, addition of 0.8 ml of OPANAC reagent, 0.2 ml borate buffer 0.8
M (pH 8) and elution of the isoindol with 3 ml of MeOHborate buffer (9:1). The different derivatization procedures have
been used to study the stability of the reaction products OPANAC polyamines formed in urine matrix using spermine as
model compound. Similar results were obtained for standard solutions and urine samples. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.
0378-4347 / 01 / $ see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0378-4347( 01 )00236-5
286 et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco
such as N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or 3-mercapto- phonate, etc.) have been developed. In this meth-
propionic acid (MPA), provides more stable iso- odology, a commercial SiOH-modified packing
indols, compared to those formed with OPAMCE material is used instead of polymeric reagent specially
[2]. Other alternatives, such as the addition of prepared for solid-phase derivatization. The car-
sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) or phosphate buffer tridges are used to purify the sample, to concentrate
(pH 4), or the extraction of the reaction product, the analytes and to perform the derivatization. Some
have been demonstrated insufficient for stabilising applications have been described for determination
the OPA-derivatives. Recently, some papers have of amino compounds in urine samples, such as
been published in reference to the stability of the amphetamines, ephedrines or polyamines.
OPANAC reagent and their amino acid derivatives In this paper, the different derivatization proce-
[3,4] in aqueous solution, and they confirm that the dures have been studied and compared. In the best
lack of stability of these compounds depends on the conditions, the stability of spermine in urine samples
analyte and the reaction conditions. has been studied, in order to determine the utility of
Many articles have been published about the these approaches to routine quantification. The
application of this reagent to amine determination amines assayed have been putrescine, spermine and
[5], and in order to afford reproducible results spermidine, which are involved in the processes of
automated or on-column systems for the precolumn cell proliferation, cell differentiation and malignant
derivatization have been developed [6,7]. Saito et al. transformation [16,17]. Probably patients with many
[8] have carried out a kinetic study of the stability of types of cancer have enhanced urinary excretion of
the OPAspermine (Spm) fluorophore formed by an polyamines [1821]. Furthermore, it has been found
on-column method, with a mobile phase containing that the determination of biogenic amines is a useful
OPANAC reagent, coupled with a column-switch- quality parameter related to the decomposition of
ing system. They found that the OPASpm fluoro- food matrix, such as in fish [22], soy sauce [23] or
phore formed by the on-column method was more milk [24]. Due to their potential usefulness as
stable than that formed by a conventional pre-column biochemical markers, many methods have been
method. Recently, an automated procedure has been developed for their separation and determination in
developed to determine polyamines with OPA in various biological samples, for example: ion-ex-
different biological samples [9]. The proposed pro- change chromatography [25,26], capillary zone elec-
cedure required off-line extraction followed by on- trophoresis [27,28], thin-layer chromatography [29],
line derivatization, and has some limitations for gas chromatography [21] and specially high-perform-
determination in real samples such as urine. Never- ance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [3039].
theless, the special spectrophotometric and fluorimet-
ric characteristics and the stability of the OPANAC
reagent and OPANAC-amine isoindol have not 2. Experimental
been investigated in detail in the literature.
Thus, this paper describes a kinetic spectrophoto- 2.1. Apparatus
metric and fluorimetric study of the stability of the
OPANAC reagent and OPANAC-amine derivative All spectrophotometric measurements were done
by using different derivatization procedures such as on a Hewlett-Packard (Palo Alto, CA, USA) HP
solution derivatization, solution derivatization fol- 8453 diode-array spectrophotometer furnished with
lowed by retention on solid supports, derivatization quartz cells with a 1-cm pathlength.
on solid supports and on-column derivatization. Fluorescence was monitored using an Hitachi
Derivatization on commercial solid support is a fluorescence spectrophotometer (Hitachi, Japan)
recent methodology proposed by this research group model F-4500 furnished with quartz cells with a
as a quantitative procedure for amine determination. 1-cm pathlength.
Off-line [1012] and on-line procedures [1315] on The chromatographic system used consisted of a
solid-phase supports by using different derivatization quaternary pump equipped with an automatic injector
reagents (dansyl chloride, 1,2-naphtoquinone 4-sul- (1050 series) (Hewlett-Packard, Palo Alto, CA) with
et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco 287
a 100-ml sample loop injector, and a high-pressure Concerning the stability characteristics of OPA
six-port valve (Rheodyne model 7000). A diode- NAC reagent, UVVis measurements were per-
array detector (Hewlett-Packard, 1040 series) and formed on the stored reagent solutions (all solutions
fluorescence detector (Hewlett-Packard, 1050 Series) were stored at |48C for several periods of time).
were coupled in series and linked to a data system Solutions stored in the dark, at 48C and in absence of
recorder (Hewlett-Packard, HPLC Chem Station) for borate buffer were stable for at least 8 days, while
data acquisition and storage. The chromatographic longer periods of time presented a variation coeffi-
signal was monitored at 247 nm for UV detection, cient of 5.3%, which agrees with Refs. [3,4]. At
with excitation at 333 nm and emission at 440 nm room temperature and in the presence of light, this
for fluorescence. All assays were carried out at room solution suffered a decomposition process and a new
temperature. spectrophotometric band at 440 nm appeared.
All chemicals were of analytical reagent grade Untreated urine samples were spiked with poly-
unless stated otherwise. Putrescine dihydrochloride, amines solution at concentration level of mg ml 21 .
spermine tetrahydrochloride and spermidine trihydro-
chloride were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, MO). 2.5. Solution derivatization ( procedure I)
N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) was obtained from Al-
drich-Chemie (Steinheim, Germany). Sodium hydro- A 1.8-ml volume of 3.6310 23 mol l 21 OPA
gen carbonate (Probus, Badalona, Spain), boric acid, NAC reagent containing 6.7% MeOH was mixed
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide (Panreac, with 100 ml of amine working standard solution and
Barcelona, Spain) were also used. Methanol (Merck, 100 ml of borate buffer (0.5 mol l 21 , pH 8.0) for the
Darmstadt, Germany) and acetonitrile (Baker, De- spectrophotometric study. The absorbance at 333 and
venter, Holland) were of HPLC grade. All solutions 297 nm was recorded as a function of time starting at
were prepared with ultrapure water from a Nanopure 20 s after the addition of the borate buffer solution,
II system (Sybron, Barnstead). at 30-s intervals up to 170 s.
Bond Elut C 2 , C 8 and C 18 200-mg extraction For the fluorimetric study the concentration of the
columns were from Varian (Harbor City, CA, USA). OPANAC reagent was ten times lower than for the
For urine samples Bond Elut Certified (3 cm 3 mg 21 ) spectrophotometric procedure. The amine concen-
and Bond Elut PPL (6 cm 3 (500 mg)21 ) cartridges tration was also lower. The fluorescence intensity,
were also used. lexcitation 5330 nm and lemission 5440 nm, was re-
corded as a function of time starting at 20 s after the
2.3. Standard solutions addition of the borate buffer solution, at 30-s inter-
vals up to 170 s.
Stock standard solutions of amine (200 mg l 21 ) Urine samples (12 ml) cannot be processed
and NAC (0.04 mol l 21 ) were prepared by dissolv- directly and a clean-up step with C 18 cartridges was
ing the pure compound in water. Stock standard employed.
solutions of OPA (0.01 mol l 21 ) were prepared by
dissolving the pure compound in water containing 2.6. Solution derivatization followed by retention
15% methanol (MeOH). All solutions were stored in on packing supports ( procedure II)
the dark at 48C. Working standard solutions at
different concentrations were prepared from the Solid-phase extraction cartridges were conditioned
stock standard solutions. Borate buffer (0.5 mol l 21 ), by drawing 1.0 ml of methanol, followed by 1.0 ml
pH 8, was prepared by dissolving an adequate of borate buffer 0.5 mol l 21 (pH 8). After the
amount of boric acid in water and then adjusting the required time (depending on the amine) the mixture
pH with NaOH. formed by 0.8 ml of 7.4310 23 mol l 21 OPANAC
288 et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco
reagent and 1 ml of amine standard solution was the derivative formed was desorbed from the C 18
transferred to the cartridges. After a fixed time (20 s cartridges with 3 ml of MeOHborate buffer (9:1),
or more usually 2 min) the derivative was desorbed pH 10.2.
with 3 ml of MeOHborate buffer (9:1). Following (2) Option B: A 0.8-ml sample of OPANAC
this, absorbance measurement was made at the reagent (7.4310 23 mol l 21 ) was transferred to the
wavelengths as described above. cartridges. After this, 2 ml of amine working stan-
For urine samples, 0.8 ml of 7.4310 23 mol l 21 dard solution and 0.2 ml of borate buffer (0.8 mol
OPANAC reagent, 0.051 ml of urine (blank or l 21 , pH 8) were transferred to the cartridges. After 3
fortified) and 0.2 ml of borate buffer (0.8 mol l 21 , min, the derivatives formed were desorbed from the
pH 8) were mixed. The formed derivatives were C 18 cartridges with 3 ml of MeOHborate buffer
retained on C 18 cartridges and eluted following the (9:1). The absorbance measurement was made as
procedure described for standard solutions. In order described above.
to eliminate the reagent and reagent products, a The urine samples were processed following op-
washing step with 3 ml MeCN was included. tion A. A 2-ml aliquot of urine was passed through
C 18 cartridges previously conditioned. In order to
2.7. On column derivatization ( procedure III) clean-up the sample several solvents were assayed:
water, MeCN, water:MeCN (1:1), MeOH, and
A 25-ml sample of the mixture (0.8 ml OPA MeCN:BO 2 2 (0.5 M) (9:1), pH 10.2. The derivatiza-
NAC, 0.2 ml water and 2 ml standard amine tion was performed into the column following the
solution) was injected into a chromatographic sys- procedure described for standard solutions.
tem. The reaction took place in the coil after mixing
with the mobile phase containing borate buffer. An
ODS-Hypersil (12534 mm I.D., 5 mm; Hewlett-
Packard) column was used as an analytical column 3. Results and discussion
for separation of the derivatives. A methanolborate
buffer (0.05 M, pH 9) gradient elution mode was 3.1. Standard solutions
used (20:80 at t50 and 60:40 at t52 min), at
flow-rate of 1 ml min 21 . All the solvents were 3.1.1. Effect of reaction parameters on solution
filtered with a 0.45-mm nylon membrane (Teknok- derivatization: kinetic data
roma, Barcelona, Spain) and degassed with helium Stability studies of the OPANAC-polyamine
before use. derivatives have been carried out by spectrophoto-
Aliquots of urine sample were directly injected metric and fluorimetric detection. The analytical
into the chromatographic system and derivatized signals of OPA, NAC, OPANAC and OPANAC-
according to the procedure described above. polyamine solutions were recorded as a function of
time. For all the assayed analytes the results showed
2.8. Derivatization on packing supports (solid- maximum absorbance values at 333 nm for OPA
phase extraction cartridges) ( procedure IV) NAC-polyamine and 297 nm for OPANAC reagent,
and maximum fluorescence values at excitation and
The solid-phase extraction cartridges were con- emission wavelengths of 330 and 440 nm. These
ditioned by drawing 1.0 ml of methanol, followed by values were in accordance with the wavelengths
1.0 ml of borate buffer 0.5 mol l 21 (pH 8). Two obtained by other 1-alkylthio-2-alkyl isoindoles [8].
different procedures were applied for standard solu- The OPANAC-amine derivatives formed in the
tions. presence of putrescine and spermidine were rather
(1) Option A: A 2-ml sample of amine working stable until 10 and 6 min, respectively, degradation
standard solution was transferred to the cartridges. not being a major problem in these determinations.
After this, 0.8 ml of OPANAC reagent (7.4310 23 However, the solutions of OPANAC-spermine
mol l 21 ), and 0.2 ml of borate buffer (0.8 mol l 21 , isoindol suffered a decomposition process that de-
pH 8) were transferred to the cartridges. After 3 min, creased the absorbance of the wide band at 333 nm.
et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco 289
In this case, the reaction can be followed and the chosen as the working buffer concentration, since the
equation ln R /R 0 5 2 kt can be applied, R (the results obtained showed a saturation area.
response at any time t) being equal to e lc where e is The influence of the percentage of MeOH and
molar absorptivity at 333 nm, l is the pathlength, and OPANAC concentrations on the reaction rate using
c is the analyte concentration, and R0 is the initial a three-dimensional image plot were studied (Fig.
response. The derivatization process fitted to this 2c). From this plot it was deduced that a MeOH (%)
equation (ln R 5 ln R 0 2 kt) can be divided into two ranging between 4 and 6.5% and an excess of
steps. For the derivative, a first stage up to |1 min reagent between 20- and 60-fold was adequate.
where the reaction rate increases, and a second stage The conditions of maximum sensibility and low
corresponding to a decomposition process up to 25 degradation rate constant were selected as optimum
min. For the reagent, the reaction rate increases up to conditions (Table 1). The OPANAC ratio, pH
6 min and is followed by a stabilization process up to buffer and MeOH (%) proposed by Molnar-Perl et
25 min. The degradation rate constant (k58623 al. [3,4] for amino acids derivatization with OPA
10 22 min 21 ) (n57) was calculated from the slope of NAC are 1:3, 9.3 and 100%, respectively. These
the above mentioned curve for spermine concen- conditions are different from those obtained in this
tration ranging from 0.77 to 25 mg ml 21 , and time work for polyamines (Table 1), however, the reagent
between 1 and 25 min. This fact confirms that the excess optimized is the same. The reaction time for
dependence is first order as reported Saito et al. [8]. polyamines is markedly shorter than for amino acids
When fluorescence measurements were performed (728 min). The stability of the isoindols (poly-
the constant value was ten times higher due to the amines or amino acids) depends on the analyte.
fact that the range concentration was ten times lower. The equations of the calibration graphs are shown
Fig. 1 shows the chromatograms corresponding to in Table 2 (procedure I). These results indicate that
the injection of the blank reagent and polyamine the precision and the accuracy of this method are
derivatives at different reaction times. The spermine satisfactory.
peak is only observed for short times. The other Statistical analysis of the analytical signal for the
peaks appear also in the blank solutions. reagent and the reaction product prepared on differ-
The intensity of the absorbance depends on the ent days and taking into account several variables
molar ratio OPANAC. A significant decrease in the such as pH, methanol (%), and reagent excess,
response was observed using a molar ratio different allowed evaluation of the robustness of the pro-
from (1:1). This behavior may be caused by the cedure. The results are shown in a Shewhart plot
limited stability of the OPA reagent. Saito et al. [8] (Fig. 3) ranged from (x62s). The average value (x)
indicated that an excess of OPA in the derivatization and the standard deviation (s) of the standard or
step served to catalyse the degradation of the iso- blank signal obtained the 1st day give the warning
indole derivative. An OPANAC (1:1) molar ratio limits. All the results obtained over 36 days are
was found to be the most suitable. Similar results inside the warning limits. The variation coefficient
were obtained for all the studied polyamines. was 6%, the usual value for this kind of procedure.
The optimum pH was determined by derivatizing
spermine with OPANAC at pH values ranging from
6.7 to 10.3 using borate, carbonate and phosphate 3.1.2. Solution derivatization followed by retention
buffers (Fig. 2a). From the results obtained, carbon- on packing supports
ate and borate buffers at pH 8 appear to be the By working at the selected conditions (Table 1),
optimum. At lower and higher pH the reaction rate the reaction products were retained on C 18 car-
increased. Phosphate buffer was not adequate be- tridges. The percentage of derivative retained, con-
cause it causes a quick decomposition of the deriva- sidering the analytical signal of the derivatized
tive. However, the effect of the borate buffer con- solution at 1 min as 100%, were 7265, 9262, 9061
centration was evaluated (Fig. 2b). The absorbance and 9062 (n53), for the blank reagent, spermine,
increased when the borate concentration increased. spermidine and putrescine, respectively. From these
From this study a borate buffer of 0.025 mol l 21 was results we can conclude that the retention of the
290 et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco
Fig. 1. Chromatograms corresponding to solution derivatization of the blank reagent and the spermine standard solution (4.49 mg l 21 ) at
different reaction times: (1) 1 min; (2) 8 min; (3) 20 min; (4) 30 min.
isoindol of the polyamines into the C 18 cartridges nearly completely eluted using acetonitrile (MeCN)
was quantitative. and MeCN with borate buffer. For the OPANAC-
Different Bond Elut columns (C 18 , C 8 and C 2 ) polyamine derivative good results were obtained
were tested and the best results were obtained using using MeOHborate buffer (9:1). The pH study
the packing C 18. . showed that the best recoveries were obtained around
In order to elute the reaction products, several pH 10. Study of the volume required to obtain the
solvents were used and the recoveries obtained are maximum recovery indicates that 3 ml MeOHbo-
shown in Fig. 4. As can be seen, the reagent was rate buffer (9:1) at pH 10 was appropriate because
et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco 291
Fig. 2. Effect of several parameters on the analytical signal (Absorbance) and / or on the reaction rate (k is kinetic constant). (a) Effect of pH
and buffer on the analytical signal of OPANAC and OPANAC-spermine; (b) effect of the borate buffer concentration; (c) effect of MeOH
(%) and OPA:NAC concentration on the reaction rate.
Table 1 the results obtained for the first fraction were near
Working range and optimal value obtained for the different the best recovery.
variables studied in solution derivatization This methodology allows inclusion of a washing
Conditions Working range Optimal value step after derivatization, especially when real sam-
OPANAC 1:12:12:1 1:1 ples need to be processed, in order to elute the
pH Buffer 610 8.0 reagent or reagent products different to the analyte
Buffer concentration (M) 00.08 0.025 products from the support. No significant differences
% MeOH 2.77.5 46.5 were observed in the analytical signal by cleaning
Reagent excess (%) 080 2060 the derivative products retained on the support with 3
Reaction time (s) Spermine, 025 min 60 s ml of MeCN.
Spermidine, 06 min 180 s The solid supports can be regenerated by passing
Putrescine, 310 min 180 s
through 1 ml of MeCN and 1 ml of MeOH.
292 et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco
Table 2
Analytical properties corresponding to the determination of several polyamines by using different procedures and different analytical signals
Procedure a Analyte Signal a6s a b6s b r2 sy / x LOD LC Concentration
(ppm) range
(ppm)
I Spermine A 0.024960.0055 0.043360.0003 0.9999 0.0079 0.3 0.9 0.325
I 60634 744621 0.998 55.6 0.14 0.5 0.53
Spermidine A 0.0141560.0003 0.0613962310 25 0.999 4310 24 0.074 0.25 0.2525
I 550640 1470630 0.999 57.09 0.077 0.26 0.262.1
Putrescine A 0.06960.05 0.15260.009 0.9998 7.6310 23 0.2 0.7 0.711
I 530625 54006500 0.998 122.6 0.014 0.046 0.050.3
II Spermine A 0.02260.015 0.044860.0016 0.998 0.017 0.94 3.11 3.1140
Spermidine A 0.0960.01 0.08460.002 0.999 0.016 0.35 1.19 1.196
Putrescine A 0.0160.02 0.13260.005 0.998 0.02 0.45 1.51 1.5111
III Spermine I 252.0665 180.468.5 0.996 97.95 0.05 0.2 0.215
24 23
IV Spermine A 0.16460.001 0.015662310 0.999 1.4310 0.29 0.97 0.9710.4
Putrescine A 0.0160.01 0.06060.003 0.999 0.01 0.5 1.7 1.711
For more details, see Experimental section. A, absorbance; I, fluorescence.
a
Procedure I: solution derivatization. Procedure II: solution derivatization followed by retention on packing supports. Procedure III:
derivatization on column. Procedure IV: derivatization on solid support.
We found that the apparent rate constant OPA affect the reaction rate, and the low degradation rate
NAC-spermine derivative onto the solid support was of the products into the column allows increasing
(7.761.1)310 24 min 21 after a certain period of reaction product stability. Moreover, the degradation
time from 5 to 30 min before the elution. These rate constant of the reaction product after elution was
results were in agreement with those obtained by (1063)310 23 min 21 , lower than that obtained for
Saito et al. [8]. solution derivatization.
These results indicated that the retention of the The analytical properties obtained by working at
reaction product onto the solid support does not
Table 4
Schedule of the different steps involved in the derivatization of polyamines on solid supports
Step Option A Option B
1) Support conditioning 1 ml MeOH Idem
1 ml Borate buffer
0.5 M, pH 8
2) Analyte retention 2 ml Standard solution Step 3
3) Reagent addition 0.8 ml (OPA:NAC, 1:1) in 15% MeOH Step 2
0.2 ml Buffer (0.8 M, pH 8)
4) Reaction time (min) 3 min Idem
5) Elution (ml) 3 ml (MeOH:borate buffer, pH 9.5, 9:1) Idem
294 et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco
improved by increasing the reaction time in the elution of the reaction products. These results were
column or the reagent concentration; however, vol- confirmed by injecting these extracts into a chro-
umes higher than 1 ml reagent solution can cause the matographic system, it being possible to isolate the
analyte elution. peak corresponding to the spermine.
By using this procedure the stability of the re- Different mixtures (MeOH:water:buffer) were as-
action product increases. The reaction products sayed to elute the reaction products. Analogous to
formed onto the column and later eluted are stable the standard solutions, the best results were obtained
for longer than 360 s. by eluting with 3 ml of MeOHborate buffer (9:1).
The kinetic behavior of the reaction products in
urine samples was studied. Similar results were
3.2. Study of urine samples
obtained for the standards and for the fortified urine
samples by applying procedure II. However, the
3.2.1. Solution derivatization
degradation rate constant (k53462310 23 min 21 )
Direct solution derivatization of polyamines in
calculated from the slope of the regression line (ln
urine samples is not possible due to the high
Abs vs. time), was higher than that obtained for
analytical signal obtained for the blank urine, be-
standard solutions and confirms that the dependence
cause of the complexity of the matrix, and the quick
is pseudo-first order. No differences were observed
degradation of the OPApolyamine derivatives after
in the rate constant with the urine volume assayed.
their formation. Thus, it has become common prac-
The sensitivity obtained by measuring 20 s after
tice to extract the interferences before or after the
the elution of the reaction product was 0.0485 cm
derivatization and before the analytical measurement
mg 21 l 21 , similar to that obtained for the standard
in order to increase selectivity or even to employ
solutions. In these experiments the urine volume
automated systems to increase the stability.
employed ranged between 0.05 and 0.1 ml, the
According to previous work [12] by our research
sensibility decreasing when higher urine volumes are
group, the amines were retained on a solid support
used. This is mainly due to reagent consumption by
(C 18 ) and several solvents were assayed to elute the
the urine endogenous compounds.
matrix from the cartridges. Different solvent mix-
In order to increase the volume of urine processed,
tures were assayed such as: 1 ml water, 1 ml water /
extraction of the analyte from the urine matrix by a
MeCN (1:1), 1 ml MeOH, 1 ml MeCN / BO 2 2 (0.5 M,
clean-up step using an SPE cartridge as previously
pH 10.2) (9:1), and 2 ml MeCN / BO 2 2 (0.5 M, pH
described was performed. However, by using this
10.2) (8:2), while the best clean-up was obtained
procedure, the recoveries achieved for the different
with 1 ml MeOH and 1 ml MeCN / BO 2 2 (0.5 M, pH
amines assayed are in the range of 4050% as in the
10.2) (9:1). The amines retained on the cartridges
solution derivatization, which means that the sen-
were eluted with 1 ml of acetic acid solution (0.1
sitivity of the procedure is reduced by up to a factor
M). However, by using this procedure, the recoveries
of two.
achieved for the different amines assayed are in the
range of 4050%, which means that the sensitivity
3.2.3. On-column derivatization
of the procedure is reduced by up to a factor of two.
The sensitivity obtained when the derivatization
was performed on column was higher than that
3.2.2. Formation, retention and elution on C18 obtained by using the other procedures described
cartridges above. However, direct injection of urine into the
In order to increase the selectivity and the stability column did not allow the identification of the analyte
of the derivatives, the reaction products formed in peak due to the high amount of endogenous com-
solution were retained into C 18 cartridges as de- pounds as can be seen in Fig. 6. This figure also
scribed in the previous section. To remove the shows no differences between the fortified urine and
endogenous interferences, a clean-up step was in- urine alone, so no total formation of spermide
cluded. The interferences can be eliminated by derivative is shown in this case, due probably to the
cleaning the sample with 3 ml of acetonitrile before reagent consumption by the endogenous compounds.
et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco 295
Fig. 6. Chromatograms corresponding to urine sample (blank or fortified) by using on-line derivatization (for more details see Experimental
section: procedure III).
On basis of these results, we consider that direct solution derivatization and retention of the formed
injection is not possible and further research needs to derivatives, which requires a previous clean-up
be done in order to optimise the procedure. acidic elution and solution derivatization.
Table 5
Summary of the most relevant characteristics of the different procedures assayed
Analytical property Procedure I Procedure II Procedure III Procedure IV
Sensitivity **** *** **** **
Selectivity ** *** * ****
Repeatability ** * **** ***
Reproducibility ** * **** ***
Stability * ** **** ***
Time analysis *** * **** **
Cost **** *** * **
The higher the number of asterisks, the better the characteristic. Procedure I: solution derivatization. Procedure II: solution derivatization
followed by retention on solid supports. Procedure III: on-column HPLC derivatization (on-line). Procedure IV: derivatization on solid
supports (off-line).
296 et al. / J. Chromatogr. B 759 (2001) 285297
P. Campns-Falco
products on the solid supports, which allows similar tridges has demonstrated advantages over the other
sensitivities and higher stabilities than those obtained procedures assayed, i.e. increases in the stability of
by solution derivatization. Although this automatiza- the OPA-derivative, and could be also suitable for
tion has been performed by Saito et al. [8], no routine analysis of polyamines (spermine) in urine
application to real samples has been carried out. samples.
The reaction products formed on the solid support
(C 18 ) presented higher stability, and higher selectivi-
ty, and although the sensitivity obtained was lower it Acknowledgements
can be improved. This procedure can be adapted to
an HPLC system, and the derivatization can be The authors are grateful to the DGICYT for
performed on line by a previous retention of the financial support received for the realisation of
analyte on a solid support placed before the ana- Project PB97-1387.
lytical column [8,14].
On-line derivatization in an HPLC system shows
higher sensibility, selectivity and stability of the References
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PAPER DRAFT
ABSTRACT
* Correspondence author
E-mail: pilar.campins@uv.es Fax: +34-96 386 43 22
INTRODUCTION Aldrich-Chem. (Steinheim, Germany) and o-
Amines have been found in some phtaldialdehide from Fluka (Switzerland). Sodium
environmental samples. Their presence in water is hydrogen carbonate (Probus, Spain), boric acid,
the result of anthropogenic sources (industrial hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide (Panreac,
chemicals) or natural process (excretion or Spain) were also used. Methanol (Merck,
decomposition) [1]. Aliphatic amines and Germany) and acetonitrile (Baker, Holland) were
polyamines are well know as odorous substances of HPLC grade. All solutions were prepared with
and as precursor of N-nitrosamines, which are ultrapure water genered by a Nanopure II system
carcinogenic [2,3]. Moreover, amines are readily from Barnstead.
bioaccumulated. Stock standard solutions of spermine (200
Amines monitoring poses several analytical mg/l) and NAC (0.04 mol/l) were prepared by
problems: low levels, difficulties for extraction dissolving the pure compound in water. Stock
from water samples and lack of chromophores. standard solutions of OPA (0.01 mol/l) were
The determination of low-molecular-mass amines prepared by dissolving the pure compound in
in water samples have been described using water containing 15% of methanol (MeOH). All
different strategies [4-10]. Ubiquity and solutions were stored in the dark at 4C. Working
physiological importance of polyamines in living standard solutions at different concentrations were
system explain the numerous method described prepared from the stock standard solutions. Borate
[11-13]. Nevertheless, there are few studies in buffer (0.5 mol/l) pH 8 was prepared by dissolving
water samples. Additionally, the polyamines can the adequate amount of boric acid in water and
be used as model compounds for the study of then adjusting the pH with NaOH or HCl.
natural sources of pollution (putrefaction process Concerning the stability characteristics of
or excessive growth of seaweed) [14,15]. De OPA-NAC reagent, UV-Vis measurements were
Stefano et al. [16] have studied the interaction of performed to the stored reagent solutions (all
polyamines with the major component of seawater. solutions were stored at ~ 4C for several periods
Can-Moisar et al. [17] have proposed a of time). Solutions stored in the dark, at 4C and in
quantitative analysis of polyamines in seawater by absence of borate buffer were stable for at least 8
HPLC. days; longer periods of time present a variation
o-phthalaldehyde-N-acetylcysteine (OPA- coefficient of 5.3%. At room temperature and in
NAC) derivatives of polyamines have suitable presence of light, this solution suffered a
spectrophotometric or fluorimetric properties but decomposition process and a new
the lack of stability limits the applicability. The spectrofotometric band at 440 nm appeared.
instability of OPA-NAC derivatives have been
studied and different strategies have been proposed PROCEDURE
to improve the determination [18-22].
In this paper, two objectives are established in Solution Derivatization (Procedure I)
order to determine polyamines in water samples. For kinetic study of OPA-NAC-spermine
Firstly, the kinetic behaviour of OPA-NAC reagent derivative, two approaches were studied: amine
and OPA-NAC-polyamine derivative is studied. excess (option ) and OPA-NAC excess (option
The generalized H-point standard-additions ). The absorbance, at 310-350 nm, was recorded
method (GHPSAM) [23] and H-point standard- as a function of time starting at 20 s after the
additions method (HPSAM) [24] is used for the addition of the borate buffer solution, at 30 s
search of presence or absence synergetic effect intervals up to 170 s.
between derivatized analyte and the free reagent. Option : 1.8 ml volume of OPA-NAC reagent
Secondly, the adaptation of some stabilisation containing 6.7 % MeOH was mixed with 100 l of
procedures [19] is discussed for water samples. spermine (1000 mg/L) and 100 L of borate buffer
(0.5 mol/L pH 8.0). The working standard
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION solutions of OPA-NAC were prepared at a final
APPARATUS AND REAGENTS concentration ranging between 0 and 30 10-6
For the measurements a Hewlett-Packard mol/L.
HP8453 UV - visible diode-array
Option : 1.8 ml volume of 5.5 10-3 mol/L
spectrophotometer (Palo Alto, CA, USA) equipped
OPA-NAC reagent containing 6.7 % MeOH was
with a 1-cm pathlength quartz cell was used. The
mixed with 100 L of spermine solution and 100
spectrophotometer was interfaced to a Hewlett-
Packard Vectra XM 5/90 personal computer. L of borate buffer (0.5 mol/L pH 8.0). The
All chemicals were of analytical reagent grade working standard solutions of spermine were
unless stated otherwise. Spermine prepared at a final concentration ranging between
tetrahydrochloride was obtained from Sigma 0 and 30 10-6 mol/L.
(USA). N-acetyl-cysteine was obtained from
Solution derivatization followed by retention is produced for long reaction time. Species with an
on packing supports (Procedure II) additional molecule of OPA is formed in
Solid-phase extraction cartridges were compound with the NH2-CH2-R structure [20,21].
conditioned by drawing 1 mL of methanol, In the same studies, the use of different molar
followed by 1 mL of borate buffer 0.5 mol/L relation OPA-NAC have been evaluate in order to
(pH=8). After the corresponding time (depending provide lower number of derivatives and more
on the amine) the mixture formed by 0.8 mL of stable. In a previous paper [19], we optimised the
7.410-3 mol/L OPA-NAC reagent, 1 mL of amine best time values for the determination of
standard solution was transferred to the cartridges. polyamines.
After a fixed time (20 sec. or more) the derivative However, any study has been proposed for
was desorbed with 3 mL of MeOH:borate buffer discriminating reagent kinetics and isoindol
0.5 mol/L pH=10.2 (9:1). Following the kinetics. This achievement could permit to detect
absorbance measurement was made at the the presence of synergism effects. In the following,
wavelengths as it said above. two approaches are studied using different molar
Derivatization on packing supports ratio between OPA-NAC and the most unstable
(Procedure III) polyamine (spermine).
