Archaeology, Architecture and Informatics

ArhIn
I
Medieval Changing Landscape.
Settlements, Monasteries and Fortifications

Editors:
Ioan Marian IPLIC
Maria CRNGACI IPLIC

Sibiu
Editura ASTRA Museum
2016
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei
ArhIn 2016 - Medieval changing landscape : settlements, monasteries
and fortifications / ed.: Ioan Marian iplic, Maria Emilia iplic ; trad.:
Iulia G. - Sibiu : Astra Museum, 2016
ISBN 978-606-733-146-2

I. iplic, Ioan Marian (ed.)

II. iplic, Maria Emilia (ed.)
III. G, Iulia Elena (trad.)

902

This work was possible with the financial support of UEFISCDI inside of the
Framework for Research, Development and Inovation Program 2007-2013, Ideea
Program, Exploratory Research Sub-Program, project CNCS PN-II-ID-PCE-
2011-3-0744, nr.193/5.10.2011
 Contents

Foreword .......................................................................................................................................... 5

Aurel Dragot, Egg offering in the cemetery from Izvorul mpratului, Alba Iulia
(10th11th centuries) .............................................................................................. 7

Valeri Yotov, The Landscape Change at Lower Danube in the Middle Ages.
The Varna Example (late 9thbeginning of 12th centuries) ............................. 17

Cristina Paraschiv Talmachi, Life on the right bank of Danube in Early Middle
Ages: archaeological evidence from Oltina ...................................................... 27

Silviu Oa, Burials with belts. Rank insignia or dress accessories

(12th15th centuries A.D.) .................................................................................. 43

Maria Emilia iplic, Silviu Istrate Purece, Medieval Churches and Cemeteries in
Transylvania in the Light of Coin Discoveries (second half of
the 11th century13th century) ........................................................................... 63

Florin Mrginean, Csk Zsolt, Maria Tman, Archaeological Recoveries.

The Medieval Church from Vrdia de MureTtvrad (Arad County) .... 97

Daniela Marcu Istrate, The Archaeology of the Medieval Churches in Braov:

St Martins Church .......................................................................................... 113

Maria Crngaci iplic, Ioan Marian iplic, The Southern Transylvania in the 13th
century, a Border between Catholic Space and Non-Catholic Space .......... 131

Alexandru Florin Cioltei, The administrative subordination of the

provostship in Sibiu/Hermannstadt ................................................................ 155

Corina Hoprtean, The Order of St Paul the Hermit in the Hungarian Kingdom:
the orders remains in Puca, Sibiu County ................................................. 163

Szocs Peter Levente, Archaeological Evidences of Monastic Patronage:

Several Case Studies ....................................................................................... 173

Marco Merlini, When the Byzantine Mount Athos also prayed in Latin:
The amazing history of the foundation of the Benedictine Monastery ........... 191

Mirela I. Weber-Andrecov, Water Mills as stable Indicator for a Territorial

Morphology, an interdisciplinary research about medieval administration
in border region, Wine District / Weinviertel,
Lower Austria / Niedersterreich ................................................................. 227

Andrei Nacu, Analysis of ecclesiastical-related place names in Sibiu region

using GIS applications ..................................................................................... 271

Maria Crngaci iplic, Cosmin Ioan Ignat, The Relation of the Romanian
Archaeologist / Historian with the Social Media. Case Study:
Medieval Churches Fortified Churches in Transylvania ......................... 281

List of Abreviations .................................................................................................................... 291

3
 Foreword

The interest in the built-up heritage, especially in the one from the medieval
period, moved into a new phase of a growth interest generated by the possibility of
accessing European funds for restoration and also for an improvement from a touristic
point of view. This interest has led to the return of architects, art historians or tourism
associations towards the most popular, the oldest or the most important ecclesiastical
buildings in the Transylvanian space. The phenomenon led to bringing to light of some
forgotten monuments such as the famous Cathedral II in Alba Iulia, discovered and
investigated by Radu R. Heitel, the rotundas from Ortie or Sibiu or the reaffirmation of
some monuments such as the Biserica din Deal in Sighioara.
Grafted on this general murmur the interdisciplinary research group from the
Department of History, Patrimony and Protestant Theology of Lucian Blaga University
of Sibiu gathered under the name Arhln (Archaeology, Architecture and Informatics)
has also manifested its interest, funded through the CNCS PN -II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0744
(South Transylvanian Medieval Monuments: Past, Present, Future. Between
Archaeology, History and 3D Modelling) program. The project aims to develop a web
portal that provides information for the general public and also for specialists,
information regarding the history, the patrimony, stages of development and historical
images of Romanic monuments from southern Transylvania. Southern Transylvanian
ecclesiastical heritage includes over 500 medieval and pre-modern monuments, which
represents a dowry that today's society must rediscover and revalue for a better hand over
to the future generations.
ArhIn2016 volume - Medieval changing landscape: settlements, monasteries
and fortifications includes the works presented in the scientific sessions ArhIn2015 or
ArhIn2016. The sessionsseries is opened by the presentation of some funeral
particularities dated in the 10th-11th centuries, discovered in one of the most interesting
and important inhumation cemeteries in Alba Iulia (Egg offering in the cemetery from
Izvorul mpratului, Alba Iulia). The funeral horizon of the early medieval age of Alba
Iulia illustrates the diversity of funeral rituals which are characteristic to the entire
Transylvanian area around the year 1000.
A similar approach to the one of A. Dragot belongs to Silviu Oa who achieves a
synthetic study regarding a certain object with multiple meanings which is present in the
funeral inventories of the classic Middle Ages: belts as an apparel object or a rank
insignia (Burials with belts. Rank insignia or dress accesories).
Two studies are dedicated to the analysis of some territories (The landscape
change at Lower Danube in the Middle Ages. The Varna example (late 9th - beginning
of 12th centuries); Life on the bank of Danube in Early Middle Ages : archaeological
evidence from Oltina) located in the Lower Danube region. The first study values older
archaeological data recorded in the notes of the site which are in custody of History
Museum in Varna. The second one approaches about the same theme which is from a
recent archaeological perspective in an early age medieval settlement in Dobrogea.
A third segment of studies is dedicated to archaeological researches and to the
analyses of materials concerning the ecclesiastical monuments from Transylvania and
Banat. An interesting approach is presented in the study Medieval Churches and
cemeteries in Transylvania in the Light of Coin Discoveries (second half of the 11th

5
century - 12th century), which charters the monetary discoveries from the inhumation
graves in the Transylvanian area. A combination between archaeological research and
spatial analysis through 3D modeling is illustrated in Archaeological Recoveries Study.
The medieval Church from Vrdia de Mures. Daniela Marcu Istrate presents the
results of archaeological research in one of the most interesting and important
ecclesiastical medieval building in Braov (The Archaeology of the Medieval Churches
in Braov: St. Martin's Church).
The following five studies are dedicated to some aspects concerning
ecclesiastical history in the Transylvanian space (The Southern Transylvania in the
13th century, a Border between Catholic Space and Non-Catholic Space), of
ecclesiastical institutions (The administrative subordination of the provostship in Sibiu)
to the history of some monastic orders (The Order of St. Paul the Hermit in the
Hungarian Kingdom: the order's remains in Puca), or regarding the archaeological
records of monastic patronage (Archaeological Evidences of Monastic Patronage:
several case studies). A particularly interesting study is related to the analyze of some
historical data regarding the use of Latin language as the official worship language in the
monasteries of Mount Athos (When the Byzantine Mount Athos also prayed in Latin:
The amazing story of the foundation of the Benedict Monastery).
The last three studies of the volume integrates the acquired data from
comparative analysis of historical maps and the current cadastral maps (Water Mills as
stable indicator for the territorial Morphology or Analysis of ecclesiastical-related
place names in Sibiu Region using GIS applications) as well as the evolution in the
online environment of interested specialists in the built-up medieval patrimony (The
relation of the Romanian Archaeologist / Historian with Social Media).

Sibiu, September 29, 2016

Authors

6
 Egg offering in the cemetery from Izvorul mpratului, Alba Iulia
(10th11th centuries)

AUREL DRAGOT1

Abstract: The present article is comprised as an analysis regarding the custom of egg offering
within the cemetery from Alba Iulia-Izvorul mpratului (10th11th centuries). The graves
containing egg offerings are able to be attributed both to adults (men and women) and to children
as like. Comparing the results from Alba Iulia-Izvorul mpratului with those from other similar
cemetery, we are able to establish a difference between the frequencies of egg offerings inside the
childrens graves, namely the one in other cemeteries is higher than the rate established in the
cemetery from Alba Iulia-Izvorul mpratului. The relationship between the different types of
graves has been established as following: out of the 27 graves containing egg offering, remains of
the latter were identified at a higher rate within the graves belonging to adults (70%) and at a
lower rate in the ones pertaining to children (19%). Out of the former graves, egg offerings were
identified at a rate of 37% in men graves and at a rate of 33% in women graves. 11% of the
graves to contain egg offerings were impossible to be contextualized from the point of view of the
deceased persons gender (Table I/2). Revarsal rate is to be explained only through this particular
cemeterys nature and specificity. During the 10th century, the frequency of this particular custom
within the cemetery is proven by the grave goods and all connected elements.
Keywords: cemetery, burial custom, egg offering, Alba Iulia, 10th century, 11th century

The cemetery from Izvorul mpratului (10th11th centuries) marks a reference

point in the history of Transylvanian Christianity, thus in the context of ethnocultural
interferences. Five archaeological digging campaigns took place within the premise of
this archaeological site, in 2001, between the years 20052007 and in 2014.2 As a result
we were able to unearth approximately 223 graves belonging to adults and children as
well. Their inventory truly reflects a mlange of human habits belonging and defining the

1
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, Bd. Victoriei 57, 550024
Sibiu, Romnia; email: aurel.dragota@ulbsibiu.ro.
2
Mihai Bljan, Alba Iulia, jud. Alba (Apulum). Punct: Izvorul Impratului. Cod sit: 1026. 13, CCA.
Campania 2001 (2002): 33; Mihai Bljan, Alba Iulia, jud. Alba. Punct: Izvorul mpratului. Cod sit:
1026.13. Campania 2005. Autorizaie de cercetare sistematic nr. 6/2005, CCA. Campania 2005 (2006): 70
72; Mihai Bljan, Alba IuliaIzvorul mpratului, in Simpozionul Internaional Habitat-Religie-Etnicitate:
Descoperiri arheologice din secolele IXXI n Transilvania / Habitat-Religion-Ethnicity: 9th11th Century
Archaeological Finds in Transylvania. Catalog de expoziie / Exhibition Catalogue, coord. Horia Ciugudean,
Zeno K. Pinter, Gabriel T. Rustoiu (Alba Iulia: Altip, 2006) 5356; Mihai Bljan, Descoperiri paleocretine
n bazinul mijlociu al Mureului (sec. IIX), Revista Discobolul [Alba Iulia], 100101102 (105106107),
apriliemaiiunie (2006): 427433; Mihai Bljan, Descoperiri paleocretine n bazinul mijlociu al
Mureului (sec. IIX), in Cretinismul popular ntre teologie i etnologie, ed. Avram Cristea, Jan Nicoale
(Alba Iulia: Editura Rentregirea, 2007), 243249; Mihai Bljan, Alba Iulia, jud. Alba. Punct: Izvorul
mpratului. Cod sit: 1026.13. Campania 2006. Autorizaie de cercetare sistematic nr. 5/2006, CCA.
Campania 2006 (2007): 5457; Mihai Bljan, Descoperiri paleocretine n bazinul mijlociu al Mureului
(sec. IIX), in Sfntul Ierotei. Episcop de Alba Iulia (sec. X), ed. Ioan-Aurel Pop, Jan Nicolae, Ovidiu
Panaite (Alba Iulia: Editura Rentregirea, 2010), 272278; Aurel Dragot, Gabriel T. Rustoiu, Matei
Drmbrean, Valentin Deleanu, The early medieval necropolis from Alba IuliaIzvorul mpratului.
Archaeological researches in 2014, Apulum 52 (2015): 321349.

7
community which had inhabited this space. The grave goods was highly diverse,
containing adornments and clothing (finger rings, simple and twisted bracelets, hair rings,
rings with an S-shaped end, twisted necklaces, rhombic ornamentsdouble cord-shaped
pendants, buttons, beads, grapeclustershaped earrings), household objects (lighters,
firestone, knives, tweezers), religious objects (reliquary crosses, small chest worn cross),
harness pieces (stirrups, bits), weaponry (quivers, battle axe, arrow heads, bone plates
used as bow parts, belt dividers), ceramic pieces and a coin dated back to the reign of
King Stephan I.
Among the already identified customs exercised by the communities inhabiting
this area (autochthonous and foreign) we were also able to observe the custom of laying
down egg offerings inside the graves pits. This is a practice that was noticed in the
context of other historical phases, as well as within different ethnocultural environments.
The egg offering has been dually interpreted: on the one hand, it symbolizes rebirth/the
beginning of a new life and on the other hand, it suggests a nutritional appendix.
Furthermore, depending on the side where it was placed, be it on the right or the left of
the deceased person, the egg offering might also suggest the deceaseds gender. There are
many situations, where the egg offering is a rare characteristic of cemeteries within the
Carpathian Basin. Nevertheless, exceptions have been identified, for example in the Majs
cemetery.
This practice was also signaled in cemeteries from Alba Iulia, belonging to time
spans prior and concurrent with the revival of Christianity. An analysis in this respect
may be undertaken in the context of the cemetery from Izvorul mpratului, which has
many similar situations / examples to offer. The graves containing egg offerings may be
attributed to adults (men and women) and children. Next to other cases, where the
practice had registered a higher rate in childrens graves, the cemetery from Izvorul
mpratului describes an opposite reality. Out of 27 graves, the egg offering was present
in a higher percentage in those belonging to adults (70%) as opposed to those belonging
to children (19%). The adult graves contained 37% male defunct individuals, 33% female
ones and 1% out of the defunct individuals unearthed were gender uncertain (Table I / 2).
The proportions reversal might be explained only through the specificity of this
particular cemetery.
Graves containing egg offering:
M.18 (woman). Bird egg shells were identified on the left side of the upper third and
middle part of the left thigh-bone. Grave goods: 13 G (Giesler) ring.
M.28 (child). Egg offering leftovers were identified in the NE corner, next to the skull.
The pit was laid out of a river boulder. No grave goods found.
M.35 (man). Leftovers from two (?) bird eggs were identified next to the lower third of
the right cannon bone, on its outside. No grave goods found.
M.55 (man). Egg shells were identified between the cannon bones. Grave goods: iron
knife blade.
M.63 (woman). Egg offering leftovers were identified next to the joint of the left hand
palm. Grave goods: fragmentary twisted necklace.
M.64 (man). Egg shell leftovers from a birds egg were identified next to the right ankle
and leftovers from another egg were found 17 cm from the cannon bone. The
grave was set up with river stones. Grave goods: iron knife blade.
M.76 (woman). The offering consists of two broken eggs, one having been placed next to
the finger tips of the right foot and the other under the left foot. The grave was
arranged with sandstone and ancient brick fragments. No grave goods found.

8
M.91 (man). Egg leftovers were identified next to the right shoulder. The grave was
arranged with means of limestone, river boulders and ancient brick fragments.
Grave goods: iron lighter, iron knife blade, 13 G ring.
M.97 (adult). Shells from one egg were identified next to the left foot. No grave goods
found.
M.99 (woman). Egg shells were identified next to the skull and shell remains from a
different egg were found 14 cm west from the braincase. Grave goods: 13 G
rings.
M.110 (woman). Shells from a birds egg were identified next to the left cannon bones
lower third. The grave was arranged with sandstone boulders and ancient brick
fragments. Grave goods: 13 G rings.
M.113 (child). Shell offering from two (?) duck eggs was identified next to the left thigh-
bones lower half, in the knee cap area, one on the epiphysis and the other on the
inside. Shells from a third egg were found on the hip, next to the right hip bone.
The grave was arranged with limestone blocks, river boulders and fragmentary
tegulae. Grave goods: 13 G rings.
M.126 (man). Two (?) broken eggs were identified in the NE corner, next to the left foot.
The grave was arranged with limestone, river boulders and ancient brick
fragments. Grave goods: 13 G rings, fragmentary pendant and a bead.
M.128 (child Infans II / 1012 years old). Egg shells were identified on the outside of the
right cannon bones lower third. Grave goods: 13 G ring and a ceramic fragment.
M. 136 (woman). Egg (2) leftovers were identified at 10 cm apart on the graves Eastern
surface, mixed up with black soil. The grave was arranged with ancient brick
fragments and sandstone. Grave goods: 13 G ring and plate ring.
M.142 (child/infans I, 34 years old). A bird egg was laid down next to the skulls right
side. The grave was build with stone material (limestone and river boulders). No
grave goods found.
M.149 (woman). Shells from a bird egg were found at the skulls left side and leftovers
from another egg were identified next to the left heel. The grave was arranged
with ancient brick fragments, river boulders, limestone and sandstone. Grave
goods: 13 G ring, collet ring, iron knife blade and glass receptacle fragment.
M.154 (woman). Egg offering was laid down next to the left knees lower third, on the
outside. The grave was build out of river boulders and sandstone. Grave goods: G
rings and ceramic receptacle.
M.155 (man). Egg leftovers/shells were identified next to ceramic receptacle, on the left
calfs outside. The grave was build out of river boulders, limestone and ancient
brick fragments. Grave goods: ceramic receptacle, lighter and firestone.
M.156 (man): egg shells were identified next to the left foots lower outside. Grave
goods: ceramic receptacle.
M.161 (man): the shells of 12 eggs were found next to a ceramic receptacle near the
right near the right heel. The grave was build out of river boulders and limestone.
Grave goods: ceramic receptacle, iron knife blade and firestone.
M.163 (woman): egg offering was laid next to a ceramic receptacle between the palms
(on/under the hip), between the thigh-bones and the right heel. Grave goods:
ceramic receptacle and 13 G ring.
M.165 (man). Shells from a bird egg were identified next to the skull and 5 cm apart,
shells from another egg were found next to the left of the skull. Equine skull and
members were also laid inside the grave. Grave goods: ceramic receptacle, iron

9
 and bronze fragments belonging to a quiver, 13 G rings, lyre shaped belt-
buckle (Kecel) and a battle axe.
M.177 (man). Egg offering without any indication of its location in relation to anatomical
parts. The grave was build of stone material: limestone and river boulders. Grave
goods: arrow heads, bone plate belonging to a bow designed with cord cutout,
iron knife blade, 13 G rings and a boars fang.
M.215 (M.2 / 2014). Offering from an egg was identified on the hips left side. Grave
goods: bronze plate ring embellished with two dents/incisions.
M.127 (M.4 / 2012). Egg offering was laid down between the calves. No grave goods
found.
M.222 (M.9 / 2014). Egg offering was identified at the humerus left side, next to a
ceramic receptacle. An ancient brick was laid down in the grave next to the skull.

Grave goods: ceramic receptacle laid down at the skulls left.

Inside the children graves, the egg offering was identified in various locations next to the
following anatomical parts: on the skulls left side, above the left humerus (M.28, M.9 /
2014 next to a ceramic receptacle), knee-cap and left thigh-bone area (M.113), next to the
right side of the thigh (M.113) and on the skulls right side (M.142).
Inside the womens graves, the following anatomical positions were the most
frequent in the context of egg offering: on the outside of the left sided thigh-bone (M.18),
next to the left leg bone (M.110), the left palm (M.63), the left and right foot area (M.76),
the skulls right side (M.99), the skulls left side and the left heel (M.149), on the outside
of the left knee (M.154), between the thigh bones, next to a ceramic receptacle and next
to the right heel (M.163). egg offerings from two different eggs were identified just in
several cases of womens graves: M.76, M.99 (?), M.136 and M.163.
The mens graves are marked by egg offerings laid down next to the following
anatomical parts: on the outside of the right leg bone (M.35), next to the right ankle and
leg bone (M.64), between the leg bones (M.55), next to the right heel near a ceramic
receptacle (M.161), next to the right shoulder (M.91), next to the left foot (M.126), to the
skull (M.165). Shells from two different eggs were identified in male graves as well:
M.35, M.64, M.126, M.161 (?), M.165.
Other anatomical areas where egg offerings had been laid down have been
identified in graves containing human remains of uncertain gender: next to the left foot
(M.97), next to the left side of the hip (M.2/2014) and between the calves (M.4/2014).
The egg offerings frequency registers an increase in graves containing grave goods
(78%) in comparison to those without grave goods (22%, table I/3). On the other hand,
the gap in the percentage of offerings identified in simple graves (44%) or those that
were arranged (56%, covered or bordered) is closer. The identified grave goods inside the
graves containing egg offering helps establish the percentage of some of the objects: 13
G rings (30%), knives (14%), ceramic (18%), lighters (7%), finger rings (7%). Lower
values have been established in the case of the following objects: Kecel belt buckle (2%),
firestone (2%), quiver (2%), arrow heads (2%), beads (2%), pendant (2%), boar fang
(2%), bow plate (2%), battle axe (2%), necklace (2%) and glass receptacle fragment
(2%). The presence of egg offering inside graves containing military equipment is rather
low, adding up to only 7% (Table II / 2). More than half of the deceased people buried
here were laid in graves containing each an egg (59%), while the percentage of those
graves with two (33%) or three (4%) eggs is much more reduced.
Traces of coal have been identified in numerous graves. Next to other features,

10
these coal traces are proving the practicing of this custom within the cemetery during the
time span of the 10th century. If we are to take into account the number of eggs (13)
from which the offering came from and the anatomical positions characterizing each
offering, these egg remains laid into the graves may be dated in relation to other
cemeteries of Alba Iulia (Staia de Salvare, Str. Brnduei, Pclia) and within the
Carpathian Basin where such offerings have also been identified, having been dated
between the 10th and 11th centuries.

English translation: Corina Hoprtean

11
 1

Table I. 1: Egg offering identified in simple graves, with a boarded pit, covered with lithic
material; 2: The egg offerings presence within the graves in accordance with the deceased
persons age/gender; 3: Egg offering inside graves with/without grave goods;
4: Values expressing the eggs / graves number.

12
1.

2.

Table II. 1: Unearthed objects (%) within graves containing egg offering;
2: Percentage values expressing the grave goods in graves containing egg offering.

13
 1 2

3 4

Table III. 1: M. 163; 2: M. 35; 3: M. 149 a; 4: M. 126.

14
 1 2

3 4

5 6

Table IV. 1: M. 161; 2: M. 155; 35: M. 113; 6: M. 149 b;

15
 The Landscape Change at Lower Danube in the Middle Ages.
The Varna Example (late 9thbeginning of 12th centuries)

VALERI YOTOV1

Abstract: The author points attention to more at 50s years no published materials of excavations
of the Middle Ages layer in Roman Baths in Varna (Ancient Odessos) were conducted in 1958
1964: the earliest medieval pottery in the city, the Coins, the imports. According the notes and
sketches of the excavators and after analysis of the materials the author concluded four period
between: end of 9thmiddle of 10th century; last third of 10thmiddle of 11th century; second half of
11thmiddle of the last third of 11th century; end of 11thend of 12th century.
Keywords: Varna, Middle Ages, medieval poterry, Byzantine coins, Ovruchki spindle whorls

Clarifying the chronology of life in Ancient times and in the Middle Ages in the
ancient (now modern) cities located South of the Lower Danube encounter serious
difficulties due to the fact that the construction of housing, communications and other
urban equipment has never stopped over the centuries.
It is generally accepted that after the collapse of the Danube limes of the
Eastern Roman Empire, all big cities and actually the entire fortification and settlement
system was either destroyed or its population retreated south of the Balkan Mountains.
This process has been analyzed well by A. Madgearu, who concluded in this respect with
a more recent view:2 The extinction of these Danubian cities was not the result of other
invasions, but a particular case in the general process of economic decline of the
Byzantine state. It was a peaceful and slow transition from town-life to life-in-town,
and then toward a complete rural development of the Danubian area.
At the end of 7th century AD, after to the Bulgars of Khan Asparuh settled in
the area of the Lower Danube there occurred demographic and settlement changes that
reasonably attract the attention of mostly Bulgarian historians and archaeologists. To the
questions about the fate of the Late Antique cities and the emergence of new urban
centers in the First Bulgarian Kingdom are dedicated monographs, empirical and
discussion articles.
The example of Varna (ancient Odessos). The analysis of written and
archaeological sources about Varnathe ancient City of Odessos and conclusions drawn
about can be assigned / or compared to / with almost all other Black Sea urban centers
starting from the Danube River Delta to Cape EmineEast end of the Stara Planina
mountain. The last one who wrote about the Old Bulgarian villages and necropolises (8th
11th centuries) in the area of modern Varna and the region around it was V. Pletnyov,3

1
Museum of Archaeology, Varna, 41 Maria Luisa Blvd, 9000 Varna, Bulgaria; e-mail:
valeri.yotov@gmail.com.
2
Alexandru Madgearu, The End of the Lower Danubian Limes: A Violent or a Peaceful Process? Studia
Antiqua et Archaeologica, 12 (2006): 158 and all noted literature.
3
, . 1: V (, 2008);
(VV .), in .
(, 2012), 15302.

