Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Chapter 1: Structure & Function of the Muscular, Neuromuscular, Cardiovascular, & Respiratory Systems
Muscular system
o Muscle is surrounded by epimysium
o Tendon connects to bone periosteum, a specialized connective tissue covering all bones
o Under the epimysium the muscle fibers are grouped in bundles (fasciculus) which are surrounded by
perimysium
o Each individual muscle fiber is surrounded by endomysium
o The fibers actual membrane is the sarcolemma
o Each of the connective tissues are continuous with the tendon
o Neuromuscular junction- junction between the motor neuron & the muscle fiber it innervates
o Motor unit- a motor neuron & all the muscle fibers it innervates
o Sarcoplasm- cytoplasm of a muscle fiber; contains contractile components, proteins filaments, glycogen,
mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum
o Myofibrils- make up muscle fiber; contain myosin & actin
o Sarcomere- smallest contractile unit
A b&- corresponds with the alignment of the myosin filaments
I b&- corresponds with the areas that contain only actin filaments
Z line- middle of I b& & where the actin filaments are anchored
H zone- the center of the sarcomere where only myosin filaments are present
o Sliding filament theory
Resting phase
Little calcium is present in the myofibril (most of it is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum)
Excitation-contraction coupling phase
Sarcoplasmic reticulum release calcium, which binds with troponin, which causes a shift in
tropomyosin. This shift uncovers the binding spot on actin for myosin. The number of cross
bridges that are attached to actin filaments at any instant in time dictates the force production
of a muscle
Contraction phase
Energy comes from hydrolysis of ATP to ADP & phosphate (catalyzed by ATPase)
Calcium must be provided for the eventual shift of tropomyosin
ATP must replace ADP on myosin head in order for the head to detach from the actin site &
re-cock
Recharge phase
Measurable muscle shortening transpires only when all these events are repeated over & over
again throughout the muscle fiber. This occurs as long as calcium & ATP is available
Relaxation phase
Occurs when the stimulation of the motor nerve stops
Calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Actin & myosin return to their unbound state
Neuromuscular system
o Activation of muscles
Action potential hits nerve terminalAch diffuses across neuromuscular junction, causing
excitation of sarcolemmaaction potential generated across sarcolemmafiber contracts
All of the muscle fibers in the motor unit contract & develop force at the same time
All or none principle
A twitch can occur & if they occur close enough together, tetanus happens
o Muscle fiber types
Slow twitch & fast twitch fibers
Type I (slow twitch) - high fatigue resistance, endurance, aerobic enzyme count, myoglobin content,
capillary density, & mitochondria density. Low force/power production & anaerobic enzyme
content. Small fiber diameter & motor neuron size. Slow nerve conduction velocity &
contraction/relaxation speed. Red in color.
Type IIa (fast twitch) - large motor neuron size. Fast conduction velocity & contraction/relaxation
speed. High anaerobic enzyme content & low myoglobin content. Intermediate in everything else.
White/red in color.
Type IIx (fast twitch) the complete opposite of type IIa
Table 1.1 page 10
o Motor unit recruitment
o Preloading
Some of the muscle fibers that are active early in the ROM will not be fully activated unless the
muscle is loaded prior to muscle action
o Proprioception
Proprioceptors are specialized sensory receptors located within joints, muscles, & tendons
Provide the CNS with info needed to maintain muscle tone & perform complex coordinated
movements
o Older muscle
Muscle function is reduced in old people
Sarcopenia- inactivity plays a major role
Muscle atrophy with ageing results from losses in both number & size of muscle fibers
Muscle quality also decreases with age
Cardiovascular system
o Heart- atrium & ventricles
o Valves- tricuspid & bicuspid (mitral) valves, aortic & pulmonary valves
o Conduction system
SA nodeinternodal pathwaysAV nodebundle of HISleft & right bundle branchespurkinje
fibers
o Electrocardiogram
Records electrical activity of the heart
P,QRS, T waves
Respiratory system
o Trachearight & left bronchibronchioles
Terminology
o Exergonic reaction-energy releasing reaction
o Endergonic reaction- require energy
o Metabolism- the total of all the catabolic (exergonic) & anabolic (endergonic) reactions
o Calcium ATPase- hydrolyze ATP for pumping calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
o Sodium ATPase- hydrolyze ATP for maintaining the sarcolemmal concentration gradient after
depolarization
Phosphagen system
o Provides ATP for short term, high intensity activities & is active at the start of all exercise regardless of
intensity
o ADP+CP(creatine kinase)ATP+Creatine
o Body stores approximately 80-100 grams of ATP at any given time
o Phosphagen system uses the creatine kinase reaction to maintain the concentration of ATP
o Under normal circumstances, skeletal muscle concentrations of CP are 4-6 times higher than ATP
concentrations, which serves as an energy reserve
o 2ADP(adenylate kinase)ATP+AMP
This reaction can rapidly replenish ATP as well
o Law of mass action (or mass action effect)
States that the concentrations of reactants or products in solution will drive the direction of the
reactions
Glycolysis
o Breakdown of glycogen or glucose to resynthesize ATP
o End result is Pyruvate, which can be converted to lactate (anaerobic/fast glycolysis; ATP resynthesis occurs
at a faster rate, but is limited in duration) or shuttled into the mitochondria (Krebs cycle; ATP resynthesis is
slower, but can occur for a longer duration, aerobic/slow glycolysis)
o Net gain: 4 NADH & 2 ATP
o Figure 2.2 page 25
o Glycolysis & the formation of lactate
Formation of lactate from Pyruvate is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase
H+ accumulation reduces intracellular pH, inhibits glycolytic reactions, & interferes with muscles
excitation-contraction coupling
Decrease in pH inhibits enzymatic turnover rate of the cells energy systems
Metabolic acidosis- exercise induced decrease in pH
Cori cycle- lactate gets transported to the liver where it is converted to glucose
Blood lactate is greater following high intensity exercise
Trained people experience lower blood lactate concentrations than untrained people
Glucose+2Pi+2ADP2Lactate+2ATP+H2O
o Glucose leading to the Krebs cycle
If O2 is present pyruvate is transported to the mitochondria
Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA which enters the Krebs cycle
o Energy yield of glycolysis
When blood glucose is used there is a net gain of 2 ATP because the phosphorylation of blood
glucose (done by hexokinase) requires ATP
When muscle glycogen is used there is a net gain of 3 ATP because when it is broken down to
glucose (done by glycogen phosphorylase) the glucose is already phosphorylated
o Control of glycolysis
Stimulated by high concentration of ADP & by a slight decrease in pH
Inhibited by markedly lower pH, ATP, CP, & citrate
Allosteric inhibition- when an end product binds to the regulatory enzyme & decreases its turnover
rate & slows product formation
Allosteric activation- when an activator binds with the enzyme & increases its turnover rate
Hexokinase- catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose; allosterically inhibited by the concentration
of glucose-6-phosphate (the product of the phosphorylation of glucose)
PFK- the most important regulator of glycolysis, its the rate limiting step; ATP is an allosteric
inhibitor of PFK, therefore as ATP concentrations rise PFK slows down glycolysis; AMP is an
allosteric activator (AMP concentrations rise due to adenylate kinase reaction)
o Lactate threshold- intensity at which blood lactate begins an abrupt increase above the baseline conc.;
represents an increasing reliance on anaerobic mechanisms; 50-60% VO2 max UT, 70-80% VO2 max Tr.