The solid-phase extraction cartridges were Figure 1 shows the spectra in function of time
conditioned by drawing 1.0 mL of methanol, for blank reagent solution and for a standard
followed by 1.0 mL of borate buffer 0.5 mol/L solution of spermine when reagent excess is
(pH=8). Two different procedures were applied for present. The dimensions of data matrix are (6 41,
standard solutions. 2 mL of amine working time wavelength) for each solution.
standard solution was transferred to the cartridges.
After this, 0.8 mL of OPA-NAC reagent (7.410-3
mol/L), and 0.2 mL of borate buffer (0.8 mol/L,
pH=8) were transferred to the cartridges. After 3
min, the derivative formed was desorbed from the
C18 cartridges with 3 mL of MeOH:borate buffer (b)
pH=10.2 0.5 mol/L (9:1). The absorbance
measurement was made at it was said above.
Sampling
Samples were collected from La Patagona
beach (Alboraya, Spain). Three preconcentration
protocols were carried out. (a)
Table I: Parameters for b,tnor vs. b,170nor regressions (n =36) in the 315-350 nm interval
Reaction time (s) 20 50 80 110 140
Option b 1,01 0,02 1,014 0,014 1,011 0,014 1,007 0,014 0,998 0,012
Spermine a -0,010 0,014 -0,014 0,012 -0,014 0,012 -0,008 0,012 -0,001 0,011
excess R2 0,9990 0,9993 0,9993 0,9993 0,9994
sYX 0,003 0,003 0,003 0,003 0,002
Option b 0,98 0,02 0,981 0,03 0,989 0,02 0,991 0,017 0,997 0,012
OPA-NAC a 0,02 0,02 0,02 0,02 0,01 0,02 0,011 0,016 0,002 0,011
Excess R2 0,998 0,998 0,998 0,9991 0,9996
sYX 0,004 0,004 0,003 0,003 0,002
- Study of the presence or absence of synergism related to the derivative degradation process. The
by the GHPSAM M 'j' corresponds to the second derivative of the
Localisation of linear intervals
The GHPSAM permits to locate the linear molar absorption coefficient of OPA-NAC reagent
spectral intervals of global interference and to obtained from the spectrum of blank solution at
determinate the studied analyte. As explained in each time.
the appendix A, the GHPSAM is based on the In the Figure 2, examples of plot obtained for
selection of three wavelengths where the signal of solutions in reagent excess or spermine excess
the unknown interference can be linearly related to conditions are shown. The horizontal intervals
the wavelength. The horizontal intervals of were located in the interval 318 - 327 nm. Then,
the spectrum of spermine isoindolic derivative was
wavelengths are selected from AS'' , j / M 'j' quotient linear in this interval independent on time value.
plots, being AS'' , j the second derivative of the Comparing to the slopes of univariate regression
(b,t), the interval was corroborated.
sample spectrum and M 'j' the second derivative of
the molar absorption coefficient of studied species As the theoretical basis establishes, this
spectra. representation also provided a initial estimation of
Therefore, two possible approaches can be reagent concentration in the different solutions.
planned for the discrimination of analyte kinetics This values corresponded to AS'' , j / M 'j' quotient
and reagents kinetics. An option studies the value. In spermine excess conditions, the estimated
reagent OPA-NAC as interference in the concentration of reagent near to 0 independently
determination OPA-NAC-amine derivative on spermine concentration. This fact is in
kinetics. The other one studies the OPA-NAC- accordance with the cancellation of derivative
amine derivative as interference in the contribution, see Figure 2a.
determination reagent OPA-NAC kinetics. For solutions measured in OPA-NAC excess
However, any linear interval of OPA-NAC conditions, the estimated concentration was similar
with adequate analytical characteristics for a to the value of initial added concentration for all
quality determination of derivative was located. standard solutions, see Figure 2b. If a
Therefore, the study was organised in OPA-NAC consumption of reagent OPA-NAC was produced,
determination, by cancellation of OPA-NAC- the results provide significant differences in
amine interference. Additionally, this approach function of amine concentration.
permits the search of reagent consumption effects
Estimation of reagent concentration in time increment are also plotted. As can be seen in this
The concentration of the reagent can be figure, the same analytical signals were obtained
estimated by applying the GHPSAM equations for from the OPA-NAC solution and spermine
localised interval. The selection of the three isoindol standard solution. Consequently, the same
wavelength sets (k, j and l) was based on the estimation of OPA-NAC concentration from blank
following criteria: a distance between the three reagent solution and spermine solution was
wavelengths greater than 2 nm. The final obtained independently on the signal and method
predictions are obtained as an average of the processed at 60 and 180 s. Moreover, the final
results provided by the 25 absorbance increments average prediction is included in the confidence
with the highest Ak - q Aj - p Al value of the reagent interval of the initial added concentration of OPA-
spectrum. NAC. This fact can be observed for all standard
The concentration of the reagent OPA-NAC solutions prepared with different spermine
can also be estimated by applying the HPSAM concentration in OPA-NAC excess conditions. A t-
equations, see appendix B. In this case, pair of test confirmed that these values are similar at 95 %
wavelengths with the same value of univariate confidence interval.
calibration slope (bi, bj) were located. Then, As conclusion, this results confirm some of the
absorbance increments that only depend on OPA- initial hypothesis: GHPSAM and HPSAM cancel
NAC. The selection of pairs was based on the the contribution of spermine isoindol; no
following criteria: a distance between the two significant change of reagent concentration as
wavelengths greater than 4-nm and absorbance function of derivative concentration could be
difference of spermine derivative lower than 2%. detected and no synergism effect between OPA-
The final predictions are obtained as an average of NAC reagent excess and derivative was observed.
the results provided by the 25 absorbance Then, it is possible to subtracted the blank signal
increments with the highest (k - j) value of the from the total signal without introducing bias
reagent spectrum. error.
Different GHPSAM and HPSAM analytical
signals are shown in the Figure 3. The OPA-NAC
concentrations estimated for each corresponding
6 e-6 0
(a) (b)
12 e-6 8
15 15
18 e-6 16
24 e-6 24
30 e-6 32
(M)
(M)
10 10
40
A"/ " x 10
A"/ " x 10
5 5
0 0
310
320
330
340
350
310
320
330
340
350
(nm) (nm)
Figure 2: Representation Aj/j vs. j for standard solutions after 60 s, being j the second derivative of the
molar absorption coefficient of the reagent at 60 s: (a) spermine excess conditions and (b) OPA-NAC excess
conditions.
-0.015
(a) 6 (b)
0.12 6
blank solution blank solution
5 0.10 5
c x 10 (M)
A -qA-pA
A -A
t=150 s
-0.005 2 0.04 2
t=150 s
1 0.02 1
0.000 0 0.00 0
num ber order num ber order
Figure 3: Characteristic parameters in reagent determination for blank solution and 40 mg/L solution of spermine
(a) 25 selected absorbance increments with the highest Ak - q Aj - p Al value and predictions estimated by GHPSAM.
(b) 15 selected absorbance increments with the highest Ak - Aj value and predictions estimated by HPSAM, see text
b) Procedures for determination in water However, an adaptation is required for the
samples application in water samples analysis.
In a previous paper [19], we proposed different Determination involves pre-concentration and/or
procedures for the formation of OPA-NAC- cleaning step. Three procedures can be performed
polyamines derivatives such as solution to achieve this aim.
derivatization, solution derivatization followed by - Analytic pre-concentration, and solution
retention on packing supports or derivatization on derivatization or on chromatografic column
packing supports. In Table II are summarised the derivatization.
analytical parameters for such procedures. - Derivative formation and pre-concentration.
- Preconcentration and derivative formation on
solid-phase cartridge.
Table II: Analytical parameters for different procedures without preconcentration. Adapted from reference 19
I: solution derivatization, II: solution derivatization followed by retention on packing supports and III:
derivatization on solid-phase cartridges
Polyamine Procedure a sa b sb r2 syx LOD Range
(mg/L) mg/L)
espermina I 0.025 0.006 0.0433 0.0003 0.9999 0.008 0.3 0.3 - 25
II 0.022 0.015 0.0448 0.0016 0.998 0.017 0.94 3.11 - 40
III 0.164 0.001 0.0156 0.0002 0.999 0.0014 0.29 0.97 10.4
espermidina I 0.01415 0.0003 0.0614 0.0002 0.999 0.0004 0.07 0.25 - 25
II 0.09 0.01 0.084 0.002 0.999 0.016 0.35 1.19 6
putrescina I 0.069 0.05 0.152 0.009 0.9998 0.008 0.2 0.7 - 11
II 0.01 0.02 0.132 0.005 0.998 0.02 0.45 1.51-11
III 0.01 0.01 0.060 0.003 0.999 0.01 0.5 1.7 - 11
cadaverina I 0.21 0.06 0.085 0.006 0.990 0.03 0.19 0.5-18
II 0.02 0.06 0.068 0.006 0.99 0.03 0.19 1.5-18
III 0.089 0.009 0.049 0.001 0.999 0.01 0.5 1.5 - 20
50 (1999) 105
[6] B. Sahasrabuddhey, A. Jain and K.K. Verma,
25 Analyst, 124 (1999) 1017
[7] J. Pietsch, S. Hampel, W. Schmidt, H.J. Brauch
10
and E. Worch, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem., 355 (1996) 164
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 [8] D. Djozan,-D and M.A. Faraj-Zadeh, J-High-
Resolut-Chromatogr., 19 (1996) 633
signal
[9] J. You, W. Lao, J. You and G. Wang, Analyst,
Figure 4: Analytical signal for derivatization on 124 (1999) 1755
solid-phase cartridges as function of processed volume [10] R.H. Yang, K.M. Wang, D. Xiao and X.H.
of sample Yang, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem., 367 (2000) 429
[11] R.L. Zhang, C.L. Cooper and Y.F. Ma, Anal.
This procedure doesnt need a previous Chem, 65 (1993) 704
[12] S. Kamei, A. Ohkubo, S. Saito and S. Takagi,
neutralisation step. Moreover, all steps of
Anal. Chem., 61 (1989) 1621
analytical procedure can be carried out on the same [13] T. Yao, M. Satomura and T. Wasa, Anal. Chim.
support, except measurement step. Acta, 261 (1992) 161
[14] D.F. Hwang, S.H. Chang, C.Y. Shiua and T.
CONCLUSIONS Chai, J. Chromatogr. B, 693 (1997) 23
OPA-NAC derivatization permits the [15] L. Badini, R. Pistocchi and N. Bagni, J.
determination of polyamines in water samples. But Phycology, 30 (1994) 599
some aspects may be considered: lack of stability [16] C. de Stefano, C. Fotti, A. Gianguzza and S.
for some polyamines derivative and pre- Sammartano, Anal. Chim. Acta, 418 (2000) 43
[17] C. Cann-Moisan, J, Caroff, A. Hourmant, C.
concentration needs.
Videau and F. Rapt, J. Liq. Chromatogr., 17 (1994) 1413
GHPSAM and HPSAM have cancelled the [18] K. Saito, M. Horie and H. Nakazawa, Anal.
contribution of OPA-NAC-spermine for evaluating Chem., 66 (1994) 134
[19] P. Campns-Falc, C. Molins-Legua, A. [25] C.X. Gao, I.S. Krull and T.J. Trainor, J.
Sevillano-Cabeza and L.A. Tortajada-Genaro, J. Chromatrography Science, 28 (1990)
Chromatogr. B, 759 (2001) 285 [26] R.M. Holmes, A. Aminot, R. Kerouel, B.A.
[20] Y. Mengerink, D. Kutln, F. Toth, A. Csmpai Hooker and B.J. Peterson, A simple and precise method
and I. Molnr-Perl, J. Chromatogr. A, 949 (2002) 99 for measuring ammonium in marine and freshwater
[21] D. Kutln , P. Presitis and I. Molnr-Perl, J. ecosystem, Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 56 (1999) 1801
Chromatogr. A, 949 (2002) 235 [27] P. Campns-Falc, C. Molins-Legua, A.
[22] H. M. H. van Ejik, D. R. Rooyakkers and M. E. Sevillano-Cabeza and R. Porras-Serrano, Analyst, 122
P. Deutz, J. Chromatogr. A, 798 (1998) 37 (1997) 673
[23] J. Verd-Andrs, P. Campns-Falc, F. Bosch- [28] C. Molins-Legua, P. Campins Falc, A.
Reig and C. Molins Legua, Anal. Chim. Acta, 302 Sevillano-Cabeza, and M. Pedrn-Pons, Analyst, 124
(1995) 323 (1999) 477
[24] F. Bosch-Reig and P. Campns-Falc, Analyst, [29] R. Herrez-Hernndez, P. Campns-Falc, A.
113 (1988) 1011 Sevillano-Cabeza and I. Trmpler, Anal. Chim. Acta,
334 (1997) 125
This paper shows how the generalized H-point standard-additions method (GHPSAM) can be used to obtain the
total concentration or concentrations of different chemical forms of an analyte when the matrix of the sample is
completely unknown. The spectral regions where the interferent behaviour can be considered as linear are found
and the analyte concentration free from bias error is estimated. This paper includes the already published features
of the GHPSAM and a new modification of this method which allows the simultaneous determination of two
chemical forms of an analyte in a sample.
Fig. 3 Hypothetical representation ABS, j /eBX, j vs. lj for solutions at different relative concentrations cX+cY. The total concentration is equal to 1 (full lines)
or 3 (broken lines).
Fig. 4 (a) Hypothetical spectra of the analyte in two different chemical forms (X and Y), the interferent and the sample. (b) and (c) Location of linear
intervals in the interferent spectrum (245297 nm). The equation of the straight line within 245297 nm is y = 1x + 1, which means that cX = cY = 1.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the DGICYT (Project No. PB
97-1387) for financial support.
References
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10 J. Verdu-Andres, P. Campns-Falco and F. Bosch-Reig, J. Chemo-
metrics, 1998, 12, 27.
Fig. 5 Hypothetical representations ec/c vs. DA of a series of c 11 F. Bosch-Reig, P. Campns-Falco and J. Verdu-Andres, Anal. Chim.
concentrations for two intervals: annulled interferent (a) and non-annulled Acta, 1993, 283, 831.
interferent (b). The broken line represents the theoretical value of sc/c for sA 12 P. Campns-Falco, F. Bosch-Reig and J. Verdu-Andres, Anal. Chim.
= 5 3 1023. Acta, 1995, 315, 267.
The generalized H-point standard-additions method (GHPSAM) is used in order to obtain the total Cr(VI) and
chromate concentration in water samples whose matrices are completely unknown. Moreover, a new methodology,
which is a modification of the GHPSAM, is proposed for the simultaneous determination of the two major
chemical forms of Cr(VI) present in the sample. The method is based on the location of spectral intervals where
the behaviour of the interferent absorbance can be considered as linear. From these intervals, the analyte
concentration free from bias error can be estimated. Spiked samples of dig and harbour water measured in the
UVvisible spectral region have been tested to check the background signal cancellation.
Table 1 Estimated values of DASj,k/Dlj,k in the interval 350380 nm and (dA/dl)Slm values with lm = 372373 nm for IIa.1, IIb.1, IIIa.1 and IIIb.1
samples
Table 2 Predictions of the CrO422 concentrations for series IIa (ppm Cr) and series IIb, IIIa and IIIb (ppb Cr) using the GHPSAM
Interval/nm Interval/nm
IIa.0 0.219 0.012 20.01 0.02 20.14 0.05 IIIa.0 27.9 1.8 63 3 26 13
IIa.1 4.650 0.012 4.48 0.02 4.47 0.04 IIIa.1 234.3 1.9 273 3 201 10
IIa.2 6.688 0.007 6.51 0.02 6.61 0.06 IIIa.2 420 2 474 3 407 14
IIa.3 8.497 0.011 8.35 0.02 8.49 0.05 IIIa.3 615 2 663 3 606 15
IIa.4 10.31 0.02 10.14 0.02 10.45 0.08 IIIa.4 801 3 855 4 794 17
IIa.5 12.03 0.02 11.83 0.04 12.29 0.07 IIIa.5 1028 3 1084 3 1020 7
IIa.6 13.89 0.02 13.62 0.03 14.09 0.13
IIb.0 138 7 116 6 216 16 IIIb.0 224 4 23 5 210 9
IIb.1 392 7 370 5 251 19 IIIb.1 123 3 159 6 147 7
IIb.2 545 8 528 9 406 17 IIIb.2 260 4 276 6 289 6
IIb.3 727 8 699 14 624 25 IIIb.3 414 4 404 6 426 28
IIb.4 869 17 834 16 766 23 IIIb.4 551 3 543 7 618 25
IIb.5 1115 12 1054 18 927 52 IIIb.5 716 3 677 3 778 14
Table 3 Predictions of the CrO422 and HCrO42 concentrations for series IIa expressed in ppm of Cr and series IIIa and IIIb expressed in ppb of Cr using
the GHPSAM for the two analyte forms in the interval 290340 nm
Fig. 4 ABS, j /MBj vs. lj plots for the Cr(VI) standard addition to the spiked Fig. 5 Score plot (a) and loading plot (b) obtained by PCA for the selected
dig and harbour samples and for the non-spiked samples: (a) series IIa; (b) 25 increments DA of each interval with series IIb and the Cr(VI) standards
series IIb; (c) series IIIa; (d) series IIIb. at pH 3 and pH 9.
Abstract
The present study proposes a new flow cell called a bundle cell for chemiluminescence analysis. The results obtained
were compared with those achieved by manual and automated batch procedures and flow manifolds with different
cells: an common quartz flow cell, a helix cell and the most used spiral cell. Figures of merit such as limit of detection,
sensitivity, accuracy and precision for the Cr(III) determination were established with light emission produced by
catalysed Cr(III) luminol oxidation by hydrogen peroxide in a basic aqueous solution. An improvement in sensitivity
about 50% as compared with the spiral cell and even larger with respect to the other flow cells tested was observed.
The limit of detection provided was lower than those obtained with the other flow cells. In reference to the batch
mode, similar results were obtained with the bundle flow cell. Good results were obtained for several real water
samples containing chromium at different concentrations. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
0039-9140/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 9 - 9 1 4 0 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 4 4 5 - 3
404 P. Campns-Falco et al. / Talanta 55 (2001) 403413
2.2.2. Batch procedure Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the proposed assembly using air
The batch assemblies are shown in Fig. 3. The as the carrier to inject the reagents and the analyte in a
reagent solution was prepared in the quartz cell. chemiluminescence determination. For valve 1 (V1), the
The reactive concentrations were 410 4 M of reagent loop is filled in position 1 and the air carrier drives the
reagent to detection cell in position 2. For valve 2 (V2), the
luminol, 3.3 10 2 M of hydrogen peroxide,
analyte loop is filled in position 1 and the air carrier drives the
3.3 10 3 M of EDTA and 0.1 M of HCO 3 - sample to detection cell in position 2. Position 1 of valves is
CO23 buffer solution to adjust the pH to 10.8. In marked. The dark line shows the discharge flow when the
assembly A, the Cr(III) solutions were injected pump is turned out to empty the cuvette.
406 P. Campns-Falco et al. / Talanta 55 (2001) 403413
Table 1
Optimal experimental conditions calculated from different strategies of optimisation
of emitted light (60s) and pumping out of detec- The initial point used was luminol 2.5 10 4
tion cell (120s). In this last step, the peristaltic M, hydrogen peroxide 0.025 M and pH= 10 for
pump drives the solution in the opposite the FI procedure. After 22 experiments, the sim-
direction. plex algorithm no longer predicted improved out-
In all cases, the injection volume was 200 ml. comes and hence could no longer be usefully
The concentration of Cr(III) standard solution applied. A confirmation of the optima with uni-
was 250 mg l 1. Working solutions of Cr(III) variate exploration around the simplex optimum
(050 mg l 1) were prepared daily by appropriate was made. The results are shown in Table 1. The
dilution with water. optimal value was selected according to the maxi-
In the interference study, the solutions con- mum chemiluminescence signal (peak area or
tained 0 1000 mg l 1 of Cr(VI), Fe(III), Fe(II) or peak height) and minimum variance between
Co(II). replicates.
The chemiluminescence intensity time register
2.2.3. Real samples changed with the pH of buffer solution, as can be
The samples of river water and polluted water seen in Fig. 5 for the batch procedure. At lower
were taken at different sites in the Valencia area. pH, the peak was small and wide with a large tail.
The samples were filtered through a 0.45 mm At higher pH, the peak was high and narrow.
membrane filter. Nonetheless, the maximum response (area or
height peak) was obtained in the 10.710.9 range.
3. Results and discussion The optimal concentrations for flow procedures
are approximately three times the optimal concen-
3.1. Optimum experimental conditions for luminol trations for batch procedures, as can be seen in
oxidation by hydrogen peroxide catalysed by Table 1. This ratio depends on the dilution factor
Cr(III) of reagents (see Fig. 1).
Different authors have proposed using different
The range of variables values considered is concentrations of EDTA to mask the interfering
shown in Table 1. It was established on the basis ions. The presence of EDTA in different reagent
of the previous experiments and bibliographic solutions in a flow injection assembly has also
data for this reaction [10,11]. The values of the been studied [10].
variables were sequentially optimised by univari- The effect of the EDTA concentration was
ate and/or simplex [13,14] methods. investigated in order to obtain the minimal signal
P. Campns-Falco et al. / Talanta 55 (2001) 403413 407
Fig. 5. Effect of pH on relative chemiluminescence intensity as function of time, registered using manual batch procedure. The
broken line indicates the maximum chemiluminescence intensity for each pH.
of the direct interferents for complex formation. equal to the time of light emission (time window
The metal ions tested for interference were concept). The commercial quartz flow cell did not
Cr(VI), Co (II), Fe (II) and Fe (III). Fig. 6 gives comply with this condition whereas the labora-
the effect of the EDTA concentration on relative tory-made cells satisfy this requirement.
chemiluminescence intensity. The ions Fe (III), Fe The calibration graphs were registered from 0.5
(II) and Co (II) had a positive interference which to 50 mg l 1 of Cr (Fig. 8). The signal (S) can be
decreased with increasing EDTA concentration. described as a function of analyte concentration
An EDTA concentration of 110 2 M for batch S=ac bCr(III), where a and b are constants. A
and FI assemblies was selected. Cr(VI) does not straight line was obtained for double logarithmic
give any interference at a concentration between 1 calibration plots, log S=log a + b log cCr(III).
mg l 1 and 5 mg l 1. The tolerance levels (20%) These calibration equations were given in Table 2
of each interferent in the determination of Cr (10
mg l 1) were 25 mg l 1 of Co(II), 350 mg l 1 of
Fe(II) and 1000 mg l 1 of Fe(III).
Fig. 7. (a) Chemiluminescence intensity (arbitrary units) as function of time: quartz flow cell (A), helix flow cell (B), spiral flow cell
(C), bundle flow cell (D), manual batch (E) and pump batch (F).
using peak height and peak area of the chemilu- tained for potential, polynomial and linear models
minescence signal as analytical signals. than those obtained with the direct model.
A t-test was performed in order to compare the As can be seen in Table 2 and Table 3 and Fig.
slopes of each cell to bundle cell. In all cases, the 7, the bundle detection cell provided better signals
slopes, related to the parameter b, are equal at the than by the rest of the flow cells. The bundle cell
significance level of 99% for all the assemblies, was about 50% more efficient than the spiral and
regardless of whether the peak height or peak helix cells. The quartz cell was the worst, as it was
area is used. The magnitude of the ordinate, mentioned previously. The prediction ability of
related to the log a, defines the order of assem- the regression models is better or similar to the
blies with respect to their relative sensitivities. The rest of flow cells.
bundle detection cell provided better ordinates Other figures of merit of the Cr(II) determina-
than by the rest of the flow cells. tion are given in Table 2: detection limit, intraday
Linear (S= b0 +b1 cCr(III)) and polynomial relative standard deviation and interday relative
(S =b0 +b1 cCr(III) +b1 c2Cr(III)) approaches were standard deviation. The detection limit was calcu-
also tested as calibration methods (see Table 2). lated as the concentration required to generate a
Linear calibration was applied to 0 10 mg l 1 signal-to-noise ratio of three. The best detection
interval and polynomial calibration to 0 50 mg limit was obtained for the bundle cell, as can be
l 1 interval. The root mean squared errors of seen in Table 2, and this is consistent with the fact
calibration (rmsec) was used to enable the com- that the best a value was achieved with this flow
parison of calibration models. cell. The repeatability and reproducibility were
Similar rmsec values were obtained for double obtained from four replicates and were slightly
logarithmic or potential and polynomial regres- better if the peak height was used. A F-test was
sion if peak height was used as analytical signal. performed in order to compare the variances of
If peak area is the analytical signal, better models each flow cell to bundle cell. In all cases, the
were obtained using polynomial regression instead variances are equal at significance level of 99%.
of potential regression. Linear regression gives The bundle flow cell makes it possible to regis-
lower rmsec values because a smaller concentra- ter most of the light emission as a good ratio
tion range is considered. between the volume and surface of the detection
Inverse calibration was also tested. The results cell. These characteristics improve the coupling of
obtained for the different calibration models ap- a flow detection cell and the detector optics of a
pear in Table 3. Similar rmsec values were ob- conventional fluorescence spectrophotometer.
P. Campns-Falco et al. / Talanta 55 (2001) 403413 409
3.3. Comparison of results of the bundle flow cell For both peak height and area signals, the
with batch procedures analytical parameters of these manifolds are bet-
ter than those obtained with the flow procedure
The reagent solution for the batch procedures except for bundle cell. The results using bundle
was in the detection cell and the analyte was cell are similar to those provided by the batch
injected and mixed using a stirrer. A syringe or a procedure using a syringe and better than those
peristaltic pump using air as carrier was employed obtained by the batch procedure using a pump.
(see Fig. 3). In the last mentioned option, air is With regards to the automated switching
used as the carrier to inject the analyte through device, the signals obtained are 999 9% (peak
the cell with the reagent mixture. Proposed height) and 659 5% (peak area) (n= 8) of the
switching device makes it possible to extend the signals registered for the batch procedure when
automation of other steps of the procedure (see only the sample is injected by pumping. From
Fig. 4). The same carrier is also employed to the these results it can be deduced that the manifold
reagent addition and the drain of the final with the bundle flow cell also provides better
solution. results than the automated switching device.
The shape of the kinetic curve obtained for the Clearly the same conclusion in the case of the
manual batch procedure (syringe option) is char- batch modes can be established with reference to
acteristic in chemiluminescence determinations. the bundle cell results as those underlined for the
The asymmetric peak can be described as a rapid flow procedures.
increment in light intensity and a slow decay
according to the theoretical basis of this chemilu- 3.4. Utility: chromium determination in real water
minescence reaction. The intensity/time profile ob- samples
tained when the peristaltic pump was employed
can be described as a combination of small kinetic Several water samples containing the analyte at
curves that correspond to the pump pulses (see different concentrations were tested. Fig. 9a (peak
Fig. 7). height) and Fig. 9b (peak area) show the results of
Table 2 and Table 3 shows the analytical the analysis of nanopure, mineral, river and pol-
parameters for the batch procedures using double luted water.
logarithmic, linear or polynomial regression with As can be seen, similar results were obtained
direct and inverse approaches, respectively. The with the bundle cell and the majority of the other
same conclusions can be established than those cells including the batch procedure. The robust-
explained in previous section for flow procedures. ness of the determination is better when the height
Fig. 8. (a) Peak height and (b) peak area as function of Cr(III) concentration: quartz flow cell (A), helix flow cell (B), spiral flow
cell (C), bundle flow cell (D), manual batch (E) and pump batch (F).
410 P. Campns-Falco et al. / Talanta 55 (2001) 403413
Table 2
Analytical parameters for different assemblies and different regression methods using direct approach: (a) peak height and (b) peak
areaa
(a) Double log a 1.239 0.06 0.7190.07 0.679 0.04 0.2590.05 0.199 0.03 0.489 0.09
logarithmic a 0.069 0.02 0.19 90.03 0.22 9 0.02 0.57 90.06 0.64 90.04 0.33 9 0.07
or potential b 1.009 0.05 1.18 90.06 1.22 90.04 1.04 9 0.04 1.03 90.02 1.08 9 0.07
regression R2 0.98 0.99 0.995 0.992 0.997 0.972
se 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.09
rmsec 2.63 2.71 1.58 1.74 1.77 2.1
Linear b0 0.0490.03 0.07 90.11 0.07 9 0.05 0.1190.18 0.13 9 0.18 0.27 9 0.12
regression b1 0.05 9 0.02 0.24 90.02 0.30 9 0.02 0.68 90.04 0.66 9 0.03 0.33 9 0.02
R2 0.98 0.984 0.997 0.99 0.992 0.99
se 0.03 0.14 0.07 0.34 0.28 0.15
rmsec 0.48 0.46 0.18 0.38 0.32 0.35
Polynomial b0 0.1490.01 0.190.4 -0.9 9 0.3 1.1 90.9 0.65 9 0.17 1.6 9 1.6
regression b1 0.0239 0.002 0.242 9 0.006 0.515 90.005 0.377 9 0.014 0.507 9 0.002 0.049 0.02
b2103 0.99 0.2 493 192 6 95 5 91 12 9 10
R2 0.992 0.99 0.992 0.99 0.998 0.97
se 0.1 1.0 0.9 1.5 0.6 2.0
rmsec 2.23 1.58 1.48 1.94 0.74 2.9
LD 1.05 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.6
RSDintra 4.7 4.3 4.2 4.9 5.8 5.4
RSDinter 12.1 13.0 12.4 12.3 11.5 12.7
(b) Double log a 0.07 90.05 0.1 9 0.09 0.8890.05 0.399 0.06 0.399 0.06 0.04 9 0.03
logarithmic a 1.179 0.13 1.25 9 0.25 0.13 90.02 0.41 9 0.06 0.41 9 0.05 1.11 9 0.08
or potential b 1.099 0.04 1.08 9 0.07 1.03 90.04 1.24 9 0.05 1.32 9 0.05 1.13 9 0.03
regression R2 0.992 0.97 0.99 0.991 0.993 0.997
se 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.03
rmsec 2.07 1.95 1.86 1.34 2.13 3.77
Linear b0 0.0690.12 0.0490.48 0.359 0.49 0.3590.94 0.519 1.14 0.099 0.97
regression b1 0.1490.02 0.64 90.08 0.81 9 0.08 1.55 9 0.15 1.56 9 0.19 1.53 9 0.16
R2 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.97
se 0.16 0.62 0.63 1.21 1.48 1.25
rmsec 0.88 0.75 0.6 0.6 0.73 0.64
Polynomial b0 0.2790.03 0.3792.11 39 3 093 1 93 595
regression b1 0.0890.02 0.64 90.03 1.38 9 0.04 1.28 9 0.04 1.01 9 0.04 0.3 90.7
b2103 1.790 10.190.2 0.1 9 0.2 12.2 9 0.2 15.6 90.2 32.2 9 0.3
R2 0.994 0.991 0.991 0.996 0.995 0.93
se 0.3 2.3 2.7 2.6 2.6 10.8
rmsec 1.61 1.4 1.58 1.07 1.28 4.79
LD 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3
RSDintra 4.6 4.0 4.7 5.5 5.1 6.5
RSDinter 13.6 14.4 14.8 14.7 13.3 13.9
a
R 2, coefficient of determination; se, standard deviation of the regression; rmsec, root means squared errors of calibration; RSD,
relative standard deviation.