17
who mentioned the earlier opinions of Al. Kuzev, D. Il. Dimitrov and some more recent
views of V. Yotov.4
The Middle Ages layer over the Roman Baths of Odessos. Excavations of the
Roman Baths were conducted in 19581964. Apart from the several sentences in on that
topic, which appeared in some articles in the following decades (A. Kuzev, D. Dimitrov),
there is no full description and publication, to date we have only the data from the
excavators notes and sketches (Fig. 1: a-d).5 For now, and possibly in the future these
observations, the discovered coins and ceramics, as well as all single artifacts will remain
the only more or less comprehensive and summarized contribution to the history and
archeology of life in the Middle Ages in the center of modern Varna.
The earliest medieval pottery in the city (Fig. 2). From the collected during
excavation of the Roman Bath site in the early 60s of 20th century pottery in inventory
books of the Archaeological Museum of Varna there were listed only several dozens of
entirely preserved or restored vessels: pots and jugs. These vessels belong to the 11 th and
a few following centuries.
However, I think that it was no accident, why the excavators separated and left in
the main storeroom, although not listed in the inventory book some ceramic fragments
coming (as it is written on the envelopes they are kept) from three excavated square
sections, (namely Nos. 9; 13; 21) and from the North wing. Some of these fragments
could not be identified, but most of them could be dated to the end of 9th10th centuries.
This is in fact the oldest mediaeval pottery in the central area of modern Varna.
The Coins. The total number of coins from the time of the First Bulgarian
Kingdom and the Byzantine rule (late 7thmid- through the second half of 12th centuries,
found in the area of the Roman Bath is 151.6 Among them there are: one gold, one silver,
137 bronze coins and 12 cast copper imitations. All of them are Byzantine and are
allocated as follows.
Single coin finds and treasures:
1. Follis of Leo VI (886912) 1;
2. Follis of Constantine VII (913959) 1;
3. Miliarense of John I Tzimisces (969976) 1;
4. Anonymous follises class -2/-3 (9691028) 32 (30 minted and 2 cast / imitations:

4
. , , (1962): 111126; . ,
, V () (1972): 6778; . ,
V , 18 (33) (1982): 5577; . ,
(1), AMV (
) (2004): 312342; ,
(2).
, AMV I, 2 ( (VV .) (2005): 143150; ,
(3).
( .) , AMV VI, 1 (Terra Antiqua
Balcanica et Mediterranea) (, 2011):453460.
5
See V. Yotov cited articles in note 4.
6
The coins of determined based of: M. Thompson, The Athenian Agora, II (Princeton, 1954), 73115; D.
Metcalf, Interpretation of the Byzantine Rex Regnantium Folles of Class A, Numismatic chronicle, 3th
series, 10 (1970): 199219; D. Metcalf, Coinage in Sout-Eastern Europe (8201396) (London, 1979), 5859;
P. Grierson, Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks and the Whittemore Collection, III, 2
(Washington, 1973), 634706; V. Ivanisevic, Interpretation and Dating of the Folles of Basil II and
Constantine VIII the Class A-2, VV (1989):
1941; E. Oberlnder-Trnoveanu, Monede ntice i Bizantine descoperite la Nufru (Jud. Tulcea) pstrate
n colecia uzeului militar naional, BSNR LXXXVIIILXXXIX (19941995): 71106.

18
 class -2 (9761016 / 1020) 5 and class -3 (1016 / 10201028) 25;
5. Anonymous follises class (10281034) 21;
6. Anonymous follises class (10341041 M. Thompson; 10421050 Ph. Grierson;
10341055 E. Oberlnder-Trnoveanu) 23;
7. Anonymous follises class D (10421055 M. Thompson; 10501060 Ph. Grierson;
10551059 E. Oberlnder-Trnoveanu) 4;
8. Anonymous follises class E (10421055 M. Thompson; 1060 Ph. Grierson; 1059
1067 E. Oberlnder-Trnoveanu) 5;
9. Gold teterteron of Theodora (10551056) 1;
10. Follises of Constantine X (10591067), class 111 (7 minted and 4 cast / imitations);
11. Follises of Constantine X (10591067), class 28 (5 minted and 3 cast / imitations);
12. Anonymous follises class G 5 (10591067 M. Thompson; 10651070 Ph.
Grierson 5);
13. Follises of Romanos IV Diogenes (10681071) 4 (3 minted and one cast /
imitation);
14. Anonymous follis class (10701075) 1;
15. Follises of Michael VII Doukas (October 1071march 31 1078) 2;
16. Anonymous follises class I (10751080) 6 (4 minted and 2 cast / imitations);
17. Histamenon and follis of Nikephoros III Botaneiates (January 10781 April 1081) 2;
18. Follises and teterteron of Alexios I Komnenos (10811118) 4;
19. Anonymous follis class J (10801085);
20. Anonymous follises class K (10851092) 7;
21. Follises of John II Komnenos (11181143) 2;
22. Follises of Manuel I Komnenos (11431180) 4.
Imports. Among the many archaeological materials discovered in the mediaeval
layer in the area around the Roman baths, there are some finds that can be identified as
Early Russian (drevnoruskiy) handicraft production. This definition is quite arbitrary,
but on the other hand, it occurs in almost all articles and monographs, in which the
attention to the Russian influence in the Lower Danube region during the Middle Ages
was drawn.
Spindle whorls38 pieces (Fig. 3). Of the one hundred identified as mediaeval
spindle whorls, 38 are made of pink and purple slate (soft stone). The raw material, from
which they were made help to identify them as being of the famous Ovruchki type
named so after the eponymous production center: the town of Ovruch, located West of
Kiev.7 The Ovruchki spindle whorls appear at the end of the 10th century but were the
most widespread in the 11th12th centuries. It is believed that they are characteristic finds
mainly for the towns, but there also are some discovered as grave goods. They are found
not only in settlements and towns in the Russian Principalities, but also in their
neighboring lands, including the lands around the Lower Danube.
Based on the incomplete documentation available, we are not able to draw some
definitive conclusions, but there is no doubt that most of the spindle whorls with known
find spots (16 pieces42%) have been in use from the first half of the 11th century
onwards, according to the accepted for these special finds dating.
Clay painted eggs with glaze2 (Fig. 4). For this clay painted eggs, the so-
called "pisanki" in Russian it is assumed that they were produced in Kiev and were

7
. . , , 4 (1964): 220223.

19
distributed mostly during the 11th13th centuries8.
Conclusion and chronology
. End of 9thmiddle of 10th century. Two follises of Leo VI and Constantine
VII marked that period. Did these two coins may be connected to the dwellings of late
10thfirst half of 11th centuries discovered over the ruins of the Roman bath, or they
appeared there later is a question, which to is impossible to be answered definitely. In
that period (9th10th c.) was dated also the pottery discovered there.
Here we see the same typical situation as in other Ancient- and Late Antique
towns and fortresses within the borders of Early Mediaeval Bulgaria: namely occupation
of areas around them in 8th9th centuries, and only in late 9th century using of the
abandoned fortificationsat the beginning just for hiding from enemies and later on
comes their permanent occupation.
. The last third of 10thmiddle of 11th century. To that period belong a
miliarense of John I Tzimisces (cat. No. 3) and most of the coins: all together 75
anonymous follises of Classes A-2/A-3; Class B; Class C (almost 50 % of all discovered
coins). This period is connected with the re-established in 971 Byzantine rule over the
lands in the Northeastern part of the Bulgarian Kingdom. The fortressa medieval
towncalled Varna, was erected over some part of the ancient city of Odessos. The area
around the medieval town is occupied by several settlementsone of them was located
on the ruins of the Roman bath. The end of that period is determined by 18 coins found in
the square section No 9 (910)one dwelling (Fig. 1: b-c). They are dating accurately
the strong fire that was described in details by the excavators in their records. This helps
to determine that fire around the middle of 11th century.
Which might be the possible reasons for the fire? Most probably it goes about the
historical situation in the middle of 11th century, when after the settling in 1048 of some
large groups of Pechenegs in the lands South of Danube River, there followed several
serous battles in 10511053 between them and the Byzantine troops. Afterwards, the
Byzantines decided to leave their new friends and partners to rule in peace over the
lands North of Stara Planina Mountain. I do think that the thesis which appeared in all
publications on that topic about Varna being not damaged during the Pechenegs invasion
can hardly be proved. It seems much more possible that the settlements around the
ancient city were abandoned after it.
. The second half of 11thmiddle of the last third of 11th centuries. To that
period belong a gold coin of Theodora and Constantine; anonymous follises of Classes D,
E, G, , I, J, K and follises of Constantine X, Classes 1 and 2; of Roman IV; of Michael
VII Doukas; of Nikephoros III Botaneiates and of Alexios I Komnenosall together 62
pieces (or 41 %). The end of that period is dated by a left behind (or treasured) coin
hoard from square section No 27 (Fig. 1: d; the building No 1 according excavators) and
this event may be connected with the turbulent situation in the last third of 11 th century,
when permanent military fights between the Pechenegs and the Byzantine Empire took
part. Somewhere at the end of that period started the use of the necropolis.
V. End of 11thend of 12th century. This period is marked by six coins (4 %).
They belong to the Emperors John II Komnenos (2 pieces) and Manuel I Komnenos (4
pieces). Over the already ruined settlement there is located already a necropolis, which
continued to be in use also in the following centuries.

8
. , , in (, 1966), 141145.

20
Fig. 1: a. The D. Il. Dimitrov (responsible archaeologist) notes of for 1963

Fig. 1: b. The sketch of D. Il. Dimitrov from part of the Roman bath

21
 Fig. 1: c. The sketch of D. Il. Dimitrov to the square section No 9 (910)
one dwelling collapse after fire

Fig. 1: d. The sketch of D. Il. Dimitrov to the square section No 27the building No 1

22
23
Fig. 2. The earliest medieval pottery in the territory of the Roman bath
Fig. 3. Spindle whorls38 pieces

24
Fig. 4. Clay painted eggs with glaze

25
 Life on the right bank of Danube in Early Middle Ages:
archaeological evidence from Oltina

CRISTINA PARASCHIV-TALMACHI1

Abstract: In Early Middle Ages in Dobrudja the settlements were located in areas propitious life
and have evolved into close relation with the environment. In the south-west of the territory the
emergence and development of human community was determined both by provided facilities and
the environment, but also by the existence of some urban centers with a powerful economic
influence and an important politico-military role. The settlement from Oltina-Capul dealului its
part o chain of settlements developed on the right bank of Danube between 8th11th centuries. The
habitation from here started in the first half of the mentioned period and lasted until the end of
11th century A.D., and the findings so far show that it did not work autonomously, but it was part
of a larger system, which included both settlements from Dobrudja and from north-east of
Bulgaria.
Keywords: settlement, environment, inventory, early medieval period, Oltina, Dobrudja.

As everywhere in the Early Middle Ages in Dobrudja the settlements were located in
areas propitious for life and evolved in close connection with the environment. In the
south-west of the Istro-Pontic territory the emergence and development of some human
communities was determined both by the facilities offered by the environment, but also
by the existence of some urban centers with a strong economic influence and an
important politico-military role. Such a situation was recorded at Oltina, a settlement
situated at about 125 km south-west of Constana, were at the point Capul dealului its
being researched, since 2001, an Early Medieval settlement (Pl. I).
Ensemble. The analyze of the environment and the habitat led to the finding that
the site selection for its foundation did not represent a random action, the terrain on
which was established and on which later it developed meeting numerous mandatory
criteria for an upward evolution. As in other epochs, in Early Middle Ages the Danubes
valley represented an attraction for establishing some new settlements, the conditions
offered by this being not only attractive but almost ideal. A proof in this regard its
represented by the significant number of sites spread out on its shores, those presently
known which we are convince that in time their number will grow. In Dobrudja, the
Danubes valley offers, through its high areas that it presents (rocky or only hilly) and
through its deep valleys, numerous natural protected areas or easy to close with defensive
systems, to ensure them safety. The presence of water, of numerous resources, of any
nature, of some links with other human communities, which follows the river from north
to south since the ancient period, is other factors which contributed to the development
of the network of settlements know today, of which the site from Oltina-Capul dealului
its part.
The analyzed area its part of the subdivision of Dobrudja southern plateau

1
Museum of National History and Archaeology Constana, Piaa Ovidiu 12, 900745 Constana, Romania;
email: ctalmatchi@gmail.com.

27
composed of Cretaceous and Sarmatian limestone. Within this, the Oltina plateau it is
distinguished by its high relief, laid in two steps (with altitude between 100140 m,
respectively 150200 m), with deep valleys with a canyon aspect, showing forests and
forest steppes groves on the slopes.2 At Oltina, on the right bank of Danube is presented
as a wide valley, with a hilly aspect, which guards the lake Oltina. Highest towards
northeast, descending in steps to the southwest and almost opened towards Danube, this
presents in the upper part and in the platforms area propitious agricultural lands,
viticulture, fruit growing, and extensive pastures, Chernozems carbonate and soils being
present on large areas.3 The slopes near the Danube are covered in forests and shrubs, the
river banks have favored the development of meadow, and on those of the lake are
clumps of reeds. All these facilities offered by the ensemble (Pl. II), that we will develop
below, is evidence of the rational adaptation of the settlement founders from Oltina-
Capul dealului at the geographical environment but also factors that made the area
more attractive to them.
Settlement protection. The settlement from here, laid on the right bank of
Danube, is located on the end of a relatively low altitude hill (about 35 m), enough to
protect her from possible floodings from the period with high flow of the Danube,
respectively to be able to control visually the flat surface (with an attitude of 89 m),
relatively small, framed between Danube to the north, Oltina lake to the south, the hill
with the point Macuca Mci towards east and with the hill with the point Capul
dealului towards west. The whole area is dominated by the hill from the east, of which
attitude reaches about 125 m, but which may expose the settlement to unwanted glances,
or it was already occupied,4 on these terraces were found numerous Early Medieval
pottery fragments. Also, the strategic factor seems to have an important role when
choosing the place. This is natural protected by the river from north and by the Oltina
lake from south, an earth vallum built in the last century presently protecting the area
from being flooded. We do not exclude the possibility that some of it may have been
once covered in water (actually, to be gradually formed by deposition of sediments), and
the settlement may have benefited from natural protection also on the east side,
especially because it wasnt identified, in this regard, any intentional construction here.
The man was the one who finished the work, towards west the hill top being closed by a
defensive system made of an earth wave (long of about 410 m and a kept high of 22.5
m) and a ditch (with a depth of almost 3 m, from current ground level).5 In this stage of
research, we assume that the defensive system belonged to an earlier phase of the
settlement, the earth fortifications is a known practice in north-western of Bulgaria in 9th
A.D.6
The land. The end of the hill on which the settlement was laid presents an

2
Adrian Rdulescu, Constantin Scorpan, Athena Herbst-Rdoi, Ghorghe Dumitracu, Constana. Ghid
turistic al judeului, (Bucureti: Sport-Turism, 1980), 710.
3
Geografia Romniei, I, Geografia fizic, coord. Lucian Badea, Petre Gtescu, Valeria Velcea (Bucureti:
Academia Romn, 1983), 642643.
4
Gabriel Custurea, Cristina Talmachi, Aurel Mototolea, Costel Chiriac, Oltina, com. Oltina, jud.
Constana. Punct: Capu Dealului, CCA. Campania 2006 (2007): 251.
5
Costel Chiriac, Gabriel Custurea, Oltina, com. Oltina, jud. Constana. Punct: Capul Dealului, CCA.
Campania 2001 (2002): 222.
6
Georgi Atanasov, Valeri Iotov, Kristian Mihajlov, The medieval fortress (beginning of 9 thbeginning of
11th C.) near the village of Okorsh, Silistra province, in Orient i Occident/East and West. Cultur i
Civilizaie la Dunrea de Jos/Culture and civilisation at the Lower Danube 28 (Clrai: DAIM, 2011),
221.

28
almost flat area in its upper part, which drops in a smooth slope towards east and has
steep banks towards north and south. From west, under the protection of the earth wave,
its harder to identify. The sporadic occurrence of early Roman and late-Gaetics
fragments in layer, without being identify any specific complex and a habitation level,
leaves room to the assumption that the site was partially inhabited, probably for a short
period of time, at the beginning of 1st millennium A.D. Relatively clean, without
construction debris of stone or brick (at least investigated perimeters), the terrain could
ensure to the depend dwellings stabile walls and it offered people the opportunity to
dispose them in that space as they wanted. The ancient materials, available in the
settlement or to the surrounding area (in the current settlement Oltina were found pottery
kilns from the Roman-Byzantine period,7 and in the extravilan area wall fragments,8 and
other artifacts that suggest the presence of a fort9), served them as raw material to protect
the lower part of the wooden structure of the dwellings or to make arched ovens (when
dismantling the oven from the Complex 2/2012 was observed that it pit was remade, the
old one being laid on a bed of tegulaes, fragmentary bricks, a few stones and pottery
fragments, among a fragmentary tegulae, which still keeps on the end of rectangular
cassette and the letter H10). However, overall, until now were discovered few blocks of
stone with processing traces. An explanation for this can be found in the notes of the
engineer Pamfil Polonic, which signaled that in the eight decade of 19 th century A.D. the
Turks extracted stone from the settlement from Capul dealului and were selling it at
Clrai as building materials.11
Facilities. Beyond the strategic factor, the location of the fortified settlement
between the two current sources of water, river and lake, shows the desire of the
residents to permanently benefit of the existence of some vital resources. For these the
two were, alike, sources of water and food, also being responsible for the presence of
some raw materials required in current affairs. These along other facilities offered by the
environment made possible, as we are going to see, the development of some activities
and practicing some crafts.
Three of the regional factors favored the practice of agricultural activities by the
inhabitants of this settlement: the presence of water, air humidity and the lands from the
upper terraces. The dry climate specific to the South Dobrudja Plateau12 is dimmed
around Danube, were the presence of water, including the infiltrated groundwater from
the river, and the air humidity (generated by the continuous evaporation the water from
the river and lake13) favored the development of various cultures. At Oltina, the plateau
west of the settlement, with a considerable extent and good soils, could be used in this
regard, its close proximity offering the possibility of a quick retreat, in case of danger.
Among this, it could be used also the unfolded part of the lower surface between the two
big hills, eventually with the risk of losing the crop in periods high debit of Danube.

7
Mihai Irimia, Cuptoarele romano-bizantine de ars ceramica de la Oltina, Pontica 1 (1968): 379408.
8
Custurea, Talmachi, Mototolea, Chiriac, Oltina, 251.
9
Enciclopedia arheologiei i istoriei vechi a Romniei, vol. I. A-C, coord. Constantin Preda (Bucureti:
Editura Enciclopedic, 1994), 60.
10
Cristina Talmachi, Gabriel Custurea, Constantin ova, Oltina, com. Oltina, jud. Constana. Punct: Capul
Dealului, in CCA. Campania 2014 (2015): 108.
11
Pamfil Polonic, Cetile antice de pe malul drept al Dunrii (Dobrogea) pn la gurile ei, Natura 7
(1935): 19; Costel Chiriac et alii, Oltina, com. Oltina, jud. Constana. Punct: Capul Dealului, in CCA.
Campania 2003 (2004): 223.
12
Geografia Romniei, 642.
13
P. Gtescu, Lacurile din R. P. R. Genez i regim hidrologic (Bucureti: Academia R. P. R., 1963), 229.

29
 The archeological research conducted in early medieval settlements in Dobrudja
proved the existence of wheat cultures (Triticum), millet (Panicum miliaceum), barley
(Hordeum vulgare) and rye (Secale cereale), and practicing mixed crops (wheat mixed
with barley or rye), among the simple ones.14 Moreover, their short vegetation periods
put them among the favorite cultures of the population from the Istro-Pontic area since
antiquity.15 The existence of wheat and millet crops in the Lower Danube area its also
signaled by the Byzantine chronicles. Ioannes Skylitzes, compiled of Georgios Kedrenos,
relating the events from 971 A.D. from Silistra (Durostorum), mentions that Sviatoslav
armies went out in the nights without moon and crossed the Danube with monoxiles to
supply themselves from the left bank and nearby with wheat, millet and fodder.16 The
practice of farming (plowing and sowing) and the existence of wheat and millet crops
which are signaled also by Anna Comnena when it presents the situation from the Lower
Danube for the 11th12th centuries.17 In the fortified settlement from Oltina the practice
of agricultural activity is suggested by the discovery of some farm tools (sickles,18 with a
precarious state of conservationPl. V/15), carbonized seeds, storage vessels (large pots
without handles), some slabs concave in the middle and rounded stones (worn in the part
where it was used to crush seeds), grinders, sandstone for sharpening tools and sharp pits
for storing provisions.
Although still unproven archeological, we dont exclude the possibility that the
inhabitants of the Oltina settlement to have been practiced gardening, thereby obtaining a
diversification of food. To the archaeological finds from other sites we owe their
knowledge of vegetable plants cultivated in the area, such as: pea (Pisum sativum), lentil
(Lens esculenta) and beans (Vicia faba).19
Cattle breeding played an important role in the economic life of the settlement, it
being favored by the general conditions offered by the environment (availability of water
and pasture). This occupation is documented by the discovery of numerous bones that
come from large and middle size domestic animals, which appears both in complex
(dwellings and household pits) and layer. The analyze of the fauna material led to the
identification of seven domestic mammals as it follows: cattle (Bos taurus), swine (Sus
scrofa domesticus), sheep (Ovis aries), goats (Capra hircus), horses (Equus caballus),
donkeys (Equus asinus) and dogs (Canis familiaris).20 The high percentage of cattle

14
Gheorghe tefan, Ion Barnea, Maria Coma, Eugen Coma, Dinogetia, I, Aezarea feudal timpurie de la
Bisericua-Garvn (Bucureti: Academi R. S. R. 1967), 58; J. Panajotov, M. Mihov, a
, in I (Sofia, 1989),
216; Ofelia Vduva, Valori identitare n Dobrogea. Hrana care unete i desparte (Bucureti:
Enciclopedic, 2010), 28.
15
Valer Butur, Etnografia poporului romn. Cultura material (Cluj-Napoca: Dacia, 1978), 153; Marcu
Botzan, Apele n viaa poporului romn (Bucureti: Celes, 1984), 105.
16
Alexandru Elian, Nicolae-erban Tanaoca, Izvoarele istoriei Romniei, III, Scriitori bizantini (sec. XI
XIV) (Bucureti: Academia R. S. R., 1975), 141; Rzvan Theodorescu, Victor Spinei (eds.), Istoria
Romnilor, III, Genezele romneti (Bucureti: Academia Romn, 2010), 183.
17
Elian, Tanaoca, Izvoarele istoriei Romniei, 89; Theodorescu, Spinei (eds.), Istoria Romnilor, 183;
Vduva, Valori identitare, 29.
18
Chiriac et alii, Oltina, 223; Gabriel Custurea, Cristina Talmachi, Aurel Mototolea, Oltina, com. Oltina,
jud. Constana. Punct: Capul Dealului, CCA. Campania 2008 (2009): 158.
19
tefan, Barnea, Coma, Coma, Dinogetia, 63; Ion Barnea, tefan tefnescu, Din istoria Dobrogei,
vol. III: Bizantini, romni i bulgari la Dunrea de Jos (Bucureti: Academia R. S. R., 1971), 283; Panjotov,
Mihov, a, 216, 218, 221.
20
Simina Stanc, Luminia Bejenaru, Exploatarea faunei de ctre locuitorii aezrii de la Oltina
(Constana), Arheologia Moldovei 28 (2005): 314320.