o OBLA- occurs when blood lactate reaches 4mmol/L
Oxidative system
o Primary source of ATP at rest & during low intensity activity
o Uses carbohydrates & fats as substrates
o At rest around 70% of ATP produced is from fats & 30% from carbs
o Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle)
Produces 2 ATP indirectly from GTP
Produces 6 NADH, 2 FADH; these molecules transport H atoms to the electron transport chain
H atoms are passed down a chain of cytochromes to form a proton concentration gradient to
provide energy for ATP production
O2 is the final electron acceptor, producing water.
1 NADH can produce 3 molecules of ATP & 1 FADH2 can produce 2 molecules of ATP
o Results in production of 38 ATP from one molecule of blood glucose
o Results in production of 39 ATP from one molecule of muscle glycogen
o Fat oxidation
Hormone sensitive lipase breaks down triglycerides
Free fatty acids are released into the blood where they enter muscle fibers
Free fatty acids undergo beta oxidation in the mitochondria
Results in acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle
1 molecule of glycerol produces 22 ATP
18 carbon fatty acid produces 441 ATP
o Protein oxidation
Only occurs during starvation or workout bouts longer than 90 minutes
Can be broken down into amino acids, which can be used during gluconeogenesis or converted to
pyruvate
BCAAs are the major amino acids oxidized in skeletal muscle
Nitrogenous wastes are eliminated through urea & ammonia
o Control of oxidative system
The rate limiting step in the Krebs cycle is the conversion of isocitrate to alpha ketoglutarate, done
by isocitrate dehydrogenase
Isocitrate dehydrogenase is stimulated by ADP & allosterically inhibited by ATP
If NAD & FAD arent available to accept H, than Krebs cycle is reduced
When GTP concentrations increase, it prevents the first step in the Krebs cycle
The electron transport chain is inhibited by ATP & stimulated by ADP
o Energy production & capacity
In general, there is an inverse relationship between a given energy systems maximum rate of
ATP production & the total amount of ATP it is capable of producing over a long period
The extent to which each energy system contributes to ATP production depends primarily on
the intensity of muscular activity & secondarily on the duration. At no times does any single
energy system provide the complete supply of energy
% of max power Primary system stressed Typical exercise time Range of work/rest ratios
90-100 Phosphagen 5-10 sec 1:12 to 1:20
75-90 Fast glycolysis 15-30 sec 1:3 to 1:5
30-75 Fast glycolysis/oxidative 1-3 min 1:3 to 1:4
20-30 Oxidative >3 min 1:1 to 1:3
Synergist- when a muscle indirectly assists in a movement; the muscles that stabilize the scapula during upper arm
movement are synergists
Fulcrum- the pivot point of a lever
Moment arm- perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the fulcrum
Torque- degree to which a force rotates an object about a fulcrum; force times the length of its moment arm
Muscle force- force generated by biomechanical activity
Resistive force- force generated by a source external to the body
Mechanical advantage- ratio of the moment arm through which & applied force acts to that through which a
resistive force acts; a mechanical advantage greater than 1 allows the applied force to be greater than the resistive
force to produce an equal amount of torque; a mechanical advantage less than 1 is a disadvantage
1st class lever- the muscle force & resistive force act on opposite sides of the fulcrum; elbow extension against
resistance
2nd class lever- the muscle force & resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting
through a moment arm longer than that through which the resistive force acts; when the calf muscles work to raise
the body onto the balls of the feet, due to its mechanical advantage the required muscle force is smaller than the
resistive force
3rd class lever- muscle force & resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting
through a moment arm shorter than that through which the resistive force acts; elbow flexion against resistance, the
mechanical advantage is less than 1, so the muscle force has to be greater than the resistive force to produce torque
equal to that produced by the resistive force
Mechanical advantage (MA) often changes: the patella increase the MA of the quads by maintaining the quads
tendons distance from the knees axis of rotation; during elbow flexion of the biceps the moment arm changes, at
the beginning it is short (less MA) & when your arm is at 90 degrees it is longest (higher MA)
Variations in tendon insertion
o A person whose tendons are inserted on the bone farther from the joint center should be able to lift more
weight because the muscle force acts through a longer moment arm
o The MA gained by having tendons insert farther from the joint center is accompanied by a loss of max
speed because the muscle has to contract more to make the joint move through a given ROM
o To produce a given joint rotational velocity, a muscle inserted farther from the joint center must contract at
a higher speed, at which it can generate less force due to the inverse force velocity relationship of the
muscle (force velocity curve)
Anatomical planes
o Sagittal plane- left & right halves; barbell curls
o Frontal plane- front & back halves; lateral dumbbell raise
o Transverse plane- top & bottom halves; dumbbell flies, rotational exercises
Acceleration- change in velocity per unit time
Force = mass times acceleration
Strength- the maximal force that a muscle can generate at a specified velocity
Work = force times distance
Power = work/time
Force is measured in newtons, distance in meters, work in joules (N*m), time in seconds, & power in watts (J/s)
Biomechanical factors in human strength
o Neural control
Affects max force output of a muscle by determining which & how many motor units are involved
in a muscle contraction & the rate at which the motor units are fired
Muscle force is greater when more motor units are involved in a contraction, the motor units are
greater in size, & the rate of firing is faster
Much of the improvement in strength in the 1st few weeks of training is attributable to neural
adaptations; as the brain learns how to generate more force from a given amount of contractile tissue
o Muscle cross sectional area
The force a muscle can exert is related to its cross sectional area rather than to its volume
o Arrangement of muscle fibers
Muscles with greater angle of pennation have more sarcomeres in parallel & fewer sarcomeres in
series; therefore they can generate force better, but have a lower max shortening velocity
o Muscle length
When a muscle is at resting length, the actin & myosin filaments lie next to each other; so a max
number of cross bridge sites are available & the muscle can generate the greatest force
When a muscle is stretched, a smaller proportion of actin & myosin filaments lie next to each other;
there are fewer cross bridge sites & the muscle cant generate as much force
When the muscle contracts to much, the actin filaments overlap which also reduces the number of