P. Campns-Falco et al. / Talanta 55 (2001) 403413 411
Table 3
Analytical parameters for different assemblies and different regression methods using inverse approach: (a) peak height and (b) peak
areaa
(a) Double log a 1.2390.02 0.61 90.03 0.55 9 0.02 0.24 9 0.04 0.19 90.02 0.46 9 0.05
logarithmical a 16.9390.91 4.08 90.31 3.53 9 0.18 1.75 9 0.14 1.55 90.08 2.91 9 0.36
or potential b 0.9890.05 0.84 90.04 0.81 90.02 0.96 90.03 0.97 90.02 0.9 9 0.06
regression R2 0.98 0.99 0.995 0.992 0.997 0.97
se 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.08
rmsec 2.57 2.39 1.6 1.85 1.7 2.41
Linear b0 0.589 0.52 0.29 0.47 0.2190.18 0.22 90.37 0.29 0.3 0.890.4
regression b1 18.59 1.5 4.02 90.3 3.33 9 0.10 1.45 90.09 1.5 90.08 2.97 9 0.17
R2 0.98 0.98 0.997 0.99 0.992 0.99
se 0.62 0.59 0.23 0.49 0.41 0.45
rmsec 0.48 0.45 0.18 0.38 0.32 0.35
Polynomial b0 1.69 1.2 0.72 9 1.5 2.0 91.0 1.49 1.0 0.790.2 1.19 0.3
regression b1 2494 3.429 0.17 1.86 9 0.09 2.08 90.03 1.75 90.02 3.37 9 0.02
b2103 26899 300 56.99 0.4 3.6 90.2 18.19 0.2 11.490.2 55.09 0.2
R2 0.993 0.99 0.992 0.993 0.999 0.998
se 1.76 2.12 1.79 1.68 0.79 1.03
rmsec 1.43 1.73 1.46 1.37 0.64 0.84
(b) Double log a 0.86 9 0.02 0.329 0.04 0.3 90.03 0.0490.03 0.059 0.05 0.0690.09
logrithmical a 7.29 0.4 2.09 90.17 1.99 9 0.15 0.92 90.06 0.88 9 0.09 0.88 90.17
or potential b 0.969 0.04 0.8 9 0.03 0.75 90.03 0.88 9 0.02 0.91 90.03 0.9 9 0.06
regression R2 0.99 0.991 0.993 0.997 0.992 0.97
se 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.08
rmsec 2.06 1.78 1.91 1.31 1.99 4.01
Linear b0 0.19 0.9 0.3 9 0.7 0.6 90.6 0.4 90.6 0.5 90.7 0.2 9 0.6
regression b1 6.89 1.0 1.49 90.18 1.2 9 0.12 0.63 90.06 0.61 9 0.07 0.63 90.07
R2 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.97
se 1.10 0.94 0.77 0.77 0.93 0.81
rmsec 0.85 0.73 0.59 0.59 0.72 0.63
Polynomial b0 1.369 1.07 1.05 9 1.2 2.3 91.1 0.0 90.6 0.39 0.8 1.695
regression b1 9.199 0.59 1.28 90.02 0.69 9 0.01 0.70 90.02 0.79 90.02 0.91 9 0.02
b2103 376.19 8.1 7.890.2 0.4 9 0.2 1.990.2 2.790.2 490.2
R2 0.994 0.991 0.991 0.996 0.995 0.97
se 1.63 1.93 1.92 1.32 1.46 3.65
rmsec 1.33 1.58 1.57 1.08 1.19 2.98
a
R 2, coefficient of determination; se, standard deviation of the regression; rmsec, root means squared errors of calibration.
of the chemiluminescence peak rather than the assemblies and a worse Cr(III) determination. The
peak area is used, as can be seen in Fig. 9. The batch procedure using a pump to deliver the
peak area can be more sensitive to different pH sample seems to be the one most influenced by
(see Fig. 5), and small variations in the sample pH experimental conditions when area values as used
can give rise to important differences between as analytical signals (Fig. 9b).
412 P. Campns-Falco et al. / Talanta 55 (2001) 403413
4. Conclusions
Table 4
Concentration of chromium (mg l1) in water samples by reference method and chemiluminescence method using spiral and bundle
flow cells (number of replicates = 3)
Method Approach Spiral cell Bundle cell Spiral cell Bundle cell
Sample Logarithmic direct 1.84 9 0.05 1.88 90.19 1.8 9 0.2 2.0 90.4 1.7 90.2
inverse 1.84 90.05 1.88 9 0.19 1.8 9 0.2 2.0 9 0.4
Linear direct 1.93 90.05 1.88 9 0.2 1.7 90.2 1.9 90.4
inverse 1.93 90.05 1.88 9 0.2 1.7 9 0.2 1.9 9 0.4
Polynomial direct 2.01 90.06 1.85 9 0.19 1.7 90.2 2.0 90.4
inverse 2.00 90.06 1.85 9 0.19 1.7 9 0.2 2.0 9 0.4
Spiked sample (5 Logarithmic direct 6.0 90.4 5.9 9 0.2 5.7 9 0.3 6.0 9 0.4 6.1 90.3
mg l1)
inverse 5.9 90.4 5.9 9 0.2 5.7 9 0.3 6.0 9 0.4
Linear direct 5.9 9 0.4 6.0 90.2 5.6 9 0.3 5.9 9 0.4
inverse 5.9 9 0.4 6.0 90.2 5.6 9 0.3 5.9 9 0.4
Polynomial direct 6.1 9 0.4 5.9 90.2 5.8 9 0.3 6.1 9 0.4
inverse 6.1 9 0.4 5.9 90.2 5.9 9 0.4 6.2 9 0.4
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Nakayama, M. Maeda, Anal. Sci. 14 (1998) 49. [14] R. Cela, J.A. Perez Bustamante, Quim. Anal. 3 (1984) 87.
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Verzele, Anal. Chem. 59 (1987) 1458. DC, 1992.
PAPER DRAFT
ABSTRACT
This paper shows the influence of different sample storage protocols, on the chemiluminescence
signal of some metal ions. The storage protocols studied were acid addition (HCl or HNO3) and no
reagent addition to filtered samples and refrigerated (T = 4 C). Light emission was produced for the
chemiluminescence reaction between luminol and hydrogen peroxide in buffer carbonate conditions (pH
= 10.8). Cr(III), Co(II) and Cu(II) analytical parameters were obtained by batch and/or flow modes in the
different conditions. Fe(II), Fe(III), Ni(II) and Mn(II) did not give chemiluminescence in the studied
conditions. A parallel study of sensibility and selectivity was performed. Then the presence or absence of
the masking agent EDTA, added to samples or used in the carrier stream, is assayed. If the samples are
acidified with HNO3, a previous neutralisation is needed using batch mode. The determination of Cr(III)
is robust by FI method however the determination of Co(II) or Cu(II) or total determination of three
metals requires the conditioning of standards. Detection limits achieved are ranged between 0.5 2 g/L.
For batch mode, detection limits are better for unacidified samples and worse for carbonate-neutralised
samples. The influence of storage protocols was validated using of standard metal mixtures and
calibration solutions. The effect of reduction treatment is also assessed in order to calculate total
chromium concentration. The use of standard reference material CRM 1640 (Trace elements in natural
water) corroborates the previous statements and validates the accuracy of the different approaches
underlined. This paper demonstrates that it is possible to determine Cr(III) selectively in natural waters.
* Correspondence author
1
INTRODUCTION made in the literature about the influence of the
The preservation of samples is an interesting sample storage conditions on chemiluminescence
analytical problem because complete stability for signal.
every constituent never can be achieved. After Immediate analysis is always recommended for
sample collection, preservation procedures only metal determination in water samples. Short
retard chemical and biological changes. [1] storage of filtered sample at low temperature (4C)
Adsorption on the walls of the vessels will take is also used. In these cases, the measurement is
place for samples stored unacidified and unfrozen. realised without further sample conditioning step.
Samples may be stored unacidified but frozen in The analysis of bottled water is also performed
order to preserve the original distribution of the without this step. The most common storage
species. [2] Independent of storage temperature, method for metal determination in water samples
most authors recommend acidification is to add an acid as HCl up to pH around 2-3. The
immediately after sampling if metal ions want to previously filtered samples are stored in plastic
be assayed. acid washed containers at 4 C. The maximum
Determination of trace elements in storage recommended and regulated is six months.
environmental water samples requires analytical The procedure employed for long term storage
techniques with high sensitivity and selectivity. uses the addition of HNO3 acid. The samples are
Unielemental techniques like atomic absorption filtered, acidified and stored at 4 C. Polyethylene
spectrometry (flame or electrothermal) or bottles can be sealed in aluminised plastic bags.
multielemental techniques like atomic emission The storage period can last even 2-3 years.
spectrometry (ICP) alone or coupled with mass Standard reference materials are prepared
spectrometry (ICP-MS) have been used for the according to this protocol.
determination of metal ions. According to previous considerations, no
Chemiluminescence from reactions that usually acidified samples and acidified samples with
produce transient emissions is also an attractive hydrochloric or nitric acids were tested in this
method for determining trace metal ions. paper. The alternatives for determining samples
Chemiluminescence provides sensitivity and stored in acidic conditions were tested in batch and
selectivity and coupled to Flow Injection (FI) FI modes. Also, the employment of a masking
speed and reproducible sample injection and agent in reagent composition or as sample
mixing of the reagents. These factors, together treatment step has been compared in order to
with low cost and simplicity make a improve the selectivity for chromium
chemiluminescence determination or its determination. Finally, the standard reference
combination with FI extremely attractive. material SMR 1640 was used for testing accuracy
Table I shows a selection of flow-injection and for establishing conclusions.
chemiluminescence determinations of metal ions
in aqueous samples described in literature. The EXPERIMENTAL
reaction more used is the oxidation of luminol by Apparatus and reagents
hydrogen peroxide in basic solution catalysed by A Hitachi F4500 (Tokyo, Japan) and Jasco FP-
some metal ions, producing chemiluminescence 750 (Tokyo, Japan) fluorescence
emission at =425nm. It is necessary a spectrophotometers were used for the measuring.
preconcentration step for quantifying Fe(II), The light emission was monitored at 425 nm.
Fe(III), Mn(II) and Cu(II). The most common The following analytical grade reagents were
method is ion exchange chromatography. It is used: chromium (III) potassium sulphate 12-
important to emphasise the critical effect of the hydrate (Merk, Germany), cobalt (II) nitrate 6-
eluent and pH. The majority of methods proposed hydrate (Panreac, Spain), copper (II) sulphate 5-
without preconcentration determines Cr(III). hydrate (Merk), ammonium iron (II) sulphate 6-
Several reagents have been used for masking hydrate (Panreac), ammonium iron (III) sulphate
interferences, for example for Mn(II), Co(II) and 12-hydrate (Panreac), nickel (II) nitrate 6-hydrate
Cr(III) have been used 8-quinolinol, sodium citrate (Merk) and manganese sulphate hydrate
and EDTA, respectively. Moreover in some (Panreac),. Other reagents were hydrogen peroxide
procedures, standards and samples are conditioned (Panreac), EDTA (Probus, Spain), luminol (Fluka,
with H3PO4 to mask the interfering ions. As it can Switzerland), sodium carbonate (Merk), potassium
be seen in Table I, the experimental conditions hydroxide (Probus), hydrochloric acid 36%
influence the figures of merit of the procedures. (Merk), nitric acid (Merk). The solutions were
The aim of this paper was to study the direct prepared in water (nanopure, Sybron, Barnstead,
chemiluminescence signal for Cr(III), Co(II), Spain).
Fe(II), Fe(III), Ni(II) and Mn(II) as function of
sample storage procedure. The chemiluminescence
emission is produced by luminol-H2O2 reaction
catalysed by metal ions. No consideration has been
Table I: Reviews of flow injection-chemiluminescence determinations of metal ions in water samples
Ref. Ions Reaction Preconcentr. Considerations of method Concentration Water sample
step interval (g/L)
[3] Mn(II) luminol-H2O2 Yes sample acidified with acetic acid-ammonium acetate to pH=5.0 Mn: 0.05-0.5 seawater
[4] Fe(II) luminol-H2O2 Yes H3PO4 in standard/sample solutions to pH=6 Fe: 10-70 -
[5] Co(II) luminol-H2O2 Yes standards in 0.01mol/L HCl Co: 0.05-4 -
Cu(II) mobile phase oxalic acid pH=4.2 Cu: 20-200
Fe(II) Fe semiquantitative
[6] Fe(III) brillant sulfoflavin- H2O2 Yes standard in 510-3 mol/L HCl sample acidified to pH=5.5 Fe: 0.02-5.6 seawater
[7] Fe(III) luminol-H2O2 Yes sample acidified with acetic acid-ammonium acetate to pH=3.0 Fe(III): 0.005-0.1 oceanic
[8] Cr(VI) luminol-hexacyano Yes - Cr: 0.04-1 wastewater
ferrate(II)
[9] Co(II) gallic acid-H2O2 Yes samples with formic acid/ammonium formate to pH=3.6 Co: 0.0006-1 reference seawater
[10] Mn(II) luminol-H2O2 Yes standards in 0.1mol/L HCl Mn: 0.002-110 reference seawater
[11] Fe(II) luminol-O2. Yes standards in HCl to pH=3.5 Fe: 0.001-1 ground, rain, river, lake
Fe(III)
[12] Fe(II) luminol-O2. Yes standards/samples in 0.1mol/L HCl Fe: 0.002-0.56 oceanic and seawater
Fe(III)
[13] Fe(II) brillant sulfoflavin- H2O2 Yes Standards in HCl Fe: 0.05-11 rain, tap, river and
Total Fe sample addition of acetate buffer (pH=4.4) coastal
[14] Co(II) pirogalol-H2O2-NaOH, Yes 0.01 mol/L purified HCl in standard solutions Co: 5-850 estuarine
Fe(II,III)) Fe: -
[15] Cr(III) luminol - H2O2-halide ion No with / without EDTA Cr: 0.005-5.2 -
Fe(II) Fe: 0.6-56
Co(II) Co: 0.06-59
[16] Co(II) luminol -IO4- No acidified samples with H3PO4 Co: 0.01-12 fresh and polluted
Mn(II) addition of 8-quinolinol for Mn determination and sodium citrate for Mn: 0.02-9
simultaneous Co and Mn determination
[17] Cr(III) luminol-H2O2 No 10-4 mol/L EDTA and 310-4 mol/L H3PO4 in standard/sample Cr: 0.01-6 mineral, drinking,
10-3 mol/L EDTA added to H2O2 solution polluted
[18] Mn(II) TCNQ-O2-OH-EosinY No immediate analysis (unacidified) DDAB vesicular solution Mn: 4 - 4000 potable
[19] Fe(II) luminol-IO4- No unacidified samples, o-phenantrolin activator (Fe determination Fe: 0.003-0.1 underground drinking
Mn(II) TEA masking agent for Mn determination Mn: 0.005-0.1
[20] Cr(III) luminol-H2O2 No H3PO4 in standard/samples solutions (pH=3.7) Cr: 0.5-500 tap
10-4 mol/L EDTA, 0.1 mol/L carbonate and 0.3 Br- carrier (pH=10.8)
[21] Cu(II) phenanthroline- H2O2 No standard acidified with HCl to pH=3sample acidified to pH=2 Cu: 0.006-0.45 seawater
[22] Cr(III) luminol-H2O2 No 10-3 mol/L EDTA in standard/sample solutions Cr: 5.2-5200 natural
[23] Cr(III) luminol-H2O2 No carrier EDTA- CO3- pH 10.8sample stored in acidic conditions Cr: 0.5-50 river, tap and drinking
3
For FI assembly, a Gilson Miniplus peristaltic mol/L in 0.02 mol/L KOH, EDTA 110-2 mol/L
pump was used to drive the reagent-sample and 510-3 mol/L in 0.3 mol/L CO32-/HCO3- (pH
mixture through the flow cell. The loop employed 10.8). In all cases, the injection volume was 200
has a 200 l internal volume. Tygon tubing (i.d.= L. The Hitachi F4500 spectrophotometer was
0.8 mm) was used with the peristaltic pump. The used for measuring.
flow cell was a spiral cell, consisted of laboratory- Different conditioning procedures were
made coiled transparent poly(tetrafluoroethylene) studied: without conditioning, addition of HCl
tubes measuring 50 cm in length and with 510-3 mol/L and addition of HNO3 0.5 mol/L. In
i.d.=0.8mm. The dimensions of the cell were 1 cm some cases a masking agent was added EDTA
of internal diameter and 3 cm of external diameter. 110-2 mol/L or 510-3 mol/L.
Validation procedure: Standard mixtures of
Procedures different metal ions were prepared. The
A cleaning procedure was applied to bicomponent and tricomponent solutions are
glassware, containers and other glass or plastic described in Table II. Additionally, calibration
material. The first step was rinsing with nanopure standard solutions were prepared in different
water, later 10% HCl bath overnight and rinsing conditions, see Table III.
with nanopure water again. A standard material reference was also
The concentration of Cr(III), Co(II), Cu(II), analysed. SRM 1640 (NIST, USA) is composed
Fe(II), Fe(III), Ni(II) and Mn(II) standard solutions of natural fresh water collected from Cleark Creek
was 1000 mg l-1. Working solutions of metal ions CO, which had been filtrated and stabilised with
were prepared daily. The measurement assemblies nitric acid.
are described in reference [23]. Reduction treatment procedure: The Cr(VI)-
Batch procedure: The reagent stock solutions Cr(III) was achieved by heating of standard
were luminol 1.210-3 mol/L in 0.3 mol/L CO32- solution with HCl 510-3 mol/L or 110-3 mol/L and
/HCO3- (pH = 10.8), H2O2 0.1 mol/L, EDTA 0.01 0.03 % of H2O2 (80 C, 30 min). Standard
mol/L in 0.02 mol l-1 KOH or in 0.3 mol/L CO32- solutions of Cr(III) 0-50 g/L and Cr(VI) 0-25
/HCO3- (pH = 10.8). Different reaction solutions
g/L and standard mixtures with Cr(III) 25 g/L -
were prepared directly into a quartz cell. The
Cr(VI) 5-25 g/L and Cr(III) 3 g/L - Cr(VI) 3-15
injection of the sample (200l) is carried out with
g/L were prepared. Light emission was registered
a Hamilton digital syringe throughout a septum
applying or not reduction treatment step. A
and mixed with a magnetic agitator. The FP-750
interference study was performed preparing
Jasco spectrophotometer was used for monitoring.
chromium solutions in presence of metal ions and
FI procedure: Luminol solution 1.210-3 mol/L
anions.
in 0.3 mol/L CO32-/HCO3- (pH = 10.8) and H2O2
0.1 mol/L were first mixed in the flow system and
then mixed with the sample-carrier. Different
carrier compositions were studied: CO32-/HCO3-
0.3 mol/L (pH 10.8), EDTA 110-2 mol/L and 510-
Table VIII: Analytical parameters for Cr(III), Co(II) and Cu(III) determination in samples acidified with HNO3
in FIA
double logaritmic linear
Cr(III) Co(II) Cu(II) Cr(III) Co(II) Cu(II)
log a 2.61.6 2.81.6 2.61.6 b0 51329 48448 57915
a 45544 67843 36738 b1 603 13010 9.10.5
b 0.390.05 0.350.04 0.260.03 R2 0.9619 0.9296 0.9717
R2 0.8799 0.8816 0.9143 n, syx 5, 66.33 5, 108.63 4, 31.80
n, syx 4, 0.0932 4, 0.0733 3, 0.040
s-10
s-11
s-12
s-13
s-14
s-15
s-16
s-1
s-2
s-3
s-4
s-5
s-6
s-7
s-8
s-9
stored in the different options tested when the FI
method is used for Cr(III) determination. The Figure 2: Signal recovery percentages for
batch mode requires the addition of Na2CO3 when different metal mixture solutions. Error bars represent 3s
the samples were stored in acidic conditions. from triplicate measurement
Choosing the experimental conditions, the Similar studies were performed for
determination can be selective enough for Cr(III) calibration mixtures measured according to FI
or Cr, Co and Ni could be totally evaluated. procedure (Table VII). In all cases, t-test showed
Different experiences were performed in order that there was no significant difference between
to study the total chemiluminescence signal. The calibration slopes at 95 % confidence interval.
aim was to check the additivity of signals in The standard material reference SMR
different sample conditions. Binary and ternary 1640 was studied. Trace element mineral water
mixtures of the three metals stored in no acidic and sample was conserved in 0.5 mol l-1 HNO3
acidic conditions were analysed by the FI method conditions. The contents of metals are given in
(Table II). Table II. Na2CO3 was added to the standard
800 Cr reference material. Signal of certified standard and
700 Co
standard mixtures of Cr and Co reproducing the
linear calibration slope (L/mg)
11
12
13
14
1
EDTA
EDTA
without
without
EDTA
EDTA
3
(carrier) in KOH and HCl 510-3; 14: EDTA 510-3
(carrier) buffered and HCl 510-3. Concentration unit: Figure 3: Signal recovery percentages for
mol/L standard reference material comparing mixture standards
in different experimental conditions. Error bars represent
Figure 2 shows the obtained signal recovery 3s from triplicate measurement
percentage. It can be seen that the metal mixture By the FI mode, it is possible to quantify
can be calculated as sum of individual signals. only Cr by adding EDTA 0.01 mol l-1 or the total
A 52 experimental design of standard contribution of the Cr, Co and Cu in the sample.
mixtures was evaluated for the batch mode. A t- For determining Cr, it is possible to use standards
test showed the slopes of the different Cr(III) in acidic or non acidic conditions in order to
calibration curves obtained in presence of different process samples stored in different conditions. It
Co(II) concentrations were similar at confidence can be observed from the corresponding sensitivity
level of 95 %. The same results were calculated for
values and the results for SMR 1640 (diluted 6.4 Additionally, it is possible chromium
times) given in Figure 3. Without EDTA, speciation in water samples. The measurement of
standards and samples must be in the same chemiluminescence signal without reduction step
conditions in order to obtain accurate estimations. provides Cr(III) concentration. When the reduction
Figure 3 shows that the same results were pre-treatment is performed, the total chromium
obtained for SMR 1640 and a mixture of Cr, Co concentration is calculated, as sum of original
and Cu prepared in HNO3 . Cr(III) and transformed Cr(VI).
signal
2000
Cr(VI)
metal species in measurable form. For chromium 1500
analysis, a reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) with
1000
H2O2 in acidic conditions and T = 80 C has been HCl 10-3 mol/L
500
described. Then, this kind of steps can also
0
influence to sample conditions and measurement 0 5 10 15 20
conditions. concentration Cr ( g/L)
Table IX shows the analytical parameters for Figure 4: Calibration curves of Cr(VI) solutions and
double logarithmic regression obtained for Cr(III) Cr(VI)-Cr(III) mixture solutions using different HCl in
calibration curves without reduction treatment and reduction treatment
Cr(VI) calibration curves with reduction treatment.
The results obtained using different acid The effect of interferents in reduction treatment
concentrations and different reagent quality has and measurement step was evaluated studying the
been summarised. presence of metal ions and common anions in
It can be seen that the conversion of Cr(VI) to samples. With this objective, the procedure was
Cr (III) is completed, although the best analytical performed to standard solutions described in Table
signals were obtained using a peroxide XI. The presence of Cr(VI) does not modify the
concentration of 0.03 % and HCl concentration of direct determination of Cr(III) when the amount is
510-3 mol/L. Respect to reagents quality, the best lower than 10 mg/L (>200 times normal level).
registers were obtained using HCl trace pur and The cobalt interferes the determination of Cr(III)
Na2CO3 (p.a.). and total chromium when EDTA and pH
Mixtures of Cr(III) and Cr(VI) were also conditions are uncontrolled. No influence of
processed using the reduction procedure in order to Mn(II), Ni(II), Mg(II), Ca(II), Fe(III), Cu(II), Cl-,
assess the determination of total chromium. In Br- and SO42- was observed.
Figure 4 the signal of Cr(VI) solutions and
Cr(III)-Cr(VI) mixture solutions using different CONCLUSIONS
HCl concentrations in reduction treatment are A study of chemiluminescence signal has been
plotted. performed for different sample storage procedures.
The calibration curves overlapped perfectly. Moreover a parallel study of selectivity has been
Therefore, the conversion percentage was 100 % carried out. Calibration models of each storage
and the total chromium determination is protocol have been calculated in order to evaluate
guaranteed. the influence of each storage protocol. Recovery
Accuracy and precision were estimated from studies have showed the signal additivity for
standard solutions prepared with different different conditions. Selectivity, accuracy and
concentrations of Cr(III) and Cr(VI). The obtained precision have been also checked using a standard
values are shown in Table X. reference material. Additionally, the influence of a
reduction pre-treatment was also evaluated.
Additionally, the influence of a reduction pre- [7] H. Obata, H. Karatani and E. Nakayama,
treatment was also evaluated. Anal. Chem. 65 (1993) 1524
A guideline for metal determination based on [8] Z. Zhang, W. Qin and S. Liu, Anal. Chim.
chemiluminescence signal has been proposed. The Acta. 318 (1995) 71
conditioning procedure of samples and standards [9] S. Hirata, Y. Hashimoto, M. Aihara and G.
should be chosen according to sampling strategy, Vitharana-Mallika, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 355
analysis objectives (uni or multielement) and (1996) 676
storage needs. Therefore, chemiluminescence [10] K. Okamura, T. Gamo, H. Obata, E.
methods by batch and FI modes can be applied for Nakayama and Y. Nozaki, Anal. Chim. Acta. 377
natural water stored in different conditions (1998) 125
successfully. [11] W. Qin, Z.J. Zhang and F.C. Wang,
When EDTA is present, it is possible the Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 360 (1998) 130
selective analysis of Cr(III) in natural waters. The [12] A.R. Bowie, E.P. Achterberg, R.F.C.
determination of Cr(III) is robust by FI method. Mantoura and P.J. Worsfold, Anal. Chim. Acta.
Then, it is possible to use standards prepared in 361 (1998) 189
water for processing of samples stored at different [13] S. Hirata, H. Yoshihara and M. Aihara,
conditions. When batch mode is chosen, sample Talanta. 49 (1999) 1059
pH must be controlled adding Na2CO3. [14] V. Cannizzaro, A.R. Bowie, A. Sax, E.P.
Achterberg and P.J. Worsfold, Analyst. 125
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (2000) 51
The authors are grateful to the DGICYT [15] C.A. Chang and H.H. Patterson, Anal.
(Project n PB 97-1387) for financial support. Y. Chem. 52, (1980) 653
M.M., S.M.L and L.A.T.G. express their gratitude [16] Q.X. Lin, A. Guirarum, R. Escobar and
to Ministerio de Eduacin y Cultura (Spain) for the F.F. de la Rosa, Anal. Chim. Acta. 283 (1993) 379
predoctoral grant. [17] R. Escobar, Q.X. Lin, A. Guirarum and
F.F. de la Rosa, Analyst. 118 (1993) 643
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Anal. Chem. 63 (1991) 893
Analytica Chimica Acta 446 (2001) 385392
Abstract
Direct standardization (DS) and piecewise direct standardization (PDS) methods are applied to multivariate standardization
of chemiluminescence signals using PLS model as the calibration model.
The linear concentration interval of the chemiluminescence determination was determined. This interval was located using
univariate robust calibration by least median of squares (LMS) method. The linear calibration model was corroborated by
conventional least-squares method.
The standardization subset and window size were optimized by means of the prediction residual error sum of squares.
Several instrumental sources of variability have been studied: the detection cell, instrument, batch versus flow injection (FI)
modes, time and their possible combinations. This study shows the calibration transfer can be employed successfully.
The proposed strategy was used in the chemiluminescence determination of Cr(III), Cr(VI) and total Cr in water samples
by means of a calibration transfer. The obtained results are in agreement with reference method values and known spiked
amounts, and are independent of the standardization factors. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Chemiluminescence; Least median of squares method; Chromium
0003-2670/01/$ see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 0 3 - 2 6 7 0 ( 0 1 ) 0 1 2 7 5 - 2
386 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 446 (2001) 385392
testing site or the recalibration in the second instru- samples of water containing different amounts of
mental situation. The direct standardization (DS) and chromium.
piecewise direct standardization (PDS) methods are
based on calculating a transformation matrix which
relates a subset of standards or samples measured in 2. Experimental
both situations. Then, the calibration model built with
the whole primary calibration set can be applied to 2.1. Apparatus and reagents
the signals of the new corrected situation. In this way,
the number of standards needed for the regression Hitachi F-4500 (Tokyo, Japan) and Jasco FP-750
is reduced without a loss of quality in the determi- (Tokyo, Japan) fluorescence spectrophotometers were
nations. used for the measurements. The light emission was
In this paper, the linear concentration interval of a monitored at 425 nm.
chemiluminescence determination is used. The linear The following p.a. or trace pur reagents were used:
calibration model is built using robust calibration [6], Cr(III) nitrate (Panreac, Spain), hydrogen peroxide
by the least median of squares (LMS) method. The (Panreac), luminol (Fluka, Switzerland), sodium car-
instrumental factors studied for the calibration trans- bonate (Merk, Germany), sodium hydroxide (Probus,
fer are: detection cell, instrument, batch versus flow Spain) and chlorhydric acid (Merk). The solutions
injection (FI) modes, time and their possible combina- were prepared in water (nanopure, Sybron, Barnstead,
tions. The DS and PDS methods can be used to trans- Spain).
fer the models between detection cells. Also, calibra- For the batch procedure, the chemiluminescence
tion transfer over time with an instrument, between was measured with a 1 cm pathlength quartz cell and
instruments and between FI and batch modes has been the Cr(III) solutions were injected through the sep-
evaluated. To our knowledge, calibration transfer in tum of the holder module with syringe port and stir-
chemiluminescence analysis has not been reported. rer, using a Hamilton digital syringe (Nevada, USA).
These issues have been studied for the light emission For FI assemblies, a Gilson Miniplus peristaltic pump
produced by luminol oxidation by hydrogen peroxide was used to drive the reactants through the flow cell,
in basic aqueous solution catalysed by Cr(III). at a flow rate of 15 ml min1 . The loop employed had
Chromium is a common contaminant in natural wa- 200 l internal volume. Tygon tubing (i.d. = 0.8 mm)
ter and wastewater. Anthropogenic activities lead to was used with the peristaltic pump. Other tubing was
chromium accumulation due to the discharge of in- made of PTFE with i.d. = 0.5 mm. The light emission
dustrial wastes into the environment. The toxicity of intensity was recorded as a function of time.
chromium depends on its chemical form. Cr(III) is
considered an essential trace element for the proper 2.2. Procedure
functioning of living organisms. On the other hand,
water soluble Cr(VI) is extremely irritating and toxic The flow injection assembly is shown in Fig. 1. Lu-
to human body tissue owing to its oxidizing potential minol and H2 O2 streams were first mixed in the flow
and easy permeation of biological membranes. system and then mixed with the sample, which was in-
The chemiluminescence determination uses a flow jected in a carrier containing the EDTA solution. The
injection procedure; the different reagents and the an- distance between the last T-junction and the detection
alyte are driven through the flow cell using a peri- cell was 4 cm.
staltic pump and the chemiluminescence intensity is The chemiluminescence was measured using a fluo-
registered as function of time [7]. The concentration rescence flow-through cell (cell A) with a 1.5 cm light
of Cr(III) can be obtained by direct measurement but path (Hellma, Germany). Other flow cells were inves-
the total concentration of chromium involves a pre- tigated consisting of laboratory-made coiled transpar-
vious reduction the Cr(VI) to Cr(III) with hydrogen ent poly(tetrafluoroethylene) tubes with 50 cm length
peroxide in acidic solution [8]. and i.d. = 0.8 mm. In the helix cell (cell B), the tube
Finally, the concentration of Cr(VI), Cr(III) and was coiled to a support of 1.5 cm length and 7.5 mm
total concentration of chromium was determined in diameter. The dimensions of spiral cell (cell C) were
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 446 (2001) 385392 387
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the FI assembly used for the determination of Cr(III).
1 cm i.d. and 3 cm o.d. The cell D was a bundle cell the concentration was observed. But at lower levels, a
composed of an internal tube in a transparent cell. linear relationship between the analyte signal and the
The working solutions were as following: EDTA concentration can be used for the calibration. Robust
0.01 mol l1 in 0.04 mol l1 KOH, luminol 1.2 calibrations has been described to establish the actual
103 mol l1 in 0.3 mol l1 HCO3 CO3 2 buffer linear relationship in presence of outliers, for the cal-
solution adjusted to the pH 10.8 and hydrogen perox- culation of the detection limit and for determination of
ide 0.1 mol l1 . the calibration linear range [6]. In this section, LMS
For the batch reaction, the reagent solution was pre- has been used to locate the linear range of the calibra-
pared in the quartz cell. The reactive concentrations tion of chromium.
were 4 104 mol l1 of luminol, 3.3 102 mol l1 The conventional least-squares method (LS) pro-
of hydrogen peroxide, 3.3 103 mol l1 of EDTA vides intercept and slope values, which minimize the
and 0.1 mol l1 of HCO3 CO3 2 buffer solution ad- sum of the squares of the residuals. The intercept and
justed to pH 10.8. The Cr(III) solutions were injected slope values provided by LMS method are those which
using a syringe through the septum and the solution minimize the median of the squares of the residu-
in the cuvette was mixed with a stirrer. als. The main advantage of the LMS regressions is
In all cases, the injection volume was 200 l. The the property of exact fitting: if at least 50% of the
concentration of Cr(III) stock solution was 250 mg l1 . (x, y) data pairs conform to a linear model, then the
Calibration solutions contained 050 g l1 of Cr(III). LMS regression coincides with it. The disadvantage is
The registered signal during 7.5 s after the injection the probability distribution of LMS estimation is un-
step was processed. known.