30
bones (a little over 40.8 %), pigs (28.5 %), sheep and goats (16 %),21 places these
animals among the preferences the inhabitants, showing also their god adaptability to the
environment. Probably the way they grow them was especially the free one, the animals
being allowed to graze without any guard, on the nearby pastures. The practice of free
growth of the animals was kept in some areas of our country until almost a century ago,
when in some villages around Danube were passed in autumn horses and pigs on the
islands along the river, being left there until spring,22 Slaughter of cattle at ages which
exceeds four years and sheeps and goats at three to four years reveals that they were not
raised only for meat, but also for their secondary products.23 Thus the inhabitants diet
could be completed with meat, milk, cheese etc.
In the Early Middle Ages, as in other historical periods, cattle breeding was
important for the food economy, but had a significant role also in the practice of some
crafts (by providing raw materials) or for making some necessary items in the household.
From these the human communities used the wool and skin for making clothing and
footwear, as suggested by the discovery of numerous spindle whorls of clay (Pl. V/9)
needed for the spinning of wool, respectively pushers bone used to perforate leather. The
bones were also important for making some objects (Pl. V/5). Thus, by processing cattle
and horses bones were obtained skates24 (used in winter for a better movement on the
frozen surface of Danube or Oltina lake,25 when ice fishing, or during other activities),26
and those from sheep and goats were used to make pushers (to perforate skins, weaving
fishing nets or other destinations)27 and various pieces of game (of astragalusPl. V/4; a
widespread game28). Also from bone was made a comb used to ornate pottery through
the incision technique, with linear motifs.29
From the seven domestic mammals species identified at Oltina, horse, donkey
and dog were less important in the food economy of the residents,30 which were mostly
used to riding and traction (hors and donkey), respectively for guarding (the dog). For
the transport of various products or for agricultural works could be used oxens.
In special enclosures of left free, were grown also birds, archeological findings
documenting the presence of chickens (Gallus domesticus) and geeses (Anser
domesticus).31
The proximity of Danube and Lake Oltina made fishing one of the main
activities of the community, and their ability to provide a large amount of fish it is

21
Ibid., 314319.
22
Ion Vlduiu, Etnografia romneasc. Istoric. Cultura material. Obiceiuri (Bucureti: tiinific, 1973),
254.
23
Simina Stanc, Arheozoologia primului mileniu dup Hristos pentru teritoriul cuprins ntre Dunre i
Marea Neagr (Iai: Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2009), 112, 116.
24
Ibid., 128.
25
tefan, Barnea, Coma, Coma, Dinogetia, 94;
26
Gr. Florescu, R. Florescu, P. Diaconu, Capidava. Monografie arheologic, I (Bucureti: Academia R. P.
R., 1958), 235; Petre Diaconu, Cu privire la patinele de os din epoca feudal timpurie, SCIV 11, 1 (1960):
177178; Ion Nania, Istoria vntorii n Romnia (Din cele mai vechi timpuri pn la instituirea legii de
vntoare 1891) (Bucureti: Ceres, 1977), 109.
27
Similar activities were practiced also in the settlements from Dinogetia-Garvn, cf. tefan, Barnea,
Coma, Coma, Dinogetia, 98122.
28
Ibid., 330.
29
Stanc, Arheozoologia, 126, fig. 5.30.
30
Ibid., 104.
31
Ibid., 87.

31
mentioned in the Byzantine writings,32 as well as of archeological evidence.33 Lake
Oltina belongs to the group of river limans (linked of Danube), and the low level of
precipitation and strong evaporation of water makes its hydrological regime to be closely
linked to the Danube.34 Its waters, with a large expanse, develop a diverse fish fauna and
its banks are populated with wild birds. The practice of fishing by the inhabitants from
Oltina its proven both by the discovery of osteological remains, but also of some
specific tools, like clay weights for fishing nets (Pl. V/1314) and fish hooks.35
Archaeozoological studies made on materials found in 2003 at Oltina-Capul dealului
(2465 bone remnants and scales) showed that an important percent of the batch, about 35
%, its held by the remains that originate from fishes.36 In Early Middle Ages, here were
consumed crap (Cyprinus carpio), avat (Aspius aspius), pike perch (Stizostedion
lucioperca), catfish (Silurus glanis), bream (Abramis brama), roach (Rutilus rutilus),
pike (Esox lucius), perch (Perca fluviatilis), tench (Tinca tinca), sturgeon (Acipenser sp.)
and sabit (Pelicus culturatus).37 Among them, stands out carp, pike and catfish with a
significant presence.38 Discovery of clusters of fish bones near the ovens in dwellings,
some with burning traces, indicated that the fish was cooked both by boiling it in a vessel
but also by cooking it directly on fire.39 Also, it has been found that fish or what remains
from them also represented food for dogs.40 The attention showed for fishing by the
inhabitants of this settlement its shown not only by the percentage of the bones that are
found here, but also by the high number of weights for fishing nets, which occurred both
in layer and in dwellings, that can show, also, that the main way of fishing was that with
net and seine. The discovery of bone skates41 leads us to suppose that at Oltina fishing
was practiced also in winter, when the cold air, from east, favored the phenomenon of
surface ice,42 creating a veritable ice bridge.
The diet of the residents from this settlement was diversified also through the
practice of hunting, activity documented by findings in all Early Medieval settlements
from Dobrudja, wider investigated.43 Faunal material analysis from Oltina-Capul
dealului shows that surrounding forests and meadows, probably much larger than today,
were populated with dears (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus) and foxes
(Canis vulpes), to which they are added in forest skirts area rafters (Capreolus
capreolus) and rabits (Lepus europaeus)44. Of the presence of water took advantage also

32
Constantin C. Giurescu, Istoria pescuitului i a pisciculturii n Romnia, I, Din cele mai vechi timpuri
pn la instituirea legii pescuitului (1896) (Bucureti: Academia R. P. R., 1964), 5657.
33
Stanc, Bejenaru, Exploatarea faunei, 313; Stanc Arheozoologia, 8082.
34
Elena Borodi, Ion Poppa, Gheorghe Andronic, Ionela Daraban, Constana. Monografie Bucureti: Sport-
Turism, 1980, 19.
35
Custurea, Talmachi, Mototolea, Oltina, 158; Gabriel Custurea, Cristina Talmachi, Constantin ova,
Oltina, com. Oltina, jud. Constana, punct Capul Dealului Sector B, CCA. Campania 2012 (2013): 96;
Talmachi, Custurea, ova, Oltina, (2015): 108; Cristina Talmachi, Gabriel Custurea, Constantin ova,
Oltina, com. Oltina, jud. Constana, punct Capul Dealului Sector B, CCA. Campania 2015 (2016): 64.
36
Stanc, Bejenaru, Exploatarea faunei, 313.
37
Ibid., 313; Stanc, Arheozoologia, 8082.
38
Stanc, Bejenaru, Exploatarea faunei, 313.
39
Stanc, Arheozoologia, 86.
40
Ibid., 86.
41
Ibid., 127, fig. 5.355.36.
42
Borodi, Poppa, Andronic, Daraban, Constana, 22.
43
Florescu, Florescu, Diaconu, Capidava, 235236; tefan, Barnea, Coma, Coma, Dinogetia, 67.
44
Stanc, Bejenaru, Exploatarea faunei, 314, 321323.

32
the beaver (Castor fiber), now extinct, like the deer, from the dobrudjan fauna.45 The
small amount of bones from wild mammals found in the settlement from Oltina indicates
that hunting had a secondary role in its economy. Perhaps it was practiced more intense
during winter, when farm work does not occupy much of the time, and food supplies
were shrinking. From hunting the man could use the meat (which dry, smoked and salted
lasted longer); furs, good for clothing and leg protection, respectively for decorating the
interior walls of a dwelling, the floor or the sleeping area, in winter helping keeping the
warmth; horns and bones which because of the higher toughness after a special
processing were46 used to make various objects. As processed materials, in the fortified
settlement from Oltina were discovered an horn handle, probably from a battle whip and
ornamental plates.47 Added to them are numerous antlers with cutting traces.
Along mammals and birds were hunted, such as partridge (Perdix perdix),
jackdaw (Corvus monedula) and black eagle (Aegypius monachus).48 The hunt was
conducted with bow and slingshot, as suggested by the discovery of iron arrowheads and
balls of clay49 (Pl. V/1012), or by using various kinds of traps, as is assumed at
Dinogetia.50
Other types of food were obtained through foraging from nature, various plants
and berries filling the peoples died in all periods.
Honey is also able to feed the inhabitants of the settlement, probably used as
medicine, sweetening or for the preparation of some beverages. It was collected from
beehives of wild bees housed in tree hollows in forests and meadows. Form beehives
also came wax which was used as a light source, which is less odorous and making less
smoke than tallow and vegetable oils.51
The existence of some sources of wood and stone situated in the proximity of the
fortified settlement represents two other facilities offered by the geographical
environment, also representing two other factors with a determinant role in choosing this
site. As we claimed with another occasion that the need for forest when choosing a site
for a settlement its as important as the water, and lack the of raw materials for housing
construction and minimum furniture, respectively bringing its from distance, can turn a
favorable place into a costly one. At Oltina sources of wood were forests on hillsides, the
meadow on the river bank and that raised on the island between the two arms of the
Danube (which is separated downstream of Oltina). Its contribution to the construction of
dwellings was important, as proven by the archeological research, wood is used to
support the upper structure (log holes), for lining the walls in the lower part of some of
deepened dwellings (logs laid horizontal), for the realization of furniture (benches,
sleeping places), of household items (cutlery and bowls) and not least for the fire.
As a base for the structure of dwellings or as main material in the development
of ovens have been used large blocks of stone, which could be brought from the quarries
located on the west bank of Oltina Lake and east of it, quarries which were exploited
during the construction of the city from Pcuiul lui Soare.52 When building ovens were

45
Ibid., 323; Stanc, Arheozoologia, 97.
46
tefan, Barnea, Coma, Coma, Dinogetia, 86; Nania, Istoria vntorii, 104105.
47
Gabriel Custurea, Cristina Talmachi, Constantin ova, Oltina, com. Oltina, jud. Constana. Punct Capul
Dealului Sectorul B, CCA. Campania 2011 (2012): 93.
48
Stanc, Bejenaru, Exploatarea faunei, 313; Stanc, Arheozoologia, 8688.
49
Chiriac et alii, Oltina, 223; Custurea, Talmachi, Mototolea, Oltina, 158.
50
tefan, Barnea, Coma, Coma, Dinogetia, 1967, 68; Nania, Istoria vntorii, 109.
51
Butur, Etnografia, 242, 246.
52
Petre Diaconu, Emanoil Zah, Despre carierele de piatr de lng Pcuiul lui Soare, SCIV 19, 3 (1968):

33
also used large stones brought by the river waters, some bearing rolling tracks.
To Danube is due to the existence of deposits of clay, which are formed at some
time intervals in the lateral ramification of the main course of a river or on their side,
after periods of high debit.53 As is known, the vessels of clay material is present in the
largest number in Early Medieval settlements, the presence of some clay deposits, raw
material for making them, being an important factor for their economy. The practice of
pottering in the settlement from Oltina its suggested by the discovery of a bone comb
used to decorate pottery (Pl. V/1).
The settlement structure. The research of small area from the settlement allows
some observations on the formation and its evolution, but insufficient for a
comprehensive picture, new information will be added depending on future excavations.
At this stage of research, the almost flat area from the upper part of the hill end presents
agglomeration of habitation and abundance of material. Although it was not observed
any overlapping of complex, except a dwelling built in the wave mantle (dated at the end
of 10thbeginning of 11th century),54 their inventory and certain peculiarities dwelling
construction demonstrates a habitation in the respective perimeter during the entire
period of its existence, with a higher agglomeration of habitation starting with the end of
10th century. The slope which drops smoothly towards east was occupied with dwellings
to its limit, at a certain moment them being disposed especially in the area of some
terraces, proven by the often overlays of complexes, in some cases up to three. Here
appeared the deepened dwellings from the early phase of the settlement, overlaid by
dwellings dated to the end of 10thbeginning of 11th century A.D. (probably a
blacksmith), that for the end of its existence the area to be transformed in a necropolis.
So, we find that in the perimeter of the settlement occurred transformations, meaning that
some areas of habitation from the edge were ceded for construction with an economic
role, without being able to say if we can talk about a craftsmen quarter. The gradual
decline of the settlement, somewhere towards the middle of 11th century A.D., led to the
restraining of its area and transforming the eastern part into a necropolis.
Dwellings and inventory. The dwellings discovered in the fortified settlement
from Oltina-Capul Dealului were built at the ground level or deepened in ground and
presents, generally, surfaces which oscillate between 1012.7 m2, there are only a few
cases where they are smaller. As applicable, the lower part of their walls was made from
unregulated stones bind with earth; lined with split or thin beams; respectively, in one
case, from a very strong clay, wide of 0.420.50 m (with a kept height of 0.43 m), of
clean yellow earth (Pl. III/13). The upper part of the walls was of wattle or reed covered
with clay of yellow earth, as is indicated by the pieces of clay with traces of wattle and
reed discovered in the filling from many of them. Numerous dwellings have traces of the
pillars supporting the upper structure, being identified from two up to eleven log holes in
a complex. The dwellings floor was from clay, thick of 2.54 cm, and the roof was of
reed, sustained by an wooden framework, as proven by the their charred debris, kept in
the burned dwellings.
As a fire installation, the most habitation places have inside, placed in a corner,
an oven (Pl. III/4) made from stone or from stone with clay (sometimes its walls are
partially covered with clay on inside). These were made at the floor level or in special

453, 461.
53
Cristina Paraschiv-Talmachi, Mrci de olar (secolele VIIXVI). Consideraii i catalog pentru teritoriul
carpato-danubiano-pontic (Bucureti: Scriptorium, 2006), 58.
54
Chiriac et alii, Oltina, 223.

34
arranged holes on one of the sides. The ovens mouth, with an opening of 0.300.50 m,
was facing east or south, and the fire pit was slightly deepened, fact probably produced
as a result of frequent cleaning of ash. Part of the dwellings have ovens carved in walls,
oval or round (wide of 1.071.35 m), disposed towards the middle or towards lateral.
The fire pit of the carved ovens was from simple clay or applied over a bed of tegulaes,
fragmentary bricks and stones, in some cases suffering restorations. Alone or
accompanying the oven, some dwellings have opened fire pits.
Ceramic represents the majority of the material found in the dwellings
inventory.55 The pottery was made from common clay (rough or fine) and from kaolin.
These were reductand or oxidant burned and was made with a slow or fast wheel. The
pottery from common clay, rough, its represented by the pot without handles (the most
frequent one), supplies vessel, pot with handles, bowl, lamps and bucket (Pl. IV/1, 3, 5
6, 89, 12). The pottery from common clay, fine, are represented by jugs (oxidant and
reductant burned), pots with or without handles, but all with a relatively small presence
(Pl. IV/2,7). The pottery made from kaolin has a good frequency in findings and are
represented by pots without handles of various sizes (Pl. IV/4), pots with handles, bowls,
jugs. Most of the pottery has the surface decorated with motifs made through the incision
technique, with special decorations found on the period pottery. Rarely also appear
fragments decorated with a toothed wheel. Some vessels made from kaolin have the
exterior surface decorated with lines or spots of red paint. Others made from common
clean clay, presents green-olive glaze (Pl. IV/1011), respectively green-olive glaze with
yellow lines, or golden engobe. The ceramic material its completed with spheroidal or
piriform with collar amphoraes.
The dwellings inventory its completed with other ceramic objects (spindle
whorls, weights for fishing nets, brick sharpenersPl. V/1617and sling balls),
bronze objects (simple and reliquary crossesPl. V/6, aplique, belt decorations, buckles,
ringsPl. V/7, earrings, piriform bell cut in crossPl. V/8and fishing hooks), of bone
and horn (handle for battle whip, ornamental platesPl. V/23, astragalus, pusher, comb
to decorate pottery, skates), glass (bracelets and beads), from rock (grinders and
sharpening sandstones), iron (sickles, flint, arrowheads, knives, spikes) and coins.56 To
these findings we add some lead seals, discovered by chance, one belonging to Grigore
Mavrokatakalon.57
Conclusions. The Early Medieval settlement from Oltina-Capul dealului is
part of the settlements developed on the right bank of the Danube during 8th11th
centuries. The habitation from here started in the first half of the mentioned period, and
the findings until now prove that it did not functioned autonomous, but it was part of a
wider system, which included both settlements from Dobrudja but also from north-east

55
Cristina Paraschiv-Talmachi, Dan Aparaschivei, About the Early Medieval Ceramics from Oltina Capul
Dealului (Constana county), Cultur i Civilizaie la Dunrea de Jos 24 (2008): 283299.
56
Gabriel Custurea, Descoperiri arheologice i numismatice de pe raza localitii Satu Nou (com. Oltina,
jud. Constana), Pontica 3334 (20002001): 584585; Chiriac et alii Oltina, 223; Gabriel Custurea, Noi
descoperiri monetare bizantine din aezarea de la Capu Dealului Oltina, Pontica 39 (2006): 415421;
Custurea, Talmachi, Mototolea, Oltina, 158; Gabriel Custurea, Cristina Paraschiv-Talmachi, Obiecte
cretine descoperite la Oltina (jud. Constana), Pontica 42 (2009): 485492; Stanc, Arheozoologia, 126
127; Gabriel Custurea, Monede bizantine descoperite n aezarea de la Oltina Capu Dealului, Pontica
42 (2009): 611620; Talmachi, Custurea, ova, Oltina, (2015): 108; Talmachi, Custurea, ova, Oltina,
(2016): 64.
57
Costel Chiriac, Un sigiliu bizantin inedit descoperit la Oltina (jud. Constana), Arheologia Moldovei 23
24 (20002001): 343348.

35
of Bulgaria, an active system before the return of the Byzantines in the area of Lower
Danube. Situated in the area of influence of Silistra, an important economic and military
center, the settlement knew during its existence both periods of developing and of
downfall due to the attacks generated by the migrating populations attracted by them.
After the events from 971 A.D., the community from here adapted to mode of live
determined by the administration of the area by the Byzantine Empire and quickly
entered in the new economic circuit, commerce increased in intensity and becomes an
important component in its economic activity. The discovery of over 200 coins, amphora
(Pl. IV/13), pottery with golden engobe, glass objects, etc. indicates major changes in the
community, especially in 11th century A.D. This development had, however,
disadvantages, the settlement being affected by the invasions of Peceneges and Uzi, from
11th century A.D., events which determined its downfall, respectively the end of its
habitation towards the end of the century.58

58
Gheorghe Mnucu-Adameteanu, Istoria Dobrogei n perioada 9691204. Contribuii arheologice i
numismatice (Bucureti: 2001), 3940; Custurea, Monede bizantine, 613.

36
 Pl. I: 1. The administrative positioning of Oltina (Constana county)

Pl. I: 2. Site location from point Capul dealului in the Oltina settlement plan

37
Pl. II: 1. An overview image of the area in which is located the settlement
from Oltina-Capul dealului

Pl. II: 2. An overview image of the area in which is located the settlement
from Oltina-Capul dealului

38
Pl. III: Dwellings (1-3) and oven (4) discovered in the settlement
from Oltina-Capul dealului

39
Pl. IV: Pottery discovered in the settlement
from Oltina-Capul dealului

40
Pl. V: Objects with the archaeological inventory of the settlement
from Oltina-Capul dealului

41
 Burials with belts.
Rank insignia or dress accessories (12th15th centuries A. D.)

SILVIU OA1

Abstract: In Romania, the presence of belts in graves dating back to the Middle Ages is currently a
less debated subject within the field literature. With the exception of a few comments on the belt
items discovered in treasuries and several other found in graves, there are no published studies for
the chronologic interval of the 12th15th centuries. There are only a few paragraphs, as part of
larger articles, however referring especially to the previous period, namely 10th11th centuries. For
the period, we are dealing with, the topic of this dress accessory has been approached in some
studies published in Southeastern Europe, especially in Hungary, Bulgaria and Serbia. The
existence of belts in the graves is generally evidenced by the presence of the simple buckles
(comprising a quite varied range of forms), the belt appliqus, the plate buckles and the belt flaps.
These were used by various populations without representing a certain specific for any of them.
Compared to the previous period when the number of graves containing belts with appliqus was
slightly higher, one is able to observe their increasing rarity starting with the 12th century. Their
discovery, especially in treasuries, associated with the fact that they were also represented in the
iconography of the time, as for example in the mural painting in Cricior church (depicting knez
Blea), is proof that these belts began being used especially by the nobility or the boyars and the
members of the ruling families. Due to their rarity and decoration by means of appliqus, we are
able to demonstrate on one hand a more pronounced social stratification, and on the other hand a
refinement in the taste of the elites and their financial means, high enough to acquire such items.
While in the previous period, the burial containing belts decorated with appliqus was not unusual
during the ritual practices, especially for the nomadic steppe populations, this custom almost
disappeared starting with the 12th century and was only revived periodically as a consequence of the
penetration of new waves or groups of nomadic populations arrived from the north of the Black Sea,
especially the Cumans. The fact that the belts were only rarely deposited inside the graves can mean
two things. Firstly, that their price was extremely high to be lost or left in a grave, and secondly,
they were also a transferable rank insignia. The medieval documents contain specific information
regarding, for example, the case of such a belt along with a tiara being the object of a litigation
between two noblemen (namely Peter, son of Pavel de Remetea and Grigore de Chernech) from
Cara county. The litigation was presided by Nicolae Kont, the palatine of Hungary and judge of the
Cumans, in 1364. The monetary values mentioned in the document for the tiara demonstrate the
value of such an item and indirectly explain why they were not deposited inside the graves, but made
the object of hoarding. Overall, we can say that the burial custom with belts with appliqus has at
least two directions of penetration, the first from the North-Pontic space carried by the nomadic
populations and the second from Central Europe. In both cases, however, their usage within
funerary practices was gradually abandoned. So far, their presence inside the graves is observable
by means of a few aspects. Firstly, they can be found in almost any type of cemetery, whether they
are in the rural or the urban environment, with or without church, or in monastery cemeteries.
Secondly, they were found both in children and adult graves. To these aspects, we must also add the
fact that valuable items were found deposited inside the graves only in an exceptional manner, while
the gold or silver items were generally hoarded.
Keywords: belt, buckle, grave, cemetery, burial custom, Middle Ages

1
National History Museum of Romania Bucharest, Calea Victoriei 12, sector 3, 030026 Bucureti, Romania;
email: silviuota@yahoo.com.

43
The presence of belts in the Middle Ages graves on the territory of Romania is currently
a less debated subject in the specialty literature of our country. Except a few comments
on the belt items discovered in treasuries and several others found in graves,2 there are no
published studies for the chronologic interval of the 12th15th centuries. There are only a
few paragraphs, as parts of larger articles, however referring especially to the previous
period, namely the 10th11th centuries. Some studies have been published on this dress
accessory in Southeastern Europe, for the period we are dealing with, especially in
Hungary,3 Bulgaria,4 and Serbia.5
The existence of belts in the graves is generally evidenced by the presence of the
simple buckles (comprising a quite varied range of forms), the belt appliqus, the plate
buckles and the belt flaps. These were used by various populations without representing
a certain specific for any of them.
The present study introduces the graves in which the abovementioned items have
been discovered. As a rule, we selected those items found in the pelvis or the chest area,
in order to exclude the items with another possible role.
Besides these, we have also analyzed the belts decorated with appliqus of the
same origin. Their number is however relatively low at this stage of research. This does
not mean that the belts were not used, but that they were rarely used in the funerary
practices and to this regard, the numerous discoveries of belts found in homes,6
fortifications 7 or workshops8 are a standing proof.

