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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ............................................................................................................................. v
Abbreviations .......................................... ix
Conversion Factors ............................................................... xi
...
List of Contributors ........................................................................................................ xiii

Chapter 1 . Historical Development of Offshore Structures ........................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. .... 1

1.1.1 Definition of Offshore Structures ............................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Historical Development ............................................................................ 2
1.1.3 Selection of Deepwater Production Concepts ......................... 5
I . 1.4 Offshore Disasters ...................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Deepwater Challenges ............. .......................................... 9
1.3 Functions of Offshore Structures .............................................................. 11
1.3.1 Exploratory Drilling Structures ................................................................................. 11
I .3.2 Production Structures . ............................................... 12
1.3.3 Storage Structures ...................................................... 13
1.3.4 Export Systems ................................................................................................ 14
1.4 Offshore Structure Configurations ........................................................................................ 15
1.4.1 Bottom-Supported Structures ..................................................................................... 16
1.4.2 Floating Offshore Structures .................................. 16
1.4.3 Floating vs . Fixed Offshore Structures ........................................................... 17
1.5 Bottom-Supported Fixed Structures ...................................................................................... 19
1.5.1 Minimal Platforms .................................................................................................... 19
1.5.2 Jacket Structures ........................ .............................. 20
1.5.3 Gravity Base Stru 21
1.5.4 Jack-ups ...................................................................................................................... 21
1.5.5 Subsea Templates ................................................................................... 22
1.5.6 Subsea Pipelines .......................................................... 22
1.6 Compliant Structures ........................................................................... 24
1.6.1 Articulated Platforms ............................................................... 24
1.6.2 Compliant Tower ........................................................................................................ 24
1.6.3 Guyed Tower ........................ ............................................. 25
1.7 Floating Structures ............................................................................................................... 26
1.7.1 Floating Platform Types ............................................................................................. 26
1.7.2 Drilling Units ................................................................................. 26
1.7.3 Production Uni s ............................... 27
1.7.4 Drilling and Production Units .................................................................................. 28
1.7.5 Platform Configurations ............................................................................................. 28
 1.8 Classification Societies and Industry
Standard Groups .................................................... 34

Chapter 2. Novel and Small Field Offshore Structures ................................................. 39

2.1 Introduction ............................ ....................................... 39

2.2 Overview of Oil and Gas Field Developments ............................... ................ 40
2.2.1 Field Development Par
2.2.2 Structure Types .....................
2.2.3 Selection of Field Deve
2.3 Technical Basis for Developing Novel Offshore Structures .................................................. 44
2.3.1 Overview of Historical Innovations............. ....................................... 44
2.3.2 Basic Technical Principles ...........................................................................
2.4 Other Considerations for Developing Novel Offshore Structures .........................
2.4.1 Financially-Driven Developments ............................................................... 52
2.4.2 Regulatory-Driven Developments ....................................... ................ 53
2.5 Novel Field Development Systems ........................................................................................ 53
2.5.1 Bottom-Supported Systems . .................. ....................................... 53
2.5.2 Neutrally-Buoyant Floating ...................................................... 56
2.5.3 Positively-Buoyant Floating Systems ......................................................................... 60
2.6 Discussion of Selected Innovative Field Development Concept ........................................... 63
2.6.1 Overview .............................................................................. ................ 63
2.6.2 Field Development Concept .......................................................................
2.7 Discussion of Selected Innovative Structures .................................
2.7.1 Structures Selected for In-Depth Discussion .............................................................. 66
2.7.2 Construction and Construction Schedule .... ................................. 66
2.7.3 Transportation and Installation .......................................... ................ 68
2.7.4 In-Service Response and Utilisation .................................... ........................... 69
2.7.5 Post-service Utilisation ............................................................................................... 70
2.7.6 Capital and Operating Expenditures ............................................................... 71
2.7.7 Residual Value and Risk Factors ........................................
2.7.8 Summary Discussion ........................
2.8 Future Field Development Options .............
2.8.1 Technological Innovations and their Impact ....................................... 73
2.8.2 Innovations Affecting Cost Efficiencies .............................. ................ 75
2.8.3 Most Likely Field Development Inn

Chapter 3. Ocean Environment ..................................................................................... 79

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. ... 79

3.2 Ocean Water Properties. .................................................................................... 80
3.2.1 Density, Viscosity d Temperature ........ ....................................... 80
3.3 Wave Theory .......................................................... 80
3.3.1 Linear Wave Theory ............................................................ 83
3.3.2 Second-Order Stokes Wave Theory ..................................... 91
3.3.3 Fifth-Order Stokes Wave Theory ........................................ 93
3.3.4 Stream Function Theory ............................................................................ 94
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3.3.5 Stretching Formulas for Waves at SWL .................. ...................... 98