The LMS regression was implemented by using the Ortiz et al. [10] have proposed a computational se-
program PROGRESS [6]. The standardization rou- quence for the calibration. The numerical procedure
tines available in the PLS-Toolbox for Matlab were exploits the ability of LMS regression to detect the
used [9]. group of aligned experimental data and the optimal
precision and accuracy of the estimations provided by
LS regression.
3. Results and discussion Using the experimental data pairs (concentration,
peak height), the LMS regression was applied for the
3.1. Location of linear interval: univariate robust two instruments and the different cells in order to ob-
calibration tain a robust estimation. The standardized residuals
were obtained so as to detect the loss of linearity,
For the 050 g l1 interval, a double logarithmic hence determining the linear range. The points whose
relationship between chemiluminescence signal and standardized residual with respect to the LMS line
388 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 446 (2001) 385392
Table 1
Univariate regression parameters from least-squares regression (LS) and least median regression (LMS) for different instrument detection
cells and batch or flow injection modes
Model b a syx R2
Instrument A
Cell A LMS 40.5 53 13 0.999
LS 41.6 0.9 50 5 13 0.993
Cell B LMS 48.3 61 18 0.999
LS 48 0.9 59 5 12 0.995
Cell C LMS 133 23 82 0.994
LS 129 3 3 20 60 0.992
Cell D LMS 158 101 46 0.999
LS 160 2 97 15 44 0.997
Instrument B
Cell A LMS 0.020 0.039 0.03 0.978
LS 0.024 0.002 0.019 0.008 0.02 0.964
Cell B LMS 0.213 0.142 0.08 0.999
LS 0.223 0.005 0.102 0.026 0.07 0.992
Cell C LMS 0.297 0.154 0.09 0.999
LS 0.290 0.006 0.174 0.029 0.08 0.994
Cell D LMS 0.459 0.086 0.17 0.999
LS 0.480 0.006 0.005 0.044 0.13 0.997
Batch LMS 0.58 0.21 0.21 0.996
LS 0.59 0.01 0.11 0.09 0.20 0.997
was greater than 2.5 in absolute value, were consid- calibration model. According to Bouveresse and Mas-
ered outliers. Finally, the LS regression (outliers ex- sart [11] and Herrero and Ortiz [4], a subset based on
clude) was applied. In Table 1, it is possible to evaluate the criteria of a reasonable number of calibration sam-
the degree of coincidence between the two regression ples, following a more or less orthogonal design and
methods, the quality of the regression, and hence of sufficiently covering the experimental domain, pro-
the calibration. For all cells tested in two instruments, vides more robust results.
the linear interval obtained is from 0 to 10 g l1 . The For different subset sizes, the values of PRESS for
batch procedure in the instrument A cannot be assayed DS and PDS models were obtained when different
because it does not have sample holder module with samples are included in transfer subset. In Fig. 2, an
syringe port and stirrer. example of PRESS contour lines of the response sur-
faces are shown. For different subset sizes, one or more
3.2. Optimization of transfer parameters standard solutions are fixed and two remaining stan-
dards are variable. The size of the region with lower
The DS and PDS models have been used to achieve PRESS value increases with subset size. If the cor-
the calibration transfer. In order to obtain the best re- rect subset is selected, a subset size larger than three
sults, the standardization subset and window size have standards will be unnecessary experimental effort and
been optimized. The quality of the calibration trans- could cause the model overfitting. This subset with
fer has been evaluated using the predicted residual er- best results corresponds to standards of different con-
ror sum of squares (PRESS), calculated from the test centration levels (lowmediumhigh). When the sub-
samples using PLS model as calibration model. set is selected according proposal design criteria, the
The search for a suitable standardization set is a error of prediction is 24 times lower than when using
critical step in calibration transfer. Wang et al. [1] pro- the leverage criteria.
posed the subset should be chosen from the calibration For the PDS method, different window sizes were
set based on the leverage values of the samples in the tested. The increase of window size of PDS method
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 446 (2001) 385392 389
Fig. 2. PRESS contour lines for the response surfaces for calibration transfer between cell C (primary cell) and cell A (secondary cell)
for different subset sizes: (a) 3; (b) 4; and (c) 5. High standard number means a high chromium concentration.
had a slight influence in PRESS value. Then, the win- bration model were also applied and unsuitable results
dow size selected was 7 to avoid overfitting problems. were also obtained, especially when different instru-
ments were considered.
3.3. Factors of standardization The DS and PDS methods were applied to achieve
standardization using the optimal transfer parameters
The calibration transfers were evaluated in the lin- and the PLS model for calibration. The first factor
ear calibration interval. Firstly, univariate transfer and studied was the calibration transfer between detec-
direct recalibration with only three standard samples tion cells. The PRESS values of PDS model were
were evaluated. The results were not robust and pre- lower than the PRESS values of DS model. In Fig. 3,
sented high PRESS values. Direct PLS interpolation the PRESS values obtained with the PDS model
or multivariate standardization with the classical cali- are shown. Two-way analysis of variance (two-way
Fig. 3. PRESS values for cell standardization and instrument standardization by the PDS model.
390 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 446 (2001) 385392
Fig. 4. RMSEP values for different standardization factors. The replicate number of calibration transfers (n) and criteria values of prediction
error are included.
ANOVA) applied to the PRESS data showed robust ments and combination of both factors are less than
results independent of whether the detection cell was 10%.
used as the primary instrument or the secondary in- The time-factor is an important factor in the stan-
strument. For the factor detection cell as the primary dardization. A calibration transfer in time leads to er-
instrument, the results were F cal,Inst.A = 0.72 and rors higher than 10% for the prediction set, as seen
F cal,Inst.B = 0.08 while the critical value is F3,9 = in Fig. 4. Similar values were obtained for the combi-
3.863 for a level of significance of = 0.05. For the
factor detection cell as in secondary instrument, the
results were F cal,Inst.A = 3.27 and F cal,Inst.B = 2.18
while the critical value is F3,9 = 3.863 for a level of
significance of = 0.05. The PRESS values obtained
for the different transferred calibrations are identical to
the calibration model for the primary instrument with-
out calibration transfer. These PRESS values cannot
be achieved with other factors tested in the calibration
transfer, such as batch or flow injection modes or time.
The root mean squared prediction error (RMSEP)
was calculated from test set samples in order to eval-
uate the quality of the standardization. In Fig. 4, the
RMSEP values were obtained according to the factors
of standardization, such as detection cells, instrument,
batch versus FI or time. The criteria values were cal-
culated including 5, 10 or 15% of the bias error for
each concentration.
The RMSEP values obtained for calibration transfer Fig. 5. Chemiluminescence time profiles of 10 g l1 standard of
between different detection cells, between both instru- Cr(III) obtained by batch and flow injection modes.
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 446 (2001) 385392 391
Table 2
Concentration (g l1 ) and recoveries of Cr forms in water samples by reference and by calibration transfer considering several experimental
factorsa
Reference method Calibration transfer factor
Time Time-cell Time-instrument Time-cell-instrument
Sample Cr(III) 1.5 0.3b 1.5 0.6 1.4 0.4 1.5 0.4 1.5 0.4
Cr(VI) 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.6c 0.2 0.5c 0.1 0.5c 0.1 0.5c
Total Cr 1.7 0.2 1.6 0.3 1.7 0.3 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.4
Spiked sample Cr(III) 3.2 0.3b 3.8 0.5 3.7 0.4 3.9 0.4 3.8 0.3
2.5 g l1 Cr(III) Cr(VI) 2.9 0.3 1.8 0.8c 1.9 0.6c 1.6 0.7c 1.6 0.6c
2.5 g l1 Cr(VI) Total Cr 6.1 0.4 5.6 0.6 5.6 0.4 5.4 0.6 5.4 0.5
Percent recovery Cr(III) 63 17 91 31 90 21 92 20 93 18
Cr(VI) 110 17 68 35 66 29 60 31 60 31
Total Cr 88 9 80 13 78 10 76 13 76 11
a Number of replicates = 3.
b Obtained by difference between total Cr and Cr(VI).
c Obtained by difference between total Cr and Cr(III).
nation of the time factor with the cell, instrument or The results were compared with values obtained by
both factors. reference method. The reference method involves re-
The batch versus flow injection standardization sup- action with diphenylcarbazide in acidic solution [12].
poses a sample or standard is measured using a batch In this method, the Cr(VI) concentration is obtained by
assembly and the calibration is realized using a FI direct measurement and the total concentration by pre-
assembly, or vice versa. The chemiluminescence sig- vious oxidation and the Cr(III) by difference. Table 2
nals obtained are different. Batch measurements give shows the results obtained for Cr(III), Cr(VI) and to-
asymmetric peaks that can be described as a rapid in- tal Cr concentration and recoveries obtained for the
crease in light intensity and a slow decay while the FI spiked samples. As can be seen, in all cases the re-
assembly provides a skewed peak, as can be seen in sults are in agreement with the reference values and
Fig. 5. A good calibration transfer was obtained using the known amounts spiked, independent of the stan-
DS model or PDS model with a large window size, as dardization factors.
shown in Fig. 4. Therefore, the calibration transfer be- A linear regression between the concentration deter-
tween chemiluminescence signals obtained for a batch mined by the reference method and the concentration
procedure and a flow injection procedure is possible by calibration transfer method was obtained. The 95%
and provides acceptable standard errors of prediction. confidence intervals of the slope (b tsb ) for the dif-
ferent studied transfer factors were: 0.9 0.4 (time),
0.9 0.4 (time-cell), 0.9 0.5 (time-instrument) and
3.4. Application: water sample determination
0.9 0.4 (time-cell-instrument). The 95% confidence
The calibration transfer methods were applied for Cr intervals of the intercept (a tsa ) were: 0.0 1.2,
determination in water samples containing the analyte 0.0 1.1, 0.0 1.4 and 0.0 1.4, respectively. The
at different concentrations. The samples of tap water value of unity was included in the confidence interval
were taken in the Valencia area. of the slope and zero was included in the confidence
The chemiluminescence method was employed for interval of the intercept.
the determination of Cr(III) by direct measurement and
for the determination of total Cr by previous reduction. 4. Conclusions
Cr(VI) was estimated by difference. For calibration
transfer, three standard solutions at different concen- The proposed strategy consists in the chemilumi-
tration levels (low-medium-high) were also measured. nescence determination of Cr(III), Cr(VI) and total Cr
392 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 446 (2001) 385392
Abstract
Multivariate calibration is tested as an alternative to model chromium(III) concentration versus chemiluminescence registers
obtained from luminol-hydrogen peroxide reaction. The multivariate calibration approaches included have been: conventional
linear methods (principal component regression (PCR) and partial least squares (PLS)), nonlinear methods (nonlinear variants
and variants of locally weighted regression) and linear methods combined with variable selection performed in the original
or in the transformed data (stepwise multiple linear regression procedure). Both the direct and inverse univariate approaches
have been also tested.
The use of a double logarithmic transformation previous to the linear regression has been also evaluated. A new double
logarithmic transformation previous to the linear regression is proposed in order to avoid the effect of the noise in the calibration
model. Pre-processing, optimization and prediction ability of the multivariate calibration models has been studied at nine
different experimental conditions including batch and FIA measurements. Box-plots, PCA and cluster analysis have been
employed to test the prediction ability of the different models tested. Nonlinear PCR and nonlinear PLS provide the best
results. Real samples have been analyzed and compared with the reference method. The results confirm the successful use of
the proposed methodology. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Univariate and multivariate nonlinear calibration; Chemiluminescence; Chromium determination; Luminol-hydrogen peroxide
reaction
0003-2670/01/$ see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 0 3 - 2 6 7 0 ( 0 1 ) 0 1 3 7 1 - X
156 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
regressing the concentrations on the responses. In fluence the predictive ability of the model has been
recent papers, it has been demonstrated that inverse performed.
calibration can be expected to predict better than The use of a double logarithmic transformations
classical calibration [6,7]. previous a linear regression (PCR and PLS variants
The multivariate calibration step in presence of (log 1-PCR and log 1-PLS)) [23] have been also eval-
nonlinearities involves using different strategies, al- uated. A new double logarithmic transformation pre-
though inverse approach is preferred [812]. Multi- vious linear regression (log 2-PCR and log 2-PLS) is
variate linear calibration methods can model partly proposed in order to avoid the effect of the noise in
these nonlinearities using a large number of factors. the calibration model.
The main limitation is the inclusion of irrelevant The methods were compared using the calibration
sources of variance in the model. The data trans- error and the prediction error. A cluster analysis is also
formation, such as pre-processing, introduction of proposed to detect similarities in the prediction abili-
nonlinear terms of the original variables or logarith- ties of the studied calibration methods. The methods
mic transformation, permits the application of linear were applied in the determination of chromium in wa-
models. Last alternatives are the local or nonlinear ter samples.
calibration techniques. Nonlinear methods are more
prone to overfitting than linear ones. The model se-
lection criterion is difficult to establish and it depends 2. Theoretical background
on the particular type of calibration data.
In a previous paper, we studied the chromium The calibration is based on modeling concentrations
chemiluminescence determination in water samples of the constituents on responses. Although univariate
using a multivariate linear calibration model only in and multivariate calibration methods have been exten-
the linear concentration interval [13]. A light emission sively described elsewhere, a brief description of ap-
is produced by luminol oxidation by hydrogen per- plied calibration methods is given below.
oxide in basic aqueous solution catalyzed by Cr(III). A bold upper-case letter (X) denotes a matrix, a
The total concentration of chromium involves a previ- bold lower-case letter (x) a column vector and an italic
ous reduction of the Cr(VI) to Cr(III) with hydrogen lower-case letter (h) a scalar. The hat symbol () de-
peroxide in acidic solution [14,15]. notes a predicted characteristic, XT (or xT ) refers the
In this study, univariate and multivariate methods matrix (or vector) transpose and X+ is the pseudoin-
are compared. The multivariate calibration model is verse matrix of X.
for the first time proposed for describing the nonlinear
relation between the analyte concentration and chemi- 2.1. Univariate methods
luminescence signal.
The univariate study uses classical or direct cali- Classical or direct approach and inverse approach
bration and inverse calibration for double logarithm are the two ways to build the model that relates the
regressions (log-d and log-i) and polynomial regres- measurements (x) and the concentrations (y). The di-
sions (pol-d and pol-i). rect way is to regress the measurements on the con-
The multivariate calibration approaches included centrations: x = f (y), meanwhile the inverse is y =
are: conventional linear methods (principal compo- f (x).
nent regression (PCR) and partial least squares (PLS)) Double logarithmic regression involves a pre-
[8], nonlinear methods (nonlinear variants of PCR processing where the logarithm of each element xi
and PLS (NL-PCR, NL-PLS and S-PLS) [1620] and and yi is taken. The direct way model (log-d) is writ-
variants of locally weighted regression (LWR0 and ten as log x = b0 + b1 log y, and the indirect model
LWR2) [21,22]) and linear methods combined with (log-i) is written as log y = b0 + b1 log x.
variable selection performed in the original or in the Polynomial regression involves a quadratic model.
transformed data (stepwise multiple linear regression The direct way model (pol-d) is written as x = b0 +
procedure (step-X, step-XX2 and step-log X)) [9]. In b1 y + b2 y2 and the indirect model (pol-i) is written as
all cases, an optimization of the parameters that in- y = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 .
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173 157
Then, the model is built by ordinary least squares NL-PLS applies smoothers to model the inner re-
regression using pre-processing data. For double log- lationship, S-PLS uses non-adaptive bivariate re-
arithmic regression, logarithm of x and y values are gression splines to achieve the same. NL-PLS with
used and for polynomial regression, quadratic terms two-order corresponds with a quadratic polynomial:
of x or y values are included. u = c0 + c1 t + c2 t2 + h. S-PLS with two-order corre-
sponds u = b0 + b1 t + b2 t2 + j bj +2 (t zj )3+ , where
2.2. Principal component regression (PCR) (t zj )3+ = 0 if t < zj , and zj are the coordinates of
the j-knots of the spline.
PCR decomposes the experimental matrix of re-
sponses (X) of the calibration set as follows: X = 2.5. Locally weighted regression
TPT + E, where T is the scores matrix, PT the loading
matrix and E is the residual error matrix. The concen- The method is based on the assumption that a
tration vector (y) is related using the expression y = continuous and smooth nonlinear function can be
Tb+E, where b is the matrix of regression coefficients locally approximated with piecewise linear func-
which is resolved by using a least-squares procedure. tions. The basic steps for each sample are: (1) select
N-calibration samples, that are the closest to the
2.3. Partial least squares regression (PLS) prediction sample by measuring their distances; (2)
perform a weighted linear PCR based on the previ-
The PLS algorithm takes into account the informa- ously selected N-calibration samples; (3) predict the
tion of responses and concentrations simultaneously. constituent in the prediction sample.
The decomposition is: X = tpT +Ex and y = uqT +Ey , The weight function is defined as
where t and p are the scores and loading vectors associ- 3 3
ated with the response, u and q the scores and loading (xp , xi )
wi (xp ) = 1
vectors associated with the concentration matrix and d(xp )
Ex and Ey are the respective residual matrices. In the
(xp , xi )
linear model, the scores vectors are related as u = bt+ if 0 1; wi (xp ) = 0 otherwise
h, where h denotes residuals. The relationship between d(xp )
scores and concentrations is obtained from y = tqT b+
where wi (xp ) is the associated weight with the ith cal-
e, where b is the vector of the regression coefficients.
ibration sample for the prediction of sample p, (xp ,
The set of predictors (X) and the set of responses (y)
xi ) the distance between the prediction sample p and
can correspond with the original data matrix or incor-
the ith calibration sample and d(xp , xi ) is the largest
porate nonlinear transformation as double logarithmic
(xp , xi ) over the N-samples in the local calibration.
pre-processing.
In the LWR0 method, the Mahalanobis dis-
tance in PC space is defined as (xp , xi ) =
2.4. Nonlinear variants of PCR and PLS [(xi xp )T X(M)+ (xi xp )]1/2 , where X(M) is the
covariance matrix of the complete data set with M
The nonlinear PCR (NL-PCR) consists of incorpo- principal components.
rating nonlinear transforms of the original variables In the LWR2 method, the distance measure is a
into the data matrix X, e.g. NL-PCR with two-order weighted average between Mahalanobis distance in
corresponds to the addition of the squared original the spectral space and the distance in the chemical
variables. Afterwards, the ordinary PCR is performed space: (xp , xi ) = (yp,i ) + (1 )(Xp,i ), where
on the extended X matrix: [XX2 ] = TPT + E. is weighting coefficient, (yp,i ) the distance in the
The nonlinear PLS (NL-PLS) and spline-PLS chemical space and (Xp,i ) is the Mahalanobis dis-
(S-PLS) are example of methods where a non- tance in the spectral space as LWR0 method. Notice
linear inner relation is included in the algorithm. that LWR0 is a special case of LWR2 with = 0. The
The modification is located in the relationship be- (yp,i ) value is obtained as iterative procedure until
tween scores vectors being u = f (t) + h. While convergence. The initial estimates are obtained by the
158 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
PCR method. mean. The variants are PCR (log 2-PCR) and PLS re-
|yi yp(PCR) | gression (log 2-PLS).
(yp,i ) = N , y = Tb + e
i=1 (yp,i )
3. Experimental
2.6. Stepwise multiple linear regression
(stepwise-MLR) 3.1. Apparatus and reagents
The method is based on the selection of a small A Hitachi F-4500 (Tokyo, Japan) and a Jasco
subset of variables from the set of predictors (X). The FP-750 (Tokyo) fluorescence spectrophotometers
procedure starts with the selection of the variable (xj ) were used for measuring. The light emission was
that is most correlated with the concentration (y). The monitored at 425 nm.
univariate regression model is built and the obtained The following p.a. or trace pure reagents were
regression coefficient (bj ) is tested for significance by used: chromium(III) nitrate (Panreac, Spain), hydro-
using a t-test. The selection is repeated until no sig- gen peroxide (Panreac), luminol (Fluka, Switzerland),
nificant improvement of the model fit can be achieved sodium carbonate (Merk, Germany), sodium hydrox-
by including more variables and all regression terms ide (Probus, Spain) and hydrochloric acid (Merk). The
already involved are significant. solutions were prepared in water (nanopure, Sybron,
The set of predictors (X) can correspond with Barnstead, Spain).
the original data matrix (step-X), incorporate non- For FI assemblies, a Gilson Miniplus peristaltic
linear terms as squared original variables (step-XX2 ) pump was used to drive the reactants through the flow
or using nonlinear transformation as logarithmic cell, at a flow rate of 15 ml min1 . The loop employed
pre-processing (step-log X). had a 200 l internal volume. Tygon tubing (i.d. =
0.8 mm) was used with the peristaltic pump. Other tub-
2.7. L-PCR and L-PLS with logarithmic ing was made of PTFE with i.d. = 0.5 mm. The light
pre-processing emission intensity was recorded as a function of time.
For the batch procedure, the chemiluminescence was
Logarithmic column centering, row centering or measured with 1 cm path-length quartz cell and the
both were proposed as methods of pre-processing for chromium(III) solutions were injected using a Hamil-
principal components analysis (PCA). The logarithm ton digital syringe (Nevada, USA).
of each element xij is taken, followed by column
centering, row centering or both. All the data must be 3.2. Procedure
positive. The transformation is zij = log(xij )mj , be-
ing zij the transformed data and mj the corresponding 3.2.1. FI procedure
logarithm column mean. Luminol and H2 O2 streams were first mixed in the
In this study, this logarithmic transformation is ap- flow injection system and then mixed with the sample,
plied to X and y data. This pre-processing permits which was injected in a carrier containing the EDTA
to use linear calibration methods with nonlinear data. solution. The distance between the last T-junction and
The variants studied have been PCR (log 1-PCR) and the detection cell was 4 cm.
PLS regression (log 1-PLS). The chemiluminescence was registered using a
We propose other transformation useful for unicom- fluorescence flow-through cell with 1.5 cm light path
ponent calibration only. The logarithm of each element (Hellma, Germany). Other detection systems were
xij is taken, corrected by a coefficient and centered by studied using different cells, which consisted of
columns. The coefficient is the quotient between the laboratory-made coiled transparent poly(tetrafluoro-
mean of calibration original
data and the maximum
of ethylene) tubes with 50 cm length and i.d. = 0.8 mm.
this value: j =((1/n) ni=1 xij )/max((1/n) ni=1 xij ). In the helix cell, the tube was coiled to a support of
The transformation is: zij = log(xij )j mj , being 1.5 cm length and 7.5 mm diameter. The dimensions
mj the corresponding corrected logarithmic column of a spiral cell were 1 cm internal diameter and 3 cm
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173 159
external diameter. A bundle cell (1.5 cm1 cm1 cm) with FI procedure with the same four detection cells.
was placed in a plastic cell. Besides, for this last instrument, a sample holder
The working solutions were as following: EDTA module with syringe port and stirrer was available and
0.01 mol l1 in 0.04 mol l1 KOH, luminol 1.2 the solutions were measured with the batch mode.
103 mol l1 in 0.3 mol l1 HCO 2
3 CO3 buffer so-
lution to adjust the pH to 10.8 and hydrogen peroxide 4.1. Univariate calibration models
0.1 mol l1 .
The models were built by ordinary least squares
3.2.2. Batch procedure regression using pre-processed data. For double log-
For the batch assembly, the reagent solution was arithmic regression (log-d and log-i), logarithm of x
prepared in the quartz cell. The reactive concentrations and y values were used and for polynomial regression
were 4 104 mol l1 of luminol, 3.3 102 mol l1 (pol-d and pol-i), quadratic terms of x or y values were
of hydrogen peroxide, 3.3 103 mol l1 of EDTA included.
and 0.1 mol l1 of HCO 2
3 CO3 buffer solution to In Table 1, the coefficients of the models for the
adjust the pH to 10.8. The chromium(III) solutions nine experimental situations are presented. The R2 co-
were injected using a syringe throughout the septum efficients and standard errors of the regression are also
and the solution in the cuvette was mixed with a stirrer. included. Good models are obtained in all cases.
In all cases, the injection volume was 200 l.
The concentration of chromium(III) standard solu- 4.2. Pre-processing and optimization of the
tion was 250 mg l1 . Calibration solutions contained multivariate calibration models
050 g l1 of chromium(III). The registered signal
during 7.5 s after the injection step was processed. The The effect of different pre-processing methods
samples of tap water were taken in Valencia city area. [23,24] was tested for linear and nonlinear models,
The samples were filtrated through 0.45 m mem- locally weighted regressions and stepwise multi-
brane filter and acidified with nitric acid to pH < 2. ple linear regression procedure. The pre-processing
For all calculations, Matlab for Windows (Math methods were: no transformation (zij = xij , being
Works, Natick, MA) was used, some multivariate zij the transformed data), column centering (zij =
methods were carried out with modified routines of xij mj , being mj the corresponding column mean)
the PLS-Toolbox (Eigenvector Research, Manson, and standardization (zij = (xij mj )/j , being j
WA). the corresponding column standard deviation). Fig. 1
shown the chemiluminescence time registers with
no transformation, the corresponding column cen-
4. Results and discussion tered registers and standardized registers for batch
assembly.
For the 050 g l1 of chromium interval, the re- The logarithmic transformation and corrected log-
lationship between chemiluminescence signal and arithmic transformation (see L-PCR and L-PLS with
the concentration is nonlinear. Different multivariate logarithmic pre-processing in Section 2), and the cor-
calibration techniques have been examined for the responding column centered data, were also studied.
evaluation of the predictive abilities of chromium In Fig. 2, the effect of these transformations is shown
concentration for the entire interval. The parameters for batch assembly data. Although the logarithm is
of each method have been also optimized. a common transformation of nonlinear data to linear
The regression methods were tested using data ob- data, the difference between variables is reduced. The
tained at nine different experimental conditions. In influence of large values is reduced and that corre-
the Hitachi F-4500 fluorescence spectrophotometer sponding to the smallest ones is enhanced. It can be
(instrument A), the standard solutions were measured seen that almost parallel registers for transformed and
with FI procedure with four detection cells (flow- centered data are obtained. In this situation the effect
through, helix, spiral and bundle cell). In the Jasco of the variables with the higher noisesignal ratio is
FP-750 (instrument B), the solutions were measured enhanced. The corrected logarithm compensates this
160 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173 161
Fig. 1. (a) Chemiluminescence time registers for batch assembly; (b) column centered registers and (c) column standardized registers.
effect because the influence of each variable is related component and the nonlinearity of the chemilumines-
with the original data. cence data (see Table 2).
The pre-processing method was chosen according For nonlinear models and locally weighted regres-
to the lowest prediction residual error sum of squares sions, a complexity equal to one is obtained by leave-
(PRESS) for each calibration model. The selected one-out cross-validation procedure and by the
pre-processing method for each regression model can randomization test. The nonlinear variants only needed
be seen in Table 2. The best option is the centering of one factor, as it is given in Table 2. The polynomial
the data in all cases. order of NL-PCR, NL-PLS and S-PLS was selected
The complexity of the conventional linear models equal to two by the randomization test. Two knots
(L-PCR and L-PLS) was also selected by PRESS were selected in the S-PLS method. The number of
value criteria. Different cross-validation procedures calibration standards in locally weighted regressions
(venetian blind method, leave-one-out, contiguous (LWR0 and LWR2) was four and = 0.4 for LWR2
data blocks, random data blocks) and the random- method.
ization test [25] were employed. For L-PLS models, The number of selected variables for stepwise mul-
some cross-validation procedures provided more than tiple linear regression procedures (stepwise-MLR-X,
two factors. However, models with too many factors stepwise-MLR-XX2 and stepwise-MLR-log X) chan-
overfitted the calibration data and contained a signif- ged from two to five, depending on the experimen-
icant amount of irrelevant information only related tal procedure. The selected variables corresponded to
to noise, as confirmed randomization test. The linear maximum region, but variables with high noisesignal
techniques needed two factors to model the chemical ratio were also selected.
162 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
Fig. 2. (a) Logarithm transformed registers; (b) logarithm transformed and column centered registers; (c) corrected logarithm transformed
registers and (d) corrected logarithm transformed and column centered registers.
Table 2
Optimized multivariate calibration modelsa
Regression method Pre-processing Variables selected Other model parameters
Fig. 3. Comparison of different logarithm transformation as pre-processing methods: (a) X-loadings plots for log 1-PLS and log 2-PLS
models with batch assembly; (b) real vs. predicted plots for log y data using log 1-PLS and log 2-PLS models and (c) real vs. predicted
plots for y data using log 1-PLS and log 2-PLS models.
The conventional linear models were obtained with linear calibration are high prediction errors in the final
both double logarithmic transformed data (log 1-PCR, concentration, according to the error propagation law.
log 1-PLS, log 2-PCR and log 2-PLS). A complexity The same optimized values for the calibration
equal to one was selected by cross-validation proce- models given in Table 2 were obtained for the nine
dures and by the randomization test. The X-loading different experimental conditions. Four were obtained
plot obtained for log 1-PLS and log 2-PLS is shown from the Hitachi instrument by flow injection and five
in Fig. 3a. The contribution in the calibration model from Jasco instrument, four by flow injection mode
is similar for all variables for log 1-PLS, although it and the last one by batch mode.
is slightly higher for variables with high noisesignal
ratio. However, the contribution of variables in 4.3. Prediction ability of the calibration models
log 2-PLS model is related with the original data. The
variables with lower noisesignal ratio have more The root mean squared error (RMSE) was consid-
contribution to the model than higher ones. The result ered as a measure of the prediction ability of these
is a best prediction in the calibration set and in the calibration models, being RMSE = (PRESS/nt )1/2 ,
prediction set, as can be seen in Fig. 3b and c. The dis- where nt indicates the number of tested samples.
advantage of logarithmic transformation as previous RMSE was calculated for calibration samples (RM-
step is that low prediction errors in double logarithm SEC) and for prediction samples (RMSEP).
164 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
The models were built using all standards as cal- calculation time of S-PLS regression is superior to
ibration samples (RMSEC1) and were evaluated by NL-PCR and NL-PLS regressions. Although good re-
leave-one-out cross-validation (RMSEP1), where only sults for RMSEC1 and RMSEC2 were obtained from
one sample at a time is kept out of the calibration. In LWR0, LWR2, step-X and step-XX2 , RMSEP1 and
the validation step, each sample is predicted with the RMSEP2 were worse. The worse prediction models
model built with the rest of samples. Test set valida- were obtained with logarithm transformed methods.
tion was also used when the global data set is divided The corrected logarithmic transformation provides
in two subsets that are used as calibration set (RM- better prediction ability than non-corrected logarith-
SEC2) and test set (RMSEP2). mic transformation.
The robustness of the models can be checked by Univariate calibration also provides suitable results,
the similarity between calibration errors and valida- as can be seen in Fig. 4 although they are worse than
tion errors and between both ways of validation. If the ones of NL-PCR, NL-PLS or S-PLS. Moreover,
the calibration model overfit the calibration data, a there are differences between direct or inverse univari-
big difference between calibration and validation er- ate calibration. Inverse calibration is better for pre-
rors is observed, specially when different samples are diction, nevertheless the precision is worse than that
included in calibration and validation subsets. obtained with multivariate calibration.
