Explosives by Rankin, Stephanie in Forensic Science Central

Explosives

An explosion occurs as the result of a chemical reaction which releases a vast amount of physical or
chemical energy accompanied by light, heat and sound in a short space of time. The cause of an
explosion could range from a simple accident in the home to a major terrorist incident. Either way, an
intricate investigation must take place to establish the exact circumstances of the event.

The construction of a bomb can be fairly simple, some requiring just a timer or remote control to
create an initial spark, which ignites the bomb and triggers a blast. The recipes for making such a
bomb are readily available online. The strength of a bomb can vary greatly, some yielding little power
and others causing mass destruction, depending on the chemical reactants used.

Noble gases and alkali metals are commonly used in the construction of bombs, with there being a
variety of possible types of explosive available. Detonating cords are common parts of many explosive
devices. These are plastic tubes filled with powdered explosive, usually PETN (pentaerythritol
tetranitrate), commonly used to link charges through the transmission of the detonation shock wave
or as the explosive charge themselves. Explosive devices will often contain boosters, components
which amplify and transmit the shockwave between the detonator and main charge. Many bombs
require some kind of trigger to initiate the detonation, so timers or remote control devices are
commonly used. These start the initial charge, which then goes on to ignite the explosive and
detonate the bomb.

The Investigation
The site of an explosion must first be deemed safe before officers may proceed with their
investigation. As with in fire investigations, consideration must be given to the structural instability of
buildings, dangerous materials such as glass and metal, and flammable or toxic substances. In
bombing cases there is always the possibility that second devices have been placed, either bombs that
did not detonate or those specifically designed to harm people responding to the incident. Therefore
the area should be deemed structurally safe, experts should be called in to locate any further
explosives, and appropriate protective clothing should be worn. As with any crime scene, a cordon will
be placed around the area to preserve evidence and control who can enter the scene. The diameter of
the cordon will be dependent on the incident, as an unexploded device requires a smaller cordon as
no debris is involved.

Initially the investigation will establish whether an explosion has actually occurred. Explosions will
result in specific damage being caused to surrounding areas, the presence of which may indicate such
an incident has taken place. Therefore investigators will search for this characteristic damage. Textiles
will take on specific material when subjected to the heat caused by an explosion, with many melting
and once again solidifying, displaying clubbed damage. Surfaces slightly further away, such as rooftops
and stationary vehicles, are likely to collect soot deposits from materials burned during the explosion.
The pressure and heat of the blast will cause specific damage to nearby surfaces, the kind of damage
being specific to the material. Once confirmed, the origin of the explosion will be located. The
presence and depth of specific damage or a crater may indicate the origin, or seat, of the explosion. It
must then be established whether the incident was caused by maliciously placed explosives or if it was
an accident, such as a gas leak. Investigators will be on the lookout for both signs of potential gas leaks
and similar but also for indicators of bomb use.

Before and throughout the investigation any witnesses to the incident will be interviewed. Witness
reports are useful for gathering information on any occurrences leading up to the explosion, details of
the explosion itself, and anything else that may be relevant, such as the sightings of suspicious
individuals.

During the investigation of an explosion scene, investigators must search far and wide for possible
fragments, as much of the bomb is thrown far from the epicentre due to the heat and kinetic energy
produced. Fragments may be found on rooftops, under other debris, and even embedded in other
objects or victims. All fragments should be collected to ensure the bomb can be reconstructed. Such
fragments may also carry fingerprints belonging to the perpetrator. Components searched for at a
crime scene include detonators, tapes, wires, timers, switches, and batteries. Once all present
components have been collected, experts may be able to establish what kind of explosive device was
used, including its construction and how it was triggered. The type of explosive used, its construction,
or specific components used may be useful in locating the bomb maker, particularly if a series of
explosions have occurred over a period of time. Similarly, particular terrorist organisations may be
known for using a specific type of explosive. An investigation may often be conducted into recent
purchases of certain substances. Explosives are generally strictly regulated by the government, and so
a flag may be raised when an individual purchases a particular chemical. However materials used in
bombs are often stolen or smuggled into the country, so the components may be more difficult to
trace.

Investigations are not limited to the scene of the explosive incident itself, but can be extended to the
homes of suspects. Homes may be examined and analysed for any indication of bomb construction,
including bomb fragments and explosive substances. Surfaces will be swabbed to detect the presence
of minute traces of explosive residues, either using chemical indicators or to collect samples for
further laboratory analysis.