By corroborating the information provided by the funerary archaeology with the

2
For example, see Luminia Dumitriu, Der Mittelalterliche Schmuck des Unteren Donaugebietes im 11.15.
Jahrhundert (Bucureti: Muzeul Naional de Istorie a Romniei, 2001), 6880.
3
Andrs Plczi-Horvth, Felsszentkirlyi kun srletet, Cumania 1 (1972): 177204; Laszlo Szelmeczi, A
Ngyszllsi I. Szm jsz temet (Budapest: Kiadja a Budapesti Trtneti Mzeum, 1992), 8990 and Rosta
Szalbocs (Ed.), Kun-kp. A magyaroszgi kunok hagyatka. Tanulmniok Horvth Ferenc 60.
szletsnapja tiszteletre (Kiskunflegyhza: Kiadja a Bcs-Kiskun Megyei nkormnyzat Mzeumi
Szervezete, 2009).
4
Vera Pavlova, Prinos km srednovekovnija mki kolan ot XIIIXIV vek (po danni ot kolecijata vv
Varnenskija muzej), in: Antinaja drevnost` i srednie veka 35 (Ekaterinburg: Izdatel`stvo Ural`skogo
universiteta, 2004), 165178; Georgi G. Atanasov, Two Belts from 14th-Century Male Burials in Drastar
(now Silistra, NE Bulgaria), Archaeologia Bulgarica XV, 2 (2011): 91101; Stela Doncheva A Silver
Gilded Belt from the 13th14th century, in: Metal Art Production in Medieval Bulgaria. Jewelry
craftsmanship in Bulgaria at the Middle Ages (Saarbrcken: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, 2012),
8298, with a rich bibliography published in south-eastern Europe on this topic.
5
Milica Radii, Poznosrednjovekovne kope zapadnog porekla na centralnom Balkanu, GSAD 30 (2014):
109132.
6
Eugenia Neamu, Vasile Neamu, Stela Cheptea, Oraul medieval Baia n secolele XIVXVII. II.
Cercetrile arheologice din anii 19771980 (Iai: Junimea, 1984), 96, 98, fig. 35/127, 99102; Alexandru
Artimon, Oraul Medieval Trotu n secolele XIVXVII. Genez i evoluie (Bacu: Corgal Press, 2003),
142143, 323, fig. 25/1/11, 1314.
7
For the fortifications from Banat see Silviu Oa, Dress Items found in Fortications from Banat, Ziridava
StudArch 29 (2015): 337338, 341, pl. 1, 342, pl. 2, 343, pl. 3, 344, pl. 5/12. A particular importance for the
fortifications from Dobrogea have the discoveries from Pcuiul lui Soare [Petre Diaconu, Silvia Baraschi,
Pcuiul lui Soare. Aezarea medieval (secolele XIIIXV) (Bucureti: Academia R.S. R., 1977)] and
Dinogetia [(Gheorghe tefan, Ion Barnea, Maria Coma, Eugen Coma, Dinogeia. I. Aezarea feudal
timpurie de la Bisericua-Garvn (Bucureti: Academia R. S. R., 1967)], and for Transilvania, those from
Dbca [Petre Iambor, Aezri fortificare din Transilvania (sec. IXXIII) (Cluj-Napoca: Mega, 2005, 385, pl.
LVI)].
8
For example, see in Cladova (see Silviu Oa, Liana Oa, Gheorghe Niculescu, Items Discovered during the
1983 Campaign in the Workshop no. 3 from the Fortification of Cladova (Comm. of Paulis, Arad County),
Ziridava StudArch 29 (2015): 247274.

44
information generated by the study of treasuries, one can easily observe that both the
simple belts and the belts decorated with appliqus were used throughout the Middle
Ages. The latter, most probably representing an object of hoarding, are a clear indication
of the fact that they are both rank insignia and a display of the economic power of the
holder.
The belts decorated with appliqus, so often represented in the medieval
paintings or mentioned in the medieval documents, are almost absent in the graves.
When they were found as grave goods, their value is usually relatively low (Tomaevac,
Pecica-Hblu, Nufru-La Piatr9), in comparison with the treasury items (Olteni, Pl.
9/610,10 Cotul Morii-Popricani,11 Zvoaia, Pl. 9/14,12 Gogou,13 Schinetea,14 Orbeasca,
Pl. 9/5,15 Voineti16 on the Romanian territory or Dolite,17 Mihailovgrad/Montana,18 a
place somewhere between the villages Osmar and Troitza, from umen region in
Bulgaria19). Generally, the most valuable items are found in graves of the nomadic steppe
populations (Tomaevac, Pl. 3/320). Similar graves in terms of inventory were found in
Hungary, at Felsszentkirly,21 Cslyos,22 and Kgyspuszta,23 also assigned to Cuman
leaders and in Bulgaria at Silistra.24 They were rarely found in the graves assigned to the
local people (Curtea de Arge, Pecica-Hblu, Pl. 7,25 Portreti, Pl. 8/2,26 Micneti27).
The belts with simple buckles are slightly more and were discovered in various

9
Oana Damian, O necropol medieval timpurie descoperit la Nufru (jud. Tulcea), SCIV(A) 44, 1
(1993): 100, fig. 11/45, 112.
10
Dinu V. Rosetti, Tezaurul de podoabe medievale de la Olteni (Teleorman) i elementele lor bizantine,
BMI 41, 4 (1972): 6, fig. 410, 7, fig. 1115, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, fig. 1619.
11
Eugenia Neamu, Obiectele de podoab din tezaurul medieval de la Cotul Morii, Popricani (Iai),
Arheologia Moldovei 1 (1961): 284, fig. 1/3, 1012, 1417, 288, 289, fig. 5/67.
12
Ion T. Dragomir, Tezaurul de la Zvoaia (Jud. Brila), BMI 41, 2, (1972): 70, fig. 2/129, 71, 73, fig.
4/1.
13
Dumitru Berciu, Eugen Coma, Spturile arheologice de la Balta Verde i Gogou (1949 i 1950),
MCA 2(1956): 464, fig. 189/46.
14
Viorel M. Butnariu et alii, Monnaies et parures du Muse Dpartamental tefan Marede Vaslui (Iai:
Panfilius, 2007), 39, fig. 3134, 31, 32, fig. 3575, 33, 34, 35, 36, fig. 76115, 37, 38, fig. 116143, 145, 39,
40.
15
Dumitriu, Der Mittelalterliche Schmuck, 131, Taf. 45/113, 16, 16a, 17, Taf. 46/144.
16
Dan Gh. Teodor, Tezaurul feudal timpuriu de obiecte de podoab descoperit la Voineti-Iai, Arheologia
Moldovei 1 (1961): 258259, fig. 9/16, 260, fig. 10/16.
17
Svetlana Reabeva, Piese de podoab i vestimentaie din Moldova i ara Romneasc n contextul
relaiilor cultural-istorice (secolele XIVXVIII) (Brila: Istros, 2014), 358, fig. 96, 359, fig. 97, 360, fig.
98/46.
18
Georgi Aleksandrov, Srednovekovno blgarsko skrovite ot Mihailovgrad, Arheologija Sofia 26, 1
(1984): 2938.
19
Doncheva, A Silver Gilded Belt, 8285, 96, Fig. VI.1, 97, Fig. VI.2.
20
Marin Brmboli, The Kuman Belt from the Area of Tomaevac, Starinar NS XLVII (1996): 273277;
Kristijan R. Reli, Kumanski lem iz Tomaevca, GSAD 25 (2009): 292, Sl. 1.
21
Andrs Plczi-Horvth, Pechenegs, Cumans, Iasians. Steppe peoples in mediaval Hungary (Budapest:
Corvina, 1989), 137138, pl. 2635.
22
Ibid., 136137, pl. 19, 29.
23
Ibid., 136, pl. 11, 12.
24
Atanasov Two Belts from 14th-Century, 91101.
25
Silviu Oa, Alexandra Coma, On a Grave Discovered in PecicaHblu (Monastery of Ahtum) (Arad
County), GSAD 31 (2015): 143164.
26
Corneliu M. Ttulea, Cercetri n cimitirul medieval de la Portreti, judeul Dolj, Oltenia. Studii i
Comunicri. Istorie, Etnografie, tiinele Naturii 3 (1981): 4849, 50.
27
Panait I. Panait, nceputurile oraului Bucureti n lumina cercetrilor arheologice, Bucureti. Materiale
de Istorie i Muzeografie 5 (1967): 15, 1820.

45
cemeteries, some of which probably without churches (Gruia,28 Hudum-1, Pl. 5/18, 10
15 i Hudum-2, Pl. 5/9,29 Zbala, Pl. 4/1013,30 Portreti, Pl. 8/3, 4, 6,31 Peteni, Pl. 4/9,32
Trifeti,33 Mneti-Buftea, Pl. 6/11734) but also in others, discovered around churches
(Cladova-Biserica din Vale,35 Omolica, Pl. 4/8,36 Gornea-rchevite, Pl. 4/5,37 Curtea de
Arge, Pl. 3/12,38 Netezi, Pl. 4/67,39 Baia, Pl. 4/12,40 Sibiu-Piaa Huet,41 Ilidia-
Cetate,42 Duleu-Dealul rni-?, Pl. 4/3443) or in the funerary space of monasteries
(Araa, Pl. 2/12444). The interesting fact is that the wearing of belts, however without
appliqus, was also noted in the Iasians groups in Hungary, as well as the graves in the
cemetery of Ngyszllsi, dated in the 14th16th centuries.45

The buckle issue. The role of the buckle was rather indistinctive as they were used as a
dress accessory, namely to tighten both ends of a belt. However, the latter could have
multiple uses, including to have hanged on it other accessories, utensils or even weapons.
This is proved by the presence in some graves of a link most probably with the role of
hanger, along the buckle with tongue.
A more difficult issue is represented by the presence of the links in the graves, as
it is hard to say whether they were used as a buckle or they were a hanger on a string or
piece of leather intended to tighten up the clothes. As they are rather high in numbers and
28
Constantin Stuparu Cercetri asupra aezrii i necropolei feudale din secolele XIVXV din comuna
Gruia, jud. Mehedini, Drobeta 6 (1985): 138.
29
Victor Spinei, Rodica Popovici, Cercetrile arheologice din necropola medieval de la Hudum, jud.
Botoani, Arheologia Moldovei 10 (1985): 76, 77, fig. 2/8, 81, fig. 6/2; Victor Spinei, Rodica Popovici,
Spturile arheologice din necropola medieval de la Hudum (1987), Arheologia Moldovei 12 (1988): 243,
fig. 5/6, 7, 9, 10, 244.
30
Zoltn Szkely, A zabolai (Zbala-Romnia) kora-kzpkori temet, VMMK 1920, 19931994 (1994):
279, 3. bra, 280, 281, 282, 286, 294, 7. bra/36.
31
Ttulea, Portreti, judeul Dolj, 53, 55, 56.
32
Zoltn Szkely, Cercetri arheologice n necropola feudal de la Peteni (sec. XII). Date arheologice
preliminare, MCA 14 (1980): 507, fig. 4/1, 508.
33
Victor Spinei, Spturile de la Trifeti (Jud. Iai), MCA 16 (1986): 240.
34
Aristide tefnescu, Cercetrile de la Mneti-Buftea, MCA 14 (1980): 629; Aristide tefnescu,
Cercetrile arheologice de la Mneti-Buftea, MCA 15 (1983): 533, 534, fig. 14, 535, fig. 57.
35
Unpublished find from the excavations carried out by S. Oa, P. Hgel and P. Hurezan (1995).
36
Vojislav Djordjevi, Jelena Djordjevi, Dejan Radievi, Srednjovekovna crkva u Omoljici: istraivanja
u 2006. godini, GSAD 23 (2007): 190, Tabl. 3/1.
37
Ilie Uzum, Cimitirul medieval de la Gornea-archevite, Banatica 3 (1975): 135, 136, 137, fig. 4a, b.
38
Dumitriu, Der Mittelalterliche Schmuck, 119, 120121, Abb. 9, Taf. 28/623, Taf. 30/3744, Taf. 31, 32,
Taf. 108/1.
39
Lia Btrna, Adrian Btrna, Reedina feudal de la Netezi (jud. Neam), SCIV(A) 36, 4 (1985): 307,
308, fig. 5/23.
40
Lia Btrna, Adrian Btrna, Contribuii arheologice la istoricul oraului Baia, CAMNI 7 (1984): 237,
238, fig. 2/12.
41
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Sibiu. Piaa Huet. Monografie arheologic, vol. 1 (Alba Iulia: Altip, 2007), 141,
142, Daniela Marcu Istrate, Sibiu. Piaa Huet. Monografie arheologic, vol. 2 (Alba Iulia: Altip, 2007), 330,
331, G. 1613.
42
Ilie Uzum, Gheorghe Lazarovici, Aezarea feudal Ilidia n lumina izvoarelor scrise i a cercetrilor
arheologice, Banatica 1 (1971): 160.
43
Ovidiu Bozu, Descoperiri arheologice n hotarul satului Duleu (com. Farliug, jud. Cara-Severin),
Banatica 16, I, (2003): 381, 393, pl. IV/6, 7.
44
Neboia Stanojev, Araa. Crkve. Nekropola. Manastir (Novi Sad: Muzej Vojvoine, 2004).
45
Lszl Selmeczi, A Ngyszllsi I. Szm jsz temet (Budapest: Kiadja Budapesti Trtneti
Mzeum,1992), 23, 25, 26, 27, 29, 20, 31, 33, 34, 36, 41, 42, 53, 61, 69, 106, I. tbla/G. 51/1, 2, 5, G. 52/6,
10, G. 66/29, 30, G. 70/45, p. 107, III. tbla/G. 78/32, p. 108, IV. tbla/G. 91/8, 9, G. 93/16, G. 100/12, 14,
G. 105/19, p. 116, XII. tbla/G.323/31 (the graves were randomly selected).

46
they are not always associated with other buckles, we have nevertheless regarded these
items as an indicator of the presence of a belt. If we consider the fact that many items
were not published clean or others most probably had a broken tongue, it is very difficult
to distinguish them. Other uses are the tightening of footwear with some latchets
provided with a buckle or the tightening of bags or as harness items. Furthermore, they
could be used to tighten a robe. However, these items are not the subject of the present
study.
For the present analysis, we have selected 51 graves in 20 cemeteries (Araa, G.
8, 11, 34, 41, 69, 71, 75;46 Trifeti, G. 5, Mneti-Buftea, G. 217, 259, 260, 267, 277,
279, 282, 300, 303, 304, 308, 309, 312, 313, 315, 316, Peteni, G. 191, Omolica, G. 43;
Sibiu-Piaa Huet, G. 1613; Cladova-Biserica din Vale, one grave; Gornea-rchevite,
G. 21, 23; Tomaevac, G. 1; Gruia, G. 8; Nufru-La Piatr, G. 68; Netezi, G. 1, 84;
Curtea de Arge, G. 10; Baia, G. 34, 132; Portreti, G. 1, 5, 19, 26, 28; Zbala, G. 45,
77, 141; Pecica-Hblu, G. 1; Ilidia-Cetate, G. 51; Hudum-1, G. 11, 33, 63, 72, 83, 87,
88, 89, 95, 147; Hudum-2, G. 157). They are added by items discovered in other
cemeteries, which were not found in a specific grave (Duleu-Dealul rni) or were
discovered in the area of the abovementioned cemeteries (Araa, Pl. 2/15-24).

The materials used for the simple buckles (without plate or appliqus and belt flap on
organic holder) are generally bronze (Araa, G. 8, 11; Netezi, G. 1; Baia, G. 34, 132;
Zbala, G. 77, Sibiu-Piaa Huet, G. 1613) and iron (Araa, G. 34, 41, 69, 71, 75;
Cladova-Biserica din Vale, a grave; Gornea-rchevite, G. 21, 23; Gruia, G. 8; Netezi,
G. 84; Ilidia-Cetate, G. 51; Hudum-1, G. 11, 33, 63, 72, 83, 87, 88, 89, 95, 147; Hudum-
2, G. 157, Portreti, G. 26; Zbala, G. 45, 141; Trifeti, G. 5, Mneti-Buftea, G. 217,
259, 260, 267, 277, 279, 282, 303, 304, 308, 309, 312, 313, 315, 316, Peteni, G. 191).
They are added by the plate buckles, discovered in the cemeteries of Araa,
Omolica (G. 43), Mneti-Buftea (G. 300), Portreti (G. 19, 28). These were
manufactured of iron (Portreti, G. 19, 28; Mneti-Buftea, G. 300) and bronze (Araa).
The belts with a plate buckle (or without), appliqus and belt flaps were found in
the cemeteries researched in Tomaevac, G. 1, Portreti, G. 1, 5, Micneti, G. 50,47
Pecica-Hblu, G. 1, Nufru-La Piatr, G. 68, Mneti-Buftea and Curtea de Arge, G.
10. The materials used to manufacture them were various, without observing a particular
rule (Nufru-La Piatr, G. 68, manufactured of gilded silver; Curtea de Arge, G. 10, of
gold and silver; Portreti, G. 1, 5, of iron; Pecica-Hblu, G. 1, of bronze and tin;
Tomaevac, G. 1, gilded silver, Mneti-Buftea, iron, Micneti, bronze).
The cemeteries in which were found graves with belts as inventory were located
without exception on flat land. Part of them had no church or the church has not been
identified, othersin the case of the citieshad a village or neighbourhood church,
others belonged to monasteries.

Funeray practices in the graves containing belts. The position of the deceased in the
cemeteries without church is rather difficult to determine, because the plan of the
cemeteries was published in only a few cases (Zbala, Isacea, Nufru-La Piatr, Hudum-
1 and 2, however only partially in the latter). Thus, in the cemetery of Zbala, G. 77 was
in the northern half, in an area rather close to the center of the cemetery, G. 141 was
46
Stanojev, Araa, 3536, 40, 41, 45, 46. Other items discovered in necropolis, probably from destroyed
graves could be added.
47
Panait, nceputurile oraului Bucureti, 15, 1820.

47
towards its northeastern side, and the third (G. 45) was discovered at the western limit.
As regards the cemetery in Nufru-La Piatr, grave 68 was arranged in the southern area
towards the center, but at the periphery. In the case of the cemetery Hudum-1, all the
graves which had a belt as inventory were discovered disparately, without a particular
rule.
The position of the deceased in the cemeteries with church is unfortunately little
known and was registered as follows:
1. Inside the church / chapel / cathedral (Cladova-Biserica din Vale, Araa, G. 69, 75,
Curtea de Arge, G. 10).
2. North of the church / chapel / cathedral (Baia, G. 34).
3. West of the church / chapel / cathedral (Pecica-Hblu, G. 1).
4. East of the church / chapel / cathedral (Araa, G. 8).
5. Between the church / chapel / cathedral (Araa, G. 34 and 41).
They are added by graves disordered by the foundation ditch of the northern
church wall, as for example at Araa, G. 71.
The orientation of the graves is mentioned for 26 graves in 11 cemeteries.
Among these, 11 graves in nine cemeteries were oriented towards the WE,48 13 graves in
three cemeteries were oriented towards the SW-NE49 and two graves in one cemetery
were oriented towards the NW-SE.50 They are double in only one case (G. 11 in Hudum-
1), while the rest are individual.
The arrangement of the graves. Graves in simple pit, probably the majority.51
Only one deceased was deposited in a crypt which also had a burial stone bearing an
inscription (Curtea de Arge, G. 10).
The form of the pits was not mentioned in most of the cases. The forms are
mentioned only for the cemeteries in Gruia, Trifeti and Hudum-1 as being generally
rectangular, sometimes rounded at the corners.
The sex and the age of the deceased. These details are known in a low number of
graves (the cemetery in Araa, Curtea de Arge, Tomaevac, Zbala, Peteni, Hudum-1).
The cemeteries in Hudum-1 (G. 33, 63, 72, 83, 88, 95), and Araa (G. 8) were identified
as graves of children and teenagers. Skeletons of women were found in Araa (G. 69,
71), Pecica-Hblu (G. 1), Micneti (G. 50), and Zbala (G. 141). Graves of male
individuals were researched in Araa (G. 11, 34, 41-?, 75) and Zbala (G. 45). The rest
of the researched graves were regarded as belonging to adult individuals (Araa, G. 87,
Tomaevac, G. 1, Sibiu-Piaa Huet, G. 1613, Gornea-rchevite, G. 21, 23, Omolica, G.
43, Hudum-1, G. 87, 11, Nufru-La Piatr, G. 68, Zbala, G. 77, Portreti, G. 1,
Cladova-Biserica din Vale).
The deposition of the deceased in a simple pit constitutes the majority. The
deposition in a coffin is mentioned in three graves, namely in Pecica-Hblu, G. 1, Sibiu-
Piaa Huet, G. 1613 and Hudum-2, G. 157.
The position of the deceased inside the pit. Most of the deceased were deposited
laid on the back. G. 68 in Nufru-La Piatr which probably had the legs crouched seems
to be an exception.
The position of the arms is rather less varied. In this way were discovered

48
Araa, G. 8, 11, 41, 69, Peteni, G. 191, Nufru-La Piatr, G. 68, Ilidia-Cetate, G. 51, Cladova-Biserica din
Vale (one grave), Curtea de Arge-2, G. 10, Pecica-Hblu, G. 1, Sibiu-Piaa Huet, G. 1613.
49
Hudum-1, G. 33, 63, 72, 85, 87, 88, 89, 95, 147, Hudum-2, G. 157, Araa, G. 34, 71, 75.
50
Gornea-rchevite, G. 21, 23.
51
No special funerary constructions were registered.

48
skeletons which had the arms deposited along the body (Ilidia-Cetate, G. 51, Sibiu-Piaa
Huet, G. 1613, Peteni, G. 191, Gornea-rchevite, G. 21, 23, Araa, G. 11, 69, 71,
Omolica G. 4352). The arms placed along the body, with the palms on the pelvis (position
B) were discovered in the cemetery of Hudum-1 (G. 11, 147). The arms bent at the
elbow, with the forearms placed on the abdomen (position C). It includes G. 10 in Curtea
de Arge, G. 157 in Hudum-2, G. 1 in Pecica-Hblu and G. 11, 33, 83, 87, 88, 89, 95 in
Hudum-1. One skeleton had the arms along the body, but one hand had the palm placed
on the pelvis, which would suggest that initially he had both palms on the pelvis and one
of them probably slipped (Araa, G. 41). A similar situation is found in G. 75 of the
same cemetery, which had one arm along the body with the palm placed on the pelvis
and the other arm bent at the elbow with the palm placed on the abdomen, which
indicates position C for both arms. Other skeletons were missing one arm and we cannot
assign them to one of the five basic positions of the arms (Nufru-La Piatr, G. 68,
Araa, G. 34).
The position of the legs was published for a number of ten graves. Most of them
were outstretched and parallel (Araa, G. 11, 34, 41, 69, 71, 75, Gornea-rchevite, G.
23, Curtea de Arge, G. 10). The exception is G. 21 in Gornea-rchevite which was
missing the right leg and G. 1613 in Sibiu-Piaa Huet which had the right leg bent
outwards at the knee.

The grave goods. Funerary offerings deposited in ceramic vessels were found in the
graves at Hudum-1, G. 11 and 87. Another possible vessel was found in G. 1 of Pecica-
Hblu, from where a slightly curved iron tube was recovered. The authors of the
discovery believe that it is probably a vessel manufactured from an organic material,
provided with this iron tube.
Coins were deposited in eight graves of five cemeteries. They were issued during
Radu I (13771383), discovered at Portreti in G. 5, Mircea I of Wallachia (1386
1418), researched in G. 50 of the cemetery in Micneti, Alexander I of Moldavia
(14001432) found in the cemetery at Hudum-2, of G. 157, Bla the IVth (12351270),
discovered in Araa, in G. 8 and 11, Stephen the Vth (12701272), of the same
cemetery, in G. 8, Ludovic I (13421382), the same place, in G. 11 and Omolica
(probably Hungarian coin from the 12th13th centuries).
The adornment items consist of tiaras (G. 11 and 63 in Hudum-1), earrings
(Araa, G. 8, 69), rings (Curtea de Arge, G. 10, Netezi, G. 84), beads (Araa, G. 11),
pendants (Araa, G. 11).
The clothing items/dress accessories, others than the buckles, appliqus and belt
flaps consist of buttons and appliqus and were found in G. 10 at Curtea de Arge,
Portreti, G. 1 and 28.
The utensils consist of knives. They were found in G. 157, at Hudum-2 and G.
11 at Araa.
The presence of weapons inside the graves is limited to a sword (G. 1 in
Tomaevac).
A mail shirt fragmentarily preserved and a helmet were found in the same grave.
Unidentifiable items were found in grave 1 of Pecica-Hblu. They consist of an iron
hemisphere, perforated in the upper part and another fragment of an iron item.

52
Position A (according to Silviu Oa, Orizonturi funerare din Banatul istoric (secolele XXIV) (Bibliotheca
Brukenthal 28) (Alba Iulia: Altip, 2008).