cross bridge sites
o Muscle contraction velocity
The force capability of muscle declines as the velocity of contraction increases
o Strength to mass ratio
Directly reflects an athletes ability to accelerate their body
When body size increases, muscle volume increase proportionately more than does muscle cross
sectional area
o Body size
Load lifted divided by body weight to the 2/3 power
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction
o Gravity
o Inertia
When weight is held in a static position or moved at a constant velocity, it exerts constant resistance
only in the downward direction
Upward or lateral acceleration of the weight requires additional force
o Friction
It takes more force to initiate movement than to maintain that initiated movement
Friction coefficient changes with the surface
o Fluid resistance
The resistive force encountered by an object moving through a fluid (liquid or gas), or by a fluid
moving past or around an object
Big factor in swimming, rowing, golf, & throwing events
o Elasticity
The more the elastic component is stretched, the greater the resistance
Every exercise movement begins with low resistance & ends in high resistance which is contrary to
force capability patterns in human muscles, which show a drop off in force capability towards the
end of the ROM
Joint biomechanics: concerns in RT
o Back injury- a slightly arched back is superior to a rounded back for avoiding injury
o Intra abdominal pressure & lifting belts- valsalva maneuver is unnecessary & can be dangerous;
weightlifting belts can increase intra abdominal pressure which can be beneficial but you dont want to wear
it all the time because then the muscles wont get enough stimulus, only wear belts for exercises directly
stressing the lower back & with heavy weight
o Shoulders- has the greatest ROM & poor structure which is why its very prone to injury
o Knees- prone to injury because of its location between 2 long levers
Specificity
o Training is most effective when exercises are similar to the sport activity
o Supplementary exercises specific to the sport can provide a training advantage & reduce the chance of
injury
Chapter 5: Adaptations to Anaerobic Training Programs
Neural adaptations
o Central adaptations
Primary motor cortex activity increases when the level of force developed increase & when new
exercises or movements are being learned
o Adaptations of motor units
With heavy RT, all muscle fibers get larger because they are recruited in consecutive order by their
size to produce high levels of force. The CNS might adapt by allowing athletes to recruit some
motor units not in consecutive order, recruiting larger ones first to help with greater production of
power or speed
Selective recruitment of fast twitch motor units may occur under certain circumstances that allow an
athlete to inhibit lower threshold motor units & in their place activate the higher threshold motor
units critical to optimal speed & power performance
A muscle doesnt require as much neural activation to lift a load after it increases in size
Anaerobic training can enhance the firing rates of recruited motor units
o Neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
More dispersed, irregularly shaped synapses & a greater total length of nerve terminal branching
Increased end plate perimeter length & area, as well as greater dispersion of Ach receptors within
the end plate region
o Neuromuscular reflex potentiation
Muscle spindle/stretch reflex is enhanced
o Electromyography studies
Cross education- training one limb can result in an increase in strength in the untrained limb
In untrained people, a bilateral deficit occurs. The force produced when both limbs contract is less
than the sum of the forces they produce when contracting unilaterally.
Antagonist co-contractions might be reduced
Muscular adaptations
o Muscular growth
Hypertrophy, primarily from an increase in the muscles cross sectional area
Increase in synthesis & a decrease in degradation of the contractile proteins & an increase in the
number of myofibrils within a muscle
Hyperplasia- an increase in the number of muscle fibers via longitudinal fiber splitting as a response
to high intensity RT
o Fiber size changes
An increase in both type I & type II muscle fiber area
Type II fibers manifest greater increase in size than type I fibers
o Fiber type transitions
IIxIIaxIIaIIcIcI
Type IIx fibers turn into type IIa fibers (via changes in ATPase isoform content), which are more
oxidative & resistive to fatigue
o Structural & architectural changes
Increase in myofibril volume, cytoplasmic density, sarcoplasmic reticulum & T-tubule density, &
sodium potassium ATPase activity; these changes accommodate hypertrophy, function, & strength
Angle of pennation increase in pennate muscles, which can accommodate greater protein deposition
that allows for greater cross sectional area
Muscle fascicle length increases
o Mitochondrial & capillary density decrease due to the increase in muscle size, but this doesnt reduce the
ability to perform aerobic exercises
o Buffering capacity can improve due to the substantial, constant reductions in muscle & blood pH from
anaerobic training; the athlete can tolerate higher concentrations of lactic acid
Connective tissue adaptations
o General bone physiology
Trabecular (spongy) bone- able to respond more rapidly to stimuli
Cortical (compact) bone- dense & forms a compact outer shell that is bridged by trabecular bone
Minimal essential strain- the threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation. Exceeding this
threshold signals osteoblasts to migrate to the given region & form bone
o Anaerobic training & bone growth
Force exerted on bones increases from strength/ hypertrophy gains & stronger forces of muscular
contraction
This results in an increase in bone mineral density (BMD)- the quantity of mineral deposited in a
given area of bone
Inactivity or immobilization reduces BMD
May take 6 months or longer to increase BMD via RT, but the process of adaptation begins within
the 1st few workouts
o Principles of training to increase bone strength
Specificity of loading- using exercises that directly load a particular region of the skeleton
Osteogenic stimuli- factors that stimulate new bone formation; eliciting this is critical to increasing
BMD
Exercises should involve multiple joints, should direct the force vectors through the spine & hip, &
should apply loads heavier than single joint exercises
Progressive overload applies to bone formation too
During early adulthood, people should train to maximally elevate their peak bone mass
o Adaptations of tendons, ligaments, & fascia to anaerobic training
Fibroblasts synthesize & secrete pro-collagenleaves cells in a triple helix formation with
protective extensions that prevent early collagen formationcleavage of the extensions via enzymes
results in collagen, which aligns with other collagen to form a long filamentmultiple filaments
create a microfibrilmultiple microfibrils are a fibril multiple fibrils are a fiber multiple fibers
form a collagen bundle
The enzyme levels increase in response to RT
