CHAPTER 11:

11
Remote Sensing of
Vegetation
g
REFERENCE: Remote Sensing
of the Environment
John R. Jensen (2007)
Second Edition
Pearson Prentice Hall

THE EARTH'S SURFACE

The earth's surface. This is a composite of numerous satellite images, each selected to be
cloud-free. It is unrealistic because, at any moment, half of the Earth is in nighttime
darkness and much of it is cloud-covered. But this beautiful image lets us view the entire
surface at once. It shows densely vegetated regions in green, dry deserts in yellow or
brown, and ice-covered regions in white.

1
VEGETATION INDEX

2
Remote Sensing of Vegetation

Spectral
Characteristics

Dominant Factors Controlling

Leaf Reflectance

Water
absorption
bands:
0.97 m
1.19 m
1.45 m
1.94 m
2.70 m

3
 Cross-section
Through A
Hypothetical and
Real Leaff
Revealing the
Major Structural
Components that
Determine the
Spectral
Reflectance
of Vegetation

Interaction of leaf structure

with visible and NIR radiation

4
 Chlorophyll b
Absorption Spectra
Chlorophyll a
of Chlorophyll a and b Absorption Spectra of
Chlorophyll a and b,
Absoorption Efficiency -carotene, Pycoerythrin,
lack of
absorption
and Phycocyanin Pigments

Chlorophyll a
peak absorption is at
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
a. violet blue green yellow red
Wavelength, m
0.43 and 0.66 m.
Phycocyanin
Phycoerythrin

Chlorophyll b
peak absorption is at
0 45 and 0
0.45 0.65
65 m.
m
ncy
Absorption Efficien

-carotene
Optimum chlorophyll
absorption windows are:
0.45 - 0.52 m and
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.63 - 0.69 m
b. violet blue green yellow red
Wavelength, m

5
Litton Emerge Spatial, Inc., CIR Natural color image (RGB = RGB) of a
image (RGB = NIR,R,G) of N.Y. Power Authority lake at 1 x 1 ft
Dunkirk, NY, at 1 x 1 m obtained obtained on October 13, 1997.
on December 12, 1998.

Spectral
Reflectance
Characteristics
of
Sweetgum
Leaves
(Liquidambar
styraciflua L.)

6
 Spectral
3 Reflectance
1 2 Characteristics
of Selected
a

Areas of
a.
Blackjack Oak
b.
Leaves
4

c.
45
Green leaf 1
40
Yellow
35
Red/orange 2
30
Percent Reflectance

Brown 3
4
25

20

15

10

d. 0
Blue Green Red Near-Infrared
(0.45 - 0.52m) (0.52 - 0.60m) (0.63 - 0.69m) (0.70 - 0.92m)

Hemispherical Reflectance, transmittance, and Absorption

Characteristics of Big Bluestem Grass

7
 Hypothetical
Example of
Additive
Reflectance
from A
Canopy with
Two Leaf
Layers

Distribution of Pixels in a Scene in

Red and Near-infrared Multispectral
Feature Space

8
 Reflectance Response of a
Single Magnolia Leaf
(Magnolia grandiflora) to
Decreased Relative Water Content

Airborne
Visible
Infrared
Imaging
Spectrometer
(AVIRIS)
Datacube of
Sullivans
Island
Obtained on
October 26,
1998

9
Imaging Spectrometer Data of Healthy
Green Vegetation in the San Luis
Valley of Colorado Obtained on
September 3, 1993 Using AVIRIS

224 channels each 10 nm wide with 20 x 20 m pixels

Hyperspectral
Analysis of
AVIRIS Data
Obtained on
September 3,
1993 of San
Luis Valley,
Colorado