49
Conclusions.
In terms of rank, the only belts that can be taken in consideration are the ones decorated
with appliqus, manufactured of precious materials. Besides this, we have to consider
other two aspects, namely whether the deceased had weapons or we are dealing with a
grave bearing a burial stone that certifies his social status, possibly corroborating the
documents of the time. We have only two graves in these situations, namely the one in
Tomaevac which can be assigned to a Cuman leader given the inventory and G. 10 in
Curtea de Arge, assigned to Vladislav I of Wallachia.
The rest of the cemeteries containing belts with appliqus can be regarded only
as belonging to individuals with a special social status who had the possibility of
displaying their economic power. They did not need to possess a nobility or princely
title, although this possibility must not be totally excluded.
However, the place and the way in which the burial was performed were rather
important within a community, by comparison with the church. It is supposable that
those who were discovered buried in the church were its founder or their descendants, or
individuals who played an important role in that community. Another aspect that must be
specified is that in a society that is not nomadic, the presence of the belt in the funerary
practices may not have the same role, although in everyday life it could have fairly
obvious connotations. For the 12th15th centuries, there are others rank or social status
insignia that could be preserved or not in the funerary practices. A particular significance
had, for example, the signet rings. The depositions of signet rings as funerary inventory
could solve some problems, namely avoiding the issuing of false deeds by the
descendants, limiting the burial of a large quantity of precious metal and at the same it
was a relatively discreet display of the social status.
The idea that the rich inventory did not necessarily represent the possession of a
considerable wealth is also demonstrated by the fact that inside many churches, the
majority of the graves had no inventory or it was not necessarily valuable in terms of
precious metal. Much more important were the position of the deceased in respect to the
church or the burial of monasteries in cemeteries rather than the deposition of very
valuable items.
A special case is represented by the monasteries. Things are slightly different in
this case as the situation of the graves can be somewhat likened to the situation in the
urban environment, especially if regarded through the diversity of individuals buried
there. They could have obtained a burial place especially as a result of a donation to the
monastery, or they were a local or a monastery servant, or they were a monk, or they
belonged to a particular confession, similar to the confession of the monastery. To this
regard, the graves that contained signet rings, some particular types of robe buckles,
some of children or those having as inventory belts decorated with appliqus bear
witness. This is added by the diversity and sometimes the richness of the grave goods,
their typology,53 as well as their origin or significance.54 Furthermore in the case of the
monasteries, unlike the churches from the rural environment or the borough churches,
whether or not the latter were parochial or small princely or nobility chapels, a greater
diversity can be noticed in terms of the graves arrangement. There are both simple

53
A good example is the inventory found in the Araa cemetery.
54
See, for example, the great number of devotion rings found in the necropolis from Araa (Lia Btrna,
Adrian Btrna, Precizri cu privire la unele reprezentri de pe inele medievale din secolele XIVXV,
CAMNI XII, (2003): 427431; Cristinel I. Popa, Inelul de devoiune de la Vinerea i problema inelelor
marianice medievale, Apulum 49 (2012): 157190), and some buckles.

50
depositions of the deceased inside the pit and inside a coffin or in specially arranged
crypts.55
If we make a simple comparison between the cemeteries in the rural environment
and the monastery or the urban environment or the environment of the communities
located in proximity of the towns, we could say that the individuals buried with belts,
even though simple, must have had certain financial possibilities. On the other hand, if
we consider that a large part of the cemeteries inside the churches have no inventory, we
can already notice a very complex situation. This can be explained only by analyzing
each cemetery and grave respectively, without generalizing and having trenchant rules to
be followed without exception.
Compared to the previous period when the number of graves that contained belts
with appliqus was slightly higher, they became rare starting with the 12th century. Their
discovery especially in treasuries, associated with the fact that they have been painted in
the iconography of the time, as for example the mural painting in Cricior church
depicting knez Blea, demonstrate that they started being items used especially by the
nobility or the boyars and the members of the ruling families. Their rarity as well as the
value of the belts decorated with appliqus demonstrate on one hand a more pronounced
social stratification, and on the other hand a refinement in the taste of the elites and
probably financial means sufficiently high to acquire such items. While in the previous
period, the burial with belts decorated with appliqus was not unusual in the ritual
practices, especially for the nomadic steppe populations, this custom almost disappears
starting with the 12th century and is only revived periodically by the penetration of new
waves or groups of nomadic populations arrived from the north of the Black Sea,
especially the Cumans.
The fact that they were only rarely deposited inside the graves can mean two
things. Firstly, that their price was extremely high to be lost or left in a grave and
secondly that they were also a transferable rank insignia. The numerous discoveries of
such items in treasuries stand proof in favour of the first hypothesis. It is possible that
alongside the signet ring, they were a proof of an individual with a nobility rank, along
with the deeds of possession of the properties. They are added by the weapons, which
were probably sufficiently valuable as not to be deposited inside the graves, except only
in special cases. The absence of these dress accessories and the weapons must be
attributed also to the influence of the church. On one hand, it was probably considered a
waste of precious material in the case of the belts, and on the other hand a pagan custom,
in the case of weapons deposition.
It is interesting that belts with iron appliqus, with no special value, which were
kept on the deceased, have been used simultaneously, for example in Wallachia.
In the medieval documents is known, for example, that such a belt along with a
tiara made the object of a litigation between two noblemen (namely Peter, son of Pavel
de Remetea and Grigore de Chernech) from Cara county, presided by Nicolae Kont, the
palatine of Hungary and judge of the Cumans, in 1364.56 The monetary values mentioned
in the document for the tiara demonstrate the value of such an item and indirectly explain
why they were not deposited inside the graves, but made the object of hoarding.57
The belts without appliqus are slightly more numerous but they were discovered

55
For example, see Araa or Caransebe-Centru [Petru Bona, Biserica medieval din Caransebe
(Caransebe: 1993)].
56
DRH. C, vol. XII, 308309 (doc. 302, 1364 iulie 27, emlac).
57
The real value of the two items was ten marks, although they were pledged for only three marks.

51
relatively rarely inside the graves. The graves were identified both in necropolis without
churches and in the ones with churches or monastery complexes. A possible influence
from Central Europe must not be excluded especially for the late 13th century and the
early 14th century. The discoveries of belts with appliqus in Pecica (Arad County) or
Petrovcsics (Srem) bear witness to this. The buckles of the belts found there have strong
analogies in the present space of Croatia, as for example in Torek-Cirkvie.58
Overall, we can say that the burial custom with belts with appliqus has at least
two directions of penetration, the first from the North-Pontic space through the nomadic
populations and the second from Central Europe. In both cases, however, their use in the
funerary practices was gradually abandoned because of the increased value of these items
manufactured of silver or gilded silver, which employed a substantial quantity of metal
and more and more complex execution techniques.
The great diversity of the belt buckles demonstrates the diversity of the belt types
used but also a high degree of manufacturing, especially in the urban environment and
the dissemination of the items in the neighbouring localities.
So far, we can see a few aspects of their presence inside the graves. Firstly, they
can be found in almost any type of cemetery, whether they are in the rural or the urban
environment, with or without church, or in monastery cemeteries. Secondly, they were
found both in children and female and male graves. They are added by the fact that
valuable items are deposited inside the graves only exceptionally, while the gold or silver
items are generally hoarded. If we take in consideration the fact that they were
discovered in urban homes, fortifications or probably belonging to the nobility, as for
example in the discoveries at Berzovia-Ptruieni, we can regard them as dress items,
used preponderantly by individuals sufficiently wealthy, however not necessarily holding
a certain rank in the feudal or tribal hierarchy, based on their environment of origin.
Given the few anthropological analyses of the skeletons, we find that the belts
were worn by children, women and men. The iconographic materials also support this
statement.
By comparison with the previous centuries, we can see that the belts with
appliqus seem to belong to the elites, whether they belonged to the nomadic steppe
populations, the nobles or the prices. For this period, their identification is however
somewhat more difficult, especially due to the rarity of the belts with appliqus
deposited inside the graves.

English translation: Alexandra Decu

58
Sinia Krznar, Nova sezona istraivanja lokaliteta TorecCirkvie, Godinjak Instituta za arheologiju
(Zagreb) XI (2015): 57, Sl. 9.

52
Pl. 1: Map

53
Pl. 2: Araa. 13. G. 8, 46. G. 11, 7. G. 34, 8. G. 69, 9. G. 71, 11. G. 75, 14. G. 41, 10, 12, 3,
1524. Items from necropolis (according to Stanojev, Araa)

54
Pl. 3: Curtea de Arge. 12. G. 10 (photos M. Amarie, no scale), 3. Tomaevac. G. 1
(according to Brmboli, The Kuman Belt)

55
 Pl. 4: Baia. 1. G. 132, 2. G. 34 (according to Btrna, Btrna, Contribuii arheologice), 34.
Duleu (according to Bozu, Descoperiri arheologice), 5. Gornea-rchevite. G. 21 (according
to Uzum, Cimitirul medieval, no scale), 6. Netezi. G. 1, 7. G. 84 (according to Btrna,
Btrna, Reedina feudal, no scale), 8. Omolica (according to Djordjevi, Djordjevi,
Radievi, Srednjovekovna, no scale), 9. Peteni. G. 191 (Szkely, Cercetri arheologice, no
scale), 10, 12. Zbala. G. 77, 11. G. 141, 13. G. 45 (Szkely, A zabolai, no scale)

56
 Pl. 5: Hudum-1. 1. G. 33, 2. G. 87, 3. G. 83, 4. G. 88, 5. G. 63, 6. G. 95, 7. G. 89, 8. G. 48,
10. G. 72, 1112. G. 33 (according to Spinei, Popovici, Cercetrile arheologice), 13. G. 72,
1415. G. 147, Hudum-2. 9. G. 157 (according to Spinei, Popovici, Spturile arheologice)

57
Pl. 6: Mneti-Buftea. 1. G. 308, 2. G. 313, 3. G. 315, 4. G. 279, 5. G. 303, 6. G. 309, 7. G. 312,
8. G. 316. 9. G. 259, 10. G. 260, 11. G. 267, 12. G. 282, 13. G. 304, 14. G. 217, 15. G. 277, 16.
G. 300, 17. G. 312 (according to tefnescu, Cercetrile de la Mneti-Buftea, no scale)

58
Pl. 7: Pecica-Hblu. 111. G. 1

59
Pl. 8: Portreti. 1. G. 5, 2. G. 1, 3, 5. G. 19, 4. G. 26, 6. G. 28, 78. G. 24
(according to Ttulea, Portreti, judeul Dolj)

60
Pl. 9. 14. Zvoaia, 5. Orbeasca, 610. Olteni (Photos M. Amarie, no scale)

61
Medieval Churches and Cemeteries in Transylvania in the Light of Coin Discoveries
(second half of the 11th century 13th century)

MARIA CRNGACI IPLIC1

SILVIU ISTRATE PURECE2

Abstract: In the current paper, we will present a repertoire of the coins issued during the 11 th
13th centuries found both in churchyard cemeteries and in the stratigraphy of medieval churches.
A general conclusion that emerges from the catalogue of the coin finds is that most medieval
churches dating from the 12th and 13th centuries had around them a contemporary cemetery. The
coins deposited in the graves around churches in Transylvania are only coins issued by Arpadian
kings, with one exception, i.e. the cemetery from Feldioara, where Roman coins were found as
Obolus in medieval funerary rituals; no other medieval coins were discovered in graves, for
example: Byzantine coins, Friesach coins, etc. As a general characteristic of the churchyard
cemeteries dating from the mid-11th century to the end of the 12th century we can notice the
absence or reduced frequency of depositing coins as Obolus in graves; the case of the cemeteries
where coins were deposited as Obolus during funerary ritual and the percentage of members who
practiced such a ritual are very small; only four cemeteries slightly exceed the 10% of graves
with coins deposited as Obolus. The custom of depositing coins as Obolus were in use in the
churchyard cemeteries dated in the second half of the 11 th century and the 12th century. For the
13th century, we have no grave with the custom of depositing coins as Obolus, and the coins dated
in this period and discovered as inventory in graves are in a very low percentage comparing to
the previous period. This phenomenon can be interpreted as an intensification of the control of
the Catholic Church in compliance with the Christian principles regarding the burial ritual. We
must note that some coins were cut and some fractured. It is possible that these marks have been
applied or have occurred during the movement of the coins; but we should not overlook the
possibility that some were prepared as such to be deposited in the grave, as a symbolic
destruction of the object deposited.
From the chronology point of view, so far the oldest churchyard cemeteries is the one from Cluj
Mntur where the oldest coins are issued by Andrew I (10461060) and Ladislau I (1077
1095), being laid as Obolus in graves; other churchyard cemeteries where coins from Ladislau I
were discovered are the ones from Dbca castle area IV, Geoagiu de Jos and Moldoveneti.
We must emphasize that these cemeteries are located in the Western part of the Transylvanian
Plateau (see the map 2). The next set of coins are those issued by Coloman (10951116), being
found also on the West side of Transylvania. The coins issued by Stephen II (11161131) and
Bela II (11311141) discovered in graves of the churchyard cemeteries are mentioned in Alba
Iulia, Cluj Mntur, Chidea, Dbca castle area IV, Dbca Garden of Tma, Dbca
Boldga, Moldoveneti, Moreti Citfalu (?) and Streisngeorgiu. In the current state of

This work was supported by CNCSIS UEFISCDI research project number PN-II-IDE-PCE-2011-03-0744:
South Transylvanian Medieval Monuments: Past, Present, Future. Between Archaeology, History and 3D
Modeling. The present paper is an extended and improved study of already published articles: Silviu I.
Purece, Maria Crngaci iplic, Prezena monedelor arpadiene n cimitirele din jurul bisericilor
transilvnene, Transilvania 4 (2014): 1928; Silviu I. Purece, Maria Crngaci iplic, Mnzen aus der
Arpadenzeit in siebenbrgischen Kirchenfriedhfen, Forschungen 58 (2015): 2556.
1
Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sibiu, Bd. Victoriei 40, 550024 Sibiu, Romania; email:
mariatiplic@icsusib.ro, www.arhin.ro, www.icsusib.ro.
2
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, Bd. Victoriei 57, 550024
Sibiu, Romnia; email: silviu.purece@ulbsibiu.ro, www.arhin.ro, http://socio-umane.ulbsibiu.ro.

63
research, we can assert that for the first half of the 12 th century the spreading area of cemeteries
surrounding churches was still limited to Western Transylvania. Only since the reign of Geza II
we started witnessing a spread of Arpadian coins in the churchyard cemeteries in other parts of
Transylvania. The chronological points specified represent enough evidence to interpret the
phenomenon of cemeteries around churches, as a gradual propagation of the institution of the
Catholic Church in Transylvania from west to east; the phenomenon starts in the second half of
the 11th century when we talk about a spread, on a smaller scale, of the influence of the Catholic
Church only in western Transylvania; about the expansion of the institution of the Catholic
Church towards the eastern Transylvania we can talk only since the mid-twelfth century, a
phenomenon that is gradually increasing during the 13 th century.
Also, there are several churches (Albeti, Clnic fortress, Cisndioara St Michael Church,
Prejmer, and Zlatna basilica phase) which had another initial function different than that of a
parish church or a sacred space devoted to burials, which once again confirms the original role
of these churches, that of nobility church.
Keywords: Arpadian Coins, Churchyard Cemeteries, Medieval Churches, Transylvania, the 12 th
and 13th centuries

We believe that repertorying coins discovered while investigating medieval ecclesiastical

monuments and cemeteries (see the map 1) is an important process both for the
understanding of the phenomenon of the apparition of the churchyard cemeteries and
their spread, and also for defining the temporal coordinates of Christianization of funeral
rituals.3 The phenomenon is closely linked to the birth and evolution of ecclesiastical
architecture and the institution of the church in Intra-Carpathian Romania
(Transylvania), which prompted us to include the research of coins from the medieval
cemeteries in the project South Transylvanian Medieval Monuments Project: Past,
Present, Future. Between Archaeology, History and 3D Modelling.
In older historiography, among the first research of the Transylvanian
churchyard cemeteries and the research of the coins distribution in Transylvania
belonged to K. Horedt.4 In the same year of 1958, the synthesis paper of Ioan Sabu was
published, which records and interprets the various monetary types that were distributed
around Transylvania in the 11th13th centuries.5 Two other papers concerning all types of
coins that circulated in Transylvania in the 11th13th centuries are those signed by Ana-
Maria Velter6 and Francisc Pap.7 An overview of the coins as Obolus discovered in the
churchyard cemeteries is provided by Erwin Gall,8 and alongside a synthesis study
dedicated to Arpadian coins discovered in the graves around churches in Transylvania
was published.9 Firstly, we focused on a repertoire of the Arpadian coins discovered in

3
Ioan-Marian iplic, Maria-Emilia iplic, The Christianization of funeral Rite in the Early Middle Ages,
Transylvanian Review 24, Supplement No. 2 (2015): 264278.
4
K[urt] Horedt, Contribuii la istoria Transilvaniei (Bucureti: Academia R. P. Romn, 1958), 58, 107
131.
5
Ion Sabu, Circulaia monetar n Transilvania n secolele XIXIII n lumina izvoarelor numismatice
Studii i cercetri de numismatic 2 (1958): 269301.
6
Ana-Maria Velter, Transilvania n secolele VXII. Interpretri istorico-politice i economice pe baza
descoperirilor monetare din bazinul carpatic, secolele VXII (Bucureti: Paidea, 2002), 154196.
7
Francisc Pap, Repertoriul numismatic al Transilvaniei i Banatului, sec. 1120: despre circulaia monetar
n Transilvania i Banat, sec. 1120 (Cluj-Napoca: Casa Crii de tiin, 2002).
8
Erwin Gll, Churchyards in the Transylavanian basin from the 11th to the first half of the 13th centuries.
On the beginning of institutionalized Christianity, Marisia 33 (2013), 160164.
9
Purece, Crngaci iplic, Mnzen aus der Arpadenzeit, 2556.

64
the graves of medieval churchyard cemeteries,10 our research being based on publications
and archaeological reports that referred to archaeological research of ecclesiastical
monuments, cemeteries and the coins issued during the 11th13th centuries. In the current
state of research, we managed to classify a total of 80 churchyard cemeteries for
Transylvania, alongside with the cemeteries dating from the 11th13th centuries which are
assumed to have been placed around churches that were not identified archaeologically,
such as the cemetery in Alba Iulia Bile Romane, Feldioara, Gilu, Moreti-Citfalu,
Sighioara-Dealul Viilor, Strei etc. Of the 80 cemeteries, 24 cemeteries have one or more
graves with coins; in the register that we created we found about 150 Arpadian coins
discovered in graves, in the graves pit or in the stratigraphy of the cemetery. The purpose
of the classification was to track the frequency of the custom of putting coins in graves
during the 11th13th centuries, the place of the coins in the grave (on the mouth, in the
mouth, in one hand / hands, on the chest etc.), the number of coins placed in the grave;
another purpose was also to set some chronological landmarks of the oldest churchyard
cemeteries and the mapping of the churchyards cemeteries which have graves with coins
deposit.
One of the major problems encountered in the creation of the repertoire was the
weak publishing of the numismatic material discovered, this being presented, in most
cases, only as a result of monetary activity of some of the issuers, without specifying
typological and measurement details;11 as well as due to omissions or errors occurred
during the initial publishing of the results of the archaeological research. However, the
analysis of existing documentary material allowed us to make some general
interpretations.
In the following pages, we will present a repertoire of the coins issued during the
11th13th centuries found both in churchyard cemeteries and in the stratigraphy of
medieval churches. We should mention from the outset that most of the coins come from
graves or cemeteries stratigraphy which revolved around Romanesque churches. A small
percentage of coins come from the stratigraphy of ecclesiastical monuments, without
being in connection with the existence or development of a cemetery. A general
conclusion that emerges from the catalogue of the coin finds presented in the following
pages is that most medieval churches dating from the 12th and 13th centuries had around
them a contemporary cemetery. In this regard, we have the example of the four churches
(Albeti, Clnic fortress, Cisndioara St Michael Church, Prejmer and the one from
Zlatna basilica phase)12 which had another initial function different, than that of a
parish church or a sacred space devoted to funerals, which once again confirms the
original role of these churches, that of nobility church.

10
Maria Crngaci iplic, Silviu I. Purece, Monede aparinnd secolelor XIIXIII descoperite n cimitirele
din jurul bisericilor situate n aria de colonizare sseasc din sudul Transilvaniei, Transilvania 8 (2013):
6471; Purece, Crngaci iplic, Prezena monedelor arpadiene n cimitirele, 1928; Purece, Crngaci
iplic, Mnzen aus der Arpadenzeit, 2556.
11
An inventory of the coins discovered in the twelfth and thirteenth century in Transylvania was conducted
over more than ten years by Velter, Transylvania, 329356, but archaeological discoveries of the past decade
provides a new range of very different interpretations comparing to those proposed by Ana Maria Velter.
12
Gheorghe Petrov, Biserica Adormirea Maicii Domnului din Zlatna, jud. Alba, Arhitectura religioas 2
(2002): 123135.

65
I. Coins discovered in the archaeological research in medieval churches
1. Alba Iulia Romano-Catholic Cathedral
During archaeological research conducted at the Romano-Catholic Cathedral St
Michael, several denarii issued by kings were discovered: 1 Coloman coin (1095
1116), 2 Bela II coins (11311141), 1 Stefan III coin (11621172), 1 Andrei II coin
(12051235), 3 Bela IV coins (12351270), 1 Ladislau IV coin (12721290), 1 Andrei
III coin (12901301), 10 anonymous Arpadian coins.13
2. Albeti
In the fortress located 3 km south of village, on a hill (Ceteaua / La Cetea)
from apartocului Valley, excavations were conducted in 1980, 1985, 1987 and 1990,
due to which substructions dated back to the 13th14th centuries were highlighted. At the
southeastern plateau there was a small wooden single nave church (chapel), and in the
north-west a donjon that allegedly was part of a noble residence. During the research,
four coins issued by the Hungarian king around the year of 1270 as ban of Sclavonia
(territory in Dalmatia) were discovered; the legend of the coins read MONETA REGI
SCLAVONIAE. No graves have been found.14
3. Braov Black Church
During the years 20122013 a rescue research was carried out in the square
around the Black Church, which led to the discovery of numerous artefacts, including
more than 150 coins and a medieval cemetery, whose beginning was dated to the end of
the 12th centurybeginning of 13th century. The oldest coin with the representation of
King Bela IV (12351270), was discovered in the south of the church, near the rectory; it
was not discovered in a funerary context.15
4. Clnic Fortress
Following the archaeological research carried out during 19631964 and in 1996
the noble fortress of Clnic, made of enclosure wall, chapel and donjon, two coins issued
by Bela IV (12351270), a coin from Stephan V and a small hoard consisting of four
coins issued by Stephan V (12701272)16 were found in a section drawn on the church
axis (S III and S IIIa). No graves have been found.
5. Cisndioara St Michael Church
In the years 19651966 excavations were carried out at the Romanesque church
and at the fortress on the hill of St Michael. In Section S II, the square 15, plotted on the
central axis of the church, east-west, a denarius issued by King Stephan III (11621172)
was discovered in situ. No graves were discovered.17
6. Dbca Garden of Tma (Grdina lui Tma)
Archaeological research conducted in 1966, 1967 and 1980 revealed a small
place of worship (a single nave church with square choir) with two different stages of
building (which date back to 11th until 15th century18) around which a cemetery revolved.