Strength & load bearing capacity increases:
At the junctions between tendon (& ligament) & bone surface
Within the body of the tendon or ligament
In the network of fascia within skeletal muscle
Stronger muscles pull with greater force on their bony attachments & cause in increase in bone mass
at the tendon bone junction & along the line over which the forces are distributed
Changes within a tendon that contribute to its size & strength increases:
Increase in collagen fibril diameter
Greater number of covalent cross links within the hypertrophied fiber
Increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils
Tendon stiffness (tendon elongation) increase as a result of RT
o Adaptations of cartilage to anaerobic training
Hyaline cartilage- on articulating surfaces of bone
Fibrous cartilage- Intervertebral discs & at the junctions where tendons attach to bone
Articular cartilage gets O2 & nutrients via diffusion from the synovial fluid
Movement creates changes in pressure in the joint capsule that drives nutrients from the synovial
fluid toward the articular cartilage of the joint
Endocrine responses & adaptations to anaerobic training
o Acute anabolic hormonal responses
Elevated total & free testosterone, growth hormone, & cortisol for up to 30 minutes post-exercise in
men
The acute elevation in free testosterone has been shown to be greater in resistance trained men than
aerobic trained men
Elevation of these hormones is greatest when large muscle mass exercises are performed & during
workouts with moderate to high intensity/volume & short rest intervals
Insulin is mostly affected by supplementation before, during, or after exercise & not by the
anaerobic exercise stimulus
Catecholamines reflect the acute demands of anaerobic exercise (fight or flight) & RT increases
concentrations of them
o Chronic changes in the acute hormonal response
The acute hormonal response to an anaerobic workout may improve as the individual is gradually
able to exert more effort in successive training sessions
o Chronic changes in resting hormonal concentrations
Consistent changes are less likely & resting concentrations reflect the current state of muscle tissue
o Hormone receptor changes
RT has been shown to upregulate androgen receptor content within 48-72 hours after the workout
The resistance exercise stimulus appears to mediate the magnitude of acute androgen receptor
modifications
Cardiovascular & respiratory responses to acute exercise
o Acute cardiovascular responses to anaerobic exercise
HR, SV, Q, & BP increase significantly during resistance exercise (especially if using the valsalva
maneuver)
SV & Q increase mostly during the eccentric phase of each rep
The concentric phase increases intra thoracic/abdominal pressure which limits venous return &
reduces EDV
Heavy resistance exercises decrease blood flow to the working muscles because the contracting
muscles impede blood flow. Blood flow increases during the rest period
o Chronic cardiovascular adaptations at rest
RH, resting BP may decrease slightly, & RPP (HR*SBP) has been shown to decrease slightly
SV will increase as lean tissue mass increases
Total cholesterol & LDLs might decrease slightly & HDLs may increase
Heavy RT does little to enhance resting cardiac function, but a high volume program with short rest
periods may (circuit training)
Increased left ventricular wall thickness & mass due to elevated blood pressures & intra thoracic
pressure; little or no change in left ventricle size are volume is observed with RT
o Chronic adaptations of the acute cardiovascular response to anaerobic exercise
The cardiovascular response to an acute bout of resistance exercise is reduced
O2 extraction is not improved using heavy loads & low volume; a high volume program with short
rest periods may (circuit training) works better
o Ventilatory response to anaerobic exercise
Ventilation generally doesnt limit RT & is either unaffected or slightly improved by RT
Adaptations include increased tidal volume & breathing frequency with max exercise, but during
submax activity breathing frequency is often reduced while tidal volume is increase
This results from local, neural, or chemical adaptations in the muscles trained
Ventilation equivalent (VE/VO2) is improved
Compatibility of aerobic & anaerobic modes of training
o Strength & power gains will decrease especially if the aerobic training is high in intensity, volume, &
frequency. This may be due to adverse neural changes & the alterations of muscle proteins
o Power development appears to be negatively affected more than strength during concurrent high intensity
resistance & aerobic training
Overtraining
o Excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of training that results in extreme fatigue, illness, or injury
o Overreaching- excessive training on a short term basis
o Overreaching becomes overtraining if it continues beyond a reasonable time period
o A plateau or decrease in performance is observed
o Two types:
Sympathetic overtraining syndrome- increased sympathetic activity at rest
Parasympathetic overtraining syndrome- increased parasympathetic activity at rest & exercise
o Too rapid a rate of progression & high volume of heavy loads with high training frequencies & taking little
to no rest to recover can result in overtraining
o Resting concentrations of testosterone & IGF-1 are decreased & cortisol concentrations are increased
Detraining
o Cessation of anaerobic training or a substantial reduction in frequency, volume, & intensity that results in
decrements in performance & loss of the physiological adaptations associated with RT
May occur in as little as 2 weeks or sooner in well trained athletes
o Strength reductions appear to be related to neural mechanisms initially, with atrophy predominating as the
detraining period extends
o When the athlete returns to training, the rate of strength reattainment is high, suggesting the concept of
muscle memory
Ergogenic aid- can be any substance, mechanical aid, or training method that improves sport performance
Types of performance enhancing drugs
o Hormones & drugs that mimic their effects
o Dietary supplements- a product other than tobacco that must be intended for ingestion & cant be advertised
as conventional food & that contains one or more of the following ingredients:
vitamin/mineral
herb/botanical
amino acids
dietary substance to supplement the diet by increasing total dietary intake
concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combination of any of the above
hormones
o anabolic steroids
synthetic derivatives of testosterone
stimulate protein synthesis
responsible for development of male secondary sex characteristics
testosterone produced in the Leydig cells of testes
dosing
stacking regimen
administer several drugs simultaneously; rationale is tom increase the potency of each drug
take in a cyclic pattern & administer in a pyramid pattern in which dosages are steadily
increased over several weeks
towards end of cycle athlete decreases intake & might take other drugs to increase normal
testosterone production
Who uses anabolic steroids?