A KolmogorovSmirnov test [9] was applied in In order to obtain a better comparison and classifica-
order to evaluate if the results obtained for the nine tion of the regression methods, a PCA and a K-means
experimental conditions follow a normal distribution cluster analysis procedure were obtained [9]. The ob-
for each calibration model tested. This test is based jects are the regression methods and the variable space
on obtaining the difference between data distribution is defining by RMSEP values for the different calibra-
and normal distribution and comparison with a crit- tion at different experimental conditions.
ical value. In all cases, the maximum difference was PCA has been applied in inter-comparison stud-
smaller than the critical value at n = 9 and = 0.05 ies where a sample is analyzed by different methods
(D = 0.274). The results can be considered to be nor- and/or laboratories. In these cases, the PCA shows the
mally distributed and can be described by the mean possible discrepancies or trends in the predicted con-
and the standard deviation. centration. In this study, the prediction ability of the
A one-way analysis of variance was applied to calibration method is studied.
compare the prediction error means of the different In Fig. 5a and b, the score plots on the PCA1
calibration methods. Previously, the homogeneity of PCA2PCA3 space obtained from the RMSEP val-
variance was evaluated by Cochrans criterion. In all ues obtaining by leave-one-out cross-validation and by
cases, the Cochrans value is smaller than the critical test cross-validation are presented, respectively. The
value (G0.05,18,8 = 0.16). The F-values obtained were grouping is based on the family method: univariate
8.73 (RMSEC1), 7.61 (RMSEP1), 12.6 (RMSEC2) logarithm methods, univariate polynomial methods,
and 8.23 (RMSEP2). Then, the difference between the nonlinear methods, locally regression methods, linear
prediction errors of the different calibration models and stepwise selection methods and logarithm trans-
was significant (F0.05,17,135 = 1.88). formation methods. The variants with non-corrected
Box-plots of these error values for the nine different logarithm pre-processing (log 1-PCR and log 1-PLS),
experimental conditions and criteria values are plotted which are the worst methods, have the higher projec-
in Fig. 4. The criteria values calculated including 2.5, tion on the PCA1. In contrast, the more accurate meth-
5 and 10% of positive or negative bias error for each ods, such as nonlinear methods have small projections
concentration are 0.53, 1.06 and 2.12, respectively. on the principal components space.
The best calibration models are NL-PCR, NL-PLS Clustering analysis detects similarities between
and S-PLS, as can be seen in Fig. 4. According to objects considering the distance between them. This
the results these methods provide similar prediction method is based on nearest centroid sorting, where
values with a prediction error inferior to 5% and an object is assigned to the cluster with the smallest
low dispersion and similar results for RMSEC1 and distance between it and the center of the cluster. In
RMSEC2 and RMSEP1 and RMSEP2. However, the this study, the methods with similar prediction ability
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173 165
166 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
Fig. 5. Score plot for the RMSEP values obtaining by (a) leave-one-out cross-validation: X-explained variance PCA1, 56.4%; PCA2,
31.8%; PCA3, 5.0% and (b) test cross-validation: X-explained variance PCA1, 57.2%; PCA2, 29.2%; PCA3, 12.7%.
in the different calibration situations are joined in the prediction error and these methods are joined in the
dendrogram for low distances. dendrograms plots. Another pair of methods that are
In Fig. 6a and b, dendrograms for the RMSEP val- closely related in these plots are LWR2 and S-PLS.
ues obtaining by leave-one-out cross-validation and A possible reason is that both methods perform a
by test cross-validation are presented, respectively. weighted calibration based on distances between
Considering NL-PLS as the reference method, be- sample and the calibration points. Otherwise, the
cause it provides the lowest prediction error, the order small differences between robustness of methods are
of connection to the cluster can be considered as emphasized with cluster analysis.
prediction ability order. The order is approximately: Therefore, the PCA and cluster analysis are simple
nonlinear methods, locally regression methods, linear strategies for the comparison of methods providing
and stepwise selection methods and finally logarithm easy interpretation of the results. The aim of these
transformation methods. The PCR and PLS variants analyses is a useful qualitative interpretation for data
of all the regression methods tested have similar obtained at several calibration conditions and methods.
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173 167
Fig. 6. Dendrogram for the RMSEP values obtaining by (a) leave-one-out cross-validation; (b) test cross-validation.
Fig. 7. Madels h-statistic (a) and k-statistic (b) for the Cr(III) and total Cr concentrations obtained by NL-PLS as calibration method for
experimental conditions. Number of samples 8 with three replicates.
168 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173 169
Table 4
Prediction of water samples: comparison parameters between proposed method and reference and recoveries obtained for the spiked amounta
RMSEP Predicted vs. reference Percent of Percent of
recovery sample 1 recovery sample 2
Intercept Slope R2 syx Cr(III) Cr total Cr(III) Cr total
Instrument A
Flow-through cell 0.89 0.1 0.9 1.02 0.06 0.9969 0.9 83 9 87 8 101 2 99 3
Helix cell 0.85 0.4 0.7 0.99 0.04 0.998 0.7 80 18 87 10 84 4 100 1
Spiral cell 0.81 0.2 0.3 1.01 0.02 0.9996 0.3 73 16 79 17 93 2 99 6
Bundle cell 1.02 0.5 0.3 0.96 0.02 0.9997 0.2 72 4 92 19 90 12 93 4
Instrument B
Flow-through cell 0.66 0.0 0.5 1.00 0.03 0.9992 0.4 78 30 90 3 89 1 98 4
Helix cell 1.07 0.3 0.5 0.95 0.03 0.999 0.5 79 16 94 14 90 4 92 5
Spiral cell 1.35 0.4 0.4 0.91 0.02 0.9994 0.4 89 22 85 15 89 6
Bundle cell 0.94 0.2 0.6 0.94 0.04 0.9983 0.6 78 22 87 5 82 3 93 1
Batch procedure 1.31 0.6 1.7 1.0 0.2 0.9882 2.4 108 8 92 3
a Number of samples replicates 3.
Table 5
Prediction of water samples: Cr(III) and total Cr concentration (g l1 ) obtained using bundle cell in instrument A for the different
regression methodsa
Sample 1 Spiked sample 1 Sample 2 Spiked sample 2
Reference method 1.5 0.3 1.7 0.2 3.2 0.3 6.1 0.4 1.8 0.3 1.6 0.4 20.2 0.2 40.8 0.9
Univariate
log-d 1.5 0.4 1.7 0.3 3.5 0.5 5.8 1.0 1.6 0.4 1.6 0.5 21 2 43 3
log-i 1.6 0.4 1.7 0.3 3.6 0.6 5.8 1.0 1.7 0.4 1.7 0.5 20 3 42 3
pol-d 1.4 0.5 1.6 0.4 3.5 0.6 5.7 1.0 1.6 0.4 1.5 0.6 20 2 40 2
pol-i 1.4 0.4 1.6 0.4 3.5 0.6 5.7 1.0 1.7 0.4 1.6 0.6 20 3 39 2
Linear
L-PCR 1.4 0.4 1.6 0.4 3.4 0.4 5.7 1.1 1.6 0.6 1.9 0.5 20 1 41 4
L-PLS 1.5 0.4 1.6 0.4 3.4 0.4 5.6 1.1 1.7 0.7 1.7 0.6 20 2 39 4
Nonlinear
NL-PCR 1.4 0.4 1.6 0.4 3.4 0.4 5.7 1.1 1.6 0.4 1.7 0.6 20 2 40 2
NL-PLS 1.4 0.4 1.6 0.4 3.4 0.4 5.7 1.1 1.6 0.4 1.7 0.6 20 2 40 2
S-PLS 1.6 0.5 1.8 0.5 3.4 0.4 5.6 1.0 1.6 0.4 1.6 0.6 20 2 40 2
Local weighted
LWR0 1.7 1.0 1.8 0.9 3.8 1.1 5.8 1.8 1.8 1.0 1.9 1.4 19 3 40 3
LWR2 1.5 0.5 1.7 0.5 3.5 0.8 5.7 1 1.5 0.4 1.7 0.6 20 2 40 2
Stepwise MLR
Step-X 1.5 0.4 1.8 0.4 3.5 0.5 5.6 1 1.9 0.8 1.5 1.5 21 5 38 6
Step-XX2 1.5 0.4 1.7 0.5 3.5 0.5 5.7 0.9 1.7 1.0 1.5 0.7 21 6 38 5
Step-log 1.5 0.6 1.8 1.3 3.9 1.5 5.5 1.2 2.1 0.8 1.7 0.8 20 2 38 6
Logarithm
log 1PCR 2.3 1.4 1.9 0.9 3.9 1.1 62 1.5 0.5 2.1 0.6 18 2 43 6
log 1PLS 2.2 1.2 1.9 0.8 3.8 1 62 1.5 0.5 2.1 0.6 18 2 43 6
Logarithm corrected
log 2PCR 1.6 0.4 1.7 0.4 3.5 0.4 5.8 1.1 1.6 0.4 1.7 0.4 20 2 42 2
log 2PLS 1.6 0.4 1.7 0.4 3.5 0.4 5.8 1.1 1.6 0.4 1.7 0.4 20 2 42 2
a Number of samples replicates 3.
170 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
4.4. Application: determination of chromium between concentration of proposed method and ref-
in water samples erence method (cproposed method versus creference method )
are also included.
The different calibration models were applied for Similar values of RMSEP were obtained for the dif-
Cr determination in water samples containing the ferent detection cells and different instruments. These
analyte at different concentrations. The chemilumi- results corroborate the robustness of the NL-PLS
nescence method was employed for the determination method in function of the different experimental con-
of Cr(III) by direct measurement and for the determi- ditions assayed. The recoveries obtained were near
nation of total Cr by previous reduction. to 100%. The unit was included in the confidence
The results were compared with values obtained by interval of the slope and the zero was included in the
reference method. The reference method involves re- confidence interval of the intercept. As can be seen,
action with diphenylcarbazide in acidic solution [26]. in all cases the results are in agreement with refer-
In this method, the Cr(VI) concentration is obtained ence values and spiked values, independently of the
by direct measurement and total concentration by pre- detection cell and instrument.
vious oxidation. The Cr(III) concentration was calcu- Mandels h and k consistency statistics were also ob-
lated by difference. tained [9]. They are a graphical way of describing the
Table 3 shows the Cr(III) and total Cr concentra- variability in the set of data and looking for inconsis-
tion obtained by NL-PLS as calibration method. The tencies. The h-statistic essentially studies the variabil-
Table 4 includes the RMSEP, which was calculated as ity of the mean results obtained at each level and the
the difference between chemiluminescence and refer- k-statistic compares standard deviations for the factor
ence methods. The recoveries obtained for the spiked in study. The h and k values calculated for the differ-
amount and the parameters of the linear regression ent experimental conditions are shown in Fig. 7a and
Table 6
Prediction of water samples: comparison parameters between proposed method and reference and recoveries obtained for the spiked amounta
RMSEP Predicted vs. reference Percent of Percent of recov-
recovery sample 1 ery sample 2
Intercept Slope R2 syx Cr(III) Cr total Cr(III) Cr total
b. In all cases, h and k were lower than 1 and 5% level, amount. The parameters of the linear regression be-
except for some concentration levels but it cannot be tween concentration of proposed method and refer-
considered inconsistent. ence method (cproposed method versus creference method )
The prediction of the samples was obtained us- are also included in the tables.
ing the other calibration methods: univariate, linear, As it can be seen the best results are obtained for
no-linear, locally weighted, stepwise-MLR, logarith- NL-PCR, NL-PLS, S-PLS and LWR2, which is ac-
mic and logarithmic corrected regressions. As an cording with the previously obtained RMSEP values.
example, Table 5 shows the Cr(III) and total Cr con- Nevertheless, the recoveries obtained in most of cases
centration obtained using the calibration models built were close 100%, and the unit was included in the
for bundle detection cell in instrument A. Table 6 confidence interval of the slope and the zero was in-
includes the RMSEP, which was calculated as the cluded in the confidence interval of the intercept.
difference between chemiluminescence and reference The h and k values calculated for the different re-
methods, and the recoveries obtained for the spiked gression methods are shown in Fig. 8a and b. The
Fig. 8. Madels h-statistic (a) and k-statistic (b) for the Cr(III) and total Cr concentrations obtained by bundle cell in instrument A for
different calibration methods. Number of samples 8 with three replicates.
172 L.A. Tortajada-Genaro et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 450 (2001) 155173
values of LWR0, log 1PCR and log 1PLS methods variables and works with the linear algorithm and
indicates inconsistent results in the mean an in the NL-PLS introduces a nonlinear inner relation in the
deviation standard. It confirms that the non-corrected algorithm. SPLS and LWR2 also give suitable results,
logarithmic pre-processing provides the worse results. but the effort needed to optimize the SPLS and LWR2
parameters makes these approaches less attractive.
Logarithm transformation of nonlinear data
5. Conclusions (log 1PCR and log 1PLS models) reduces the differ-
ence between relevant and non-relevant variables. In
Different calibration models have been assayed order to conserve the main variables in multivariate
for chemiluminescence data obtained from Cr(III) unicomponent models, the proposed corrected fac-
catalyzed luminol-hydrogen peroxide reaction. If cal- tor j should be applied (log 2PCR, log 2PLS). The
ibration in a wide-range of chromium concentrations disadvantage of logarithmic transformation is that
is desired, the presence of nonlinearities must be con- low prediction errors in double logarithm linear cal-
sidered. This paper shows the possibilities of the mul- ibration leads to high prediction errors in the final
tivariate calibration versus univariate calibration in concentration, according to the error propagation law.
order to model the nonlinear relationship between sig- This paper shows that both direct and inverse uni-
nals and concentrations by using different strategies. variate calibration models can be improved by using
Multivariate linear calibration methods using a NL-PCR or NL-PLS multivariate models for all exper-
large number of factors can be employed. The intro- imental situations assayed: different apparatus, cells
duction of nonlinear terms of the original variables, and batch or flow modes.
or the logarithmic transformation of the original vari-
ables, permits also the application of linear models.
Another option is to use a nonlinear inner relation in Acknowledgements
the PLS algorithm. This paper shows a guide for se-
lecting the best model considering the particular type The authors are grateful to the DGICYT (Project
of calibration data obtained by chemiluminescence. No. PB 97-1387) and to the Generalitat Valenciana
The univariate methods that have been tested are: (aids to research group GR00-36) for financial sup-
direct and inverse calibration for double logarithm port. L.A.T.G. expresses his gratitude to Ministerio de
regressions and polynomial regressions. Poor results Eduacion y Cultura (Spain) for the pre-doctoral grant.
are obtained by using the most employed option (dou-
ble logarithm transformation) in chemiluminiscence
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UNPUBLISHED PAPER
ABSTRACT
Multivariate standardisation is proposed for the successful chemiluminescence determination of
chromium in water samples at interval 0-50 g/L. Direct standardisation (DS) and piecewise direct
standardisation (PDS) methods were applied. The optimisation of transfer parameters has been carried out
based on the prediction residual error criteria. The studied instrumental situations were different detection
cells, instruments, injection modes, time and their possible combinations.
Non-linear principal component regression (NL-PCR) and non-linear partial least square
regression (NL-PLS) were chosen for modelling the non-linear relationship signal-concentration. The
influence of standardisation step in the predictive abilities is studied and compared with those obtained
with different calibration models. Linear methods, other non-linear variants, locally weighted regressions
or transformed variants were compared.
Accurate and precise results were obtained for water samples. The concentrations of chromium
were statistically in agreement with reference method values and with recovery studies.
* Correspondence author
E-mail: pilar.campins@uv.es Fax: +34-96 386 43 22
INTRODUCTION different instrumental situations. These are based
Chemiluminescence reactions provide the on the transfer of the measurement data obtained
basis for numerous assays for substances ocurring from the new situation to the previous situation.
at low concentrations. The development of these The transformation permits to use the existing
methods opens the possibility of rapid, highly model without a loss of quality in the prediction
sensitive analysis using inexpensive reducing the number of required standards.
instrumentation. This capability is valuable when In this paper, a multivariate standardisation
large number of samples must be analysed, as in for correcting different instrumental situations was
monitoring trace metal concentrations in natural realised. In a previous paper, we studied
waters. Although, the relationship between the multivariate standardisation for the linear model
concentration and the signal is nonlinear in some [15]. This study pretends to extend the findings
chemiluminescence analysis, if an extended found to multivariate non-linear calibration models
concentration range is required. The calibration in chemiluminescence analysis. NL-PCR and NL-
step in presence of nonlinearities involves using PLS models are chosen in order to describe the
different strategies [1-5]. nonlinear relationship between chemiluminescence
The multivariate calibration model can be signal and concentration. This selection is based
used for prediction of new samples as long as the on previous studies about the quality of several
calibration conditions are valid. The calibration calibration models for describing non-linear
model may become inapplicable when the relationships [16].
measured response is obtained from a different The standardisation methods used are DS y
instrumental situation such as replacement of PDS in order to the calibration transfer for the
instrument, change between instruments of following instrumental factors: detection cell,
different quality, reparations, instrument instability instrument, assembly, time and their possible
(drifts and shift), change in measurement combinations. In the most reported
conditions over time or variation between samples. chemiluminescence determination, a laboratory-
Different standardisation procedures have made cell positioned near the photodetector is
been proposed in order to avoid the full used. In this sense, the validity of calibration
recalibration [6-9]. The recalibration involves the model is limited to only this cell. The utilisation of
loss of the information of previous model, a fluorescence spectrophotometers from different
valuable effort of personnel, time, and economical company, quality or even intensity scale or
resources. The calibration standardisation calibration over time are interesting analytical
problems have been especially studied in the NIR problems. Moreover, the calibration between flow
field because of the size of calibration set and the injection and batch injection assemblies has been
influence of changes in the instrumental situations evaluated. In Table I are shown the list of
[8-11]. However, many of the described strategies instrumental factors evaluated in this study.
have been applied in other analytical fields [12-15] These standardisation problems have been
contributing to broach the calibration and studied in the chromium chemiluminescence
standardisation problems. determination in water samples. A light emission
The standardisation strategies proposed to is produced by luminol oxidation by hydrogen
solve the instrumental changes are instrument peroxide in basic aqueous solution catalysed by Cr
matching, robust calibration models, bias (III). The total concentration of chromium involves
correction, correction of measurement data, a previous reduction the Cr (VI) to Cr (III) with
correction of the calibration model or subset hydrogen peroxide in acidic solution.
standardisation [6-7] The direct standardisation
(DS) and piecewise direct standardisation (PDS)
methods have been applied successfully for
validation
set
calibration primary-secundary
set situation subset sample
set
calibration standarization
method method
transfered transfered
validation sample
set set
calibration
model
Study of
standarization Prediction of
factors samples
Figure 1: Flowchart of calibration, standardisation and prediction steps in the proposed strategy
standard number
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5 10 15 20 25
For the 0 50 g l-1 of chromium interval, 25
the relationship between chemiluminescence signal
standard number
50
(a)
prediction ability for chromium concentration as 20 10 Fixed standard
23
was demonstrated in reference 16. A column 10
5
centering was selected as pre-processing method. 0
standard number
methods. The matrix dimensions of data were (26
20
150) for each situation
15
Optimisation of transfer parameters
The DS and PDS procedures consist in (b)
10 Fixed standards
measuring a subset of samples in both situations in
15 and 23
order to obtain the transformation matrix. The 5
standardisation subset and standardisation
parameters, as window size in PDS method, have standard number
been optimised. These transfer parameters were 5 10 15 20 25
chosen according to the lowest prediction residual 25
error sum of squares (PRESS). The PRESS values standard number
were calculated from validation set and using the 20
two calibration models, NL-PCR and NL-PLS.
The choice of a suitable standardisation 15
subset is a critical step and this selection must be
based on physical and chemical stability and 10
(c)
representatively criteria [6-7] For the search of Fixed standards
5
representative samples, different subset selection 5, 15 and 23
methods have been proposed. Wang and et
Figure 2: PRESS contour lines of the response
proposed the selection of samples with high surfaces for calibration transfer between spiral cell
leverages in the calibration model [8]. However, (primary or reference cell) and fluorescence flow-
this method does not cover whole experimental through cell (secondary cell) for different subset size: (a)
space and the use of other methods has 3, (b) 4 and (c) 5. High standard number means high
demonstrated to provide more robust results [10]. chromium concentration. Standardisation method: PDS
For different subset sizes and for both, NL-
PCR and NL-PLS calibration models, the values of For the PDS method different window sizes
PRESS for DS and PDS models considering the were tested fixing the rest of transference
validation set, were obtained including different parameters (secondary situation, primary situation,
standards in the subset. For different subset sizes subset size). The increase of window size of PDS
(3 to 5), one to three standard solutions were fixed method had a slight influence on PRESS value.
and two remaining standards were variable. In Then, the window size optimised was 7, chosen
Figure 2, representative examples of PRESS according to the lower prediction error and lower
contour lines of the response surfaces are shown. computation time.
As can be derived from this figure, the results In these conditions, the transference of the
obtained for a subset size of three were similar to time registers was effective for the subset of
those obtained with four or five. If the correct standards. An example of this transference of
design is chosen, a subset size larger than three chemiluminescence intensity versus time register
standards does not improve the results and only is shown in Figure 3. In this case, the subset was
signifies unnecessary experimental effort. X measured in different instrumental conditions of
symbol in Figure 2a indicates an optimum subset instrument, cell and time conditions. As it can be
consisting of standards number 5,12 and 23 (1, 10, seen, the registers measured in secondary
40 g l-1). This subset with best results conditions (Figure 3b) and after the
corresponds to standards of different concentration standardisation with DS or PDS method, fitted in
levels (low-medium-high). with the registers obtained in primary conditions
(Figure 3a).
7000
(a) comparison with a critical value. In all cases, the
6000
maximum difference was smaller than the critical
5000
value at = 0.05 and at n>3. The results can be
40 mg/ml
considered to be normally distributed therefore
4000
they can be described by the mean and the
3000
standard deviation.
2000
10 mg/ml Boxplots of these error values for the
1000 different experimental conditions, using DS and
5 mg/ml
0 PDS standardisation, are plotted in Figure 4. The
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
tim e (s) number of transferred situations is also included.
(b) reference For reference situation, RMSEP values
35
40 mg/ml
DS
PD S
were calculated for calibration and validation. The
30
NL-PLS models provided a SEP value between
25
0.4 and 1.4 (see Figure 4). Self-transference of
20
reference situations provided similar results. This
15
fact confirms the correct selection criteria for the
10
10 mg/ml selection of the subset.
5
The RMSEP values obtained for calibration
0 5 mg/ml
0 1 2 3 4 5
tim e (s)
6 7 8 transfer between different detection cells, between
both instruments and combination of both factors
Figure 3: (a) Chemiluminescence registers for were ranged 0.4-2. The assembly standardisation
subset samples measured with spiral cell in instrument A
provides RMSEP values about 1-2.5 (see Figure
and time t (b) Chemiluminescence registers for subset
samples measured with bundle cell in instrument B and 4). Finally, the time, an important factor in the
time t and transferred chemiluminescence registers using standardisation, was studied for different
DS and PDS method for subset samples measured with combinations. A calibration transfer in the time
spiral cell in instrument A and time t. leads to error in the prediction ranged between 1-
3.5. Similar values were obtained for the
Factors of standardisation combination of time factor with factors such as
All situations at time t were considered as cell, instrument or both. The RMSEP values are
primary situations and the calibration models for similar using DS or PDS standardisation, as it can
each reference situation were obtained. The DS be in figure 4a and 4b, respectively. Analogous
and PDS were applied to achieve the results were obtained working with NL-PCR
standardisation to standards measured in a models.
different instrumental situation by using the An outstanding feature was the assembly
optimal transfer parameters. Table II shows the standardisation because it supposes a sample or
design of possible combinations establishing as standard can be measured in a batch assembly and
primary situation time t, assembly or , predicted using a calibration model obtained by a
instrument A or B, flow cell 1, 2, 3 or 4. The FI assembly, or vice versa. It was possible despite
prediction values were calculated using the the differences of chemiluminescence registers. A
calibration model of each primary situation. The batch assembly provides an asymmetric peak that
root mean squared error of prediction (RMSEP) can be described as a rapid increment of light
was considered as a measure of the calibration intensity and a slow decay, while a FI assembly
transfer procedure. RMSEP = (PRESS/n)1/2 where provides a skewed peak. A good calibration
n indicates the number of tested samples. transfer was obtained using DS model or PDS
RMSEP values were obtained for the model with high window size, see figure 4.
factors of standardisation such as detection cells, Therefore, the calibration transfer between
instrument, assembly or time using NL-PLS as chemiluminescence signals obtained for two
calibration method. For each factor, there was a different assemblies, such as batch procedure and
different number of combinations and then the flow injection procedure, was possible providing
number of possible calibration transfers is acceptable standard errors of prediction.
different.
A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test [2] was Finally, recalibration was assessed using
applied in order to evaluate if these errors obtained the same three standards as were used for the
for all combinations followed a normal distribution standardisation. Worse predictions were
for each standardisation factor tested. This test is calculated.
based on obtaining the difference between data
distribution and normal distribution and
Table II: Combinations for the different calibration transfers. The abbreviations used are: self-transference
(stand), cell factor (c), instrument factor (i), assembly factor (a), time (t) and their combinations.
A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test [2] was 3.5. Similar values were obtained for the
applied in order to evaluate if these errors obtained combination of time factor with factors such as
for all combinations followed a normal distribution cell, instrument or both. The RMSEP values are
for each standardisation factor tested. This test is similar using DS or PDS standardisation, as it can
based on obtaining the difference between data be in figure 4a and 4b, respectively. Analogous
distribution and normal distribution and results were obtained working with NL-PCR
comparison with a critical value. In all cases, the models.
maximum difference was smaller than the critical An outstanding feature was the assembly
value at = 0.05 and at n>3. The results can be standardisation because it supposes a sample or
considered to be normally distributed therefore standard can be measured in a batch assembly and
they can be described by the mean and the predicted using a calibration model obtained by a
standard deviation. FI assembly, or vice versa. It was possible despite
Boxplots of these error values for the the differences of chemiluminescence registers. A
different experimental conditions, using DS and batch assembly provides an asymmetric peak that
PDS standardisation, are plotted in Figure 4. The can be described as a rapid increment of light
number of transferred situations is also included. intensity and a slow decay, while a FI assembly
For reference situation, RMSEP values provides a skewed peak. A good calibration
were calculated for calibration and validation. The transfer was obtained using DS model or PDS
NL-PLS models provided a SEP value between model with high window size, see figure 4.
0.4 and 1.4 (see Figure 4). Self-transference of Therefore, the calibration transfer between
reference situations provided similar results. This chemiluminescence signals obtained for two
fact confirms the correct selection criteria for the different assemblies, such as batch procedure and
selection of the subset. flow injection procedure, was possible providing
The RMSEP values obtained for calibration acceptable standard errors of prediction.
transfer between different detection cells, between
both instruments and combination of both factors Finally, recalibration was assessed using
were ranged 0.4-2. The assembly standardisation the same three standards as were used for the
provides RMSEP values about 1-2.5 (see Figure standardisation. Worse predictions were
4). Finally, the time, an important factor in the calculated.
standardisation, was studied for different
combinations. A calibration transfer in the time
leads to error in the prediction ranged between 1-
3.5 (a) 3.5 (b)
3 3
2.5 2.5
2 2
SEP
SEP
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
9 9 9 24 8 24 8 8 8 23 8 24 4 4 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 9 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 24 8 24 3 3 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 24 8 24 8 8
0 0
stand
stand
calib
valid
calib
valid
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-a-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-c-i
t-a
t-a
t-a
t-a
t-a
t-a
a-i
t-c
t-c
t-c
a-i
t-c
t-c
t-c
c-i
c-i
t-i
t-i
t-i
t-i
t-i
t-i
a
a
c
c
t
t
i
i
Figure 4: RMSEP for different standardisation factors. These values were calculated using DS (a) or PDS (b)
standardisation methods and using NL-PLS models obtained with every calibration samples or with calibration set
samples. Number of calibration transfers less outliers are included for each factor.
The abbreviations used are: calibration set (calib), leave-out-one cross validation (valid), self-transference
(stand), cell factor (c), instrument factor (i), assembly factor (a), time factor (t) and their combinations.
(a) 3 (c) 3
1% 1%
2 5% 2 5%
h consistency statistic
h consistency statistic
1 1
-1 -1
-2 -2
-5% -5%
-1% -1%
-3 -3
t t-c t-i t-i-c a a-i t t-c t-i t-i-c a a-i
transference factors transference factors
(b) 3 (d) 3
k consistency statistic
k consistency statistic
2 1% 2 1%
5% 5%
1 1
0 0
t t-c t-i t-i-c a a-i t t-c t-i t-i-c a a-i
transference factors transference factors
Figure 5: Madels statistics for the Cr (III) and total Cr concentrations obtained by NL-PLS as calibration
method for different transference factors: (a) statistic h - DS, (a) statistic k - DS, (a) statistic h - PDS and (a) statistic k
- PDS. Number of samples = 8 with 3 replicates. The abbreviations used are: cell factor (c), instrument factor (i),
assembly factor (a), time factor (t) and their combinations.
Table II: (a) Cr (III) and total Cr concentration (g/l) for different standarisation factors by DS and PDS as standardisation methods and NL-PLS as calibration method. (b) Comparison
parameters between proposed method and reference and recoveries obtained for the spiked amount. Number of replicates = 3
(a) Reference DS PDS
Method time time-cell time- time-cell- assembly assembly- time time-cell time- time-cell- assembly assembly-
instrument instrument instrument instrument instrument instrument
Replicate of - 9 24 8 24 8 8 9 24 8 24 8 8
calibration transfer
sample 1 Cr(III) 1.5 0.3 1.5 0.2 1.5 0.2 1.5 0.2 1.5 0.2 - - 1.5 0.2 1.4 0.2 1.5 0.3 1.4 0.3 - -
Cr 1.7 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 - - 1.7 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 - -
total
spiked sample 1 Cr(III) 3.2 0.3 3.7 0.3 3.7 0.4 3.7 0.4 3.7 0.4 - - 3.7 0.3 3.6 0.3 3.7 0.4 3.7 0.4 - -
2.5 g/l Cr(III) Cr 6.1 0.4 6.3 0.2 6.3 0.2 6.3 0.3 6.3 0.2 - - 6.2 0.2 6.2 0.2 6.3 0.3 6.3 0.3 - -
2.5 g/l Cr(VI) total
sample 2 Cr(III) 1.8 0.3 1.9 0.2 2.1 0.2 2.1 0.2 2.0 0.2 1.7 0.2 1.7 0.2 1.3 0.2 1.2 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.2 0.2 2.0 0.4 1.9 0.3
Cr 1.6 0.4 0.9 0.2 1.0 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 1.2 0.3 1.1 0.4 1.0 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.2 1.8 0.3
total
spiked sample 2 Cr(III) 20.2 0.2 21.7 0.2 21.0 0.6 21.2 0.5 21.0 0.7 21.3 0.9 20.2 0.2 19.3 0.8 19.5 0.7 20.4 0.6 19.7 0.6 19.5 1.0 15.6 0.8
20 g/l Cr(III) Cr 40.8 0.9 38 0 39 2 37 3 37 1 38 4 41 3 41 2 41 1 41 1 41 1 37 1 43 2
20 g/l Cr(VI) total
(b) DS PDS
time time-cell time- time-cell- assembly assembly- time time-cell time- time-cell- assembly assembly-
instrument instrument instrument instrument instrument instrument
rmsep 1.03 0.81 1.45 1.27 1.31 0.25 0.47 0.42 0.4 0.39 2.07 2.59
intercept 0.3 1.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 -0.4 0.5 -0.9 0.4 -0.2 0.2 -0.2 0.2 -0.1 0.2 -0.2 0.2 -0.4 0.4 -1.3 1
slope 0.96 0.07 0.96 0.05 0.92 0.07 0.93 0.06 0.97 0.08 1.02 0.05 1.01 0.03 1.01 0.03 1.01 0.03 1.01 0.03 0.92 0.06 1.04 0.15
R2 0.995 0.998 0.994 0.996 0.994 0.997 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.996 0.980
syx 1.0 0.7 1.1 1.0 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.9 2.3
% recovery sample 1 Cr(III) 89 15 88 17 88 16 88 17 68 5 65 7 87 15 88 15 91 18 92 18 47 24 50 23
% recovery sample 1 Cr total 94 5 93 5 93 6 94 5 53 10 52 12 92 4 92 4 94 7 93 7 55 4 32 11
% recovery sample 2 Cr(III) 99 1 95 3 96 3 95 4 98 5 93 1 90 4 91 4 96 3 93 3 87 5 68 4
% recovery sample 2 Cr total 94 1 95 6 90 8 91 2 93 10 99 7 100 4 100 4 100 4 100 3 89 3 104 4
Application: determination of chromium reference values and spiked values, independently
in water samples of the detection cell and instrument.