13
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Catedrala romano-catolic Sfntul Mihail i palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia.
Cercetri arheologice (20002002) (Alba Iulia: Altip, 2008), 378380.
14
Gheorghe Baltag, Sighioara nainte de Sighioara (Bucureti: Oscar Print, 2000), 216223.
15
Daniela Marcu Istrate (coord.), Redescoperirea trecutului medieval al Braovului: curtea Bisericii Negre /
Unearthing the medieval past of Braov: the Black Church yard (Cluj-Napoca: Mega, 2015), 159160, 165177.
16
Radu Heitel, Cetatea din Clnic (Bucureti: Meridiane, 1968), 1124; Nicolae Marcel Simina, Cetatea
din Clnic (jud. Alba). Consideraii pe marginea cercetrii arheologice, Arheologia medieval 3 (2000): 95
115, 99100.
17
Radu Heitel, Arheologia monumentului de arhitectur romanic din Cisndioara, Apulum 9 (1973): 280;
Radu Heitel, Das romanische Baudenkmal von Cisndioara (Michelsberg), Forschungen 17, 2 (1974): 53.
18
According to the remark regarding the discovery of fragments of ogives belonging to the late Gothic style:

66
The first phase of the church was dated antequem on the basis of 89 coins discovered
on the northern side of the church, in the stratigraphy of the site and dated during
Ladislau I (10751095).19
7. Dbca Boldg
Archaeological researches conducted in this area reveal the foundations of the
three overlapping churches around which a cemetery with burials lasted over an almost
a millennium. From the second church the foundations of the aisle and parts of the altar
were kept; in the mortar of the North foundation of the altar a Byzantine coin from
Manuel I Comnenus (11431180) was discovered.20
8. Mona Lutheran church
During archaeological researches conducted at the fortified church in 1999 and
2000,21 the oldest coin found is an Obolus from Bela IV (12351270);22 the coin and the
foundation fragments discovered on the eastern part, overlapping the Gothic choir, and
the graves with fosse antropomorphe highlighted a Romanesque church, older than the
current building built in the late 14th century.
9. Prejmer Lutheran church
Regarding the church of Prejmer with central, cross-shaped planform, with equal
aisles, unique in terms of structure among medieval churches in Transylvania, early
historiography found that the church was initiated by the Teutonic Knights, interrupted
by the Mongol invasion and finalized in the second half of the 13 th century under the
influence of the Cistercian abbey from Cra23. The archaeological research conducted by
Radu Heitel in 19601970 was published by Daniela Marcu Istrate; she demonstrated
that the current church was built in the second half of the 13th century, but it was
preceded by another building, from which several substructions of massive wall were
identified and whose planimeter could not be determined; no medieval cemetery was
found around the place of worship;24 during the archaeological research a coin from Bela
III (11721196) was discovered under the church floor in a filling layer25.
10. Sibiu Huet Square
In Huet Square, during archaeological research which aimed the medieval
cemetery around Church St Mary a total of 163 coins were discovered of which only five
were from 12th and 13th centuries.26 A single coin, an anonymous Arpadian denarius (12th
century?), was discovered outside the burial area, specifically in the area of the former
chapel St. Ladislau which was built in the early 15th century.27

Petru Iambor, Aezri fortificate din Transilvania (sec. IXXIII) (Cluj-Napoca: Argonaut, 2005), 188189.
19
Petru Iambor mentiones 8 coins (Iambor, Aezri, 189), but Erwin Gll mentiones 9 coins (Erwin Gll,
Dbca: Necropola din jurul bisericii din grdina lui A. Tma. Cteva idei privind evoluia habitatului
medieval de la Dbca, Analele Banatului 21 (2013): 169.
20
Iambor, Aezri, 189191.
21
Daniela Marcu et al., Mona, com. Mona, jud. Sibiu. Punct: Biserica evanghelic i cetatea rneasc,
CCA. Campania 1999 (2000): 6465; Daniela Marcu et al., Mona, com. Mona, jud. Sibiu. Punct: Biserica
evanghelic CCA. Campania 2000 (2001): no. 128.
22
Monica Dejan, Monede descoperite cu ocazia spturilor arheologice la Mona, judeul Sibiu, Studii i
cercetri de numismatic 2, 2011 (2011): 175176.
23
Virgil Vtianu, Istoria artei feudal n rile romne (Bucureti: Academia R. P. Romne, 1959), 6364,
70, 105106, 163; Vasile Drgu, Arta gotic n Romnia (Bucureti: Meridiane, 1979), 1725.
24
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Contribuii la istoria bisericii evanghelice i a cetii din Prejmer pe baza
spturilor arheologice realizate de Radu Heitel, Ars Transsilvaniae 21 (2011): 147148.
25
Ibid. 145149.
26
See the footnotes 200210.
27
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Sibiu. Piaa Huet. Monografie arheologic, vol. I, (Alba Iulia: Altip, 2007), 153,

67
II. Coins discovered in funeral circumstances / in the churchyard cemeteries
1. Alba Iulia Romano-Catholic Cathedral
On the occasion of research in different campaigns (1953,28 19681977,29 and
30
2000 ) at the Roman-Catholic Cathedral St Michael there were identified two burial
horizons known as: M 2 which were used until the end of the 11th century and during 12th
century around the Romanesque basilica (cathedral I) and M 3 which was used in the
first half of the 13th century. M 3 is dated and assigned to Western guests who had come
for the opening of the site of current basilica (cathedral II). 31 365 graves were registered
in M 2 and 13 graves in M 3.32 In the two burial horizons, we have grouped also the
medieval graves researched by D. Protase and R. Heitel.
a. M 2 horizon
Following the research of D. Protase, 24 graves were identified dating back to
the 12th century;33 coins were found in:
Grave no. 5 Stephan II coin (11161131) (H 47, CNH I 54, U 37), found in the
mouth;34
Grave no. 9 anonymous coin (H 91, CNH I 75, U 40), Stephan II (11161131)
according to U 40, found in the mouth;35
Grave no. 10 green shades on the jowl, coin placed on the mouth;36
Grave no. 18 anonymous Obolus (H 183, CNH I 164, U 99), Bela III (1172
1196) according to U 99, found in the mouth;37
Grave no. 23 anonymous denarius (H 124, CNH I 133, U 71), Geza II (1141
1162) according to U 71, Emeric (11961204) after CNH I 133, found in the mouth;38
Grave no. 24 copper coin (it is referred by the author as being made of silver,
even though this type of coin is make of copper) (H 73, CNH I 101, U 115), Stephan IV
(11631164) according to CNH 101, found in the mouth;39
Grave goods were found in 13 graves, in 3 cases, the coins being associated with
other artefacts.40 Although the coins are referred as Obolus, in most cases we are dealing

no. 4 catalogue, see also fig. 4 with the general plan of the excavations.
28
Dumitru Protase, Cercetrile arheologice din 1953 n cetatea de la Alba Iulia, Studii i cercetri de
istorie 7, 14 (1956): 1537.
29
Radu Heitel, Principalele rezultate ale cercetrilor arheologice din zona sud-vestic a cetii de la Alba
Iulia (19681977). I, SCIVA 36, 3 (1985): 215231; Radu Heitel, Principalele rezultate ale cercetrilor
arheologice din zona sud-vestic a cetii de la Alba Iulia (19681977). II. Piesele de metal, SCIVA 37, 3
(1986): 233248; Maria Crngaci iplic, Silviu Oa, Piese inedite din colecia Muzeului Naional de Istorie
a Romniei descoperite n necropola de secol XII de la Catedrala romano-catolic de la Alba Iulia, Acta
Musei Napocensis 20022003 3940 (2005): 92106.
30
Marcu Istrate, Catedrala romano-catolic.
31
Ibid., 120, 121.
32
Protase, Cercetrile arheologice din 1953, 34; Heitel, Principalele rezultate. I, 228; Daniela Marcu
Istrate, Angel Istrate, Morminte cu ni cefalic descoperite la Alba Iulia (sec. XIIXIII). Contribuii
privind istoria oaspeilor occidentali n Transilvania, in Relaii interetnice n Transilvania (secolele VI
XIII), coord. Zeno Karl Pinter, Ioan Marian iplic, Maria Emilia iplic (Bucureti: Economic, 2005): 229
244; Marcu Istrate, Catedrala romano-catolic, 120, 121.
33
Protase, Cercetrile arheologice din 1953, 19.
34
Ibid., 19, 32, fig. 4/1.
35
Ibid., 21, 32, fig. 4/4.
36
Ibid., 21.
37
Ibid., 22, 33, fig. 4/7.
38
Ibid., 23, 33, fig. 4/12.
39
Ibid., 23, 32, fig. 4/10.
40
Ibid., 1923.

68
with denarii. The coin found in grave no. 9 is mistakenly referred as a coin from Bela II
(11311141). The catalogue number, indicated correctly, refers to an anonymous coin
attributed only by U 40 as issued by Stefan II (11161131).
The research of R. Heitel revealed 291 graves dating back to the 12th century.41 It
is indicated the discovery of 22 silver coins and 2 bronze coins42 covering the period
from the reigns of Coloman (10961116) and Bela III (11721196)43. The author
estimated, by analyzing the remains of some parts or the coins found in a secondary
position and the oxides traces on bones found on some skeletons, that the number of
good graves and coin-Obolus must have been at least three times higher.44 The coins
found in the graves were placed on the mouth.45 Heitel notes that the lack of those from
Emeric (11961204) and Ladislau III (12041205), is due to an interruption attributed to
the demolishing of basilica built by Ladislau I (10771095),46 although Protase indicates
a coin from Emeric (11961204) discovered in grave no. 23.47 It is noted that 18 of the
graves contained good graves,48 probably only those graves were counted that contained
objects other than coins. This is probably because the number of coins from the graves is
of 2449. The lack of details published about the graves researched by R. Heitel makes it
impossible to create an analysis related to the coin finds.
The latest research which focused on medieval cemetery led to the identification
of the other 50 graves, among which 12 of them with good graves50. Only one case,
grave no. 3, was documented as having a coin deposit, which was unfortunately
unidentifiable.51 Although a denarius from Bela II (11311141) was found in grave no 1,
near the skull, it seems that this comes from another grave.52 Both graves have no other
grave goods.
b. M 3 horizon
Heitel investigated 11 graves in brick sarcophagus with niche for head.53 The
tomb M II, probably also in the case of M V, a coin from Andrew II (12051235) was
found near the left femoral cervix. It held that it was originally put in a bag. 54 Other two
graves without items in inventory, were discovered by D. Marcu Istrates research during
the last campaign; the tombs from horizon M3 were attributed, by the authors of the
research, to Western stone craftsmen who had arrived in Alba Iulia in order to participate
in building the current church (cathedral II).55

2. Alba Iulia Roman Baths

56 graves with rich and diverse grave goods were identified. K. Horedt dated the
cemetery based on the inventories of the graves from the second half of the 10 th century

41
Heitel, Principalele rezultate. I, 228.
42
Ibid., 228.
43
Ibid., 228.
44
Heitel, Principalele rezultate. II, 243.
45
Ibid., 242.
46
Heitel, Principalele rezultate. I, 228.
47
Protase, 23, 33, fig. 4/12.
48
Heitel, Principalele rezultate. II, 243.
49
Heitel, Principalele rezultate. I, 228.
50
Marcu Istrate, Catedrala romano-catolic, 257270.
51
Ibid., 120, 379.
52
Ibid., 257, 379.
53
Heitel, Principalele rezultate. I, 228.
54
Ibid., 229.
55
Marcu Istrate, Istrate, Morminte cu ni cefalic, 240; Marcu Istrate, Catedrala romano-catolic, 121.

69
to the end of the 12th century. Among the objects discovered there are mentioned coins
issued by Bela II (11311141) and Bela III (11721196). For the burials from the 12th
century, K. Horedt presupposes the existence of a chapel in the cemetery, but that was
not identified in the field.56

3. Avrmeti
Some of the graves of horizon 1 were ruined by the foundation of the church in
the second phase of construction (the semi-circular apse and the eastern part of the
aisle).57 In the graves no 17 and 18, coins issued in the 12th century and hair rings were
deposited.58

4. Chidea
K. Horedt considers the cemetery, without giving further details, as being part of
those cemeteries around a church and he reminds that from there, coins from Bela II
(11311141) and Ladislau II (11621163)59 were found.

5. Cluj Mntur
In the medieval complex from Mntur, following archaeological researches
conducted in the 70s and in the years 19811982 by a team of archaeologists led by P.
Iambor, 207 inhumation graves were found,60 among which 159 were published, 142
being placed in 11th13th61 centuries; the cemetery includes graves with individuals of
both sexes and of different ages; most part of the graves are associated with fragments of
foundations identified and assigned to a special type of basilica built by Benedictine
monks who arrived here most likely in the second half of the 11th century; the
construction apparently was still used until the Mongolian invasion of 12411242, i.e.
before the central hexagonal rotunda.62 Of the graves mentioned, only 65 had grave
goods,63 14 are associated with coins.64 All currencies hitherto known were issued during
Arpadians:
Grave 1 denarius issued by Bela II (11311141) (H 49, CNH I 57, U 44),
found on the mandible;65
Grave 9 denarius issued by Bela III (11721196) (?) Suberate, the initial

56
Kurt Horedt, Untersuchungen zur Frhgeschichte Siebenbrgens (Bucureti: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag,
1958), 6263; Kurt Horedt, Siebenbrgen im Frhmittelalter (Bonn: Habelt, 1986), 117.
57
Elek Benk, A kzpkori Keresztr-szk rgszeti topogrfija (Budapest, 1992), 223; Andrs Sfalvi,
Andrea Demjn, Zsolt Nyrdi, Cercetarea bisericilor n scaunul Odorhei (jud. Harghita), Arheologia
medieval 7 (2008): 83.
58
Benk, 223.
59
Horedt, Contribuii, 58; Sabu, Circulaia monetar n Transilvania, 287.
60
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 206207.
61
Erwin Gll, Balzs Gergely, Szilrd Gl, La rscruce de drumuri. Date arheologice privind teritoriul
oraului Cluj-Napoca n secolele XXIII (Bucureti: Kriterion, 2010), 163.
62
Petru Iambor, tefan Matei, Cetatea feudal timpurie de la Cluj-Mntur, Anuarul Institutului de Istorie
i Arheologie Cluj-Napoca 18 (1975): 303304; Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 206207.
63
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 206207.
64
From the list written by Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 54, the coin issued by Ladislau is
missing from grave 75; from the analysis made by Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 108 the coin
from grave 137 is missing. Due to the two omissions made by Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri,
only 13 coins are mentioned in their book.
65
P. Iambor, t. Matei, Incinta fortificat de la Cluj-Mntur (sec. IXXIV), Acta Musei Napocensis 16
(1979): 602, pl. VII; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 141; Velter, Transilvania, 343.

70
position of the coin is unknown;66
Grave 10 denarius issued by Ladislau I (10771095) (H 22, CNH I 26, U 16),
very burned, found on the mandible;67
Grave 32 denarius issued by Ladislau I (10771095) (H 24, CNH I 28, U 17),68
near the skeleton, possibly belonged to a disordered grave,69 or, according to others, on
the top of the sternum law;70
Grave 41 denarius issued by Ladislau I (10771095) (H 22, CNH I 26, U 16)71
found in the mouth of the skeleton;72
Grave 53 anonymous denarius (H 95, CNH I 79, U 47), Bela II (11311141) as
U 47, the initial position of the coin is unknown;73
Grave 64 anonymous Obolus (H 189, CNH I 169, U 61), fragmented, Geza II
(11411162) as U 61, found on the mandible;74
Grave 75 denarius issued by Ladislau I (10771095) (H 22, CNH I 26, U 16),
fragmented, found on the mandible;75
Grave 112 denarius issued by Geza II (11411162) (H 55, CNH I 63, U 54)?
on the sternum;76
Grave 121 anonymous denarius (H 106, CNH I 92, U 56), fragmented, Geza II
(11411162) as U 56, no location;77
Grave 124 denarius, cut, issued by Ladislau I (10771095) (H 22, CNH I 26, U
16) in the right hand;78
Grave 130 denarius, possible cut, issued by Andrew I (10461060) (H 9 CNH I
1214 U 5)79, found in the mouth of the skeleton;80

66
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 602, pl. VII; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 142.
67
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 602603, pl. VIII; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 142.
68
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 604; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de
drumuri, 54, 108, 146.
69
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 604.
70
Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 146.
71
The coin is mentioned as type H 25, CNh I 31, U 20 by Velter, although in the draw associated by Iambor,
the sides of the cross in the back occupies the entire area of the coin, similar to H 22, CNH I 26, U 16:
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 604, pl. VIII; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce
de drumuri, 54, 108, 147.
72
Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 147.
73
P. Iambor, t. Matei, A. Halasu, Consideraii privind raportul cronologic dintre aezarea i cimitirul de la
Cluj-Mntur, Acta Musei Napocensis 18 (1981): 137, pl. IV; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely,
Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 149.
74
Iambor, Matei, Halasu, Consideraii, 137, pl. IV; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 151.
75
Iambor, Matei, Halasu, Consideraii, 138, pl. V; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 153.
76
Petre Iambor, tefan Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice la complexul medieval timpuriu de la Cluj-
Mntur, ActaMN 20 (1983): 134135, pl. VI; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce
de drumuri, 54, 108, 156.
77
Iambor, Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice, 135, pl. VI; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 157.
78
Iambor, Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice, 136, pl. VI; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 157.
79
Iambor, Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice, 136, pl. VI; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 158.
80
Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 158.

71
 Grave 137 anonymous denarius, fragmented, unreadable, the initial position of
the coin is unknown;81
Grave 158 anonymous denarius (H 96, CNH I 81, U 46), Bela II (11311141)
as U 46, the initial position of the coin is unknown;82

Chart 1: Cluj Mntur: the distribution of graves of 12th13th century

according to the grave goods

It is clear from the chart above that only one small percentage of the total
number of graves had coins in the inventory. In 8 cases, grave no 9,83 10,84 41,85 53,86
75,87 130,88 137,89 158,90 the coins are associated with adornment items, while in 6 cases
there are only coins in the inventory.
In terms of position of the coins in the grave we have the following situation:
four coins were placed on the mouth, 2 in the mouth, 1 on the chest, 6 unknown position,
1 in the right hand. We believe that the situation of grave 32 is not accurate as the author
of the archaeological research places the coin near the skeleton, stating that the coin
might have been part of the inventory of a disordered grave.91

81
Iambor, Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice, 137, pl. VI; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 160.
82
Iambor, Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice, 138, pl. VI; Velter, Transilvania, 343; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La
rscruce de drumuri, 54, 108, 163.
83
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 602; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 142.
84
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 602; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 142.
85
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 604; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 147.
86
Iambor, Matei, Halasu, Consideraii, 137; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 149.
87
Iambor, Matei, Halasu, Consideraii, 138; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 153.
88
Iambor, Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice, 136; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 158.
89
Iambor, Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice, 137; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 160.
90
Iambor, Matei, Noi cercetri arheologice, 138; Gll, Gergely, Gl, La rscruce de drumuri, 163.
91
Iambor, Matei, Incinta fortificat, 604.

72
 Chart 2: Cluj Mntur: the position of the coins

6 of the 14 coins were found with broken or cut parts. In two cases the cuts were
intentional (coins from grave 124 and 130).
A special case is the coin in grave 10, which is heavily burned. Given the fact
that the grave 10 is on an oven from the 11th century,92 we consider as very probable, the
association of the coin with this area. We can assume two ways in which the coin could
reach the grave 10: either it was found when digging the pit, or it was in the grave in a
secondary position. If the archaeological observations are correct, indicating that the coin
was discovered on the jaw, we must tend towards the former assumption.

Chart 3: Cluj Mntur: the distribution of coins according to the emitter

Most coins from graves from Cluj Mntur were emitted in the period
between the reigns of Andrew I (10461060) and Bela III (11731196). Most coins,
except those anonymous, were issued by Ladislau I (10771095). Only one Obolus,
which is anonymous, comes from this cemetery, being discovered in M 64.

92
Ibid., 603.

73
 6. Dbca Castle area IV
Following archaeological research conducted at Dbca Castle area IV during
several campaigns, the last led by P. Iambor, 48993 or 49094 graves were investigated,
other dozens being disordered by agricultural work and subsequent burials; this
cemetery began operating before the small church with semicircular apse whose
existence was between the end of the 11th century / beginning of 12th century until the
late 12th century when the chapel was demolished and the cemetery abandoned or most
likely moved to another place; but the author of the archaeological research does not
exclude the possibility that before the church above-mentioned there has been an older
cemeterial chapel to which several figured blocks belong.95 The vast majority of graves
do not have inventory, only 54 of those examined had adornment items96. They found 7
coins assigned as follows: Ladislau I (10771095) 1, Stephen II (11161131) 1, Bela II
(11311141) 2, Geza II (11411162) 1, Bela III (11721196) 2.97 Unfortunately, we do
not have information on typological classification of the coins. It is noted that the coins
come from graves: 1, 119, 188, 190, 483,98 without any association between coin and
grave. The coins were deposited on the mouth of the deceased, except for grave no. 1.99
In one grave the situation of the coin is uncertain, the opinions stating that it did not
contain a coin but another object.100
An important issue is caused by a lack of accurate information about the grave
goods, only vague references being made to them.101 In this context, it is impossible to
analyze the association of coins with other inventory items.

7. Dbca Garden of Tma (Grdina lui Tma)

Research from Dbca Garden of Tma was conducted during three
campaigns (1966, 1967, and 1980),102 by N. Edroiu, t. Matei, and M. Rusu.103 The
research results were published in part by P. Iambor and retaken by E. Gall, the
conclusions of the two archaeologists being partially different. What emerges from the
results published in that area, we only want to point out that of the 71 graves researched
and grouped around a small place of worship (a single-nave church with choir square)
with two different stages of building (which dates from 11th104 century until 15th105
century) in four graves were discovered Arpadian coins:
Grave 2 anonymous denarius dated from the 12th century whose deposit is

93
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 187.
94
Erwin Gll, Analiza preliminar a necropolei din jurul bisericii de la Dbca-Incinta IV. Cteva idei
despre termenul de cimitir din jurul bisericii, Acta Musei Napocensis 47, 2 (2010): 14.
95
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 186.
96
Ibid., 187.
97
Ibid.; Gll, Analiza preliminar, 21.
98
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 187; Gll, Analiza preliminar, 21.
99
Gll, Analiza preliminar, 21.
100
Ibid., 21.
101
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 187.
102
Gll, Dbca: Necropola, 162.
103
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 188, note 26.
104
The first phase of the church was dated antequem based on 8 coins (according to Iambor, Aezri
fortificate, 189) and 9 coins (Gall Dbca: Necropolis, 169) discovered on the north side of the church, in
the stratigraphy of the site and dated during Ladislau I (10751095).
105
According to the remark regarding the discovery of fragments of ogives belonging to the late Gothic style
(Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 188189).

74
unclear because the author mentions both deposit on thorax law and mandible,106
diameter: 1 cm, inventory: MNITN 97934.107 The assignment proposed by P. Iambor
should not be missed, namely that the coin was issued by Geza II.108
Grave 12 on the pelvis, possibly it came from grave 12, which was probably
deposited on the mouth, (H 100, CNH I 88, U 52), Bela II (11311141) as U 52,
diameter: 1,2 cm, w.: 0.298 gr, inventory: MNITN 97932.109
Grave 15 anonymous denarius deposited on the mouth? (H 102 CNH I 90, U
53), Bela II (11311141) as U 52, diameter: 1, 2 cm, w: 0.269 gr, inventory: MNITN
97933.110
Grave 26 A-B anonymous denarius with unknown position, from the grave
26B disordered by grave 26A (H 96a, CNH I 81, U 46), Bela II (11311141) as U 46,
diameter: 1 cm, w: 0.155 gr, inventory: MNITN 97929.111
Next to grave 38 on the ground level from which the pit of the grave was dug
an anonymous denarius was discovered (H 89, CNH I 74, U 48), Bela II (11311141) as
U 48, diameter: 1 cm, w: 0.133 gr, inventory: MNITN 97939.112 It is possible that it
comes from a disordered grave.

8. Dbca Boldg
In this area, was discovered a cemetery with burial horizons stretching to the 17th
century and whose beginning is unclear. From what it was published it is believed that
the cemetery was one of those which initially were not organized around an ecclesiastical
edifice, but the authors do not exclude the possibility that the cemetery functioned
around a church that was not identified archaeologically. The fact is that four of the
dozens of graves investigated, which apparently had no ornaments or clothing
accessories,113 were cut by the foundation of a church (church no. 1) dated by P.
Iambor at the beginning of the 11th century.114 Considering the nature of this article, we
will refer here only to the coins mentioned in the literature, derived from a grave
discovered in Boldg. Originally the following situation was noted:
In connection with M 59 a few observations are required. This grave was
disordered by M 57 and M 58, keeping from it only the skull, in whose mouth a silver
coin from King Solomon (10631074) was found, 115 so that later, after reevaluating the
situation, the following statements were made:
A similar date is offered also to grave 57, researched on the north side of the
church, from which an anonymous denarius, or according to Eugen Chiril, a coin issued
by Stefan II was found,116 information associated with the following note: We must
point out that the coin of Solomon mentioned by Iambor, from grave 57, is actually an
anonymous coin from the 12th century. Iambor 2005, 190 ...117

106
Gll, Dbca: Necropola, 163, 173.
107
Ibid., 163.
108
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 189.
109
Gll, Dbca: Necropola, 163164.
110
Ibid., 164.
111
Ibid., 165.
112
Ibid., 166.
113
There are no details in literature regarding the number and other details of the graves.
114
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 190, 189194.
115
Ibid., 190.
116
Gll, Dbca: Necropola, 184.
117
Ibid., 184, nota 132.

75
 As one can see, a confusion is made here, as shown by misquoting the first
source of information in the second one, between the grave 59 and 57. According to the
first source, the coin issued by Solomon (10631074) was discovered in grave 59
disordered by graves 57 and 58.118 This confusion seems to be justified also by the fact
that the coin was initially attributed to Solomon (10631074),119 and then to Stephen II
(11161131).120 Following these observations, we can assume the following situations:
1. Only one coin;
Grave 59 or 57 silver coin (denarius?) issued by Solomon (10631074)
deposited in the mouth or anonymous denarius, Stephen II (11161131)?, deposited in
the mouth?
2. Two coins;
Grave 57 anonymous denarius, Stephen II (11161131)?, deposited in the
mouth?
Grave 59 silver coin (denarius?) issued by Solomon (10631074), deposited
in the mouth.
This option becomes credible if we think that the coin has in its bibliography
two different determinations, which may suggest the existence of two separate coins,
each belonging to a different grave. We must mention that so far, in Transylvania the
coins of Solomon discovered in some churchyard cemeteries are no longer known.