Strength athletes
People that want to enhance their appearance
Muscle dysmorphia- people with an altered self image who believed they looked small &
weak even though they were big as shit
Ergogenic benefits
Increases in muscle protein synthesis & inhibition of catabolic effects of high intensity
training
Increases in lean body mass
Some weight gain might be caused by increased water, but in some studies the ratio of
intra/extra cellular water was unaltered 6 weeks after cessation
Strength gains in experienced athletes are generally small compared to those seen in novice
lifters
Athletes using anabolic steroids see strength gains 2-3 times higher than non users
A higher testosterone to cortisol ratio may allow the athlete to maintain a higher intensity &
volume of training & enhance recovery
Psychological effects
Elevations in arousal, self esteem, & aggressiveness
May be associated with mood swings & psychotic episodes
Adverse effects
Role of nutritionists
o Personalized nutritional counseling: weight loss/gain, menu planning, dietary supplements
o Dietary analysis of food records
o Nutritional education: presentations & handouts
o Referral & treatment of eating disorders
o Define athletes goals
Standard nutrition guidelines
o Food guide pyramid (MyPyramid)
Grains
Vegetables
Fruits
Milk
Meat & beans
Oils
o Dietary reference intakes (DRIs)
Recommendations for 50 nutrients (14 vitamins, 18 minerals, & 18 macronutrients & related food
components)
DRI report for each nutrient includes:
Estimated average requirements & its standard deviation by age & gender
Recommended dietary consumption based on the estimated average requirement
An adequate intake level when a recommended intake cannot be based on an estimated
average requirement
Tolerable upper intake levels above which risk of toxicity increases
Macronutrients
o Protein
Contain nitrogen
Composed of 20 amino acids
Essential/non essential amino acids
Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds
Dipeptide, polypeptide
Polypeptide chains bond together to form proteins with various structures & functions
The need for dietary proteins/amino acids results from the constant turnover of cells (breakdown &
regeneration of cells)
Protein quality- determined by whether the protein supplies amino acids in amounts proportionate to
the bodys needs
High quality protein- proteins of animal origin
Low quality protein- deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids; plant proteins
Vegans must consume a variety of plant foods that provide different amino acids
(complementary proteins)
General requirements
Consider caloric intake & biological value of the protein
Protein can be metabolized as a source of energy in a state of negative caloric balance
The higher the biological value of the protein (protein from animal origin), the lower the
protein requirement
Recommended intake for protein for adults is .8 g/kg of body weight for men & women or
10-15% of daily caloric intake
Requirements for athletes
Athletes protein requirements are increased by training
Protein requirements of aerobic endurance athletes .8g/kg to 1.4g/kg of body weight
Heavy resistance training requirements can increase requirements up to 1.7g/kg of body
weight
A general recommendation of 1.5 g/kg to 2g/kg of body weight ensures adequate protein
intake
Excess protein is broken down
The nitrogen is excreted in the urine
Intakes greater than 4g/kg of body weight is not advised for athletes with impaired renal function or
low calcium intake or those who are restricting fluid intake
o Carbohydrates
Main energy source
ALL types of dietary carbohydrates are effective in supplying the athlete with glucose & glycogen
Monosaccharides
Glucose, fructose, galactose
Glucose is the most common, circulates in the blood, & is the primary energy substrate for
cells
Fructose is much sweeter than glucose
Disaccharides
Sucrose (glucose & fructose) is the most common; found in most fruits; table sugar
Lactose (glucose & galactose) is only found in mammalian milk
Maltose (glucose & glucose) occurs when polysaccharides are broken down & during the
fermentation of alcohol; primary carbohydrate in beer
Polysaccharides
Complex carbohydrates, contain up to thousands of glucose units
Starch, fiber, glycogen
Starch is the storage form of glucose in plants; found in grains, nuts, legumes, & vegetables;
must be broken down to glucose before it can be used as an energy source
Fibers (constituent of plant cell wall) are generally resistant to digestive enzymes & increase
bulk & water content & decrease transit time of feces. Fiber is found in fruits, vegetables,
nuts, legumes, & whole grain products. The DRI for fiber is 38 & 25 g/day for men &
women.
Glycogen is a temporary source of energy. If glucose is not metabolized for energy it is
synthesized to glycogen. 2/3 of glycogen is store in skeletal muscle; the remaining is stored
in the liver (which has the highest glycogen content of all the tissues in the body).
Glycogenesis is the process of converting glucose to glycogen.
Glycemic index (GI)
Classifies food by how high & for how long it raises blood glucose
Foods that are digested quickly & raise blood glucose rapidly have a high GI
If the goal is to quickly replenish glucose & glycogen then foods that rapidly appear as
glucose in the blood are desirable
Scientists have speculated that low GI foods may spare carbohydrate by minimizing insulin
secretion & increasing fatty acid levels in the blood
Carbohydrate requirements
50 to 100 g/day is needed to prevent ketosis
45 to 64% of total daily caloric intake
A high carbohydrate diet is commonly recommended for all athletes
Aerobic endurance athletes who train for 90 minutes or more daily need 8 to 10 g/kg of body
weight (this level has been shown to replenish glycogen within 24 hours)
5 to 6 g/kg of body weight is adequate for power, strength, & sprint athletes
o Lipids
Fatty acid chains contain more carbon & hydrogen relative to O2 so they provide more energy
Saturated fatty acids contain all the hydrogen they can & contain no double bonds
Unsaturated fatty acids have carbon atoms double bonded to where the hydrogen atoms would be
Fatty acids containing 1 double bond are monounsaturated
Fatty acids containing 2 or more double bonds are polyunsaturated
Fat serves as a carrier for the fat soluble vitamins & supplies omega 6 & 3 fatty acids which are
necessary for the formation of healthy cell membranes, development of the brain/nervous system, &
the production of hormones
Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes. Its also necessary for the production of
bile salts, vitamin D, the sex hormones, & cortisol. Its synthesized in the liver & intestine.
Requirements & recommendations
5 to 10% of energy from omega 6 fatty acids
.6 to 1.2% of energy from omega 3 fatty acids
Fat should constitute 20 to 35% of total calories consumed with less than 10% from saturated
fats
Fat intakes greater than 30% are common in elite athletes
An acceptable lower limit of 20% of calories from fat
Diets low in fat (less than 15%) may decrease testosterone production & metabolism
Fat & performance
Both intramuscular & circulating fatty acids are potential energy sources during exercise
Intramuscular fatty acids are more important during activity & that circulating fatty acids are
more important during recovery
With increasing exercise intensities (over70-80% VO2max) there is a gradual shift from fat
to carbohydrate as the preferred source of fuel
Micronutrients
o Vitamins
Organic substances that cannot be synthesized by the body
They are needed in very small amounts & perform specific metabolic functions
Table 10.5 page 215
o Minerals
Required for a wide variety of metabolic functions
Ultratrace minerals are needed in minute amounts & evidence for their essentiality is difficult to
find. Deficiencies have not been established.