The calibration transfer was applied for Cr Mandels h and k consistency statistics
determination in water samples containing the were also obtained [2]. They are a graphical way
analyte at different concentrations. The of describing the variability in the set of data and
chemiluminescence method was employed for the looking for inconsistencies. The h-statistic
determination of Cr (III) by direct measurement essentially studies the variability of the mean
and for the determination of total Cr by previous results obtained at each level and the k-statistic
reduction. For calibration transfer, three standard compares standard deviations for each factor in
solutions of different concentration levels (low- study. The h and k values calculated for the
medium-high) were also measured. Consequently, different transference conditions are shown in
the matrix of data consisted of primary-secondary Figure 5. In all cases, h and k were lower than 1
transference subset (three standard registers) and and 5 % level, except for some concentration
sample replicates for each experimental situation. levels but it can not be considered inconsistent.
The results were compared with values
obtained by reference method. The reference Comparison with other calibration
method involves reaction with diphenilcarbazide in models
acidic solution [21]. In this method, the Cr (VI) In this section, the influence of
concentration is obtained by direct measurement standardisation step in the predictive abilities for
and total concentration by previous oxidation and NL-PCR and NL-PLS models are compared with
the Cr (III) by difference. those obtained with different calibration models.
Table IIIa shows the Cr (III) and total Cr The calibration approaches also included
concentration obtained by DS and PDS as were: conventional linear methods (principal
standardisation methods and NL-PLS as component regression (PCR) and partial least
calibration method. The samples were measured in squares (PLS)), nonlinear methods (other
different instrumental conditions such as cell, nonlinear variant of PLS (S-PLS) and variants of
instrument, cell-instrument, assembly, assembly- locally weighted regression (LWR0 and LWR2)),
instrument and different time. linear methods combined with variable selection
Table IIIb includes the RMSEP, which performed in the original or in the transformed
was calculated as the difference between data (stepwise multiple linear regression procedure
chemiluminescence and reference methods. The (step-X, step-XX2 and step-logX)) and double
recoveries obtained for the spiked amount and the logarithmic transformation previous a linear
parameters of the linear regression between regression (PLS variant (log-PLS)). Although
concentration of proposed method and reference these multivariate calibration methods have been
method (cproposed method vs. creference method) are also extensively described elsewhere, a brief
included. description of applied calibration methods is given
The instrumental factors with more in Appendix. In Table IV, the selected pre-
influence in the signal provided bigger RMSEP processing method, variables selected and other
values. The recoveries obtained were near to 100 model parameters are shown for each calibration
%. The unit was included in the confidence method, optimised according reference 16.
interval of the slope and the zero was included in
the confidence interval of the intercept. As can be
seen, in all cases the results are in agreement with
Figure 6: Dendrogram for the RMSEP values for different calibration methods: (a) DS method and (b) PDS
method.
In order to obtain a better comparison and PCR and NL-PLS, that provided the lowest
classification of the regression methods, a prediction errors, were linked to other methods at
hierarchical cluster analysis procedure (Euclidean high distances. Then, they were the best models in
distance and inter-group method) and a principal the transfer conditions.
components analysis (PCA) were obtained [2]. The Score plots on the PCA1-PCA2-PC3 space
objects are the regression methods and the variable obtained from the RMSEP values by using of DS
space is defining by RMSEP values for different and PDS standardisation were obtained. The plots
factors of standardisation. Therefore, the methods showed a grouping based on the family method:
with similar prediction ability in the different nonlinear methods, locally regression methods,
calibration situations are joined in the dendrogram linear and stepwise selection methods and
for low distances and are close in a score plot. logarithm transformation methods. The more
In Figure 6a and 6b, dendrograms for the accurate methods, such as nonlinear methods had
RMSEP values obtaining by DS and PDS small projections on the principal components
standardisation are presented, respectively. NL- space.
(a) 3 (c) 3
1% 1%
2 2
h consistency statistic
h consistency statistic
5% 5%
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
-5% -5%
-2 -2
-1% -1%
-3 -3
log1PCR
log2PCR
log1PCR
log2PCR
NL-PCR
NL-PCR
L-PCR
L-PCR
log1PLS
log2PLS
log1PLS
log2PLS
NL-PLS
NL-PLS
S-PLS
S-PLS
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
steplogX
steplogX
stepXX2
stepXX2
stepX
stepX
(b) 3 (d) 3
k consistency statistic
k consistency statistic
2 2
1 1
0 0
log1PCR
log2PCR
log1PCR
log2PCR
NL-PCR
NL-PCR
L-PCR
L-PCR
log1PLS
log2PLS
log1PLS
log2PLS
NL-PLS
NL-PLS
S-PLS
S-PLS
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
L-PLS
LWR0
LWR2
steplogX
steplogX
stepXX2
stepXX2
stepX
stepX
Figure 7: Madels statistics for the Cr (III) and total Cr concentrations considering time-cell transference by
different calibration methods: (a) statistic h - DS, (b) statistic k - DS, (c) statistic h - PDS and (d) statistic k - PDS.
Number of samples = 8 with 3 replicates.
Table V: Cr (III) and total Cr concentration (g/l) in time-cell transferred conditions. Standardisation
method: (a) DS and (b) PDS. Number of samples replicates = 3 and replicates number of calibration transfers = 24
(a) sample 1 spiked sample 1 sample 2 spiked sample 2
The prediction of the samples was also concentrations where the relationship between
compared. As an example, Table Va and Table chemiluminescence response and concentration is
Vb show the Cr (III) and total Cr concentration linear. In reference 16, the problems of calibration
obtained by using the calibration models measured in presence of non-linearity were studied. In this
in different cell and different time point and DS third study, we tried to answer the following
and PDS as standardisation method, respectively. questions:
Table VIa and Table VIb include parameters of - Is it possible a calibration transfer when
comparison of chemiluminescence and reference the response follows a non-linear relationship?
methods and the recoveries obtained for the spiked - Is useful the same criteria for selection of
amount. Acceptable results were achieved in most transfer subset despite of a non-linear relationship?
of cases. The h and k values calculated for the - Is affected the robustness of regression
different regression methods are shown in Figure methods in these conditions?
7. Some values of LWR0 and stepwise-MLR - What is the effect in the prediction of real
methods indicates inconsistent results in the mean samples with terms of accuracy and precision?
an in the deviation standard. - Which is the best model for prediction of
Although, NL-PCR and NL-PLS were the transferred data?
best models to predict chromium concentration in We had studied the multivariate
standards and samples with or without standardisation with linear responses and we had
standardisation step. studied multivariate calibration with no linear
models. But the multivariate standardisation and
CONCLUSIONS calibration in presence non-linearity is an original
In reference 15, the problems of calibration study as in our research group as in
transfer were studied only in the interval of chemiluminescence area or in chemometric area.
Table VI: Comparison parameters between proposed method and reference and recoveries obtained for the
spiked amount. Standardisation method: (a) DS and (b) PDS. Number of samples replicates = 3 and replicates
number of calibration transfers = 24
(a) RMSEP predicted vs reference % recovery sample 1 % recovery sample 2
intercept slope R2 syx Cr(III) Cr total Cr(III) Cr total
L-PCR 0.45 0.3 0.4 0.98 0.03 0.999 0.4 73 15 78 5 87 2 98 8
L-PLS 0.28 0.2 0.3 0.99 0.02 0.999 0.3 75 16 80 5 89 1 98 8
NL-PCR 0.82 0.2 0.8 0.96 0.05 0.998 0.7 88 17 93 5 95 3 95 6
NL-PLS 0.81 0.2 0.8 0.96 0.05 0.998 0.7 88 17 93 5 95 3 95 6
S-PLS 0.89 0.2 0.9 0.96 0.05 0.997 0.8 103 20 107 6 94 3 94 6
LWR0 0.34 0.0 0.4 1.00 0.03 0.999 0.4 73 25 84 4 96 1 98 3
LWR2 0.87 0.2 0.6 0.95 0.04 0.999 0.5 90 11 91 9 89 3 94 5
stepX 0.87 0.5 0.6 0.95 0.04 0.998 0.6 77 16 83 5 94 1 92 3
stepXX2 2.75 0.9 2.0 0.84 0.12 0.979 1.9 88 18 94 5 99 2 80 11
steplog 0.49 0.4 0.5 0.98 0.03 0.999 0.4 103 19 104 7 92 2 95 8
log1PCR 0.88 0.4 0.4 0.94 0.03 0.999 0.4 93 17 94 5 90 2 91 5
log1PLS 0.86 0.4 0.4 0.94 0.03 0.999 0.4 93 17 95 5 90 2 91 5
log2PCR 0.8 0.3 0.7 0.96 0.04 0.998 0.6 95 17 97 5 93 3 93 4
log2PLS 0.8 0.3 0.7 0.96 0.04 0.998 0.6 95 17 97 5 93 3 93 4
The importance of the study is widely NL-PLS have been the best models comparing
demonstrated because many chemiluminescence with different calibration models.
determinations are based in a relationship between Comparing results obtained in reference 15,
signal and concentration non-linear. The use of 16 and this study and chromium concentration
good calibration models is important for obtaining levels in water (upper limit 50 g/L-European
accurate and precise results. But the validity of directive 98/83/EC), an analysis strategy can be
calibration models is limited. A proposed solution proposed. Multivariate standardisation is efficient
is the multivariate standardisation that reduces the methodology when experimental conditions have
experimental efforts with satisfactory results. changed independently of chromium
Therefore, the proposed strategy joins the concentration. Multivariate non-linear calibration
advantages of both approaches: accurate models models are useful for different chromium
and flexibility in different experimental conditions. concentrations. However, multivariate linear
In this paper, multivariate standardisation calibration models provide better results for
has been possible using the optimised criteria. A samples with a chromium concentration lower than
little increase of prediction error is produced but 15 g/L.
the reduction of experimental efforts is very
significant. Moreover, the total analysis rate is
significantly increased. This fact is especially
important for nonlinear data because a ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
recalibration a new experimental conditions needs The authors are grateful to the DGICYT
a high number of standards. The influence of (Project n PB 97-1387) and to the Generalitat
different experimental conditions in the Valenciana (aids to research group GR00-36) for
standardisation has been also evaluated. financial support. L.A. Tortajada expresses his
NL-PCR and NL-PLS model have provided gratitude to Ministerio de Eduacin y Cultura
accurate and precise results in the determination of (Spain) for the predoctoral grant.
chromium in water samples. The results have
validated with a reference method, recovery
studies and consistency statistics. NL-PCR and
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Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst., 32 (1996) 201
[11] C.E. Anderson and J.H. Kalivas, App. scores and concentrations is obtained from y = t
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[12] Y. Wang and B.R. Kowalski, Anal. coefficients.
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bj
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[22] S. Wold, Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst., prediction sample.
14 (1992) 71
The weight function is defined as step, a F-test, called F-to-enter, is performed for
3 all variables and the variable with the highest
(x , x ) 3
wi (x p ) = 1
p i
significant F value is entered. After each step a F-
d (x ) test, called F-to-remove, is performed. If a variable
p is detected that does no longer significantly
(x p , x i ) contribute to the regression it is rejected. The
if 0 1 ; selection is repeated until no variables already
d (x p ) fulfil the criterion to be entered or to be removed.
wi (x p ) = 0 otherwise The set of predictors (X) can correspond
with the original data matrix (step-X), incorporate
wi(xp) is the associated weight with the ith nonlinear terms as squared original variables (step-
calibration sample for the prediction of sample p. XX2) or using nonlinear transformation as
(xp,xi) is the distance between the prediction logarithmic pre-processing (step-logX).
sample p and the ith calibration sample. d(xp,xi) is
the largest (xp,xi) over the N-samples in the local L-PCR and L-PLS with logarithmic pre-
calibration. processing
In the LWR0 method, the Mahalanobis Logarithmic column centering, row
distance in PC space is defined as (xp,xi) = [(xi- centering or both were proposed as methods of
xp)T X(M)+ (xi-xp)]1/2 where X(M) is the pre-processing for principal components analysis.
covariance matrix of the complete data set with M The logarithm of each element xij is taken,
principal components. followed by column centering, row centering or
In the LWR2 method, the distance measure both. All the data must be positive. The
is a weighted average between Mahalanobis transformation is zij = log(xij) - mj, being zij the
distance in the spectral space and the distance in transformed data and mj the corresponding
the chemical space. (xp,xi) = (yp,i) + (1-) logarithm column mean.
(Xp,i) where is weighting coefficient, (yp,i) is In this study, this logarithmic
the distance in the chemical space and (Xp,i) is transformation is applied to X and y data. This pre-
the Mahalanobis distance in the spectral space as processing permits to use linear calibration
LWR0 method. Notice that LWR0 is a special case methods with nonlinear data. The variants studied
of LWR2 with = 0. The (Yp,i) value is obtained have been principal components regression (log1-
as iterative procedure until convergence. The PCR) and partial least squares regression (log1-
initial estimates are obtained by the PCR method. PLS).
We propose other transformation useful for
y i y p ( PCR )
( y p ,i ) = unicomponent calibration only. The logarithm of
N each element xij is taken, corrected by a coefficient
( y
i =1
p ,i ) and centred by columns. The coefficient is the
quotient between the mean of calibration original
y = T b + e data and the maximum of this value.
1 n 1 n
Stepwise Multiple Linear Regression j = xij / max xij
(Stepwise-MLR) n i =1 n i =1
The method is based on the selection of a The transformation is: zij = log(xij) j - mj, being
small subset of variables from the set of predictors mj the corresponding corrected logarithmic
(X) [2]. The procedure starts with the selection of column mean. The variants are principal
the variable (xj) that is most correlated with the components regression (log2-PCR) and partial
concentration (y). The univariate regression model least squares regression (log2-PLS).
is built and the obtained regression coefficient (bj)
is tested for significance by using a t-test. At each
UNPUBLISHED PAPER
ABSTRACT
The simultaneous determination of chromium and cobalt studied in water samples has been studied.
Chemiluminescence registers based on luminol-hydrogen peroxide reaction have obtained by a batch
procedure. PLS algorithms have employed to model the time-response (formation and destruction of
emitter).
The influence of the presence of two metals and the non-linearity relationship between response and
concentration have been evaluated in the signal. Different experimental designs and the selection of
variables have been tested. The calibration set has been selected based on two criteria: unicomponent
and/or bicomponent standard solutions and slope calculated from linear univariate calibration. The
response has been modelled providing high percentages of explained variance, robust models and low
prediction errors.
The proposed methodology has been validated using test standard solutions and standard reference
material of fresh water. Accurate results have proved the advantages of this method for the simultaneous
determination of chromium and cobalt in water samples.
Keywords: chemiluminescence; chromium and cobalt determination; water; luminol-hydrogen
peroxide reaction; simultaneous analysis
* Correspondence author
E-mail: pilar.campins@uv.es Fax: +34-96 386 43 22
INTRODUCTION calibration set selected by different criteria. The
Cobalt and chromium are widespread in water prediction ability has been assessed by using
samples, existing in various chemical, physical and standard solutions. The method proposed has
morphological forms. Generally underground and validated determining concentration of Cr(III) and
surface waters contain very low levels of these Co(II) in a standard reference material of fresh
metals but they are often introduced into hydric water.
cycle from industrial waste. Many of their forms
are toxic and their release must be carefully EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
monitored. Accordingly, the maximum APPARATUS AND REAGENTS
concentration for Co and Cr in drinking water is A Jasco FP-750 (Tokyo, Japan) fluorescence
fixed by EU-Directives. spectrophotometers was used for the measuring.
The determination of trace elements in water The light emission was monitored at 425 nm. The
samples requires analytical techniques with chemiluminescence was measured with a 1-cm
sufficiently high sensitivity and selectivity. Several pathlength quartz cell and the chromium (III)
analytical methods have been proposed for cobalt solutions were injected using a Hamilton digital
and/or chromium determination as capillary syringe (Nevada, USA).
electrophoresis,1 NAA,2 XRF,3-4 AAS,5-6 ICP- The following reagents were used: chromium
AES7 or ICP-MS.3,8 (III) nitrate (Panreac, Spain), hydrogen peroxide
Chemiluminescence methods provide low (Panreac), luminol (Fluka, Switzerland), sodium
detection limits, rapid response and low cost. carbonate (Merck, Germany), sodium hydroxide
Although, the main disadvantage is the lack of (Probus, Spain), chlorhydric acid (trace pur,
selectivity for most chemiluminescence reactions. Merck) and nitric acid (trace pur, Merck). The
In this sense, several strategies have been proposed solutions were prepared in water (nanopure,
for selective or simultaneous determination, Sybron, Barnstead, Spain).
especially for luminol chemiluminescence The concentrations of chromium (III) or cobalt
reaction. Pre-treatment or separation procedures (II) in stock standard solutions were 100 mg/L.
are usually required for the selective determination
in flow injection. The use of masking agents,9 PROCEDURE
membrane phase separator10 or discrete sample The reagent solution was prepared in the quartz
clean-up with ion exchange resin11 have reported. cell. The reactive concentrations were 4 10-4
The ion chromatography with chemiluminescence mol/L of luminol, 3.3 10-2 mol/L of hydrogen
detection have been proposed for simultaneous peroxide, 3.3 10-3 mol/L of EDTA and 0.1 mol/L
determination of some metals.12-13 However, the of HCO3 CO32 buffer solution to adjust the
limitation is the incompatibility of the mobile
phase with the reaction conditions required for pH to 10.8. The solutions were injected using a
post-column reaction.14 syringe throughout the septum and the solution in
A charge coupled device detector have been the cuvette was mixed with a stirrer. In all cases,
used the acquisition of full chemiluminescence the injection volume was 200 L. The emission
spectral profile. The simultaneous determination is signal after the injection step was registered.
achieved using wavelength discrimination or Calibration sets
mathematical resolution.15-16 The use of two Different calibration sets were analysed in
different reactions have described for Co and Fe function of concentration interval. So, the
determination in the same manifold.17 Time- concentration interval was divided in linear
resolved emission have also reported for Co and response region and non-linear response region.
Cu determination.18 a) Linear response: The calibration set was
Partial least squares (PLS) method has been composed of standard solutions of chromium (III)
applied to the simultaneous determination of or cobalt (II). The concentrations were ranged (0
mixture of compounds in water samples. Organic 20 mg/L) and (0 80 mg/L), respectively.
compound mixtures19-20 and metal ion mixtures21-22 Standard mixtures with different
have been resolved as multicomponent calibration concentration of chromium (III) and cobalt (II)
approach and/or interferent elimination technique. were also measured with a concentration level (0
In this paper, PLS models have been used to 20 mg/L) and (0 80 mg/L), respectively.
the simultaneous determination of Cr(III)-Co(II) in b) Non-linear response: The calibration set
water samples. In our knowledge, it is the first consisted of 25 standards with different
application to simultaneous determination in concentration of chromium (III) and cobalt (II)
chemiluminescence analysis by PLS regression. following a two factorial design (52). A code with
Chemiluminescence registers have obtained by a two numbers was assigned to each standard. The
batch and no automatic procedure. Different first one refers to Cr (III) concentration level (0
models were built with time-response curves of 80 mg/L) and the second to the Co(II)
concentration level (0 80 mg/L). Their
concentrations are shown in Table I. but the decay of chemiluminescence signal is
different. The cobalt (II) shows a decreasing of the
Table I: Code and concentration of standard signal more significant than chromium (III).
calibration set (52 design) Robust profiles were obtained in both cases
Cr(III) \ Co (II) 0 20 40 60 80 independently of the concentration of the metal in
(g/L) the solution.
0 00 01 02 03 04 formation destruction
20 10 11 12 13 14 region region
40 20 21 22 23 24 15 variables 46 variables
60 30 31 32 33 34 1
80 40 41 42 43 44
0.8
Analysis of Standard Material Reference
normalised signal
The calibration set consisted in standard
0.6
solutions in nitric acid conditions. Calibrations of
Cr(III) and Co(II) (ranging from 0 to 80 g/L) Cr
0.4
were prepared in 0.07 mol/L HNO3 conditions
before measurement step 0.2272 mol/L carbonate
0.2
was added. Mixtures of Cr(III) and Co(II) was also
prepared in the same conditions (15-10, 27-14.2, Co
0
15-25, 45-25 g/L, respectively).
0 2 time (s) 4 6
The certificate reference material SRM 1640
(NIST, USA) is composed of natural fresh water Figure 1: Normalised chemiluminescence intensity-
collected from Cleark Creek, CO, which had been time profiles
filtered and stabilised with nitric acid. The SRM
were diluted with standard carbonate solution. The Evaluation of calibration models
time registers of calibration, mixture and standard As it was explained in the previous section, the
reference material solutions were measured. most significant differences between both metals
Calculations are obtained in the chemiluminescence decay
The data were aligned according to the profile. Then, a variable selection could improve
maximum emission signal. For all calculations, the system modelling. Two possible options are
Unscrambler (CAMO, Norway) and Matlab for the study of entire register (61 variables) or the
Windows (Math Works, Natick, MA) were used. study of final region (46 variables). Moreover,
Some multivariate methods were carried out with PLS regression has two approaches based on
modified routines of the PLS-Toolbox different algorithms PLS-1 (unicomponent
(Eigenvector Research, Manson, WA). models) and PLS-2 (uni and multicomponent
models). The schedule of calibration study is
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION shown in Figure 2.
Study of the chemiluminescence signal
In presence of a catalyst, luminol is oxidised by E
LINEAR RESPONSE INTERVAL
0.6 6
0.5 5
from 0 to 7.5 s every 0.1 s, so 61 variables were
0.4
Cr slope
4
introduced. The percentage of explained variance
0.3 3
and the number of factors are given in Table III.
0.2 2 As it was explained in the previous section, the
0.1 1 most significant differences between both metals
Co slope
0.0 0 are obtained in the chemiluminescence decay
0 2 4 6 profile. PLS-1 and PLS-2 models were obtained
time (s) using as X-block the data (column centred) from
1.5 s to 7.5 s, so 46 variables were introduced. The
Figure 3: Profiles calculated from slopes of percentage of explained variance, the number of
univariate linear regression (Cr and Co) and theoretical factors and the squared sum of prediction residual
profile of a mixture 10 g/L Cr and 10 g/L Co
errors are given in Table III.
including heteroscedastic error
In Figure 4, the score plot for two first factors
is shown. The distribution of the sample was
For empirical-theoretical and empirical
similar to experimental design but the quadratic
approaches, PLS-1 and PLS-2 models were
shape have lost due to the second factor also
obtained using as X-block the data (column
described the non-linear contribution. The first
centred, 61 or 46 variables). The percentage of
factor was related with Co concentration and the
explained variance, the number of factors and root
second one to the Cr concentration. The model
mean squared errors of prediction (SEP) are given
required more than two factors in order to describe
in Table II. SEP values were calculated in order to
the non-linear relationship between metal
evaluate the prediction ability of models. SEP of
concentration and signal27, as can be seen in Table
calibration was obtained using all standard
III.
solutions employed in the model. SEP of
validation was calculated using a prediction set
composed of unicomponent and bicomponent
standard solutions.
Table II: PLS models for calibration sets in linear interval
% Explained Variance SEP calibration SEP validation
Variables factors X-block Y-block Y-block Cr Co Cr Co
Cr Co
Empirical- PLS-1 1-61 2 98.70 99.88 99.90 0.8 2.7 1.7 4.9
theoretical 16-61 2 99.92 94.22 99.71 5.9 7.6 6.4 11.4
approach PLS-2 1-61 2 98.70 99.89 0.8 2.7 1.7 4.9
16-61 2 99.92 99.36 6.0 7.5 6.7 11.2
Empirical PLS-1 1-61 2 99.98 99.98 99.99 1.5 4.3 2.7 7.7
approach 16-61 2 99.99 95.65 99.58 6.2 9.3 7.7 12.5
PLS-2 1-61 2 99.98 99.99 1.5 4.3 2.7 7.7
16-61 2 99.99 99.35 6.2 9.3 7.7 12.4
3
concentration of trace metals has been certified by
4-0 using different techniques and laboratories.
2 In order to build the calibration model,
4-4
unicomponent solutions were prepared in the same
1 conditions as reference material. PLS models were
built using chemiluminescence registers (column
PC2
ABSTRACT
Two stopped-flow manifolds have proposed for simultaneous determination of chromium and cobalt
in water samples. Automated procedures based on multicommutation systems have emphasised the
differences of their catalytic effect in luminol-hydrogen peroxide chemiluminescence reaction. A more
rapid decay of signal was observed for Co for both configurations (flow injection or continuous
injection). The influence of chemical and hydrodynamic variables has been studied in order to establish
the robustness of method. The analysis rate was lower 1.5 min/replicate.
Chemometric tools have employed for the resolution of their contributions. Partial least squares (PLS)
and H-point standard additions method (HPSAM) have used as multivariate calibration models. The
percentages of explained variance were 97-99 % (two factors). PLS and HPSAM have provided similar
results. HPSAM provides a simple calibration model contributing to develop an analyser for chromium
and/or cobalt.
Standard mixtures, spiked samples and a certified reference material have validated the proposed
strategy. The applicability has been demonstrated by the determination of Cr and Co concentration in
different water samples. The best results have been obtained for continuous injection providing more
robust predictions. Detection limit = 0.2 g/L
* Correspondence author
E-mail: pilar.campins@uv.es Fax: +34-96 386 43 22
INTRODUCTION For the resolution of binary mixtures, partial
Computer-controlled switching systems are least squares regression (PLS) and H-point
widely used in some analytical areas. It supposes standard addition method (HPSAM) have used.
a flow switching technique in order to achieve HPSAM [23] is other useful multivariate
automation of steps of an analytical process. On- calibration method in equilibrium and in kinetic
line sample washing, preconcentration, extraction, studies. The method has been developed for the
dilution or hyphenated techniques have been determination of unbiased analyte concentrations
proposed. Many of the strategies described come in the event that the presence of a direct interferent
from the field of chromatography [1]. and/or the total Youden blank is known.
Nevertheless, multicommutation is a novel The usefulness of the new proposed method is
approach in flow analysis [2]. It can be demonstrated by applying it to simultaneous
implemented by using discrete commutation determination of cobalt and chromium in some
devices, such as three-way solenoid valve. The water samples. These metals are widespread in
approach has been used to perform binary water, existing in various chemical, physical and
sampling, masking feasible the reduction of morphological forms. Very low levels are
reagent consumption, sequential determinations presented in underground and surface waters but
and sequential management of incompatible industrial wastes often introduce them into hydric
reagents [3-7]. cycle. Their release must be carefully monitored
Some applications have been proposed for because many of their forms are toxic and. Then,
water analysis: majority metals [8], phenols [9,10] laws in the most of the countries have fixed the
and anions [11,12]. However, the solenoid- maximum concentration for Co and Cr in drinking
activated rotatory valves have only been employed water.
as sample introduction system based on time. So,
simple flow registers are obtained by using these THEORICAL BACKGROUND
manifolds. Let us consider a sample S which is a binary
Stopped-flow techniques have also been mixture of species X and species Y. If the
employed in order to emphasise kinetic differences responses are additives, the signal of sample at
between some analytes in different detection time ti will be a contribution of both species (SS,i =
systems. Some compound mixtures have been SX,i + SY,i), where SS,i, SX,i and SY,i are the sample
resolved obtaining time-intensity curves [13-19]. signal, signal of species X and signal of species Y
Kinetic methods based on flow assemblies and at ti, respectively.
chemiluminescence detection have been described
using temporal difference in activator effect - HPSAM for flow injection
[20,21] and temporal injection [22]. In this paper, HPSAM [23] has been modified
In this paper, two automated assemblies are for stopped-flow data. The time-intensity register
proposed for simultaneous determination of is composed from two regions, according to point
chromium and cobalt. Computer controls a six- where the flow is stopped. Previous to maximum
way valve and a rotatory valve in order to register intensity, the register is obtained from a flow
time-intensity curves. The chemiluminescence injection system. The response is result of
registers (CL) from luminol-peroxide hydrogen dispersion of sample zone within the carrier and
reaction are obtained according to stopped-flow the chemical process of formation of a chemical
theoretical background. species. After maximum intensity, the register is
In the first manifold, sample introduction is obtained from a stopped-flow system. In this
discontinuous. The time-intensity register is region, the response is result of decomposition of
composed from two regions divided where the chemiluminescence species. In Figure 1a, an
flow is stopped. Previous to maximum intensity, example of injected stopped-flow registers is
the register is obtained from a flow injection shown.
system. After maximum intensity, the register is For the determination of species X, HPSAM is
obtained from a stopped-flow system. In this based on selection of two times ti and tj in such a
region, the response is result of decomposition of way that the interferent signals of species Y are
CL species. In the second manifold, sample equal to SY,i = SY,j (SY,i,j = 0). ti corresponds to FI
introduction is continuous. Previous to maximum region and tj corresponds to stopped-flow region.
intensity, the register is obtained from a system of
continuous sample injection and after a decay of
CL intensity is observed.
FI stopped-flow continuous stopped-flow
(a) (b)
chemiluminescence intensity
chemiluminescence intensity
X X
A X,1,2 > 0
A Y,1 / A Y,2 > K1,2
A Y,1,2 = 0 Y Y
t1 t2 time t1 t2 time
Figure 1: Hypothetical analytical signal for stopped-flow manifold: (a) flow injection and (b)
continuous injection
The difference of signals at two times ti and tj example of stopped-flow registers for continuous
will be for the sample: injection is shown.
SS,i,j = SS,j SS,i = SX,j + SY,j SX,i SY,j = The method is based on the well-known
SX,i,j + SY,i,j = SX,i,j [ec.1] property for most of analytical registers. For
instance, in spectrophotometry, the ratio between
Therefore, standard addition calibrations of absorbance values at two wavelengths is a constant
species X provides values of slopes Mi and Mj at for a pure compound. This fact is used for the
two previously selected times, ti and tj, In absence detection of overlapped peaks [26,27]. The study
of matrix effect, the Mi and Mj values can be of chemiluminescence registers has demonstrated
calculated from standard calibration curves, that the ratio of signals at two times is also a
directly. These calibration lines intersect at H- constant. For times values ti and tj, KX,i,j ratio is
point, with (-cH, SH) coordinates. The H-point is a defined for the X species as:
function of the analyte concentration (cX) S X ,i
expressed in the following equation: K X ,i , j = [ec. 3]
SX,j
S S ,i , j S X ,i , j
cH = = = cX [ec.2] It means the ratio between the signal at time ti
M j Mi M j Mi (SX,i) and the signal at time tj (SX,j) for X species.
The species Y concentration is calculated by So, the difference SX,i - KX,i,j SX,j will be equal to
interpolation of the SH value in a conventional zero.
calibration graph. Other possibility is to develop Considering this weighted difference of signals
another equation similar to [ec.1] for species Y at both time values ti and tj for the sample, the
where SX,i,j = 0. following equation is obtained:
The method can generally be performed with SS,i - KX,i,j SS,j = SX,i + SY,i KX,i,j SX,j -
more than one pair of variables (ti, tj), in which -KX,i,j SY,j = SY,i - KX,i,j SY,j [ec. 4]
case it can be considered a multivariate method.