9. Drueni
The Lutheran Church in Drueni is one of the few churches that has benefited
from extensive archaeological research. They were held during two separate campaigns,
one between 19731977, conducted by Mariana Beldie-Dumitrache, and the other during
19931996 led by Dana Marcu Istrate. The investigations led to the discovery of a
single-nave church and cemetery surrounding it, both dating from the second half of the
twelfth century; the church was superimposed sometime in the first half of the 13th
century by a basilica that cuts some of the graves belonging to the 12th century church;
the cemetery formed around the basilica was also identified as overlapping the previous
cemetery. The conclusions of the two authors on the funerary complexes located around
the single-nave church, concerning their chronology and ethnic assignments are
different.121 However, what stands out is that both authors identified graves belonging to
Szeklers based on inventory and graves attributed to German guests, based on the shape
of grave pits. In the following lines, we will refer only to the items discovered and
published by M. Dumitrache, because the graves and the related grave goods researched
by D. Marcu Istrate have not yet been published.122
From the cemetery of Drueni 10 Arpadian coins were found, of which only six
anonymous denarii released probably by Geza II (11411162) and Stephen III (1162
1172). Those belonging to Geza II were found like this: one in grave no. 8 located on the
right side of the lower jaw and associated with a hair ring and a ring with mount (type H

118
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 190.
119
Ibid., 190.
120
Gll, Dbca: Necropola, 184.
121
Mariana Dumitrache, Cetatea steasc din Drueni, jud. Braov, ansamblu de arhitectur medieval.
Cercetri arheologice 19731977, Cercetri arheologice 3 (1979): 189190; Daniela Marcu, antierul
arheologic de la Drueni, Buletinul Comisiei Naionale a Monumentelor, Ansamblurilor i Siturilor
Istorice 14 (1994): 1924; Daniela Marcu Istrate, Biserica fortificat de la Drueni, jud. Braov,
Arhitectura religioas 2 (2002): 4178.
122
Except two coins published by Velter (Velter, Transilvania, 345).

76
158 / U 75 according to Velter123) and the second one was found in the grave no. 95
located on the thorax, its position may be amended after the grave was disordered by
grave no. 98124. One of the four denarii emitted by Stephen III comes from the grave 4b,
a childs grave, found on the left side of the lower jaw125 (H 140 / U 81 according to
Velter126), while the second was placed in the grave of a youngster, number 23, located
on the skull127 (H 113 / U 83 according to Velter128). The third denarius, associated with
a hair ring, comes from grave no. 11, but its position is unknown, due to its disorder;
although, it is likely to have been in the lower jaw129 (H 127 / U 84? according to
Velter130). The fourth denarius belonged probably to grave no. 5 being found in the
interior of the number 26131 (H 161 / U 80 according to Velter132).
The small amount of coins discovered, despite the 98 graves investigated during
19731977 is due, most likely, to a more acidic soil and water infiltration that led to a
significant loss. Their presence is certified only by four Arpadian coins which were not
recovered and by the greening of three coins generally observed in the skull.133 Such
traces or coins were identified in the following regions of skeletons: the left side of the
lower jaw in grave 2, on the right side of the lower jaw in grave 6 (coin unrecovered),
near the lower jaw in grave 38, under the skull in grave 41, although initially the
unrecovered coin had another position (you must keep in mind that the skull was moved
for unknown reasons134), on lower jaw in grave 48 (coin unrecovered), near the skull in
the grave 49 (coin unrecovered), on upper jaw in grave 54, having traces of greening.
There are four cases in which the presence of Arpadian coins was signalled, but
unrecovered, and three cases in which there is likely to be a coin in the inventory of some
graves in the churchyard cemetery of the single-nave church.135 What stands out is that
all Arpadian coins discovered belong to the graves around the single-nave church, thus to
the second half of the 12th century. Given that 58 graves were investigated in the
cemetery of the single-nave church, 29.31% of the graves had grave goods (coins, rings
and temple rings). Regarding the coins, we believe that they are present in graves in a
rate of 22.41%.
We want to underline that in the graves around the 13th century basilica no coins
were identified. This case is not unique, the same situation having been encountered in
the case of the Bistria Lutheran church,136 Braov Black Church,137 Szkely Daia
(Daia Secuiasc),138 Caol,139 Cricu,140 Densu (?),141 Media Lutheran church142,

123
Velter, Transilvania, 344
124
Dumitrache, Cetatea steasc, 184. The coin is not included in Velter, Transilvania.
125
Dumitrache, Cetatea steasc, 124.
126
Velter, Transilvania, 344.
127
Dumitrache, Cetatea steasc, 178.
128
Velter, Transilvania, 344.
129
Dumitrache, Cetatea steasc, 176.
130
Velter, Transilvania, 344.
131
Dumitrache, Cetatea steasc, 178.
132
Velter, Transilvania, 344.
133
Dumitrache, Cetatea steasc, 185.
134
Ibid., 180.
135
Ibid., 173184.
136
Corneliu Gaiu, Gabriela Rdulescu, Bistria. Jud. Bistria. Punct: Biserica evanghelic Piaa Central,
CCA. Campania 2008 (2009): 260261.
137
Marcu Istrate (coord.), Redescoperirea trecutului, 165176.
138
Daniela Marcu, Biserica reformat de la Daia, jud. Harghita. Cercetri arheologice, SCIVA 49, 2
(1998), 157180.

77
Sebe143 etc., where the graves had no coins in their inventory or they did not have any
grave goods.
Unfortunately, the research conducted here in the 90s has not yet been published.
The only known and discovered coins are: an anonymous Arpadian denarius attributed to
Stephen III, type H 164 / U 86 and a denarius from Bela III with no additional
information144.

Chart 4: 1. Graves with recovered coins, 2. Graves with undetermined coins, 3. Graves
possibly having coins, 4. Graves with no coins

10. Feldioara145
In Feldioara, in the period 19901995, 19981999, 2006 systematic
archaeological research were conducted in the plaza between the parish house and
Lutheran Church. Following this research, they discovered a cemetery for German
guests, judging from the funeral rituals. It was dated in the second half of the 12th century
and the first decade of 13th century, during which it supposedly developed around a place
of worship that has not yet been identified.146 During the campaigns mentioned before

139
Ioan Marian iplic et al., Caol Dealul Bisericii, com. Roia, jud. Sibiu, CCA. Campania 2014
(2015): 5354.
140
Radu Heitel, Alexandru Bogdan, Contribuii la arheologia monumentelor transilvane. I. Principalele
rezultate ale cercetrilor arheologice efectuate n complexul medieval din Cricu (jud. Alba), Apulum 7, 1
(1968): 483496.
141
Adrian Andrei Rusu, Biserica Sfntului Nicolae i curtea nobiliar a Arcetilor de la Densu (jud.
Hunedoara), Arheologia Medieval 7 (2008): 168173.
142
Hermann Fabini, Mariana Beldie-Dumitrache, Die Restaurierung der evanghelischen Stadtpfarrkirche in
Mediasch, Forschungen 20, 1 (1977): 85102.
143
Radu Heitel, Monumente medievale din Sebe-Alba (Bucureti: Meridiane, 1969).
144
Velter, Transilvania, 345.
145
Ioni et al., Feldioara Marienburg. Contribuii arheologice la istoria rii Brsei. Archologische
Beitrge zur Geschichte des Burzenlandes (Bucureti: Academia Romn, 2004), 2958.
146
Ibid., 14, 2959; Adrian Ioni, Mormintele cu gropi antropomorfe din Transilvania i relaia lor cu
primul val de colonizare german, in Relaii interetnice n Transilvania (secolele VIXIII), coord. Zeno
Karl Pinter, Ioan Marian iplic, Maria Emilia iplic (Bucureti: Economic, 2005), 217228; Adrian Ioni,
Feldioara, com. Feldioara, jud. Braov. Punct: Biserica evanghelic (sector B), Cronica Cercetrilor
arheologice din Romnia. Campania 2006 (2007): 151152.

78
122 graves have been identified, comprising 132 individuals.147 Of the 132 individuals,
16 had coins and two had hair rings, therefore 13.63% of the graves had grave goods and
12.12% of the graves had only coins in inventory.
A special phenomenon can be found in the cemetery of Feldioara, where in the
funeral ritual a significant number of antique coins was used. Thus, out of the 18 coins
discovered in funerary contexts 12 are ancient. Hungarian Arpadian coins complement
the monetary discoveries in the cemetery of Feldioara. We can observe the following
situation regarding the distribution of coins according to their issuers: the Roman
Republic 2 coins, out of which 1 is from S. Afranius and 1 from Q. Pomponius Musa;
Roman Empire 10 of which 4 from Septimius Severus (for: 1 for Septimius Severus, 1
for Iulia Domna, 1 for Caracalla, 1 for Geta), 1 from Caracalla, 4 from Elagabalus, 3
from Severus Alexander (for: 2 for Severus Alexander, 1 for Iulia Mamaea); there were
also 6 anonymous denarii issued by Hungaria in the 12th century.148 Of the 12 ancient
coins discovered, in the case of three graves, we can certainly speak of a ritual of
depositing the coins as Obolus, two of them being deposited in the left hand (M 4a, M
57) and in the third case in the right hand (M 6); three coins were found on the left
temple (M 5) or on the lower limbs (M 21 and M 46); the other six Roman coins were
found in medieval graves, the researchers being unable to state whether they were
deposited in the graves or not.

Chart 5: 1. Roman Republic 2. Roman Empire, 3. Hungary

Of the six anonymous Hungarian denarii emitted in the 12th century, three were
in the same grave, no. 98; one was placed on the right hand, the other on the left hand
and another in the mouth.149 The fourth denarius was found in the double grave no. 93 a-
b, placed near the mouth of a buried child, 93b. In the same double grave, but on the
adult 93a, a denarius issued by Caracalla150 was discovered. In the grave 58, the
Hungarian denarius found here was positioned in the right hand,151 while in grave 26, a

147
Ioni et al., Feldioara Marienburg, 2959; Ioni, Morminte cu gropi, 217228; Ioni, Feldioara,
com. Feldioara, 151152.
148
Ioni et al., Feldioara Marienburg, 6466.
149
Ibid., 40.
150
Ibid., 39.
151
Ibid., 35.

79
Hungarian denarius was found in the mouth of the skeleton.152 In addition, one more
Hungarian denarius was found in Section I / 1990, the 12th square, at -1.60m; although it
was not clearly associated with a funerary, it is not excluded that it was part of a grave
goods given the density of the area.153
Noteworthy is the presence of three anonymous denarii in grave no. 98.
Although we cannot presuppose that they were attributed to certain Arpadian kings,
Unger proposes that type H 152 / U 72154 belonged to Geza II, and types 127 H / U 84155
and H 140 / U 81156 to Stephen III, indicating a shorter period of use of the cemetery
because the coins from Geza II are associated with two coins from Stephen III.
There emerged different opinions regarding the typological classification of the
item no. 26 from the list of coins from medieval cemetery of Feldioara associated with
grave no. 58: Ioni indicates the type H 156,157 while Velter indicates the type H 159 / U
60.158 The correct type is indicated by Ioni, i.e. H 156, which corresponds to U 79 159.
Although we are dealing with an anonymous denarius, we think that the dating of the
coins is very important, as it is assigned to U 60 between Geza II, while the U 79 appears
to be issued by Stephen III. If the 6 anonymous denarii were to be distributed according
to their issuers and the attributions given by Unger, we will find out the following
situation: 1 issued by Geza II and 5 by Stephen III.160
Although we will not develop on this here, as this is analysed on another
occasion,161 there is a remarkable presence at Feldioara of six ancient coins discovered in
medieval graves and other six in their filling, which makes this cemetery unique among
the contemporary Transylvanian graveyards. This uniqueness can be explained only by
the discovery and reuse by the medieval community from Feldioara of some ancient
monetary deposits.162

11. Geoagiu de Jos Rotond

Between 1993 and 2004, following the archaeological research carried out by
Gh. Petrov inside and outside the Romanesque rotunda from Geoagiu de Jos 176 graves
were researched. They belong to multiple funeral horizons arranged chronologically
between 11th18th centuries.163 Unfortunately, we do not know the exact number of
graves during the Arpadian times due to the disorder of some graves by subsequent
funerals. Following archaeological research undertaken Arpadian coins were discovered
in: Grave 4 / SI 1993 Obolus issued by Coloman (10961116),164 Grave 8 / SI 1993

152
Ibid., 32.
153
Ibid., 65.
154
Lajos Huszr Mnzkatalog Ungarn von 1000 bis heute (Mnchen: Battenberg, 1979), no. 152; Emil
Unger, Magyar remhatroz I (10001540) (Budapest, 1997), no. 72.
155
Huszr, Mnzkatalog, no. 127; Unger, Magyar, no. 84.
156
Huszr, Mnzkatalog, no. 140; Unger, Magyar, no. 81.
157
Ioni et al., Feldioara Marienburg, 65; Huszr, Mnzkatalog, no. 156.
158
Velter, Transilvania, 345; Huszr, Mnzkatalog, no. 159; Unger, Magyar, no. 60.
159
See the photos of the coins: Ioni et al., Feldioara Marienburg, 250, fig. 84, no. 26; Huszr,
Mnzkatalog, no. 156; Unger, Magyar, no. 79.
160
Ioni et al., Feldioara Marienburg, 67.
161
Silviu I. Purece, Tezaure antice refolosite n cimitirul medieval de la Feldioara, jud. Braov, Terra
Sebus 5 (2013): 303315.
162
Ibid., 303315.
163
Gheorghe Petrov, Paul Scrobot, Geoagiu, com. Geogiu, jud. Hunedoara. Punct: Biserica Rotond,
CCA. Campania 2004 (2005): 159160.
164
Gheorghe Petrov, Raport preliminar asupra cercetrilor arheologice din complexul medieval de la Geoagiu

80
Obolus issued by Coloman (10961116),165 Grave 10 / SI 1993 Obolus issued by
Coloman (10961116),166 Grave 24 / S II 1994 Obolus issued by Coloman (1096
1116),167 grave 40 / S III 1995 Obolus issued by Coloman (10961116),168 grave 41 / S
III 1995 Obolus issued by Ladislau I (10771095),169 grave 42 / S III 1995 Obolus
issued by Coloman (10961116),170 grave 54 / S IV 1995 Arpadian coin? Indefinite,171
grave 59 / S IV 1995 Obolus issued by Coloman (10961116),172 grave 70 / S V 1996
coin from Ladislau I.173 More silver coins were discovered in graves identified in S 18
/ 2003, being referred to as the oldest coin found in that archaeological campaign as
Obolus issued during the reign of Bela IV (12351270)174 (we do not know if it comes
from a grave). Unfortunately, we do not have information regarding the position of coins
in the graves.
Since we cannot do a complete analysis of the entire cemetery, due to lack of
information, we will try to analyse the situation of graves discovered in campaigns in
1993, 1994 and 1995, for which we have more data. In the three years 64 graves were
investigated, 43 of which come from Arpadian period.175 9 coins were found: 7 Obolii
issued by Coloman (10961116), 1 Obolus issued by Ladislau I and 1 indefinite coin. In
four cases, graves: 10, 24, 40, 42, the coins are associated with adornment items.176

Chart 6: Geoagiu de Jos graves dates from 12th13th centuries researched in the
campaigns from 1993, 1994, 1995

de Jos, jud. Hunedoara (campaniile din 1993, 1994, 1995), Acta Musei Napocensis 33, 1 (1996): 405.
165
Ibid.
166
Ibid.
167
Ibid., 407.
168
Ibid., 408.
169
Ibid.
170
Ibid.
171
Ibid.
172
Ibid.
173
Gheorghe Petrov, Geoagiu, jud. Hunedoara. Punct: biserica rotond, CCA. Campania 1996 (1997): 47.
174
Gheorghe Petrov, Paul Scrobot, Geoagiu, jud. Hunedoara. Punct: Biserica-rotond, CCA. Campania
2003 (2004): 127128.
175
Petrov, Raport preliminar, 405, 407408.
176
Ibid.

81
 12. Gilu
The authors of archaeological research from Gilu classify the 6 graves in the
category of churchyard cemeteries, although archaeologically the place of worship has
not been identified; they were dated in 12th century.177 Due to the investigation of the 6
graves a bronze coin was discovered, type H 73, CNH I 103, U 115,178 Bela III (1172
1196), found in the pit of the skeleton.179 The fact that the coin was not associated
clearly with a part of the skeleton makes us believe that it may have reached the grave
accidentally. In two of the six graves adornment items were discovered: 2 and 5, the coin
mentioned before was found in the latter.180

13. Hlmeag church

A coin issued in 12th century was discovered in the cemetery and the Roman
Catholic church from there.181

14. Moldoveneti
Medieval cemetery II Unitarian Church182 is little known,183 being probably
created around the church.184 Eight graves were investigated and found five coins were
classified as follows: 1 from Ladislau I (10771095), 1 from Coloman (10961116), 2
from Bela II (11311141), 1 indefinite.185

15. Moreti Citfalu

The 55 graves found in this area are arranged around a church that is unidentified
archaeologically;186 21 of the graves have inventory; based on grave goods and the coins
discovered in the graves, it is believed that the cemetery has been dated since the early
decades of the 12th century.187 In a very small number of graves, more exactly, only in
three of them there were found coins. They could not be recovered as they were
destroyed by the soil acidity. Their existence was traced due to the copper present on the
jawbones of those buried in the graves no. 8, 9 and 12. It is obvious that the coins were
deposited on the mouth of the deceased. Only in the grave no. 8 there are adornment
items associated with a coin.188
From the medieval cemetery, there are only two identified coins, one was
identified as being issued by King Stephen II (11161131) and the other one by Bela II

177
Adriana Isac, Erwin Gll, Szilrd Gl, Un cimitir din secolul XII la Gilu (jud. Cluj) (germ. Julmarkt;
mgh. Gyalu), MCA 8 (2012): 165170.
178
Ibid., 169. Stephan IV (11621163) after L. Rthy, Corpus Nummorum Hungariae (Graz, 1958), no. 103.
179
Isac, Gll, Gl, Un cimitir, 167169.
180
Ibid., 167.
181
Marcu Istrate, Contribuii la istoria bisericii, 149.
182
G. Bak, Despre structura social a populaiei din epoca feudal timpurie de la Moldoveneti, SCIVA
20, 2 (1969): 337; Horedt, Contribuii, 140.
183
Bak, Despre structura social, 337.
184
Kurt Horedt, Moreti 2. Grabungen in einer mittelalterlichen Siedlung in Siebenbrgen, Bd. 2, (Bonn:
Habelt, 1984), 62.
185
Sabu, Circulaia monetar n Transilvania, 291; Velter, Transilvania, 348.
186
Horedt, Contribuii, 5758; Horedt, Moreti 2, 5460. According to K. Horedts researches, the
archaeological identified church dates back to the second half of the 13th century, its foundations disordering
part of the above-mentioned graves.
187
Horedt, Moreti 2, 5460.
188
Ibid., 60.

82
(11311141).189 Although they were discovered in secondary position, it is quite likely
that they come from some disordered graves.190

16. Ortie fortress

In the 90s of last century excavations were carried out in the fortress. As a result,
graves belonging to a cemetery dating from the 12th century which was set around a
place of worship were discovered. Based on the funerary ritual (graves with fosse
anthropomorphe) the graves belong to the German guests.
Two Arpadian coins were found in the grave 24 from this cemetery. These two
anonymous denarii were assigned to Geza II.191 On the list of coins discovered in the
fortress of Ortie the two denarii are presented as follows: one denarius issued by Geza
II type CNH I 133, U 71192 and one fragmented denarius issued by Geza II (?), without
indicating the exact place of their discovery. In the report of the archaeological
excavation campaign from 1994 the discovery of 8 graves from 12th century is
mentioned. It also states the discovery of coins belonging to Geza II, without indicating
the exact number.193 The coins were placed in the hands of the deceased.194
Two anonymous denarii belonging, according to some, to Geza II, appear
associated, in another reference source, with grave no 44 discovered in 1994. Both are
listed as type CNH I 118, U 65, H 139.195
Despite different typological data provided by the two sources, it is likely that
we are dealing probably with the same two coins from grave 44 / 1994. Noteworthy is
that, this is the only grave with a deposit of coins; the two coins being placed in the
hands of the deceased.

17. Rodna
Following research conducted in 1955 near the current Orthodox Church, built in
1859 on the altar place of a ruined church of which only the ruin of a 13th century
tower is being preserved, two undetermined denarii were discovered in two graves
associated to the previous church from here, built before 1241. While the first coin came
from the filling of a grave, the second was located next to the left-hand fingers of the
skeleton in the grave 2.196

18. Snvii
Because there was a small-scale archaeological research we cannot say with
certainty whether the graves were clustered around a small church built before the
basilica in the first third of the 13th century. 40 graves were investigated, of which 8 were
established as belonging to the second half of the 12th and 13th century. Only two graves

189
Ibid., 59, 62, 63.
190
Ibid.
191
Francisc Papp, Gheorghe Petrov, Zeno K. Pinter, Descoperiri monetare n cetatea Ortiei, Sargetia, 27,
1 (19971998): 467.
192
Rthy, Corpus, no. 133; Unger, Magyar, no. 71.
193
Zeno-Karl Pinter, Gheorghe Petrov, Cercetri arheologice la Ortie, (campania 1994), Cronica
cercetrilor arheologice (Cluj Napoca, 1995) (http://www.cimec.ro/scripts/arh/cronica/detaliu.asp?k=155).
194
Ibid.
195
Velter, Transilvania, 348; Rthy, Corpus, no. 118; Huszr, Mnzkatalog, no. 139; Unger, Magyar, no. 65.
196
Virgil Vtianu, Dumitru Protase, Mircea Rusu, antierul arheologic Rodna. Raport 1955, MCA 4
(1957): 212.

83
had inventory: 30 and 31.197 During the investigation of the graves a coin from Bela III
(11721196) was found in a secondary position,198 being very possible that it was placed
in a grave disordered by subsequent burials.

19. Sibiu Huet Square

Around the St Mary Lutheran church of Sibiu, the largest archaeological research
took place in 2005, when a large part of the cemetery, used from the second half of the
12th century until the end of 16th and the beginning of 17th century,199 was investigated.
Following these interventions, a total of 1833 graves have been inventoried, of which
1830 were medieval graves;200 the author believes that at least a third are dated between
the second half of the 12th century and first half of the 14th century.201 Within the
cemetery a total of 163 coins was discovered, out of which only 5 are from 12 th and 13th
centuries and 21 coins belong to the first half of the 14th century (1 from Manuel I, 1
from Bela III, 2 anonymous denarii from 12th century, 1 from Ladislau IV, 21 from Carol
Robert).202

Chart 7: Distribution of coins found in Sibiu Huet Square according to the Hungarian issuer

Of the 26 coins, only one appears to have been discovered in a definite funerary
context, a coin from Ladislau IV (grave no. 1264).203 We emphasize again that none of

197
Lszl Keve, Valea Mureului Superior n sec. XXIII (Sibiu, 2013) (Tez de doctorat), 2223, 5152,
55, 5961.
198
Ibid., 109.
199
Marcu Istrate, Sibiu. Piaa Huet, vol. I, 1417, 9091 and vol. II, passim.
200
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Mihai Constantinescu, Andrei Soficaru, The medieval cemetery from Sibiu
(Hermannstadt). Huet Square: Archaeology, anthropology, history (Erlangen: Dr. Faustus, 2015), 45.
201
Marcu Istrate, Sibiu. Piaa Huet, vol. I, 9091.
202
Ibid., 113115, 153154, 162.
203
Ibid., 115, 153.