Table 10.6 page 216
Fluid & electrolytes
o Water
45 to 70% of a persons body weight
Fluid balance
Total water intake for young men & women (ages 19-30) is 3.7 L & 2.7 L/day
Athletes sweating profusely for several hours per day may need to consume & extra 3 to 4
gallons of fluid to replace losses
Risks of dehydration
Unless sweat losses are replaced, body temperature rises which leads to heat exhaustion,
heatstroke, & possibly death
Fluid loss of 1% can be associated with an elevation in core temperature during exercise
Fluid loss of 3-5% results in cardiovascular strain & impaired ability to dissipate heat
At 7% loss collapse is likely
Monitoring hydration status
Record athletes body weight
Each pound lost during practice represents 1 pint of fluid loss which must be replaced before
the next practice
Sings of dehydration include dark yellow urine, decreased frequency of urination, rapid
resting heart rate, prolonged muscle soreness
o Electrolytes
Major electrolytes lost in sweat are sodium, chloride, & potassium
You may experience heat cramps from sodium depletion
The average sodium concentration in sweat is 1.15 g/L
o Fluid replacement
Before activity
At least 1 pint of fluid 2 hours before activity
Can be any nonalcoholic beverage
During activity
Athletes should start drinking before sensing thirst & continue to drink at regular intervals
Chugging is preferred over sipping as large volumes empty from the stomach faster than
small volumes
Cool water is an ideal fluid replacement
Aerobic endurance athletes can benefit from carbohydrate provision during activities lasting
more than 1 hour
Carbohydrate concentration of commercial sport drink ranges from 6-8%, a solution that
tends to be absorbed rapidly
After activity
Replace each pound of body weight lost with 1 pint of fluid
Pre-competition & post-exercise nutrition
o Pre-competition food consumption
Purpose
To provide fluid & energy for the athlete during performance
Timing
Eat 3 to 4 hours prior to the event (varies athlete to athlete) to prevent becoming nauseated or
uncomfortable during competition
Practical considerations
Its important that athletes consume food & beverages that they like, that they tolerate well,
that they are used to consuming, & that they believe will result in a winning performance
Carbohydrate loading
Used to enhance muscle glycogen prior to long term aerobic endurance exercise
3 days of high carb diet in concert with tapering exercise the week before the event &
complete rest the day before the event
Diet should provide 8-10 g/kg of body weight
This should increase muscle glycogen stores 20-40% above normal
Increases carbohydrate oxidation during submax exercise & improves high intensity, short
duration performance
o Post-exercise food consumption
High GI foods after exercise replenish glycogen faster than low GI foods
A delay of 2 hours does not inhibit glycogenesis 8 to 24 hours later
For athletes training multiple times a day immediate consumption after exercise is beneficial
Weight & body composition
o Energy requirements
A kilocalorie is the work or energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water 1 degree
Celsius
Factors influencing energy requirements
Resting metabolic rate- accounts for 60-75% of daily energy expenditure; a measure of the
calories required for maintaining normal body function
Thermic effect of food- 7-10% of daily energy expenditure; the increase in energy
expenditure above the resting metabolic rate that can be measured following a meal; includes
the energy cost of digestion, absorption, metabolism, & storage of food in the body
Physical activity- most variable
Estimating energy requirements
Table 10.7
o Weight gain
If all the extra calories consumed are for muscle growth during resistance training, than about 2500
kcals are required for each pound gained. 350 to 700 kcals above daily requirements are needed to
support a 1-2 pound weekly gain
o Weight loss
The ability to achieve & maintain minimal body fat is largely genetic
Best diet is a well balanced one that achieves a negative caloric balance
Whether athletes gain muscle & lose body fat simultaneously depends primarily on their level of
training
You cant lose substantial amounts of body mass without losing lean body mass too
Gradual weight loss ensures maximum fat loss & preservation of lean tissue
Caloric intake of no less than 1800 to 2000 kcal/day can serve as a starting point
Diet should be composed primarily of foods high in nutrient density
Diet should be composed of food low in energy density
o Rapid weight loss
Accomplished by restricting food & fluids for 3 to 10 days before competition
Athletes may suffer heat illness, muscle cramping, fatigue, dizziness, weakness, & decreased
concentration
Eating disorders: anorexia nervosa & bulimia nervosa
o Anorexia nervosa
Self imposed starvation in an effort to lose weight & achieve thinness
Characterized be a severe fear of obesity
They appear very thin, often wear layers of baggy clothing, & may have a covering of fine white
hair on the skin
Diagnostic criteria:
Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age & height
(body weight less than 85% of normal)
Intense fear of becoming fat or gaining weight
Undue influence of body weight on self evaluation or denial of the seriousness of the current
low body weight
Amenorrhea (the absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles)
Warning signs:
Commenting repeatedly about being or feeling fat & asking do you think Im fat when
weight is below average
Dramatic weight loss for no medical reason
Preoccupation with food, calories, & weight
o Bulimia nervosa
Recurrent consumption of food in amounts significantly greater than would customarily be
consumed at one sitting
Purging follows this binging: vomiting, intense exercise, laxatives, diuretics
Frequent weight fluctuations of 10 pounds are common
Binging is a coping response used by the individual to manage stress
Diagnostic criteria:
Recurrent binge eating
Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior in order to prevent weight gain
At least 2 binge eating sessions followed by compensatory behavior each week for at least 3
months
Self evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape & weight
The disturbance doesnt occur exclusively during episodes of anorexia nervosa
Warning signs:
Eating secretively
Disappearing repeatedly immediately after eating
Appearing nervous or agitated if something prevents the person from being alone shortly
after eating
Losing or gaining extreme amounts of weight
Smell or remnants of vomit in places
Disappearance of large amounts of food
o Warning signs for both disorders
Complaining of constipation or stomach aches
Mood swings
Social withdrawal
Relentless, excessive exercise
Excessive concern about weight
Strict dieting followed by binges
Increasing criticism of ones body
Strong denial that a problem exists, even when there is hard evidence
o Management & care
Fact finding
Roommates/teammates may observe a food related problem