10
Goniometer in Operation at
North Inlet, SC

Remote Sensing of Vegetation

Temporal
(Phenological
Phenological))
Characteristics

11
Predicted Percent Cloud Cover in
Four Areas in the United States

Phenological Cycle of Hard Red

Winter Wheat in the Great Plains

Winter Wheat
Phenology

snow cover

SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG

crop establishment greening up heading mature Harvest

50 108 days 28 34 29 21
Dead
10 14 26 14 14 21 13 25 47 9 5
ripe
Sow Tillering Dormancy Growth Jointing Heading
Emergence resumes Boot Soft Hard dough
dough
Maximum Coverage

12
 Phenological
Cycles of San
Joaquin and
Imperial
Valley,
Valle
California
Crops and
Landsat
Multispectral
Scanner
Images of One
Field During A
Growing
Season

Landsat
Thematic
Mapper
Imagery
Band 1 (blue; 0.45
0 45 0.52 m)
0 52m) Band 2 (green; 0.52
0 52 0.60m)
0 60m) Band 3 (red; 0.63
0 63 0.69 m)
0 69m)
of the
Imperial
Valley,
California
Obtained
Band 4 (near-infrared; 0.76 0.90m) Band 5 (mid-infrared; 1.55 1.75m) Band 7 (mid-infrared; 2.08 2.35m)
on
feed
Landsat Thematic Mapper
Imagery of
Imperial Valley, California,
December
10, 1982
lot
December 10, 1982

Sugarbeets Cotton
fl
Alfalfa Fallow

Band 6 (thermal infrared; 10.4 12.5m) Ground Reference

13
 Landsat
Thematic
Mapper Color
Composites
and
Classification
Map of a
Portion of the
Imperial
Valley,
California

125

Phenological
a.
Soybeans
100

Soybeans
75

50
100%
ground
Cycles of
Soybeans
snow cover cover
25 cm height 50%

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
and Corn in
S th
South
Dormant or multicropped Initial growth Development Maturity Harvest

300
b.

250
Carolina
Corn Corn
200

100%

150

125

100

75 50%

50
snow cover
25 cm height

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

12-14 Tassle
Dormant or multicropped 8-leaf Blister Dent/Harvest Dormant or multicropped
leaf
10 - 12leaf

14
100
a.
Winter Wheat
75

50 100%
snow cover
ground
Phenological
Cycles of
25 cm cover
50%

Winter
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Tillering Jointing Booting Head Harvest Dormant or multicropped Seed

150
Winter Wheat
Phenology Cotton
b. Wheat,
Cotton, and
125

100

75

50 50%
100%
ground
Tobacco in
South
snow cover cover
25 cm height

JAN FEB MAR APR

Dormant or multicropped
MAY JUN

Seeding
JUL AUG

Fruiting
SEP

Boll
OCT NOV

Maturity/harvest
DEC
Carolina
Pre-bloom

125
c.
100

75
Tobacco
100%
50
snow cover 50%
25 cm height

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Dormant or multicropped Transplanting Development Maturity/harvest Dormant or multicropped

Topping

Phenological Cycle of Cattails and

Waterlilies in Par Pond, S.C.

15
 Phenological Cycle of Smooth Cordgrass
(Spartina alterniflora) Biomass in South Carolina

1500 Smooth Cordgrass ( Spartina alterniflora )

Live Biomass
1250 Dead Biomass
Dry Weight Biomass, g/ m2

1000

750

500

250

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D

Nine Bands of
3x3m
Calibrated
Airborne
Band 1 (blue; 0.45 0.52 m) Band 2 (green; 0.52 0.60 m) Band 3 (red; 0.60 0.63 m)
M ltispect al
Multispectral
Scanner
(CAMS) Data
of Murrells
Inlet, SC
Obtained on
Band 4 (red; 0.63 0.69 m) Band 5 (near-infrared; 0.69 0.76 m) Band 6 (near-infrared; 0.76 0.90 m)

August 2,
1997

Band 7 (mid-infrared; 1.55 1.75 m) Band 8 (mid-infrared; 2.08 2.35 m) Band 9 (thermal-infrared; 10.4 12.5 m)