3.3.6 Applicability of Wave Theory .............................................................................. 101
3.3.7 Wave Group ........................... .............................................................................. 103
3.3.8 Series Representation of Long-Crested Wave ..................... .... 103
3.4 Breaking Waves ........................... ..................................................... 104
3.5 Internal Waves ...................................................................................................... 105
3.6 ...................................................................................................... 106
3.6.1 Spectrum Model ............................ ............................ 106
3.6.2 Applicability of Spectrum Model ............................................................................... 110
3.6.3 Simulation of Two-dimensional Sea ........................................................................... 113
3.6.4 Directional Spectrum .................................................................................................. 114
3.6.5 Simulation of Directional Sea .................................................................................... 116
3.7 Sea States ............................................................................................................................... 117
3.8 Wave-driven Current ....... 118
3.8.1 Steady Uniform Current ............................................................................................. 118
3.8.2 Steady Shear Current ................................................................................................. 119
3.8.3 Combined Current and Waves ................................................................................... 119
3.9 Loop Current ...
3.10 Wind and Wind Spectrum ..................................................................................................... 123
3.10.1 Wind Speed ................................................................................................................ 123
3.10.2 Wind Spectrum .... ......... ............. .......... 123
3.11 Offshore Environment by Location ....................................................................................... 125

Chapter 4 . Loads and Responses ................................................................................... 133

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 133

4.2 Gravity Loads ........................................................................................................................ 135
4.3 Hydrostatic Loads ................................................................................................................. 136
4.4 Resistance Loads ................................................................................................................... 136
4.5 Current Loads on Structures ..................................................... 137
4.5.1 Current Drag and Lift Force ..................................................................................... 137
4.5.2 Blockage Factor in Current ........................................................................................ 141
4.6 Steady and Dynamic Wind Loads on Structures .................................................................. 143
4.7 Wave Loads on Structures . .............................................................................. 143
4.7.1 Morison Equation ...................................................................................................... 144
4.7.2 Forces on Oscillating Structures ................................................................................. 145
4.7.3 Wave Plus Current Loads .......................................................................................... 150
4.7.4 Design Values for Hydrodynamic Coefficients .......................................................... 152
4.7.5 FroudeXrylov Force on Structure ............................................................................ 158
4.7.6 Wave Diffraction Force on Structure .......................... 160
4.7.7 Added Mass and Damping Coefficien ..................................................... 161
4.7.8 Haskind Relationship for Accuracy C ..................................................... 162
4.7.9 Linear Diffraction Radiation Theory Software .......................................................... 162
4.8 Applicability of Morison Force vs . Diffraction Force .......................................................... 164
4.9 Steady Wave Drift Force ....................................................................................................... 166
4.9.1 Steady Drift Potential Force ...................................................................................... 167
4.9.2 Viscous Drift Force ....................... ............. 170
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4.10 Slow-Drift Wave Forces ............................................. ............................. 172

4.1 1 Varying Wind Load ............................................................................................................... 174
4.12 Impulse Loads ............................................................... 175
4.12.1 Wave Slamming Load ................................... ............................. 176
4.12.2 Breaking Wave Load ................................................................................................ 177
4.12.3 Wave Run-U ................................ 177
4.13 Response of Structure ................................ 178
4.13.1 Structure Mo ........................................................... 178
4.13.2 Transient Response of Structure ................... ...... 180
4.13.3 Forced Linearly Damped System ............................................................................. 183
4.13.4 Non-linearly Damped Structure Response ............................................................... 186
4.13.5 Motions of Floating Structure ...
4.13.6 Interaction of Two Floating Structures .........
4.13.7 Slowly-Varying Response ......................................................................................... 189
4.13.8 Simplified Computation of Slow-Drift Oscillation ................................................... 189
4.13.9 High-Frequency Respons
4.13.10 Hydrodynamic Damping
4.14 Applicability of Response Formula ....................................................................................... 194
4.14.1 Key Responses for Offshore Structures ......... 194

Chapter 5. Probabilistic Design of Offshore Structures ................................................. 197

5.1 Application of Statistics in Offshore Engineering ....................................

5.2 Wave Statistics ....................................................................................................................... 197
5.2.1 The Gaussian Distribution ........................................................................................ 201
5.2.2 The Rayleigh Distribution ...................... ........................................................... 202
5.3 Response Statistics .................................................................................... ..... 207
5.4 Design Approaches ................................................................................................................ 210
5.4.1 Design Wave ............................................................................................................. 210
5.4.2 Short-Term Design ........................................................... 21 1
5.4.3 Long-Term Design ......................................................................................... 216
5.5 Combination of Multiple Sto
5.5.1 Combination of First
5.6 Probabilistic Design of Offsh
5.6.1 Introduction .............
5.6.2 Limit States and Failure Criteria .............................................................................. 227
5.7 Uncertainty Measures. ......................................................................................... 232
5.7.1 General Description ........ ............ ............................. 232
5.7.2 Representation ....................................................................... 235
5.7.3 Probabilistic Description of Response in Complex
Structures .................................................................. .......... 237
5.8 Structural Reliability Analysis ............................................................................................... 240
5.8.1 Elementary Case ........................................................................................................ 240
5.8.2 Generalisation of Reliability Analysis. ........................................................... 243
5.8.3 Fatigue Reliability ........................................................................ 25 1
5.8.4 Design Values and Calibration of Partial Factors .................................................... 253
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5.8.5 Probabilistic Calibration of Combination