The selection of variables is based on the best ratio Therefore, the weighted increment of signals
between noise-analyte increments. only depends on Y species. A calibration
procedure based on standard addition of Y species
- HPSAM for continuous injection flow will be provided the calibration slope at the
In this paper, K-ratio [24,25], a variant of selected time values ti and tj. In absence of matrix
HPSAM, has been modified for injected stopped- effect, such values can be calculated from standard
flow data. The time-intensity register is composed solution of Y species directly.
from two regions, according to point where the The following step is the estimation of Y
continuous flow is stopped. Previous to maximum species concentration in samples. The
intensity, the register is obtained from a system of concentration can be calculated by interpolation of
continuous sample injection. The response is only the corresponding SS,i - KX,i,j SS,j values in the
the chemical process of formation of a chemical calibration curves SY,i - KX,i,j SY,j vs. cY.
species. After maximum intensity, the register is EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
obtained from a stopped-flow system. In this a) Apparatus and reagents
region, the response is result of decomposition of A Jasco CL-1525 (Tokyo, Japan)
chemiluminescence species. In Figure 1b, an chemiluminescence detector, a LabPro Rheodyne
six-way injection valve and a LEA six-position
valve were used for the measuring. It was mol/L) was prepared in carbonate solution (0.01
controlled by Borwin chromatography software mol/L pH 10.8). The concentration of hydrogen
and the interface Hercule lite (JMBS, France). A peroxide was 0.01 mol/L.
Gilson Miniplus peristaltic pump was used to drive - assembly I: FI procedure
the reagents to the detection cell. Tygon tubing The carrier was composed of carbonate (0.05
(i.d.=0.8, 2.0, 2.5 mm) was used for the peristaltic mol/L pH 10.8) and EDTA (2 10-3 mol/L). The
pump. Other tubing was made of PTFE with scheme of FI manifold is shown in Figure 2a. The
i.d.=0.5 mm. The light emission intensity was luminol reagent (L) was mixed with peroxide
recorded as function of time. reagent (P). The standard solutions or samples (S)
were injected in carrier (C) by action of valve 1.
The following reagents were used: chromium The reagent flow met to carrier flow in T-piece.
(III) nitrate (Panreac, Spain), cobalt nitrate Chemiluminescence emission was registered in the
(Panreac, Spain), hydrogen peroxide (Merck, detection system. Valve 2 was always operating in
Germany), luminol (Fluka, Switzerland), sodium position V2A then the solution was driven to
carbonate (Merck), chlorhydric acid (trace pur, detector position.
Merck) and nitric acid (trace pur, Merck). The
solutions were prepared in water (nanopure, - assembly II: Stop-flow procedure by flow
Sybron, Barnstead, Spain). The concentrations of injection
stock standard solutions were 100 mg/L of The manifold was the same than described
chromium (III) or cobalt (II). above and shown in Figure 2a. The mixing of
reagents and injection of sample were the same
than FI procedure. However, switching of valve 2
C 3.5 stopped the flow in the detection cell because
solution was driven to waste outlet.
(a)
b) Procedure S 1.2 V1
Working standard solutions were prepared in
= 0.8 -3
mm -4
1.2 Luminol (1.2 10
HCl 2 10 mol/L,L daily. 40 cm
10 cm V2 10 cm
P 1.2 D
50 cm
W W W
C 1.2
(b) 10 cm
S 2.8 V2
= 0.8 mm V1 10 cm D
L 1.2
50 cm
P 1.2
W
W W
Figure 2: (a) Scheme of FI system and flow injected stopped-flow system and (b) Scheme of
continuous stopped-flow system.
V1: valve 6-ways, V2: valve 2-ways, PP: peristaltic pump, D: detector, W: waste, C: carrier stream, S:
sample stream, P: peroxide stream, L: luminol stream.
Table I: Protocol sequences for controlling of valves for different procedures: (a) Flow injection, (b)
Stopped-flow and flow injection and (c) Stopped-flow and continuous injection
(a)
Step Time (min) Valve Action Description
2(r-1) + 1 1.1r + 0.1 V1 AB Sample insertion (replicate r)
2r + 2 1.1r + 0.4 V1 BA Filling of sample coil
V2 in position for the entire sequence
(b)
Step Time (min) Valve Action Description
2r +1 1.4(r-1)+0.1 V2 AB Sample insertion (replicate r)
2r + 2 1.4(r-1)+0.3 V1 AB Stop-flow
2r + 3 1.4(r-1)+0.45 V1 BA Filling of sample coil
2r + 4 1.4(r-1)+1.0 V2 BA Activation of flow
(c)
Step Time (min) Valve Action Description
1 0.1 V2 AB Sample stream insertion
2r + 2 1.1(r -1)+0.5 V1 BA Stop-flow (replicate r)
2r + 3 1.1(r -1)+0.5 V1 AB Activation of flow
n - V2 BA Reinitiating
Detection limits were calculated from three- three manifolds. Additionally, the standard
time derivation of blank solution (LD N/S) and solutions for linear response interval were
from calibration curve (LD 3syx/b). The measured using a lower instrumental gain (factor
repeatability (RSD) was calculated from the 10). The regression parameters were calculated.
measurement of standard solutions (1 g/L, Detection limits and sensibility values were 10
replicates = 5). times higher than values show in Table III.
It can be seen, the sensibility values, detection
limits and repeatability values were similar for - Multivariate calibration models: PLS and
HPSAM
Figure 3 shows some examples of registers For the configuration of continuous injection,
obtained for standard solutions of chromium and the variables were chosen according to a suitable K
cobalt and for a sample. It can be seen the decay of ratio for the corresponding interferent and analyte.
chemiluminescence signal is most significant for It supposed a distance between variables higher
Co standard than Cr standard. This behaviour was than 4, a weighted increment higher than 10 % for
observed for both configurations of stopped-flow. the analyte and a determination coefficient (r2) for
The application of HPSAM needed the (Si - K Sj vs. c) curve higher than 0.99.
selection of pairs of variables according to some The predictions were calculated as an average
requirements depending on the option studied. of results provided for the pairs of variables with
For the configuration of flow injection, the the highest slope of calibration curves. Table IV
operative criteria was based on a distance between shows the assayed increments, selected increments
variables higher than 4, a difference of interferent and calculated errors of prediction for calibration
signals lower than 5 % and a determination set.
coefficient (r2) for (Si - Sj vs. c) curve higher than
0.99.
signal
200 200
150 150 Cr
inyeccin
100 Cr 100
50 Co 50 Co
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
time (min) time (min)
Figure 3: Analytical signal for a standard solution of chromium (1 g/L) and cobalt (1g/L) and for
certificate reference material (1:25) obtained stopped-flow configurations by flow injection (a) and
continuous injection (b)
In order to evaluate the prediction of previous PLS-2 models were obtained for both
models, binary standard solutions were configurations from unicomponent standard
determinate. The composition of these binary solutions of Cr or Co. X-block was composed of
solutions described a partial 52 design for both CL registers vs. time (column centred) for 160
metals. The prediction results are plotted in Figure variables (0-0.08 min interval). Percentages of
4. It can be observed the best results were obtained explained variance, number of factors and root
by using the assembly II. Comparing both metals, means standard errors of prediction (SEP) are
the prediction of chromium is more accurate and summarised in Table IV. SEP values were
precise. Any difference was detected between both calculated for calibration set.
calibration models. The results were similar to provided for both
methods, then HPSAM can be considered as an
alternative to PLS calibration. Although, the chromium concentration. This procedure was
advantage of HPSAM lies in the simplicity and the based in the reaction with H2O2 in acidic
correction of matrix effect when it is present. conditions and T = 80 C.
Figure 5 show the recovery values obtained for
- Determination in water samples a water sample spiked with 1 g/L of Cr, 1 g/L of
The proposed configurations were applied for Co or 1 g/L of Cr and 1 g/L of Co Both
the simultaneous determination of chromium and calibration models (PLS and HPSAM) and
cobalt in different water samples. Previous to assemblies II and III were also compared.
measurement step, reduction treatment (Cr(VI) to
Cr(III)) was performed in order to determine total
(a) 3 (b) 3
real real
PLS PLS
2 HPSAM 2 HPSAM
conc Co (mg/L)
conc Cr (mg/L)
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
00
01
20
22
03
13
04
42
44
00
01
20
22
03
13
04
42
44
(c) 3 (d) 3
real real
PLS PLS
2 HPSAM 2 HPSAM
conc Co (mg/L)
conc Cr (mg/L)
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
00
01
20
22
03
13
04
42
44
00
01
20
22
03
13
04
42
44
Figure 4: Predictions of binary mixtures measured in stopped-flow assemblies with different injection
configurations: (a) Cr assembly II, (b) Co assembly II, (c) Cr assembly III and (d) Co assembly III
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
C r1 C o1 C r1+C o1 C r1+C o1 C r1 C o1 C r1+C o1 C r1+C o1
Figure 5: Recovery percentages for spiked water sample measured in stopped-flow assemblies by
flow injection (a) and continuous injection (b) for both calibration models
Table V: Prediction of samples. Replicates n=3
assembly II assembly III
Sample pH SM(*) Model Cr Co Cr Co
CRM (1:25) - - PLS-2 1.87 0.10 0.59 0.09 1.6 0.3 0.69 0.17
HPSAM 1.3 0.2 0.9 0.3 1.6 0.4 0.67 0.16
River 8.85 1.5 PLS-2 < LD < LD < LD < LD
HPSAM < LD < LD < LD < LD
Coastal 8.39 1.9 PLS-2 < LD < LD < LD < LD
HPSAM < LD < LD < LD < LD
Harbour 8.52 2.8 PLS-2 0.61 0.16 1.7 0.6 0.75 0.05 1.79 0.10
HPSAM 0.6 0.3 1.46 0.11 0.52 0.11 1.70 0.09
Industrial (1:10) 8.22 17 PLS-2 1.1 0.3 1.5 0.3 1.46 0.09 1.8 0.4
HPSAM 1.51 0.15 1.6 0.3 1.43 0.14 1.6 0.2
Industrial (1:10) 7.80 10 PLS-2 1.86 0.04 0.43 0.12 1.6 0.3 0.58 0.05
HPSAM 1.10 0.05 0.35 0.06 1.4 0.2 0.66 0.07
(*)
SM: suspended material (mg/L)
The percentages of recovery were better for and samples is programmed. The concentrations of
assembly III. Similar prediction values were Cr and Co are provided direct and automatically.
observed for PLS and HPSAM models.
A certificate reference material (SMR 1640) CONCLUSIONS
was analysed. It is a fresh water sample which In this paper, the combination of two
chromium and cobalt are 38.6 1.6 g/L and multicommutated assemblies, the stopped-flow
20.28 0.31 g/L, respectively. In Figure 3 are technique and two multivariate calibration models
represented the CL registers obtained for both has been proposed. The proposed methodology has
configurations. The predicted concentrations are achieved the simultaneous determination of Cr and
included in Table V. Co in water samples by a chemiluminescence
Samples collected in different locations in detection system.
Valencia area (Spain) were analysed. They are The proposed assemblies were based on
river water, coastal water, harbour water and different injection configurations. The critical
wastewater of metallurgic industries. The water variables (chemical or hydrodynamic) of the
parameters and the concentrations of Cr and Co for systems have been optimised. The robustness of
both configurations and both calibration models method has been also studied. Although both
are summarised in Table V. configurations have presented similar analytical
In order to compare both stopped-flow parameters for unicomponent determination, some
configurations (assemblies II and III), a t-test for differences have been observed for simultaneous
paired samples was performed. The following t determination. The best results have been obtained
values were obtained: 0.57 (Cr-PLS), -1.29 (Cr- for continuous injection providing more robust
HPSAM), -3.75 (Co-PLS) and -0.07 (Co- predictions for standard solutions and samples.
HPSAM). Therefore, the predictions were similar Respect to the comparison of calibration
except for Co-PLS (ttab = 2.57, 95% and 5 freedom models, PLS and HPSAM have provided similar
degrees). However, the predictions were more results. Both models can be used without
robust and precise for continuous injection. The distinction between calculation times, predictive
concentrations obtained for certificate reference error of calibration or validation, recovery
material indicated that the prediction errors for percentages or prediction in water samples.
continuous assembly were lower than 10 % for Cr Therefore HPSAM can be an alternative to PLS in
and Co, but higher error for flow assembly. the chemiluminescence analysis.
The comparison of the calibration models (PLS The proposed methods have been validated by
and HPSAM) involved a t-test for paired samples. using standard mixtures, spiked samples and a
The following t values were obtained: 1.47 (Cr- certified reference material. The applicability has
discont), 1.85 (Cr-cont), -0.40 (Co-discont) and been demonstrated by the determination of Cr and
1.76 (Co-cont). Therefore, any difference of Co concentration in different water samples.
prediction was found between both methods (ttab = Comparing to other described methods, these
2.57, 95% and 5 freedom degrees). The standard strategies have some advantages like low cost,
deviation for replicates of samples were also rapid response and no limitations of specialised
similar for PLS and HPSAM. personnel. These characteristics are very important
The programming of HPSAM calibration for for periodical monitoring of water quality.
the procedure described is easy. Then, it is
possible to propose an analyser of chromium ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and/or cobalt. A sequence of calibration standards
The authors are grateful to the DGICYT [13] T. Prez-Ruiz, C. Martnez-Lozano, V. Toms
(Project n PB 97-1387) for financial support. and J. Fenoll, Analyst, 125 (2000) 2372
L.A.T.G. expresses their gratitude to Ministerio de [14] W. Jianhua and H. Ronghuan, Analusis, 21
Eduacin y Cultura (Spain) for the predoctoral (1993) 421
[15] J.H. Wang and R.H. He, Anal. Chim. Acta, 303
grant. (1995) 241
[16] J.H. Wang and R.H. He, Mikrochim. Acta, 117
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[2] B.F. Reis, M.F. Gin, E.A.G. Zagatto, J.L.F.C. [18] D. Prez-Bendito, A. Gmez-Hens and M.
Lima and R.A. Lapa, Anal. Chim. Acta, 293 (1994) 129 Silva, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 14 (1996) 917
[3] F. Alberts, A. Cladera and V. Cerd, Analyst, [19] Y.S. Hsieh and S.R. Crouch, Anal. Chim. Acta,
125 (2000) 2364 309 (1995) 277
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Cerd, Analyst, 124 (1999) 1373 Chem., 66 (1994) 988
[5] B.P. Bubnis, M.R. Straka and G.E. Pacey, [21] S. Panadero, A. Gmez-Hens and D. Prez-
Talanta, 30 (1983) 841 Bendito, Anal. Chim. Acta, 329 (1996) 135
[6] A.N. Arajo, J.L.F. Costa-Lima, B.F. Reis and [22] N.P. Evmiridis, N.K. Thanasoulias and A.G.
E.A.G. Zagatto, Anal. Chim. Acta, 310 (1995) 447 Vlessidis, Anal. Chim. Acta, 398 (1999) 191
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[8] F.R.P. Rocha, P.B. Martelli, R.M. Frizzarin and [24] F. Blasco-Gmez, P. Campns-Falc, F. Bosch-
B.F. Reis, Anal. Chim. Acta, 366 (1998) 45 Reig and G.M. Liu, Analyst 123 (1998) 2857
[9] B.F. Reis, A. Morales-Rubio and M. de la [25] L. Guomin, M. Xueliang and L. Ping, Anal.
Guardia, Anal. Chim. Acta, 392 (1999) 265 Lett, 26 (1993) 801
[10] J. Michalowski, P. Halaburda and A. Kojlo, [26] A.F. Poile and R.D. Coulon, J. Chromatogr.,
Anal. Lett., 33 (2000) 1373 204 (1981) 149
[11] F.R.P. Rocha and B.F. Reis, Anal. Chim. Acta, [27] A.F. Fell, H.P. Scott, R. Gill and A.C. Moffat,
409 (2000) 227 J. Chromatogr., 282 (1983) 123
[12] F.R.P. Rocha, P.B. Martelli and B.F. Reis,
Anal. Chim. Acta, 438 (2001) 11
Captulo 6: APNDICES
6.3.- PROGRAMAS
6.3.1.- GHPSAM
- Inicial .Left = 700 End Sub
'Set de Hypermacros creadas por LATG 22-30/I/99 .Top = 51
' clculos asociados al GHPSAM .Width = 32 Sub TRMLIN()
Type GH_arg End With MsgBox "SUBPROGAMA BSQUEDA TRAMOS
xder() As Double For i = 1 To 3 LINEALES"
smoot As Boolean Toolbars("GHPSAM").ToolbarButtons. _ runTrmlin gh
yder() As Double Add Button:=221 + i, Before:=i End Sub
parlin() As Double 'coef; min; dat;muest Next
ylin() As Variant Toolbars("GHPSAM").ToolbarButtons(1) _
nplin() As Double .OnAction = "GHPSAM" Sub TRIOSGH()
xpt() As Double Toolbars("GHPSAM").ToolbarButtons(2) _ MsgBox "SUBPROGRAMA SELECCIN TRIOS"
xmt() As Double .OnAction = "TRMLIN" runtrios gh
part() As Double Toolbars("GHPSAM").ToolbarButtons(3) _ End Sub
ypt() As Variant .OnAction = "TRIOSGH" - Central
ymt() As Double MsgBox "En la esquina superior-derecha existe una barra ' Set de Hypermacros creadas por LATG 22-30/I/99
End Type de " & _
Dim gh As GH_arg "herramientas para ejecutar los distintos subprogramas Sub cenGHPSAM(gh As GH_arg)
que " & _ 'entrada de datos
"lo componen" dat =
Sub auto_abrir() MsgBox "Botn 1: Ejecuta el programa completo" & Application.Count(Range("patrones!b2:b1000"))
Beep Chr(13) & _ pat =
resp = MsgBox(" BIENVENIDO AL PROGRAMA DEL "Botn 2: Ejecuta slo el subprograma de bsqueda de Application.Count(Range("patrones!b2:iv2"))
GHPSAM " _ tramos " _ muest =
& Chr(13) & Chr(13) & "Universitat de Valncia" & & "lineales" & Chr(13) & "Botn 3: Ejecuta slo el Application.Count(Range("muestras!b2:iv2"))
Chr(13) & _ subprograma" _ If dat = 0 Or pat = 0 Or muest = 0 Then Exit Sub
"versin 1.0 fase experimental" & Chr(13) & Chr(13) & & " de bsqueda de trios y clculo de concentraciones" cpat = entrmat(1, pat, "patrones", 0, 1)
_ MsgBox "Introduce los patrones del analito y las muestras" ' clculo de la pendiente
"programado por L. A. Tortajada Genaro", 0, _ ReDim pendtmp(1, pat)
"GHPSAM") & Chr(13) & " en sus respectivas hojas" ReDim gh.xder(dat, muest + 1)
With Application End Sub For i = 2 To dat + 1
.ShowToolTips = True For j = 2 To muest + 1
.LargeButtons = False Sub auto_cerrar() gh.xder(i - 1, j) = Sheets("muestras").Cells(i,
.ColorButtons = True Toolbars("GHPSAM").Delete j)
End With End Sub Next
Toolbars.Add Name:="GHPSAM" For j = 1 To pat
With Toolbars("GHPSAM") Sub GHPSAM() pendtmp(1, j) = Sheets("patrones").Cells(i, j +
.Visible = True MsgBox "PROGRAMA CENTRAL" 1)
cenGHPSAM gh
- 314 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
Next End If With ActiveChart.Axes(xlCategory)
gh.xder(i - 1, 1) = Application.Slope(pendtmp, 'bsqueda de tramos lineales '.EscalaMnima=dat1 problematico
cpat) resp = MsgBox("Desea ejecutar el programa de .Crosses = xlCustom
Next 'podra presentarse la pendiente bsqueda de" _ .CrossesAt = dat1
'calculo derivada & " tramos lineales?", 35, "BSQUEDA End With
gh.smoot = False AUTOMTICA") ActiveChart.Axes(xlCategory).Select
derivada gh If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub With Selection.Border
'clculo cociente If resp = 6 Then runTrmlin gh .Weight = xlHairline
For j = 1 To muest 'columna 2- valores 'bsqueda de trios GHPSAM .LineStyle = xlAutomatic
Cells(1, j + 1) = Sheets("muestras").Cells(1, j + resp = MsgBox("Desea ejecutar el programa de End With
1) bsqueda de" _ With Selection
For i = 1 To dat & " trios para GHPSAM?", 33, "BSQUEDA .MajorTickMark = xlCross
If j = 1 Then Cells(i + 1, 1) = _ TRIOS") .MinorTickMark = xlOutside
Sheets("patrones").Cells(i + 1, 1) 'columna 1 If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub End With
etq runtrios gh End Sub
Cells(i + 1, j + 1) = gh.yder(i, j + 1) / End Sub
gh.yder(i, 1)
Next - Deriv-1
Beep ' Hypermacro creada por LATG 13/1/99 modificada
Next ' Macro grabada 23/01/99 por Tortajada Genaro 23/1/99
resp = MsgBox("Desea ver la grfica (d2 ' ' Calcula la derivada n-sima, con un filtro y orden de
muest)/(d2 pend) vs nm?", _ Sub grafder(gd As GH_arg) ajuste
35, "GRFICA COCIENTE DERIVADAS") celdf = Chr(64 + UBound(gd.xder, 2)) & ' elegidos previamente (smooth cbico de Savitzky-
'grfica derivada UBound(gd.xder, 1) Golay)
If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub dat1 = Cells(2, 1)
If resp = 6 Then Charts.Add Sub derivada(drv As GH_arg)
grafder gh ActiveChart.ChartWizard Source:=Sheets("result Sheets("result coc").Select
nomgraf = Charts(1).Name 'smooth del coc"). _ deriv = 2
cociente Range("a1:" & celdf), Gallery:=xlXYScatter, variab = UBound(drv.xder, 1)
Sheets(nomgraf).Name = "graf coc" Format:=6, _ muest = UBound(drv.xder, 2)
End If PlotBy:=xlColumns, CategoryLabels:=1, If drv.smoot Then 'smooth cociente
resp = MsgBox("Desea realizar el smooth del SeriesLabels:=1, _ deriv = 0
cociente?" & Chr(13) _ HasLegend:=1 muest = muest - 1
& "facilitara la bsqueda de tramos lineales", 35, pat = ReDim drv.xder(variab, muest)
"SMOOTH") Application.Count(Range("patrones!b2:iv2")) For i = 1 To variab
If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub ttt = Sheets("patrones").Range(Chr(64 + pat) & 1) For j = 1 To muest
If resp = 6 Then With ActiveChart.Axes(xlValue) drv.xder(i, j) = Cells(i + 1, j + 1)
gh.smoot = True .MinimumScale = -ttt Next
derivada gh .MaximumScale = ttt * 3 Next
If nomgraf <> "" Then Sheets("graf End With Else: Cells.ClearContents
coc").Select End If
- 315 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
u_width = 5 - (deriv - 2) * 3 'smooth w=11 y ord=5 Next Next
ord = 3 - (deriv - 2) xtra = transp(x, u_width, ord + 1) Next
'entrada de los parmetros smooth-derivacin xnum = multmat(xtra, x, ord + 1, u_width, ord + 1) Next
preg = "Desea utilizar los parmetros por xinv = inversa(xnum, ord + 1) ReDim wpri(ord + 1 - deriv, muest)
defecto?" weights = multmat(xinv, xtra, ord + 1, ord + 1, ReDim wfin(ord + 1 - deriv, muest)
resp = MsgBox(preg & Chr(13) & "filtro=" & u_width) For i = 1 To ord + 1 - deriv
u_width & " orden=" & _ 'matriz resultados (centro) For j = 1 To muest
ord, 35, "PARMETROS DE SMOOTH- prodd = 1 wpri(i, j) = wcol(i, j)
DERIVACIN") For i = 1 To deriv wfin(i, j) = wcol(i, j + muest)
If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub prodd = prodd * i Next
If resp = 7 Then Next Next
replay: ReDim ytmp(u_width, muest) ReDim xpri(p + 1, ord + 1 - deriv)
rep = Application.InputBox("Introduce el tamao ReDim wtmp(1, u_width) ReDim xfin(p + 1, ord + 1 - deriv)
del filtro p.ej :5" _ For k = p + 2 To variab - p - 1 For i = 1 To p + 1
& Chr(13) & "(nmero de puntos del smooth For i = 1 To u_width For j = 1 To ord + 1 - deriv
cbico de " & _ For j = 1 To muest xpri(i, j) = x(i, j)
"Savitzky-Golay)" & Chr(13) & Chr(13) & ytmp(i, j) = drv.xder(k - u_width + p + i, j) xfin(i, j) = x(i + p, j)
"nmero impar entero mnimo=3" _ Next Next
, "TAMAO DEL FILTRO", u_width, , , , , 1) wtmp(1, i) = prodd * weights(deriv + 1, i) Next
If rep = False Then Exit Sub Next ypri = multmat(xpri, wpri, p + 1, ord + 1 - deriv,
If rep < 3 Or (Int((rep - 1) / 2) * 2 + 1) <> rep Then ycent = multmat(wtmp, ytmp, 1, u_width, muest)
GoTo replay muest) yfin = multmat(xfin, wfin, p + 1, ord + 1 - deriv,
u_width = rep For i = 1 To muest muest)
rep = Application.InputBox("Introduce el orden drv.yder(k, i) = ycent(1, i) For j = 1 To muest
del polinomio p.ej :3" _ Next For i = 1 To p + 1
& Chr(13) & Chr(13) & "nmero entero Next drv.yder(i, j) = ypri(i, j)
mximo=(filtro-1) mximo=5", _ ' matriz resultados (colas) drv.yder(i + variab - p - 1, j) = yfin(i, j)
"ORDEN POLINOMIO", ord, , , , , 1) ReDim ycol(u_width, 2 * muest) Next
If rep = False Then Exit Sub For j = 1 To muest Next
If rep > 5 Or Int(rep) <> rep Or rep > u_width - 1 For i = 1 To u_width If deriv = 0 Then
Then GoTo replay ycol(i, j) = drv.xder(i, j) For j = 1 To muest
ord = rep ycol(i, j + muest) = drv.xder(variab - u_width For i = 1 To variab
End If + i, j) Cells(i + 1, j + 1) = drv.yder(i, j)
'obtencin de los pesos Next Next
ReDim drv.yder(variab, muest) Next Beep
ReDim x(u_width, ord + 1) wcol = multmat(weights, ycol, ord + 1, u_width, 2 Next
p = (u_width - 1) / 2 * muest) End If
For i = 1 To u_width For k = 1 To deriv End Sub
For j = 1 To ord + 1 For i = 1 To ord + 1 - k
x(i, j) = (i + p - u_width) ^ (j - 1) For j = 1 To 2 * muest
Next wcol(i, j) = wcol(i + 1, j) * i - Deriv-2
- 316 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
' funciones creadas por LATG 13/1/99 (deriva.xls) If ka = 0 Then k = k + 1 Sheets("tabla conc").Select
Function entrmat(X1, X2, nombhoj, sit1, sit2) If k = tt And ka = 0 Then Columns("m:iv").Clear
'introduce matrices ka = 1 nuevoint:
ReDim mat(X1, X2) k=k+1 gh.part(5) = 0
For i = 1 To X1 End If Sheets("result lin").Select
For j = 1 To X2 If ka = 1 Then k = k - 1 resp = MsgBox("Desea introducir el intervalo?"