Initial assessment: warning signs may include amenorrhea, significant weight loss & refusal
to gain weight, refusal to make recommended dietary changes, reports from the athlete that
conflict with what others observe, strong denial that there is a problem or making excuses
Declines in performance wont occur until late in the disease when stress fractures, illness, &
fainting may occur
Confronting
Denial & disdain on the part of the individual are to be expected
A plan should be in place for managing athletes with suspected eating disorders
Referring
The athlete should schedule an appointment for an assessment at a clinic or hospital
Following up
What not to do
Trying to help the athletes by monitoring their food intake
Having them weigh in frequently
Giving them nutritional information
Telling them they look fine
Obesity
o BMI is the preferred body composition assessment for fat people (weight in kg/height in meters squared)
o Skinfold assessment becomes inaccurate because of the size of the skinfold & the lack of standardized
formulas for fat people
o Underweight is a BMI less than 18.5
o Normal is 18.5 to 24.9
o Overweight is 25 to 29.9
o Class 1 obesity is 30 to 34.9
o Class 2 obesity is 35 to 39.9
o Extreme obesity is greater than 40 (you are fat as shit)
Warm up
o Increase muscle temperature, core temperature, & blood flow
o Faster muscle contraction/relaxation
o Improvements in rate of force development & reaction time, muscle strength/power & oxygen delivery
(Bohr effect)
o Enhanced metabolic reactions
o Stretching during warm up
Little evidence proving stretching does anything to prevent injury or soreness
Static stretching can compromise performance
Decreased force production, power, run speed, reaction time, & strength endurance
Dynamic stretching doesnt decrease performance & is preferred for stretching during warm up
PNF has been shown to increase running performance
o Components of a warm up
General warm up
5 to 10 minute slow activity (slow jogging) or low intensity sport specific actions
Specific warm up
8 to 12 minute dynamic stretching focusing on movements that work through the ROM
required in the sport
Followed by sport specific movements of increased intensity (such as sprint, bounding,
jumping)
Include rehearsal of skill to be performed
Flexibility
o Degree of movement at joint = ROM
o ROM (& flexibility) determined by connective tissue structure, activity level, age, sex, muscle bulk, & RT
with limited ROM
o Static flexibility- ROM about a joint during passive movement; requires no voluntary activity: gravity, a
partner, or a machine does it
o Dynamic flexibility- available ROM during active movements, generally greater than static flexibility
o Flexibility & performance
Optimal ranges & increased risk of injury possible if not in those optimal ranges
Imbalance isnt good either
o Frequency, duration, & intensity of stretching
Acute effect of stretching greatest immediately after
2 times per week for 5 weeks shown to increase flexibility
15 to 30 seconds (30 seconds better)
o When should athlete stretch?
After practice/competition
Increased muscle temperature (from activity) = increased elastic properties
Performed within 5 to 10 minutes after
As a separate session
Preceded by a warm up
Proprioceptors & stretching
o Muscle spindles
Within Intrafusal fibers, monitors changes in length
Cause stretch reflex
o GTO
Near musculotendinous junction, monitors muscular tension
Autogenic inhibition- relaxation that occurs in the same muscle that is experiencing increased
tension; tension built up during an active contraction stimulates the GTO, causing a reflexive
relaxation of the muscle during the subsequent passive stretch
Reciprocal inhibition- relaxation that occurs in the muscle opposing the muscle experiencing the
increased tension; accomplished when you simultaneously contract the muscle opposing the muscle
that is being passively stretched. The tension in the contracting muscle stimulates the GTO &
causes a simultaneously reflexive relaxation of the stretched muscle
Types of stretching
o Static
30 seconds
Doesnt elicit stretch reflex
Increases ROM
o Ballistic
Badcauses injury
Triggers stretch reflex
o Dynamic
Sport specific movements
Promotes dynamic flexibility
Promotes temperature related benefits of general warm up
Muscle is active through ROM
o PNF
Hold relax
Passive pre-stretch at mild discomfort for 10 seconds
Isometric muscle action for 6 seconds
Passive stretch for 30 seconds
Contract relax
Passive pre-stretch at mild discomfort for 10 seconds
Contraction of stretched muscle through ROM
Passive stretch for 30 seconds
Hold relax with agonist contraction
Passive pre-stretch at mild discomfort for 10 seconds
Isometric muscle action for 6 seconds
Contraction of antagonist muscle while simultaneously passively stretching agonist
Handgrips
o Pronated/overhand
o Supinated/underhand
o Neutral grip
o Alternated grip
o Hook grip- for exercises requiring a strong grip (power exercises)
o Closed grip- thumb wrapped around the bar
o Open/false grip- thumb not wrapped around the bar
Stable body & limb position
o 5 point body contact position
For seated or supine
Head firmly on bench/pad
Shoulders/upper back firmly/evenly on bench/pad
Buttocks firmly/evenly on bench/pad
Right foot flat on floor
Left foot flat on floor
Promotes stability/spine support
ROM & speed
o Slow, controlled reps increase the likelihood of full ROM reached
o Power exercisesaccelerate bar to max speed while maintaining control
Breathing considerations
o Exhale through sticking point of the concentric phase & inhale during the eccentric phase
o Valsalva can be helpful for well trained, experienced lifters performing structural exercises to assist in
maintaining proper vertebral alignment & support
Weight belts
o An athlete should wear a weight belt when performing exercises that place stress on the lower back &
during sets that involve near max or max loads
Spotting
o For safety & forced reps
o Free weight exercises performed over the head, bar on back, bar anteriorly on shoulder/clavicles, or over the
face
o Dont spot power exercises
o Spotter grasps bar with alternated grip
o Spot at wrists
o Multiple spotters if load is to big
o Spotter & athlete must communicate
o Liftoffs
Chapter 15: RT
SAID principle- specific adaptations to imposed demands: type of demand placed on body dictates the type of
adaptations that will occur
Step 1: needs analysis- determine unique characteristics of the sport
o Evaluation of the sport
Movement analysis- body/limb movement patterns & muscle involvement
Physiological analysis- strength, power, hypertrophy, endurance priorities
Injury analysis
o Assessment of the athlete: page 384 table 15.1 & 15.2
Training status- current condition
Training background- training occurring before new program
Type of program (flexibility, sprint, plyometric, etc.)
Frequency, intensity, technique experience
Physical testing & evaluation- assessments of strength, flexibility, power, speed, muscular
endurance, body composition, endurance, etc.