Values for Loads ........................................................................................................ 257
5.9 System Reliability .....
5.9.1 General ..........
5.9.2 Analysis of Simple Systems ........................................................................................ 261
5.10
5.10.1 General
5.10.2 Calibrat
5.11

Chapter 6 . Fixed Offshore Platform Design .................................................................. 279

6.1 Field Development and Concept Selection Activities............................................................ 279

6.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 279
6.1.2 Design Spiral and Field Development Timeline ......................................................... 280
6.1.3 Factors That Drive Concept Selection ............................................
6.1.4 Field Development Design Phases ............................................................................. 290
6.2 Basic and Detailed Design of a Fixed Jacket- Tower-type Offshore Platform ..................... 293
6.2.1 Introduction ...... ......... .......... ...... 293
6.2.2 Selection of the Design Parameters ............................................................................ 299
6.2.3 Selection of the Member Sizes.................................................................................... 303
6.2.4 Computer Simulation and Detailed Analysis ............................................................. 333
6.2.5 Solution of the Load Deflection Equation P, = k,,d .. 356
6.3 Special Topics ........................................................................................................................ 368
6.3.1 Tubular Connections .................................................................................................. 368
6.3.2 Deep Water Jackets and Compliant Tower Platforms ............................................... 390
6.3.3 Structural Design of Jack U p Rig Platforms
(by Vissa Rammohan, Vice President, Stress Offshore Engineering Inc.) ................. 401

Chapter 7 . Floating Offshore Platform Design .............................................................. 419

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... .......... 419

7.2 Floating Platform Types ........................................................................................................ 421
7.2.1 General ................................. .............................................
7.2.2 Functions .................................................................................................................... 421
7.2.3 Motions ....................................................................................................................... 423
7.2.4 Concept Selection .................
7.3 Design of Floaters ........................................................
7.3.1 Functional Requirements .....
7.3.2 Configuration Proportions ......................................................................................... 436
7.3.3 Weight Control ........................................................................................................... 437
7.3.4 Stability (Krish Thiagarajan, University of Western Australia, Perth .
WA . Australia) ........................................................................................................... 440
7.3.5 Coordinate Systems and Transformations ................................................................. 445
7.4 Floating Production Storage and Offloading Systems 448
7.4.1 FPSO Hull Design ...................................................................................................... 449
7.4.2 Hull Structure ............................................................................................................. 451
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7.4.3 Example FPSO Design ............................................................................................... 452

7.4.4 Deck Structure ............................................................................................................ 454
7.4.5 Turret Design and Selection ....................................................................................... 454
7.4.6 Marine Systems ........................................................................................................... 462
7.5 Semi-submersibles (John Filson . Consultant; Gig Harbor, Washington) 464
7.5.1 History of the Semi-Submersible 464
7.5.2 Distinctions between a MODU Semi-submersible and an FPS ................................. 469
7.5.3 Semi-submersible Design ............................................................................................ 470
7.5.4 Functions and Configurations of Semi-submersibles ................................................. 471
7.5.5 Sizing of Semi-submersibles 478
7.5.6 Initial Design Process ................................................................................................. 484
7.5.7 Closed-form Heave RAO Calculation ........................................................................ 487
7.5.8 Weight and Buoyancy Estimates
7.5.9 Semi-submersible Hull Structure
7.6 Tension Leg Platforms ........................................................................................................... 501
7.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 501
7.6.2 Functions and Configurations of TLPs
7.6.3 TLP Mechanics .....................................
7.6.4 Sizing of TLP .............................................................................................................. 514
7.6.5 Weight Estimates of TLPs .......................................................................................... 524
7.6.6 TLP Hull Structure ..................................................................................................... 528
7.7 Spar Design ............................................................................................................................ 536
7.7.1 History of Spars ......................................................................................................... 536
7.7.2 Spar Description ......................................................................................................... 540
7.7.3 Spar Riser Systems 542
7.7.4 Spar Mooring ............................................................................................................. 544
7.7.5 Spar Sizing .................................................................................................................. 545
7.7.6 Drilling from a Spar ................................................................................................... 551
7.7.7 Spar Construction and Installation 555
7.8 Hull Structure (John Halkyard and John Filson) ................................................................. 563
7.8.1 Hull and Deck Definition ........................................................................................... 563
7.8.2 Applicable Code ..............................................................
7.8.3 Structural Design Considerations ............................................................................... 565
7.8.4 Hull Structure Design ................................................................................................. 568
7.8.5 Local Strength Design ................................................................................................ 572
7.8.6 Hydrostatic Loading 573
7.8.7 Plate Thickness ............................................................. ....................... 577
7.8.8 Stiffener Sizing ............................................................................................................ 582
7.8.9 Framing ...................................................................................................................... 595
7.8.10 Global Strength .......................................................................................................... 604
7.8.1 1 Buckling ..................................................................................................................... 617
7.8.12 Fatigue ....................................................................................................................... 630
7.9 Construction and Installation 646
7.9.1 Fabrication ................................................................................................................. 646
7.9.2 Transportation ............................................................................................................ 648
7.9.3 Derrick Barges ............................................................................................................ 652