Types of Explosive
Explosions may have a chemical and physical element. The first relates to the chemical energy stored
in the explosive molecules which produce the heat, light, sound, and kinetic energy. A physical
explosion may be the sudden release of pressure, such as in the explosion of a container of gas.

A detonation is a subsonic explosion with a speed greater than the speed of sound in that material,
with a pressure wave of up to 8500 metres per second. This occurs in high explosives. Detonations
tend to have a shattering effect, and a particularly condensed explosion will cause a huge crater.

Deflagration is a type of subsonic combustion which occurs slower than the speed of sound in that
material, creating a pressure wave of up to 1000 metres per second or less. It is usually propagated by
thermal conductivity and is common to most every day fires. Condensed explosives undergoing
deflagration produce extreme heat which will melt surrounding objects.

There are two kinds of explosive: low explosive and high explosive. Low explosives are characterised
by their ability to burn in the same way any other combustible material would. They exert a throwing
or pushing effect when the explosion occurs, with a blast front velocity below 400ms-1. Examples of
low explosives, also known as propellants, include gunpowder and nitrocellulose. High explosives are
much more dangerous, having more of a shattering effect and exploding at a rate of between 100 and
8500 metres per second. They have a blast front velocity of 400ms-1, and can reach up to 19000ms-1.
High explosives can be primary or secondary. Primary high explosives are very sensitive, with an
example being nitroglycerine. Secondary explosives are conversely fairly insensitive, with examples
including PETN and TNT.

A variety of explosives are commonly encountered, their construction and mechanisms specific to
their use.

Pipe Bombs Simple construction generally consisting of a short length of pipe with both ends
capped. One end is drilled and the detonator inserted, and either high or low explosives may be used.
Parts of this bomb usually survive the blast and may hold evidence such as fingerprints and
manufacturer details.

Vehicle Bombs These generally use large quantities of low explosive with a high explosive booster.
The bombs are placed inside vehicles which can generally be subtly left in the target location where
they will often cause great destruction. It is usually possible to at least identify the make and model of
the vehicle used and potentially even its owner.

Letter & Parcel Bombs These generally contain a small amount of high explosive packaged inside an
inconspicuous letter or package. Such bombs often yield forensic evidence as the devices rarely cause
fires and so less evidence is destroyed.

Mines These are concealed devices containing high explosive, commonly used by the military. Mines
are often hidden and detonated when touched. Much forensic evidence can often be obtained from
the device.

Suicide Bombers Suicide bombers, usually an individual wearing a waistcoat of explosives or carrying
a device, are primarily utilised by terrorist organisations. These types of bombs allow for the
explosives to literally be walked into the target location and placed close enough so that maximum
destruction can be caused. The identity of bombers can often be ascertained from CCTV footage and
witness statements. Parts of the bomber may even be found, as the upper torso and head sometimes
survive the blast and are found a distance away from the epicentre of the blast. Many organisations
will publish or advertise the identity of the bomber after the event has occurred.

Detecting Explosives
Throughout the investigation various techniques may be utilised to detect explosive residues, either
traces left behind by the explosive device or materials used in the production of the explosives.

The use of specially trained dogs is perhaps one of the oldest methods of detecting explosives. These
canines are trained to use their exceptional sense of smell to detect and locate the presence of even
the slightest traces of explosive material. They may equally be utilised at the crime scene itself to
detect more explosive devices or residues, and in homes of suspects to establish whether the location
bears any trace of such substances. The dogs may also be instructed to detect explosive scents on
people and their clothing. You can read more about these trained dogs on the K9s page.

Similar to trained canines are electronic sniffer devices. Explosives generally give off certain scents
which the device can detect. The air is drawn through a filter, causing the heavier explosive chemicals
to collect where they can then be analysed, giving some indication as to its presence. However some
explosives, such as plastic explosives, are not easily detected by these devices, therefore canines may
be more useful in this respect. Detection techniques should always be used in unison rather than
exclusively.

X-ray techniques are frequently used in the detection of explosive devices, particularly when dealing
with suspicious objects or containers. Dual energy technology simultaneously passes two x-ray beams
through the item. One of these will detect organic materials, displaying them as red, and the other
beam focuses on inorganic materials, displaying them as blue or green. These colour differences allow
for the quick and efficient scanning of items, particularly useful in airports and other public areas.

Away from the crime scene standard analytical techniques may be used to detect and identify
explosive substances. Mass spectrometry and gas chromatography are frequently used in the analysis
of samples collected from the scene to identify any explosive residues.