Goals
Step 2: exercise selection
o Core exercises- 1 or more large muscle areas, multi-joint, receive priority
o Assistance exercises- smaller muscle areas, single joint
o Structural exercises- load spine directly or indirectly (power clean)
o Power exercises- structural exercises performed very quickly
o Sport specific exercises: SAID principle
o Muscle balance- balance agonist/antagonist
o Correct technique
Step 3: frequency- training sessions in a given time period (page 389 table 15.4 & page 390 table 15.6)
o At least 1 day of recovery, but no more than 3 between sessions that stress the same muscle group
o During sport season frequency might decrease
o Load & exercise type- intensity determines frequency
o Other training- aerobic/anaerobic training
Step 4: exercise order
o Power, other core, assistance exercises
Multi-joint then single joint
Large muscle areas 1st
Pre-exhaustion- single joint exercises 1st
o Alternate upper & lower body exercises (circuit training)
o Alternate push/pull exercises
o Supersets- 2 sequentially performed exercises stressing 2 opposing muscles
o Compound sets- 2 sequentially performed exercises stressing the same muscle
Step 5: load & reps, page 394 table 15.7
o Load- amount of weight
o Load volume- related to mechanical work, weight * reps
o 1RM & #RM (most weight lifted for a specified # of reps)
o 1RM testing options- actual 1RM, estimated 1RM from multiple RM test
o Assigning load & reps- base on 1RM or estimated RM
Strength: >85% 1RM, <6 reps
Power: single event- 80-90% 1RM, 1-2 reps; multi event- 75-85% 1RM, 3-5 reps
Hypertrophy: 67-85% 1RM, 6-12 reps
Endurance: <67%, >12 reps
o Power training is less than 100% 1RM because at 100% velocity s very low; lower % & the velocity
increases, which increases power
o Variation of load- have 1 heavy day per week & lighter loads other days to allow for rest
Step 6: volume
o Strength: 2-6 sets
o Power: 3-5 sets
o Hypertrophy: 3-6 sets, 3 or more exercises
o Endurance: 2-3 sets
Step 7: rest periods
o More rest for core exercises & heavier loads
o Strength/power: 2-5 minutes
o Hypertrophy: 30 seconds to 1.5 minutes
o Endurance: <30 seconds
Impulse- change in momentum resulting from a force, measured as the product of force & time
Power
o The rate of doing work, measured as the product of force & velocity
o Peak power & force absorbed by tissues is greater in active lengthening than shortening
Peak rate of intrinsic muscle shortening depends on:
o Contractility & excitability of neuromuscular system
o Muscle architecture- fiber/fascicle length & the number of active sarcomeres
o Motor unit composition & max cross bridge cycling rates in fiber types
Many functional tasks begin with actions referred to as the SSC
o Activities aim to improving SSC should:
Involve skillful, multi-joint movements that transmit forces through the kinetic chain & exploit
elastic-reflexive mechanisms
Structured around brief work bouts separated by frequent rest pauses
o A combination of progressive plyometric & heavy RT can accomplish this
Complex training- alternating SSC tasks with heavy RT within the same session enhances their
working effect
o Reactive ability vs. reaction time
Reactive ability- characteristic of explosive strength in SSC actions that can be improved through
reactive-explosive training
Reaction time- untrainable & correlates poorly with movement action time or performance in many
explosive events; important in quick timing tasks (hitting a baseball) & defensive types of stimulus
response actions (goaltenders making a save)
Explosive strength training good for aerobic athletes because stride frequency, length, & efficiency can be
improved
Running speed
o Alternating flight phase & support phase
o Run speed is the interaction of stride frequency & stride length
o Elite sprinters have greater stride length & keep increasing it up to ~45 meters
o They achieve greater stride frequency & increase it up to ~25 meters
o They produce greater initial forces & velocities at the start, greater rates of acceleration, & reach max
velocities quicker
o Stride length-frequency relationship
As speed approaches maximum, frequency changes more than length & is more important in
determining final velocity
Frequency seems to be more trainable than stride length
o Fundamental training objectives
Minimize braking forces at ground contact by maximizing the backward velocity of leg/foot at
touchdown & by planting foot beneath your center of gravity
Emphasize brief ground support times as a means of achieving rapid stride rate
Emphasize functional training of hamstrings (concentric & eccentric training)
Agility
o Skill classification
General- target development of 1 or more basic coordinated abilities
Speed- unify them in a skill specific manner
Closed- have programmed assignments & predictable/stable environments; athlete determines
where, when, & how to begin the action (pro agility drill)
Open- non programmed assignments & unpredictable or unstable environments; open field dodging
in team games
Continuous- no identifiable stat or finish; usually performed at low or intermediate speeds
Discrete- definite start & finish
Serial- composed of discrete skills performed in sequence, with successful execution of each subtask
determining the overall outcome
o Agility tasks involving changes in velocity can be characterized by:
Decrease or increase in speed (or both) & redirection of movement
Final speed & direction
o Agility tasks involving changes in locomotion mode can be characterized by:
Specific locomotion modes performed & the movement techniques used to execute them discretely
The specific sequences in which they are performed & the techniques used to transition between
them serially
o Technical consideration
Body position- body lean must increase as the rate of deceleration increases
Visual focus- head in neutral position with eyes focused directly ahead (use peripheral vision when
moving laterally)
Leg action- greater deceleration during multidirectional tasks the greater the need to reacquire high
stride rate & stride length
Arm action- powerful arm action to help with leg drive
Braking mechanisms- key to increase direction changing
Run speed & stop within 3 steps
Run speed & stop within 5 steps
Run full speed & stop within 7 steps
o Methods of developing speed & agility
Primary- technique training
Secondary
Sprint resistance- gravity resisted running (upstairs or up a grade), provides resistance
without arresting athletes movement mechanics
Sprint assistance- gravity assisted running, high speed towing, other activities to get
overspeed effect, improves stride rate
Tertiary
Mobility- flexibility, full ROM
Strength- address entire force velocity spectrum, use SSC actions
Speed endurance- figure 17.9 page 475
Program design
o Periodization (micro, meso, macrocycles)
o Short term planning
Fatigue management & task specificity are the driving forces in short range planning
Want to enhance fatigue resistance & tolerance
Speed & agility sessions
Max running velocity has been directly related to muscle myokinase & creating
phosphokinase & inversely related to lactate dehydrogenase
Creating phosphate energy system
Do speed agility stuff early in training session
Brief work bouts & frequent 2-3 minute rest periods
Repetition method- figure 17.9 page 475
Speed endurance sessions- maximally engage oxidative pathways in intermittent tasks instead of
continuous, submax workloads
Motor learning guidelines
Physical vs. mental practice- mental is useful for pre-performance preparation
Amount of practice- overlearning
Whole vs. part practice- part practice preferable for highly complex & low organization,
whole practice good for low complex & high organization
Augmented feedback- extrinsic feedback
Practice distribution- shorter, more frequent practice sessions
Practice variation- changing task order or conditions
o Medium term planning
Exploit complementary training effects at optimal times & minimize the compatibility problems
associated with concurrent training
o Long term planning
As athletes master each skill, they should review & maintain it while progressing to newer, more
complex tasks