mat(i, j) = Sheets(nombhoj).Cells(i + sit1, j + For i = k + 1 - ka * k To tt - ka * (tt + 1 - k) & Chr(13) & Chr(13) _
sit2) If t(i, k) <> 0 Then & "NO significa introduccin automtica", 35,
Next tmp = t(k, k) / t(i, k) "SELECCIN ORIGEN TRAMOS")
Next For j = 1 To tt If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub
entrmat = mat t(i, j) = t(k, j) - tmp * t(i, j) If resp = 7 Then
End Function tinv(i, j) = tinv(k, j) - tmp * tinv(i, j) nint = nint + 1
Function transp(t, t1, t2) 'transpone matriz Next gh.part(5) = nint + 2 'primer interv fila3 col2
ReDim tt(t2, t1) End If resp = Cells(gh.part(5), 2)
For i = 1 To t2 Next If IsNumeric(resp) Then resp = "Bsqueda
For j = 1 To t1 Loop automtica fallida"
tt(i, j) = t(j, i) For i = 1 To tt tmp = MsgBox("Intervalo seleccionado " & resp,
Next For j = 1 To tt 68)
Next tinv(i, j) = tinv(i, j) / t(i, i) If tmp = 7 Or resp = "Bsqueda automtica
transp = tt Next fallida" Then GoTo nuevoint
End Function t(i, i) = t(i, i) / t(i, i) End If
Next gh.part(1) = False 'controlador de retorno
Function multmat(t1, t2, ta, tb, tc) 'multiplica inversa = tinv gh.part(2) =
matrices End Function Application.Count(Range("patrones!b2:b1000"))
ReDim tt(ta, tc) gh.part(3) =
For i = 1 To ta - trios-1 Application.Count(Range("patrones!b2:iv2"))
For j = 1 To tc ' Hypermacro creada por LATG 19/2/99 gh.part(4) =
For k = 1 To tb ' central del mtodo ghpsam Application.Count(Range("muestras!b2:iv2")) ' croini
tt(i, j) = tt(i, j) + t1(i, k) * t2(k, j) If gh.part(3) = 0 Or gh.part(4) = 0 Then Exit Sub
Next Sub runtrios(gh As GH_arg) entraGH gh 'entra parametros
Next ReDim gh.part(6) manualmente
Next resp = MsgBox("Los patrones proceden de un If gh.part(1) = False Then Exit Sub
multmat = tt calibrado de analito? " _ Sheets("tabla conc").Select
End Function & Chr(13) & Chr(13) & "NO significa adicin Columns("a:h").ClearContents
estndar de analito" _ gh.part(1) = False
Function inversa(t, tt) 'matriz inversa , 35, "ORIGEN DE LOS PATRONES") runGH gh 'ejecuta
ReDim tinv(tt, tt) If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub If gh.part(1) = False Then Exit Sub
For i = 1 To tt gh.part(6) = 7 - resp '0: ad. estandar 1: comb = gh.xpt(UBound(gh.xpt, 1), 1)
tinv(i, i) = 1 calibrado nttr = gh.xpt(UBound(gh.xpt, 1), 2)
Next vint = 13 If nttr = 0 Then
Do While k > 2 Or ka = 0
- 317 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
resp = MsgBox(gh.xpt(1, 1) & "-" & Exit Sub Next
gh.xpt(UBound(gh.xpt, 1) _ copcol: Range("b1") = pos & " TRIOS " & etqint
- 1, 1) & Chr(13) & "Nmero de combinaciones Cells(1, vint).Select Range("b2:d2") = Array("crit r2 " & tr.part(2), "",
ensayadas " & comb & _ ActiveSheet.Paste "difmin " & tr.part(3))
Chr(13) & "NO HAY NINGN TRIO QUE Application.CutCopyMode = False Range("a3:d3") = Array("muestra", "media",
CUMPLA LAS CONDICIONES", 16) ActiveCell.Offset(0, Chr(177), "desvest")
GoTo nuevoint 1).Columns("A:A").EntireColumn.Select For i = 1 To muest
End If 'si se hace seal hay que cambiarlo Selection.Delete Shift:=xlToLeft Cells(i + 3, 1) = Sheets("muestras").Cells(1, i +
calconc gh ' clculo concentracin (todas las Return 1)
parejas) End Sub Cells(i + 3, 2) = tres(i, 1)
gh.part(4) = Minute(Time) * 60 + Second(Time) - Cells(i + 3, 3) = Chr(177)
gh.part(4) 'Hypermacro modificada 23/1/99 (HPSAM4.xls) Cells(i + 3, 4) = tres(i, 2)
'presentacion tabla de trios ' Next
preg = "Tiempo de clculo : " & gh.part(4) & " Sub calconc(tr As GH_arg) End Sub
seg" & Chr(13) _ Sheets("tabla conc").Select
& "Nmero de parejas ensayadas : " & comb & Cells(1, 1).Select Sub listGH(t As GH_arg)
Chr(13) & _ muest = UBound(tr.ymt, 2) Sheets("result trio").Select 'mostrar lista
"Nmero de parejas encontradas : " & nttr & pos = tr.xpt(UBound(tr.xpt, 1), 2) resultados
Chr(13) & _ etqint = tr.xpt(1, 1) & "-" & tr.xpt(UBound(tr.xpt, Cells.ClearContents
"Se proporciona la concentracin de cada 1) - 1, 1) pos = t.xpt(UBound(t.xpt, 1), 2)
muestra" & Chr(13) & _ ReDim mtmp(pos) 'media +/- s todas parejas muest = UBound(t.xmt, 2)
"(media " & Chr(177) & " s) con las cifras ReDim tres(muest, 2) Range("a1:d1") = Array("trios", "coef",
significativas" & Chr(13) For j = 1 To muest "abs(pend)", "interseccion")
resp = MsgBox(preg & Chr(13) & "Desea el For i = 1 To pos For i = 1 To pos ' Mostrar resultados de los
listado de trios?" _ mtmp(i) = tr.ymt(i, j) patrones
, 35, "LISTADO TRIOS") Next For j = 1 To 4
If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub tres(j, 1) = Application.Average(mtmp) Cells(i + 1, j) = t.ypt(i, j)
If resp = 6 Then listGH gh tres(j, 2) = Application.StDev(mtmp) Next
resp = MsgBox("Desea obtener resultados con If IsError(tres(j, 2)) Then tres(j, 2) = 0 Next
otro intervalo?" _ tmp = 0 'cifras significativas For j = 1 To muest ' Mostrar resultados de las
, 33, "CONTINUAR O FINALIZAR") posdec = -1 muestras
If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub Do While tmp = 0 Cells(1, j + 5) = Sheets("muestras").Cells(1, j +
Columns("B:D").Copy posdec = posdec + 1 1)
GoSub copcol If tres(j, 2) = 0 Then Exit Do For i = 1 To pos
If IsNumeric(Cells(3, 7)) = False Then tmp = Int(tres(j, 2) * 10 ^ posdec) Cells(i + 1, j + 5) = t.ymt(i, j)
vint = vint + 2 If tmp = 1 Then posdec = posdec + 1 Next
Columns("f:h").Copy Loop Beep
GoSub copcol tres(j, 1) = Int(tres(j, 1) * 10 ^ posdec) / 10 ^ Next
End If posdec resp = MsgBox("Desea seleccionar el nmero de
vint = vint + 2 tres(j, 2) = Int(tres(j, 2) * 10 ^ posdec) / 10 ^ trios ordenados " _
GoTo nuevoint posdec
- 318 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
& "por pendiente?", 33, "SELECCIN DE posdc = -1 'Permite obtener GHPSAM
TRIOS") Do While tmp = 0 'condiciones coeficiente de correlacin > criterio
If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub posdc = posdc + 1 coef.correl
Columns("C:C").Cut If tresl(i, 2) = 0 Then Exit Do ' separacin entre los trios > criterio intervalo
Columns("A:A").Select tmp = Int(tresl(i, 2) * 10 ^ posdc) minimo
Selection.Insert Shift:=xlToRight If tmp = 1 Then posdc = posdc + 1 Sub entraGH(tr As GH_arg)
Range(Cells(1, 1), Cells(pos + 1, muest + Loop dat = tr.part(2)
5)).Select tresl(i, 1) = Int(tresl(i, 1) * 10 ^ posdc) / 10 ^ pat = tr.part(3)
Selection.Sort Key1:=Range("A1"), posdc muest = tr.part(4) 'entrada de parmetros
Order1:=xlDescending, _ tresl(i, 2) = Int(tresl(i, 2) * 10 ^ posdc) / 10 ^ Do While tmp = 0
Header:=xlGuess, OrderCustom:=1, MatchCase posdc If tr.part(5) = 0 Then
_ Next etq1 = Application.InputBox("Introduce la
:=False, Orientation:=xlTopToBottom Sheets("tabla conc").Select etiqueta del primer" _
Columns("A:A").Cut etqint = t.xpt(1, 1) & "-" & t.xpt(UBound(t.xpt, 1) - & " dato del intervalo", "PRIMERA
Columns("d:d").Select 1, 1) ETIQUETA", , , , , , 1)
Selection.Insert Shift:=xlToRight Range("f1") = Array(posel & " mejores trios " & If etq1 = False Then Exit Sub
If Cells(2, 3) < 0.0001 Then MsgBox etqint) etq2 = Application.InputBox("Introduce la
"Advertencia: pendientes" _ Range("f2") = Array("ordenadas por pendiente") etiqueta del ltimo" _
& " pequeas abs(pend) < 0,0001 posibilidad de Range("f3:h3") = Array("media", Chr(177), & " dato del intervalo", "LTIMA
malas predicciones" "desvest") ETIQUETA", , , , , , 1)
mtrios: 'seleccin trios For i = 1 To muest If etq2 = False Then Exit Sub
Sheets("result trio").Select Cells(i + 3, 6) = tresl(i, 1) Else
posel = Application.InputBox("Nmero total de Cells(i + 3, 7) = Chr(177) etq1 = Left(Cells(tr.part(5), 2), 3)
trios " & pos _ Cells(i + 3, 8) = tresl(i, 2) etq2 = Mid(Cells(tr.part(5), 2), 5, 3)
& Chr(13) & "Introduce el nmero de trios" & Next End If
Chr(13) & _ resp = MsgBox("Desea tomar este conjunto como For i = 1 To dat 'comprobar etiquetas
"que deseas utilizar mnimo=2", "TRIOS", , , , , , referencia" & Chr(13) & _ If Sheets("patrones").Cells(i + 1, 1) - etq1 = 0
1) "y seleccionar otros trios?", 289, "TOMAR Then tmp1 = i
If posel = False Then Exit Sub REFERENCIA") If Sheets("patrones").Cells(i + 1, 1) - etq2 = 0
If posel > pos Or posel < 2 Or Int(posel) <> posel If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub Then tmp2 = i
Then GoTo mtrios If resp = 1 Then If tmp1 <> 0 And tmp2 <> 0 Then Exit Do
ReDim tresl(muest, 2) tmp = Range(Cells(1, 6), Cells(muest + 3, 8)) Next
For i = 1 To muest Range(Cells(1, 10), Cells(muest + 3, 12)) = tmp resp = MsgBox("LAS ETIQUETAS NO SON
tresl(i, 1) = Application.Average(Range(Cells(2, Columns("f:h").ClearContents CORRECTAS", 16, "ERROR ETIQUETAS")
i + 5), _ End If Exit Sub
Cells(posel + 1, i + 5))) GoTo mtrios Loop
tresl(i, 2) = Application.StDev(Range(Cells(2, i End Sub tr.part(2) = 0.995 ' criterios de bsqueda de
+ 5), _ trios
Cells(posel + 1, i + 5))) tr.part(3) = 4
If IsError(tresl(i, 2)) Then tresl(i, 2) = 0 - trios-2 preg = "Desea utilizar los parmetros por
tmp = 0 'cifras significativas 'Hypermacro creada por LATG 3/1/99 defecto?"
- 319 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
respuesta = MsgBox(preg & Chr(13) & "r2=0,995 End Sub 'Si Abs(pend) - 0,001 > 0 Entonces
separacin mnima=4", _ If pos < 4000 Then
35, "INTRODUCIR PARMETROS") pos = pos + 1
If respuesta = 2 Then Exit Sub Else: tr.part(1) = True
If respuesta = 7 Then MsgBox "Se han superado los 4000
replay: Sub runGH(tr As GH_arg) trios"
resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce criterio r2 critr = tr.part(2) Exit Sub
: p.ej : 0,995", _ minn = tr.part(3) End If
"COEF. DE CORRELACIN", tr.part(2), , , , , 1) dat = UBound(tr.xpt, 1) - 1 pend = Application.Slope(yy, xx)
If resp < 0 Or resp > 1 Then GoTo replay pat = UBound(tr.xpt, 2) - 1 tr.ypt(pos, 1) = tr.xpt(cont1, 1) & "-" &
If resp = False Then Exit Sub muest = UBound(tr.xmt, 2) tr.xpt(cont2, 1) _
tr.part(2) = resp ReDim tr.ypt(10000, 4) & "-" & tr.xpt(cont3, 1)
resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce intervalo ReDim tr.ymt(10000, muest) tr.ypt(pos, 2) = coef
mnimo : p.ej : 4" & _ 'CLCULO tr.ypt(pos, 3) = Abs(pend)
Chr(13) & "si la serie de etiquetas no es ReDim xx(pat) tr.ypt(pos, 4) = Application.Intersect(yy,
continua difmin=1", _ ReDim a1(pat) xx)
"INTERVALO MNIMO", tr.part(3), , , , , 1) ReDim a2(pat) For k = 1 To muest 'prediccin vs
If resp < 1 Or Int(resp) <> resp Then GoTo ReDim yy(pat) diferencia seal
replay For i = 1 To pat tr.ymt(pos, k) = tr.xmt(cont2, k) - q *
If resp = False Then Exit Sub xx(i) = tr.xpt(dat + 1, i + 1) tr.xmt(cont1, k) _
tr.part(3) = resp Next - (1 - q) * tr.xmt(cont3, k)
End If For cont1 = 1 To dat - (2 * minn) tr.ymt(pos, k) = (tr.ymt(pos, k) -
entrpar = False 'crear matriz For i = 1 To pat (tr.ypt(pos, 4) * _
tr.part(4) = Minute(Time) * 60 + Second(Time) a1(i) = tr.xpt(cont1, i + 1) tr.part(6))) / pend
ReDim tr.xpt(tmp2 - tmp1 + 2, pat + 1) Next Next
ReDim tr.xmt(tmp2 - tmp1 + 1, muest) For cont2 = cont1 + minn To dat - minn End If
For i = 1 To tmp2 - tmp1 + 1 'incremento 3 comb = comb + 1
For j = 2 To pat + 1 For i = 1 To pat Next
tr.xpt(tmp2 - tmp1 + 2, j) = a2(i) = tr.xpt(cont2, i + 1) Next
Sheets("patrones").Cells(1, j) Next Next
tr.xpt(i, j) = Sheets("patrones").Cells(i + For cont3 = cont2 + minn To dat 'incremento tr.xpt(dat + 1, 2) = pos 'machaca la 1conc
tmp1, j) 5 tr.xpt(dat + 1, 1) = comb
Next q = (tr.xpt(cont3, 1) - tr.xpt(cont2, 1)) / _ tr.part(1) = True
tr.xpt(i, 1) = Sheets("patrones").Cells(i + tmp1, (tr.xpt(cont3, 1) - tr.xpt(cont1, 1)) End Sub
1) For i = 1 To pat
For j = 1 To muest a3 = tr.xpt(cont3, i + 1) - tamlin-1
tr.xmt(i, j) = Sheets("muestras").Cells(i + yy(i) = a2(i) - q * a1(i) - (1 - q) * a3 ' Hypermacro creada por LATG 19/2/99
tmp1, j + 1) Next ' bsqueda de tramos lineales datos hoja result coc
Next 'Coeficiente r - criterio
Next coef = Abs(Application.RSq(yy, xx)) Sub runTrmlin(gh As GH_arg)
tr.part(1) = True If coef - critr > 0 Then
- 320 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
Sheets("result coc").Select For k = 1 To 1 + gh.parlin(3) * (muest - 1) Selection.Sort Key1:=ActiveCell.Offset(-1,
dat = Application.Count(Range("b2:b1000")) 'presentar resultados 0).Range("a1"), _
muest = Application.Count(Range("b2:iv2")) For i = 1 To gh.nplin(k) Order1:=xlDescending, Header:=xlGuess,
If dat = 0 Or muest = 0 Then Exit Sub For j = 1 To 2 + muest + gh.parlin(3) * (2 * OrderCustom:=1, _
ReDim gh.parlin(4) (resptb - 5) - muest) MatchCase:=False,
gh.parlin(1) = dat Cells(i + 2, j + k - 1 + (4 + 2 * (resptb - 6)) Orientation:=xlTopToBottom
gh.parlin(2) = muest * (k - 1)) = _ Beep
gh.parlin(4) = False 'controlador de retorno gh.ylin(i, j + (4 + 2 * (resptb - 6)) * (k - Next
resp = MsgBox("Desea buscar tramos que 1)) Cells(1, 1).Select
cumplan los criterios" _ Next End Sub
& " todas las muestras?" & Chr(13) & Chr(13) & Next
"NO significa muestra" & _ Next 'Hypermacro creada por LATG 7/1/99 readaptada
" a muestra", 35, "TIPO DE BSQUEDA For k = 1 To 1 + gh.parlin(3) * (muest - 1) 20/1/99
SEGN DEPENDENCIA DE LAS MUESTRAS") 'encabezados 'busca tramos lineales que cumplen coef correl y el
If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub ' futuro tmpini = k + (4 + 2 * (resptb - 6)) * (k - 1) intervalo mnimo
seleccionar muestras tmpfin = k - 1 + (4 + 2 * (resptb - 6)) * k 'proporciona la amplitud del intervalo, etq min, etq
gh.parlin(3) = resp - 6 '0: todas muest 1: muest Cells(1, tmpini) = "muestra" mx, r2 y pendiente
a muest Range(Cells(2, tmpini), Cells(2, tmpini + 1)) = _ Sub runTrmlin1(tl As GH_arg)
resptb = MsgBox("Desea buscar tramos Array("amplitud", "intervalo") Sheets("result coc").Select
estableciendo un intervalo de " _ If gh.parlin(3) = 0 Then dat = tl.parlin(1)
& Chr(13) & "confianza entorno al primer dato: Cells(1, tmpini + 1) = "TODAS" muest = tl.parlin(2)
dato 1 +/- crit?" & _ tmpfin = 2 + muest tpbm = tl.parlin(3)
Chr(13) & Chr(13) & "NO significa que For j = 1 To muest crit = 1
cumplan un cierto syx", _ Cells(2, 2 + j) = Sheets("result minn = 4
35, "TIPO DE BSQUEDA SEGN coc").Cells(1, j + 1) preg = "Desea utilizar los parmetros por
CRITERIOS") Next defecto?"
If resptb = 2 Then Exit Sub End If respuesta = MsgBox(preg & Chr(13) & "syx=1
If resptb = 7 Then runTrmlin1 gh 'criterio If gh.parlin(3) = 1 Then intervalo mnimo=4", _
intervalo +/- Cells(1, tmpini + 1) = Sheets("result 35, "INTRODUCIR PARMETROS")
If resptb = 6 Then runTrmlin2 gh 'criterio syx coc").Cells(1, k + 1) If respuesta = 2 Then Exit Sub
If gh.parlin(4) = False Then Exit Sub If resptb = 7 Then Range(Cells(2, tmpini + 2), If respuesta = 7 Then
tmp = Application.Max(gh.nplin) _ replay:
resp = MsgBox("Tiempo de clculo : " & Cells(2, tmpfin)) = Array("syx", "pend", resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce criterio
gh.parlin(1) & " seg" & _ "promed", "desvest") syx : p.ej : 1", _
Chr(13) & "Nmero mximo de intervalos: " & If resptb = 6 Then Range(Cells(2, tmpini + 2), "ERROR TPICO XY", crit, , , , , 1)
tmp & Chr(13) & _ _ If resp < 0 Or resp > 1 Then GoTo replay
"Desea el listado de intervalos?", 33, "FIN Cells(2, tmpfin)) = Array("promed", If resp = False Then Exit Sub
BSQUEDA") "desvest") crit = resp
If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub End If resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce intervalo
Sheets("result lin").Select Range(Cells(2, tmpini), Cells(gh.nplin(k) + 2, mnimo : p.ej : 4" & _
Cells.ClearContents tmpfin)).Select
- 321 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
Chr(13) & "si la serie de etiquetas no es tl.ylin(pos, 4 + 6 * (k - 1)) = crit = 2
continua difmin=1", _ Application.Slope(rango2, rango1) minn = 4
"INTERVALO MNIMO", minn, , , , , 1) tl.ylin(pos, 5 + 6 * (k - 1)) = 'entrada de parmetros
If resp < 1 Or Int(resp) <> resp Then GoTo Application.Average(rango2) preg = "Desea utilizar los parmetros por
replay tl.ylin(pos, 6 + 6 * (k - 1)) = defecto?"
If resp = False Then Exit Sub Application.StDev(rango2) respuesta = MsgBox(preg & Chr(13) & "crit=2
minn = resp End If intervalo mnimo=4", _
End If If tpbm = 0 Then 35, "INTRODUCIR PARMETROS")
croini = Minute(Time) * 60 + Second(Time) For i = 1 To muest If respuesta = 2 Then Exit Sub
ReDim tl.ylin(dat, 6 * muest) rango1 = Range(Cells(cont1 + 1, i + 1), If respuesta = 7 Then
ReDim tl.nplin(muest) Cells(cont2 + 1, i + 1)) replay:
For k = 1 To 1 + tpbm * (muest - 1) tl.ylin(pos, 2 + i) = resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce criterio
For cont1 = 1 To dat - minn Application.Average(rango1) del intervalo " _
If cont1 + minn - cont2min > 0 Then Next & "de confianza entorno el primer dato p.ej:
cont2min = cont1 + minn End If dato 1 " & Chr(177) _
End If Else: Exit For 'intervalo mayor+1 & " 5", "MARGEN ERROR DEL TRAMO
For cont2 = cont2min To dat End If HORIZONTAL", crit, , , , , 1)
sum = 0 Next If resp < 0 Then GoTo replay
For i = 1 To muest - tpbm * (muest - 1) cont2min = cont2 If resp = False Then Exit Sub
rango1 = Range(Cells(cont1 + 1, 1), Next crit = resp
Cells(cont2 + 1, 1)) cont2min = 0 resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce intervalo
rango2 = Range(Cells(cont1 + 1, i + k), tl.nplin(k) = pos mnimo : p.ej : 4" & _
Cells(cont2 + 1, i + k)) pos = 0 Chr(13) & "si la serie de etiquetas no es
syx = Application.StEyx(rango2, rango1) Next continua difmin=1", _
If Application.IsError(syx) Then syx = 0 crofin = Minute(Time) * 60 + Second(Time) "INTERVALO MNIMO", minn, , , , , 1)
If syx - crit < 0 Then sum = sum + 1 tl.parlin(1) = crofin - croini 'machaca ndat If resp < 1 Or Int(resp) <> resp Then GoTo
Next tl.parlin(4) = True replay
If cont2 = cont2min Then 'intervalo menor End Sub If resp = False Then Exit Sub
If muest - tpbm * (muest - 1) - sum <> 0 Then minn = resp
Exit For - tamlin-2 End If
Else: pos = pos + 1 'Hypermacro creada por LATG 25/1/99 ghpsam0.xls croini = Minute(Time) * 60 + Second(Time)
End If ' busca tramos lineales horizontales estableciendo un ReDim tl.ylin(dat, 4 * muest)
End If intervalo de ReDim tl.nplin(muest)
If muest - tpbm * (muest - 1) - sum = 0 Then ' confianza entorno al primer dato: dato 1+/- crit For k = 1 To 1 + tpbm * (muest - 1)
tl.ylin(pos, 1 + 6 * (k - 1)) = cont2 - cont1 + 1 ' Realiza bsqueda muestra a muestra o en conjunto For cont1 = 1 To dat - minn
tl.ylin(pos, 2 + 6 * (k - 1)) = Cells(cont1 + 1, If cont1 + minn - cont2min > 0 Then
1) & "-" _ Sub runTrmlin2(tl As GH_arg) cont2min = cont1 + minn
& Cells(cont2 + 1, 1) dat = tl.parlin(1) End If
If tpbm = 1 Then muest = tl.parlin(2) For cont2 = cont2min To dat
tl.ylin(pos, 3 + 6 * (k - 1)) = syx tpbm = tl.parlin(3) sum = 0
For i = 1 To muest - tpbm * (muest - 1)
- 322 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
tmp = Abs(Cells(cont2 + 1, i + k) - If tpbm = 1 Then End If
Cells(cont1 + 1, i + k)) rango1 = Range(Cells(cont1 + 1, k + 1), Else: Exit For 'intervalo mayor+1
If tmp - crit < 0 Then sum = sum + 1 Cells(cont2 + 1, k + 1)) End If
Next tl.ylin(pos, 3 + 4 * (k - 1)) = Next
If cont2 = cont2min Then 'intervalo menor Application.Average(rango1) cont2min = cont2
If muest - tpbm * (muest - 1) - sum > 0 Then tl.ylin(pos, 4 + 4 * (k - 1)) = Next
Exit For Application.StDev(rango1) cont2min = 0
Else: pos = pos + 1 End If tl.nplin(k) = pos
End If If tpbm = 0 Then pos = 0
End If For i = 1 To muest Next
If muest - tpbm * (muest - 1) - sum = 0 Then rango1 = Range(Cells(cont1 + 1, i + 1), crofin = Minute(Time) * 60 + Second(Time)
tl.ylin(pos, 1 + 4 * (k - 1)) = cont2 - cont1 + 1 Cells(cont2 + 1, i + 1)) tl.parlin(1) = crofin - croini 'machaca ndat
tl.ylin(pos, 2 + 4 * (k - 1)) = Cells(cont1 + 1, tl.ylin(pos, 2 + i) = tl.parlin(4) = True
1) & "-" _ Application.Average(rango1) End Sub
& Cells(cont2 + 1, 1) Next
6.3.2.- HPSAM
- Central resp = MsgBox(preg & Chr(13) & "dif=5 % Chr(13) & "si la serie de etiquetas no es
' Hypermacro grabada por LATG 18/1/99 versin 4 r=0,995 separacin=4", _ continua difmin=1", _
' Proporciona las parejas que difieren menos de un 35, "INTRODUCIR PARMETROS") "INTERVALO MNIMO", difmin, , , , , 1)
determinado porcentaje If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub If resp < 1 Or Int(resp) <> resp Then GoTo replay
' y ajustan mejor que un determinado criterio If resp = 7 Then If resp = False Then Exit Sub
' Proporciona la concentracin estimada para un replay: difmin = resp
analito por el HPSAM resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce porcentaje End If
Type list_arg diferencia p.ej :5 %", _ croini = Minute(Time) * 60 + Second(Time)
pos As Integer "PORCENTAJE", crit * 100, , , , , 1) / 100 'tamao de la matriz de datos
muest As Integer If resp = False Then Exit Sub pat =
End Type If resp < 0 Then GoTo replay Application.Count(Range("patrones!b2:iv2"))
Dim zz As list_arg crit = resp dat =
resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce criterio r : Application.Count(Range("patrones!b2:b1000"))
Sub HPSAM() p.ej : 0,995", _ anul =
crit = 0.05 "COEF. DE CORRELACIN", critr, , , , , 1) Application.Count(Range("anulacion!b2:iv2"))
critr = 0.995 If resp < 0 Or resp > 1 Then GoTo replay muest =
difmin = 4 If resp = False Then Exit Sub Application.Count(Range("muestras!b2:iv2"))
'entrada de parmetros critr = resp If pat = 0 Or dat = 0 Or anul = 0 Or muest = 0
preg = "Desea utilizar los parmetros por resp = Application.InputBox("Introduce intervalo Then
defecto?" mnimo : p.ej : 4" & _
- 323 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
MsgBox "Falta introducir los datos: patrones, pat. respat(pos, 2) = Loop
anulacin o muestras" Abs(Application.Average(coc) - 1) * 100 tres(j, 1) = Int(tres(j, 1) * 10 ^ (posdec - 1)) / 10
Exit Sub respat(pos, 3) = Abs(pend) ^ (posdec - 1)
End If respat(pos, 4) = Application.Intercept(dif, tres(j, 2) = Int(tres(j, 2) * 10 ^ (posdec - 1)) / 10
'entrada de matrices de datos cpat) ^ (posdec - 1)
cpat = entrmat(1, pat, "patrones", 0, 1) respat(pos, 5) = r Next
xanul = entrmat(dat, anul, "anulacion", 1, 1) For j = 1 To muest Range("b1") = pos & " PAREJAS (todas)"
xpat = entrmat(dat, pat, "patrones", 1, 1) 'resm(pos; j) =xm(cont1; j) - xm(cont2; j) Range("b2:d2") = Array("crit%dif " & crit * 100,
xm = entrmat(dat, muest, "muestras", 1, 1) difm = Abs(xm(cont1, j) - xm(cont2, j)) "", "crit r " & critr)
titmst = entrmat(1, muest, "muestras", 0, 1) resm(pos, j) = (difm - respat(pos, 4)) / Range("a3:d3") = Array("muestra", "media",
'clculo respat(pos, 3) Chr(177), "desvest")
ReDim respat(10000, 5) Next For i = 1 To muest
ReDim resm(10000, muest) End If Cells(i + 3, 1) = titmst(1, i)
ReDim dif(1, pat) End If Cells(i + 3, 2) = tres(i, 1)
For cont1 = 1 To dat - difmin Next Cells(i + 3, 3) = Chr(177)
For cont2 = cont1 + difmin To dat Next Cells(i + 3, 4) = tres(i, 2)
comb = comb + 1 ' RESULTADOS Next
sum = 0 Sheets("tabla result").Select crofin = Minute(Time) * 60 + Second(Time)
ReDim coc(anul) Cells.ClearContents 'pregunta
For cont3 = 1 To anul Sheets("lista result").Cells.ClearContents preg = "Tiempo de clculo : " & crofin - croini & "
coc(cont3) = xanul(cont1, cont3) / If pos = 0 Then ' no encuentra parejas seg" & Chr(13) _
xanul(cont2, cont3) MsgBox "Nmero de parejas ensayadas" & & "Nmero de parejas ensayadas : " & comb &
If 1 - crit < coc(cont3) And coc(cont3) < Chr(13) & _ Chr(13) & _
crit + 1 Then "No existe ninguna pareja que cumpla los "Nmero de parejas encontradas : " & pos &
sum = sum + 1 criterios establecidos" Chr(13) & _
End If Exit Sub "Se proporciona la concentracin de cada
Next End If muestra" & Chr(13) & _
If sum = anul Then ReDim mtmp(pos) 'media +/- s todas parejas "(media " & Chr(177) & " s) con las cifras
For cont3 = 1 To pat ReDim tres(muest, 2) significativas" & Chr(13)
dif(1, cont3) = xpat(cont1, cont3) - For j = 1 To muest resp = MsgBox(preg & Chr(13) & "Desea el
xpat(cont2, cont3) For i = 1 To pos listado de parejas?", _
Next mtmp(i) = resm(i, j) 33, "RESULTADOS Y LISTADO")
'elegir conc o pend Next If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub
r = Abs(Application.Correl(dif, cpat)) tres(j, 1) = Application.Average(mtmp) Sheets("lista result").Select 'mostrar lista
If r - critr > 0 Then tres(j, 2) = Application.StDev(mtmp) resultados
pos = pos + 1 tmp = 0 'cifras significativas Range("a1:e1") = Array("parejas", "%dif",
pend = Application.Slope(dif, cpat) posdec = 0 "abs(pend)", _
respat(pos, 1) = Do While tmp = 0 "interseccion", "coef")
Sheets("patrones").Cells(cont1 + 1, 1) & _ tmp = Int(tres(j, 2) * 10 ^ posdec) For i = 1 To pos ' Mostrar resultados de los
"-" & Sheets("patrones").Cells(cont2 + 1, posdec = posdec + 1 patrones
1) If tmp = 1 Then posdec = posdec + 1 For j = 1 To 5
- 324 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
Cells(i + 1, j) = respat(i, j) Header:=xlGuess, OrderCustom:=1, MatchCase Range("f1") = Array(posel & " MEJORES
Next _ PAREJAS")
Next :=False, Orientation:=xlTopToBottom Range("f2") = Array("ordenadas por " & tipord)
For j = 1 To muest ' Mostrar resultados de las Columns("A:A").Cut Range("f3:h3") = Array("media", Chr(177),
muestras Columns(Chr(74 - resp) & ":" & Chr(74 - "desvest")
Cells(1, j + 6) = titmst(1, j) resp)).Select For i = 1 To t.muest
For i = 1 To pos Selection.Insert Shift:=xlToRight Cells(i + 3, 6) = tresl(i, 1)
Cells(i + 1, j + 6) = resm(i, j) mparej: Cells(i + 3, 7) = Chr(177)
Next Sheets("lista result").Select Cells(i + 3, 8) = tresl(i, 2)
Next posel = Application.InputBox("Nmero total de Next
zz.pos = pos parejas " & t.pos _ resp = MsgBox("Desea tomar este conjunto como
zz.muest = muest & Chr(13) & "Introduce el nmero de parejas" & referencia" & Chr(13) & _
listHPSAM zz Chr(13) & _ "y seleccionar otras parejas?", 35, "TOMAR
End Sub "que deseas utilizar mnimo=2", "PAREJAS", , , , , REFERENCIA")
- Aditional , 1) If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub
Sub listHPSAM(t As list_arg) If posel = False Then Exit Sub If resp = 6 Then
morden: If posel > t.pos Or posel < 2 Or Int(posel) <> posel tmp = Range(Cells(1, 6), Cells(t.muest + 3, 8))
Sheets("lista result").Select Then GoTo mparej Range(Cells(1, 10), Cells(t.muest + 3, 12)) =
resp = MsgBox("Desea ordenar por pendiente?" ReDim tresl(t.muest, 2) tmp
& Chr(13) & _ For i = 1 To t.muest Columns("f:h").ClearContents
"NO significa ordenar por % de diferencia", 35, tresl(i, 1) = Application.Average(Range(Cells(2, End If
"ORDENAR") i + 6), _ resp = MsgBox("Desea seleccionar nuevas
Select Case resp Cells(posel + 1, i + 6))) parejas ordenadas" & Chr(13) _
Case 2 tresl(i, 2) = Application.StDev(Range(Cells(2, i & "por " & tipord & "?" & Chr(13) & "NO
Exit Sub + 6), _ significa reordenar", 35, _
Case 6 Cells(posel + 1, i + 6))) " NUEVA SELECCIN O REORDENAR")
tipord = "pendiente" tmp = 0 'cifras significativas If resp = 2 Then Exit Sub
tpord = xlDescending posdc = 0 If resp = 6 Then GoTo mparej
Case 7 Do While tmp = 0 If resp = 7 Then GoTo morden
tipord = "%diferencia" tmp = Int(tresl(i, 2) * 10 ^ posdc) End Sub
tpord = xlAscending posdc = posdc + 1
End Select If tmp = 1 Then posdc = posdc + 1
Columns(Chr(73 - resp) & ":" & Chr(73 - Loop Function entrmat(X1, X2, nombhoj, sit1, sit2)
resp)).Cut posdc = posdc - 1 'introduce matrices
Columns("A:A").Select tresl(i, 1) = Int(tresl(i, 1) * 10 ^ posdc) / 10 ^ ReDim mat(X1, X2)
Selection.Insert Shift:=xlToRight posdc For i = 1 To X1
Range(Cells(1, 1), Cells(t.pos + 1, t.muest + tresl(i, 2) = Int(tresl(i, 2) * 10 ^ posdc) / 10 ^ For j = 1 To X2
6)).Select posdc mat(i, j) = Sheets(nombhoj).Cells(i + sit1, j +
Selection.Sort Key1:=Range("A1"), Next sit2)
Order1:=tpord, _ Sheets("tabla result").Select Next
Next
- 325 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
entrmat = mat
End Function
Sub auto_abrir()
Beep
MsgBox " BIENVENIDO AL PROGRAMA
DEL HPSAM " _
& Chr(13) & Chr(13) & "Universitat de
Valncia" & Chr(13) & _
"versin 1.0" & Chr(13) & Chr(13) & _
"programado por L. A. Tortajada Genaro"
With Application
.ShowToolTips = True
.LargeButtons = False
.ColorButtons = True
End With
Toolbars.Add Name:="HPSAM"
With Toolbars("HPSAM")
.Visible = True
.Left = 700
.Top = 100
.Width = 32
End With
Toolbars("HPSAM").ToolbarButtons. _
Add Button:=222, Before:=1
Toolbars("HPSAM").ToolbarButtons(1) _
.OnAction = "HPSAM"
MsgBox "En la esquina superior-derecha existe
una barra de " & _
"herramientas para ejecutar el programa
HPSAM" & Chr(13) & _
"Introduce los patrones del analito, los patrones
de interferente" _
& " (anulacin) y las muestras en sus respectivas
hojas"
End Sub
Sub auto_cerrar()
Toolbars("HPSAM").Delete
End Sub
- 326 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
AGRADECIMIENTOS
Quisiera agradecer los e-mails de todos mis amigos que me han mantenido
informado y me han divertido durante este largo camino.
Una tesis doctoral debe ser algo ms que un libro o un ttulo. Debe ser
una introduccin a la investigacin y un modo ms crtico de sentir la vida
- 327 -
Captulo 6: APNDICES
- 328 -