16
Calibrated Airborne Multispectral Scanner Data of
Murrells Inlet, S.C. Obtained on August 2, 1997

Natural Color Masked and

Composite Contrast Stretched
(Bands 3,2,1 = RGB) Color Composite

Calibrated Airborne Multispectral Scanner Data of

Murrells Inlet, S.C. Obtained on August 2, 1997

Color Infrared Masked and

Composite (Bands Contrast Stretched
3,2,1 = RGB) Color Composite

17
18
 Remote Sensing of Vegetation

Instruments to
study the
V
Vegetation
i

Spectral Reflectance
radiometer Measurement using
in backpack a Spectroradiometer

personal
computer

detector

19
 In Situ Ceptometer
Leaf-Area-Index Measurement
LAI may be computed using a Decagon Accupar
Ceptometer
Cepto ete tthat
at consists
co s sts of
o a linear
ea array
a ay of
o 80
adjacent 1 cm2 photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
sensors along a bar.

Incident
I id t sunlight
li ht above
b the
th canopy, Qa, and d the
th
amount of direct solar energy incident to the
ceptometer, Qb, when it was laid at the bottom of the
canopy directly on the mud is used to compute LAI.

20
 In Situ Ceptometer
Leaf-Area-Index Measurement

Temporal Resolution

21
 Relationship
Between Calibrated
Airborne
Multispectral
Scanner (CAMS)
Band 6 Brightness
g
Values and in situ
Measurements of
Spartina alterniflora
Total Dry Biomass
(g/m2) at
27 Locations in
Murrells Inlet, SC
Obtained on A August
g st
2 and 3, 1997

NASA Calibrated
Airborne
Multispectral
Scanner
Imagery
(3 x 3 m) and
Derived Biomass
Map of a Portion
of Murrells Inlet,
CAMSBands 1,2,3 (RGB) CAMSBands 6,4,2 (RGB)

Biomass in a Portion of Murrells

Inlet, SC Derived from 3 x 3 m South Carolina
on August 2,
Calibrated Airborne Multispectral
Scanner (CAMS) Data Obtained on
August 2, 1997

Total Biomass (grams/m 2 )

1997
500 - 749
TM Bands 5,3,2 (RGB)
750 - 999
1000 - 1499

1500 - 1999
2000 - 2499

2500 - 2999

22
 Total Above-ground
Biomass in Murrells
Inlet, S. C.
Extracted from
Calibrated Airborne
Multispectral
Scanner Data on
August 2, 1997

Total Biomass
(grams/m2)

500 - 749
750 - 999
1000 - 1499
1500 - 1999
2000 - 2499
2500 - 2999

Remote Sensing of Vegetation

Indices of Vegetation
based on the
R fl
Reflectance

23
 Simple Ratio
Vegetation Index
SR
The near-infrared (NIR) to red simple ratio (SR) is the first
true vegetation index. It takes advantage of the inverse
relationship between chlorophyll absorption of red radiant
energy and increased reflectance of near-infrared energy
for healthy plant canopies (Cohen, 1991).

NIR
SR
Red

Notice that this equation is wrong in the book!

Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index
NDVI
The generic normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) has
provided a method of estimating net primary production over
varying biome types (e.g. Lenney et al., 1996), identifying
ecoregions (Ramsey et al., 1995), monitoring phenological
patterns of the earths vegetative surface, and of assessing the
length of the growing season and dry-down periods (Huete and
Li 1994).
Liu, 1994)

NIR red
NDVI
NIR red

24
GLOBAL NDVI

25
 GLOBAL NDVI IN 2000

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

AVHRR

Band Wavelength (mm)

1 0.58--0.68
0.58
2 0.72
0.72--1.10
3 3.55--3.93
3.55
4 10.5--11.5
10.5
5 11.5--12.5
11.5

Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI)

26
27
 NDVI OF WESTERN PR

Infrared Index
II
An Infrared Index (II) that incorporates both near and middle-
i f
infrared
d bands
b d isi sensitive
ii to changes
h i plant
in l bi
biomass and
d water
stress in smooth cordgrass studies (Hardisky et al., 1983;
1986):Healthy, mono-specific stands of tidal wetland such as
Spartina often exhibit much lower reflectance in the visible (blue,
green, and red) wavelengths than typical terrestrial vegetation
due to the saturated tidal flat understory. In effect, the moist soil
absorbs almost all energy incident to it. This is why wetland often
appear surprisingly dark on traditional infrared color composites.

NIR TM MIR TM
II 4 5
NIR TM 4 MIR TM 5

28
 Moisture Stress Index
MSI
Rock et al. (1990) utilized a Moisture Stress Index
(MSI): based on the Landsat Thematic Mapper near-
infrared and middle-infrared bands

MidIR TM 5
MSI
NIR TM 4

Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index

SAVI
Recent emphasis has been given to the development of improved
vegetation indices that may take advantage of calibrated sensor
systems such as the moderate resolution imaging spectrometer -
MODIS (Running et al., 1994). The improved indices incorporate a
soil adjustment factor and/or a blue band for atmospheric
normalization. The soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) introduces
a soil calibration factor, L, to the NDVI equation to minimize soil
background influences resulting from first order soil-plant spectral
interactions (Huete et al., 1994): An L value of 0.5 minimizes soil
b i ht
brightness variations
i ti andd eliminates
li i t th
the need
d for
f additional
dditi l
calibration for different soils (Huete and Liu, 1994).

(1 L )( NIR red )
SAVI
NIR red L

29
 Soil and Atmospherically
Resistant Vegetation Index
SARVI
Huete and Liu (1994) integrated the L function from SAVI and a blue-
blue
band normalization to derive a soil and atmospherically resistant
vegetation index (SARVI) that corrects for both soil and atmospheric
noise. The technique requires prior correction for molecular scattering
and ozone absorption of the blue, red, and near-infrared remote sensor
data, hence the term p*.

p * nir p * rb
SARVI
p * nir p * rb
Where,

p * rb p * red ( p * blue p * red )

Enhanced Vegetation Index

EVI
The MODIS Land Discipline Group proposed the Enhanced Vegetation
Index (EVI) for use with MODIS Data.
Data The EVI is a modified NDVI
with a soil adjustment factor, L, and two coefficients, C1 and C2
which describe the use of the blue band in correction of the red band
for atmsoperhic aerosol scattering. The coefficients, C1 , C2 , and L,
are empirically determined as 6.0, 7.5, and 1.0, respectively. This
algorithm has improved sensitivity to high biomass regions and
improved vegetation monitoring thorugh a de-coupling of the canopy
background signal and a reduction in atmospheric influences (Huete
and
a d Justice,
u , 1999).
999)

p * nir p * red
EVI
p * nir C 1 p * red C 2 p * blue L

30
Enhanced Vegetation Index
EVI

The Enhanced Vegetation

Index (EVI) improves on the
venerable NDVI. Derived
f
from state-of-the-art
t t f th t
satellite data provided by the
MODIS instrument, EVI
improves on NDVI's spatial
resolution, is more sensitive
to differences in heavily
vegetated areas (as seen
here in the Yucatan
Peninsula), and better
corrects for atmospheric
haze as well as the land
surface beneath the
vegetation. Early data from
MODIS shows the
differences between EVI and
NDVI.

Landscape Ecology Metrics

31
THE CARBON CYCLE

Geological Applications

32
 Heavy Metals Affecting
Vegetation

Developing a protocol to use remote

sensing as a cost effective tool to
monitor contamination of mangrove
wetlands
Johannes H. Schellekens
Fernando Gilbes-
Gilbes-Santaella

33