84
the coins from Carol Robert was discovered in a definite funerary context. We express
our reluctance also regarding the Byzantine coinAspron trachy billon (stamenon),
issued likely during the reign of Manuel I Comnenus (11431180)which was also
placed in a definite funerary context, placed as Obolus in grave M 408. 204 However, a
more detailed analysis of the context of discovery presented, it can be seen that the coin
was in the grave M 408, but it was not placed as Obolus, but it is a coin that reached the
funerary complex as a secondary position due to successive funerals. This was confirmed
by the stratigraphic situation of M 408, which is not part of the first burials horizon, this
being at about 0.5 m above the graves with fosse antropomorphe, i.e. those dated back to
12th and 13th centuries. Therefore, the oldest coin associated with a grave remains the
denarius issued by Ladislau IV, found in grave no. 1264.205 Unfortunately, there is no
clear information regarding the place where the coin was initially positioned in the grave.
The other three coins dating from the 12th century were discovered outside definite
funerary contexts.206 One of coins is attributed, by some, to Bela III, 207 while the other
two anonymous denarii cannot even hypothetically be associated to an Arpadian king
because of their precarious condition. Although we do not have any coin clearly
associated to a funerary context, we believe it is very likely that two of them have been
used as Obolus, reaching the second position due to successive funerals, made over
several hundred years in the same area. In making this assumption, we took into account
both the place where the coins were discovered and the condition in which they were
found. Thus, coins no. 2 and 3 from the catalogue of the coins discovered in Sibiu Huet
Square belong to areas with high intensity of funerals (C 29 and C 60)208 being
discovered in a fragmentary condition. Coin no. 4, an anonymous Arpadian denarius,
was discovered outside the area of funerals, specifically in the area of the former chapel
St Ladislau which was built at the beginning of the 15th century,209 so it was not
included in our statistics. Of the 1833 graves,210 Daniela Marcu Istrate showed that 167
fall into the category of the earliest burials, or graves with fosse antropomorphe or head
niche (12th13th century).211 If we consider that all 4 mentioned coins were originally
submitted as Obolus, we can say with certainty that less than 1% of graves in the second
half of the 12th and 13th century had a coin in inventory. And if statistics are restricted to
the graves dated up until the Mongol invasion, based on the analysis it can be said that
the percentage of graves with deposited coins as Obolus is possibly between 0% - 0.70%.

204
Ibid., 90, 113114.
205
Ibid., 153.
206
Ibid., 153
207
Unger, Magyar, 77, tipul U 113.
208
Marcu Istrate, Sibiu. Piaa Huet, pl. 124.
209
The research coordinator unfortunately does not create a connection between the stratigraphic relationship
and the coin discovered.
210
Based on the catalogue published in 2007 and analysed by us, 130 graves with niche were found (Marcu
Istrate, Sibiu. Huet, vol. II, passim). Meanwhile, following an extensive research conducted by Daniela
Marcu Istrate, she identified a total of 105 graves and 62 graves with niche belonging to this group (Marcu
Istrate, Constantinescu, Soficaru, The medieval cemetery, 74). What we noticed during the initial analysis is
that a third of the 1833 graves have been dated between the second half of the twelfth century and the first
half of the fourth century, and of the 26 coins discovered and attributed to this period, only one was found in
a clear funerary context. In recent volume published, Daniela Marcu Istrate published four coins from the
period mentioned as coming from context funeral, of one of Manuel I Comnenus (11431180) in M 408, one
of Ladislau IV (12791290) in M 1264 and two from Carol Robert of Anjou (13071342) (Marcu Istrate,
Constantinescu, Soficaru, The Medieval Cemetery, 6566).
211
Marcu Istrate, Constantinescu, Soficaru, The medieval cemetery, 50,7375.

85
 The small amount of Arpadian coins discovered in the cemetery is not due to
reduced depth of the archaeological excavation in most sectors, but we consider that it is
due to funerary practices. It seems that the community of German guests of Sibiu very
rarely used to deposit coins as Obolus. On the other hand, in Sibiu, the Hungarian coins
belonging to this dynasty became a frequent presence in 13th century,212 not hitherto
known coins dating from the 12th century to come from outside the medieval cemetery.213
It is interesting to note that all four coins in question were fragmented.214 We
believe, therefore, that it is very possible that the fragmentary condition to constitute a
possible indicator for the use in funerary rituals of items found in regions with large
numbers of funerals but, at the time of discovery, without being associated with a
complex of this gender. The case is not singular, similar situations recorded at Ortie,
where a fragmented coin from Geza II was deposited as Obolus in a grave; at Feldioara,
where two Arpadian coins discovered in the graves were fragmented; or at Viscri, where
a fragmented coin from Geza II was discovered as Obolus in the grave. We want to
emphasize that the presence of coins in a fragmentary condition in the graves may
suggest possible breakage practice of the coins before placing them in the graves or the
selection of damaged coins and their usage in funerary rituals. In Sibiu, another
conclusion which emerges clearly is that the presence of coins as Obolus in the 12 th13th
century is very weak, therefore, this funeral custom was rarely practiced in the
community of Sibiu compared to Feldioara or Drueni.

20. Sighioara Dealul Viilor

Systematic research coordinated by R. Harhoiu in this area led to the discovery,
among other relics from different periods, of a cemetery dated back in 12th century,
where 94 graves were investigated, by 106 individuals;215 based on the grave goods and
analogies of the authors, it is estimated that the cemetery functioned around a church,
which was not identified in the field.216 Limited strictly to the topic of our research, we
must emphasize that at this point only in six of the 94 graves217 have been discovered the
custom of coin deposit.
A special case is that of double grave no. 28, where a treasure of 37 coins was
discovered: 35 issued by Bela III (11721196) and two anonymous denarii.218 The
repertory was deposited in a leather or fabric bag and placed on the chest of the child
registered with the letter b in this double grave.219

212
Oltea Dudu, Descoperiri monetare pe teritoriul oraului Sibiu, in Moned i comer n sud-estul
Europei I (Sibiu, 2007), 220; Oltea Dudu et al., Monedele descoperite n urma cercetrilor arheologice
efectuate n Piaa Mic din Sibiu n anul 2006, in Moned i comer n sud-estul Europei I (Sibiu, 2007),
208.
213
Dudu, Descoperiri monetare, 216.
214
Marcu Istrate, Sibiu. Piaa Huet, 153162.
215
Radu Harhoiu, Erwin Gll 2014, Necropola din secolul XII de la Sighioara Dealul Viilor, punctul
Necropol. Contribuii privind habitatul epocii medievale timpurii n Transilvania estic, Analele
Banatului 22 (2014): 195259.
216
Ibid., 195259.
217
Harhoiu et alii, Sighioara, jud. Mure. Dealu Viilor, CCA. Campania 2010 (2011), no. 61; Harhoiu,
Gll, Necropola din secolul XII, 216217.
218
Radu Harhoiu, Adrian Ioni, Cercetri arheologice la Sighioara Dealul Viilor, punctul necropol.
Un tezaur monetar din secolul al XII-lea, in Romnii n Europa medieval (ntre Orientul bizantin i
Occidentul latin). Studii n onoarea profesorului Victor Spinei, ed. Dumitru eicu, Ionel Cndea (Brila:
Istros, 2008), 203.
219
Ibid., 203.

86
 So far, this is the only case in Transylvanian area of a grave from Arpadian
period where there is a monetary treasure. The case of grave no. 28 from Sighioara is a
successful one also in terms of how the discovery was published, as it had a very good
description. The coins issued by Bela III (11721196) belong to the same monetary
types: H 69, U 108, CNH I 263, divided into two series depending on how the crescent
was framed on the reverse: Series Aframed by two circles, series Bby two
semicircles.220 Given the fact that the issuances of Type A were heavier than type B it is
likely that the first to be issued before the latter. One of the two anonymous coins was
attributed to Stephen III (11621172).221
The uniqueness of this case, given that the cemetery Sighioara is almost devoid
of grave goods, makes us think of something else than coins as Obolus. We believe that
the fact that the coins were deposited on the chest of the child, not of the adult should be
also taken into account.
The deposit of the treasure inside the grave was made considering the need of
preservation of archaic traditions that were endangered, related also to the need of the
deceased to fulfil certain needs in the afterlife through material goods. It is possible that
those who organized the funeral of the child to believe that the child needed more money
than the adult due to his age, a child needing more assistance in real life, fact transposed
also in the afterlife. The amount was considered to be quite modest.222
In this cemetery, few monetary finds were made in the graves: M 30
anonymous denarius deposited in the mouth of the deceased (H 156, U 79, CNH I
146),223 M 76unidentified Arpadian denarius found under the jaw, on the neck224, M
81Aunidentified coin (?) placed on the mandible225 and M 85Arpadian anonymous
denarius deposited on the mouth, H 158, U 75: Geza II (11411162)226, CNH I 147:
Coloman (10961116). A green spot, lying on his jaw in M 109 seems to indicate the
possible presence of other coins.227
Except for parts of treasure, placed on the chest, the other coins were found,
when the graves were uncovered, in the mouth or under the jaw.228 A percentage of
5.66% of the graves had coins in the funeral inventory.229

21. irioara
The Medieval cemetery was probably organized around a church,230 being dated
back to the period between the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. 78 graves were
investigated, 22 were with inventory. Only one coin was discovered, a denarius issued by
Bela III (11721196), in grave no. 56.231

220
Ibid., 205.
221
Ibid., 207; Velter, Transilvania, 350.
222
Harhoiu, Ioni, Cercetri arheologice, 207.
223
Ibid., 203; Velter, Transilvania, 350; Harhoiu, Gll, Necropola din secolul XII, 217.
224
Velter, Transilvania, 350; Harhoiu, Gll, Necropola din secolul XII, 217.
225
Velter, Transilvania, 350; Harhoiu, Gll, Necropola din secolul XII, 217.
226
Velter, Transilvania, 350; Harhoiu, Gll, Necropola din secolul XII, 217 indicates the catalogue
number CNH I, 118 (Rthy, Corpus).
227
Harhoiu, Gll, Necropola din secolul XII, 217.
228
Harhoiu, Gll, Necropola din secolul XII, 217, they mentioned that the coin in M 85 was laid in the
mouth, but at page 201, they noted that it was found on the mouth.
229
Ibid., 216.
230
Iambor, Aezri fortificate, 196.
231
Ibid., 197.

87
 22. Strei
From the Medieval cemetery at Strei which was organized around the medieval
church only one coin issued by Stephen I (10001038) was found in the early graves;232
it is assumed that this coin would come from burials made around another church,
probably a wooden one, other than the current one. A big question is remaining, of
whether the coin is really from a funeral horizon or not.

23. Streisngeorgiu
114 graves were investigated, of which at least 35 dating back to 12 th13th
centuries.233 6 others are dated before the construction of the church and they are
attributed to a wooden church from 11th century, which it had replaced in 11301140
with the present church.234 The coins were found in:
Grave no. 46 denarius issued by Bela II (11311141) (H 99, CNH I 87, U
52),235 perforated, the initial position of the coin is unknown;236
Grave no. 57 denarius issued by Bela II (11311141) (H 99, CNH I 87, U
52), found in the mouth of the skeleton;238
237

Grave no. 93 a coin from Ladislaus IV (12721290) (Rengjeo, 1959, p. 23)

found under the skull.239
Given that the coin in grave 46 is perforated and its initial position is unknown, it
is possible that this may have been used as an object of adornment and not as Obolus. It
is unlikely that the coin in grave 93 was put in the place where it was discovered, i.e.
under the skull, but rather a slip occurred during burial or after burial or even the
possibility of its accidental presence in the grave could be taken into account.
14 coins are referred from the 12th 4th centuries from scattered graves, of which
2 from 12th century, 4 from 13th century and 8 from 14th century.240 R. Popa mentioned in
note 72 on page 26 that they were issued among others by Arpadian kings: Stephen III
(11621172), Stephen V (12701272), Ladislaus IV (12721290), giving also the
catalogue numbers of the coins. Checking the references mentioned we have noticed the
following: U 81 (H 140, CNH 119) denarius from Stephen III (11621172), U 87 (H
204, CNH I 115) denarius issued in the period between the reigns of Geza II (1141
1162) and Andrew II (12051235), U 288 (H 380, CNH I 326) denarius issued by
Ladislaus IV (12721290), U 315 (H 412, CNH I 362) denarius from Andrew III
(12901301). As it can be noticed, the catalogue numbers do not correspond to the list of
issuers. Perhaps omissions have been made in both lists.

24. Viscri
Following archaeological research conducted in the years 19701971 it was
found that the present fortified church was preceded by a single-nave church with semi-

232
Radu Popa, La nceputurile evului mediu romnesc. ara Haegului (Bucureti: editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic, 1988), 69.
233
Radu Popa, Streisngeorgiu. Mrturii de istorie romneasc din secolele XIXIV n sudul Transilvaniei,
Revista muzeelor i monumentelor 47, 1 (1978): 25; Popa, La nceputurile, 62.
234
Popa, Streisngeorgiu, 24
235
Ibid., 25, note 69.
236
Ibid.
237
Ibid., 26, note 70.
238
Ibid., 25, note 69.
239
Ibid., 26, note 71.
240
Ibid., 26.

88
circular apse; it was dated back in the second half of the 12th century, and around it had a
cemetery dated in the same period. From the second half of the 12th century cemetery
only two graves are known, determined based on grave goods (hair rings and coins), the
remaining graves are strongly disorganized by the subsequent funerals held until the 18 th
century. At this point it should be noted, however, that the archaeological investigations
were conducted on an area much smaller than those from Drueni, Feldioara or Sibiu.241
The two graves had one coin as inventory; in the first grave a coin and a hair ring
were placed on the mandible and in the second grave the coin was next to the lower jaw;
coins were initially identified as: two anonymous Arpadian denarii, one fragmented, type
H 154 / U 72 and H 149 / U 64242 issued probably by Geza II243.

As it can be seen from the above analysis, only few sites have concrete data on the
presence of coins in the funeral inventory:
- Alba Iulia Roman Catholic Cathedral: 1 denarius from Stephen II, two anonymous
denarii (possibly 1 from Stephen II and 1 from Geza II / Emeric 1) 1 anonymous Obolus
(possibly Bela III), 1 copper coin from Stephen IV, 1 coin issued by Andrei II (there may
have been two coins), 1 indefinite coin; 24 other coins, issued between the reigns of
Coloman to Bela III, found in funerary contexts;
- Alba Iulia The Roman Baths: coins from Bela II and Bela III;
- Avrmeti: undetermined 12th century coins;
- Cluj Mntur: 1 denarius from Andrew I, 5 denarii from Ladislau I, one denarius
from Bela II, one denarius from Bela III, 4 anonymous denarii (possibly 2 from Bela II, 1
from Geza II, one unspecified), 1 denarius from Geza II, 1 anonymous Obolus (possibly
from Geza II).
- Chidea: coins from Bela II and Ladislaus II.
- Dbca castle area IV: 7 coins issued by 1 by Ladislau I, 1 by Stephen II, 2 by
Bela II, 1 by Geza II, 2 by Bela III.
- Dbca the Garden of Tma: 4 anonymous denarii (possibly 3 from Bela II, one
unspecified), probably an anonymous denarius (possibly by Bela II).
- Dbca Boldg: one / two coins? One anonymous denarius (possibly Stephen II),
1 denarius? from Solomon;
- Drueni: 6 anonymous denarii (possibly two from Geza II and 4 from Stephen III).
- Feldioara: 6 anonymous denarii (possibly one from Geza II and 5 from Stephen III),
probably a denarius issued by Stephen III; 6 Roman coins.
- Geoagiu de Jos Rotond: 1 Obolus issued by Ladislau, 7 issued by Coloman, and 1
unspecified coin.
- Gilu: 1 bronze coin issued by Bela III
- Hlmeag: 1 coin issued in the 12th century.
- Moldoveneti: 5 coins one from Ladislau, 1 from Coloman, 2 from Bela II, 1
undetermined.
- Moreti Citfalu: 1 coin from Stephen II and 1 coin from Bela II.
- Ortie Citadel: 2 anonymous denarii (possibly from Geza II).
- Rodna 2 undetermined denarii.
- Snvii: 1 coin from Bela III.

241
Mariana Dumitrache, Evoluia cetii rneti de la Viscri, jud. Braov, n lumina cercetrilor
arheologice i de arhitectur, Cercetri arheologice 4 (1981): 264.
242
Velter, Transilvania, 352 i 186, nota 597.
243
Unger, Magyar, 71, 72.

89
- Sibiu Huet Square: denarius issued by Ladislau IV, found in grave no. 1264,
probably 1 Byzantine coin issued during the reign of Manuel I Comnenus (1143-1180),
one denarius from Bela III, two anonymous denarii.
- Sighisoara Dealul Viilor: 1 treasure consisting of 37 coins: 35 issued by Bela III and
two anonymous denarii (possibly one denarius to be issued by Stephen III), 2
Anonymous denarii (likely one to be issued by Geza II or Coloman), 2 denarii still
unidentified and possibly one coin.
- Sirioara: 1 denarius from Bela III.
- Strei: 1 coin issued by Stephen probably derived from a disordered grave.
- Streisngeorgiu 2 denarii from Bela II, 1 coin from Ladislau IV and 6 others from
disordered graves.
- Viscri 2 anonymous denarii (possibly from Geza II).

Conclusion
The information about the presence of coins in the churchyard cemeteries of
Transylvania is vitiated by the sequential publication of numismatic material. In many
cases the information transmitted is uncertain. For some cases, such as the one from
Geoagiu de Jos Rotond, we have no certainty that the nominal of the coin was
mentioned or only its use. All the coins from Geoagiu de Jos Rotond are listed as
Obolii, which would make this site a unique case because most of the cemeteries is
dominated by denarii.
From the available information at the moment, the coins deposited in the graves
around churches in Intra-Carpathian Romania (Transylvania) are only coins issued by
Arpadian kings (see table 1), with one exception, i.e. the cemetery from Feldioara, where
Roman coins were found as Obolus in medieval funerary rituals; no other medieval coins
were discovered in graves, for example: Byzantine coins, Friesach coins etc. The
presence of the latter being attested in the Transylvanian area, but in other contexts.244
As a general characteristic of the churchyard cemeteries dating from the mid-11th
century to the end of the 12th century we can notice the absence or reduced frequency of
depositing coins as Obolus in graves; for example in the case of Sibiu the presence of
coins as Obolus is below 0.70%, and in the cemeteries from Bistria Lutheran Church,
Braov Black Church, Szkely Daia, Caol, Cricu, Densu (?), Media, Sebe,245 etc.
coins are missing from the inventory of the graves, which is why the researchers are
experiencing difficulties in dating the first phase of the cemetery and the church. In the
case of the cemeteries where coins were deposited as Obolus during funerary ritual, the
percentage of members who practiced such a ritual is very small; only four cemeteries
slightly exceed the 10% of graves with coins deposited as Obolus (Feldioara, Cluj-
Mntur, Geoagiu de Jos-Rotond?, Drueni 22.41%). A distinctive feature of
Arpadian monetary deposits is the domination of anonymous denarii.
Regarding the use of the coin deposited in the grave, we have identified at least
three situations:
1. Coin deposited as Obolus, as an element of funerary ritual; this ritual was
found in 15 cemeteries: Alba Iulia The Roman Catholic Cathedral, Avrmeti, Cluj
Mntur, Dbca castle area IV, Dbca The Garden of Tma, Dbca Boldg,
Drueni, Feldioara, Geoagiu de Jos Rotond (?), Moreti Citfalu, Ortie, Rodna,

244
See Velter, Transilvania, 93153; Pap, Repertoriul numismatic, 196198.
245
See footnotes 137144.

90
Sighioara Dealul Viilor, Streisngeorgiu, Viscri.
2. Coin as an adornment item in the inventory of the grave. In this category,
there is only one case at Streisngeorgiu, where a grave with a perforated coin was
found: M 46 denarius issued by Bela II (11311141); perforated Arpadian coins was
discovered in the necropolis surrounding Alba Iulia, dated in 10th11th centuries; these
necropoles didnt revolve around a church.246
3. Coins deposited as monetary treasure. There is only one discovery of this
kind: the double grave (M 28) from the cemetery of Sighioara Dealul Viilor, where a
treasure consisting of 37 coins was found: 35 issued by Bela III (11721196) and two
anonymous denarii.247 The issue of interpretation of the ritual of this treasure during the
funeral ceremony remains open, but it should be noted that the treasure might had
actually constituted the amount of coins which the deceased owned during his lifetime.
4. There are a number of coins discovered in graves, but whose use is difficult to
determine; however, those coins help us at the accurate dating of the cemetery and
church surrounded.
As regards the deposit of the coin as Obolus, we observed that in the
Transylvanian area during the Arpadian times, the custom of depositing the coin in
mouth (10 graves) or on mouth (27 graves) dominates; we should not exclude also the
possibility that the coins discovered around the head (8 graves) had initially been
deposited on the mouth and subsequently slipped of the head. More rarely the coin was
placed in hand (6 graves, of which in two cases the coins are deposited both in the left
hand and one in the right hand, the last two coming from Feldioara and Ortie). Even
more rare are the coins placed on the chest of the deceased (3 graves: Cluj Mntur,
Drueni, Sighisoara Dealul Viilor). The custom of depositing coins as Obolus were in
use in the churchyard cemeteries dated in the second half of the 11th century and the 12th
century. For the 13th century, we have no grave with the custom of depositing coins as
Obolus, and the coins dated in this period and discovered as inventory in graves are in a
very low percentage comparing to the previous period. Only two cases of graves with
coins as inventory were discovered (Alba Iulia, a coin from Andrei II was discovered in
M II near the femoral neck, at Streisngeorgiu a coin from Ladislaus IV was found in M
93, placed under the head) and a coin discovered in the grave pit (in Sibiu, a coin from
Ladislau IV found in M 1264). This phenomenon can be interpreted as an intensification
of the control of the Catholic Church in compliance with the Christian principles
regarding the burial ritual.
We must note that some coins were cut and some fractured. It is possible that
these marks have been applied or have occurred during the movement of the coins; but
we should not overlook the possibility that some were prepared as such to be deposited
in the grave, as a symbolic destruction of the object deposited.
There are three sites which are more particular due to their characteristics of the
monetary deposit in graves, they are: Feldioara, Sighioara Dealul Viilor, and Geoagiu

246
Perforated Roman or Arpadian coins as ornaments in the inventory of graves were discovered in
cemeteries around Alba Iulia, dated in 10th11th centuries and which are not around a place of worship: Alba
Iulia Ambulance Station, Alba Iulia Profi, Alba Iulia str. Brnduei, Alba Iulia Pclia; in the case of
the perforated Arpadian coins, they were issued during the reign of Stephen I and Peter I [Aurel Dragot et
alii, Materialul numismatic descoperit n necropola de la Pclia La izvoare (Mun. Alba Iulia, jud.
Alba), Apulum 49, 1 (2012): 147156; Aurel Dragot, Gabriel T. Rustoiu, Monede romane perforate n
descoperirile funerare din secolele XXI, in Studii de arheologie i istorie. Omagiu profesorului Nicolae
Gudea la 70 ani, ed. Clin Cosma (Cluj-Napoca: Mega, 2011), 443450].
247
Harhoiu, Ioni, Cercetri arheologice, 203.

91
de Jos Rotond. In the first case the predominant coin is the ancient one, which unlike
other cases where the Arpadian coin, especially the denarius, is almost ubiquitous.
Feldioara is also the place where we have the only known grave where 3 Arpadian coins
were deposited: in both hands and on mouth. Cemetery from Sighisoara Dealul Viilor
stands out with the presence of 37 coins placed on the chest of a child, a unique case so
far in Transylvania. Noteworthy is also the large number of coins issued by Coloman
from Geoagiu de Jos Rotond, which can indicate a series of successive funerals
organized over a short period of time.
From the chronology point of view, so far the oldest cemetery surrounding a
church is the one from Cluj Mntur where the oldest coins are issued by Andrew I
(10461060) and Ladislau I (10771095), being laid as Obolus in graves; other
churchyard cemeteries where coins from Ladislau I were discovered are the cemetery
from Dbca castle area IV, Geoagiu de Jos and Moldoveneti. We must emphasize
that these cemeteries are located in the Western part of the Transylvanian Plateau (see
the map 2). The next set of coins are those issued by Coloman (10951116), being found
also on the West side of Transylvania (Geoagiu de Jos, Moldoveneti, Alba Iulia and the
unclear situation of the cemetery from Sighioara Viilor where a church was not yet
identified archaeologically, on the one hand, and of the anonymous denarius found in
Sighioara Dealul Viilor and whose determination is not sure, on the other hand; this is
either issued by Coloman, or by Geza II). The coins issued by Stephen II (11161131)
and Bela II (11311141) discovered in graves of the churchyard cemeteries are
mentioned in Alba Iulia, Cluj Mntur, Chidea, Dbca castle area IV, Dbca
Garden of Tma, Dbca Boldga, Moldoveneti, Moreti Citfalu? (at this point we
must restate that the theory that this cemetery surrounded a church is not validated as the
church was not yet identified archaeologically) and Streisngeorgiu (the cemetery is
dated stratigraphically as starting in the second half of the 11th century around an 11th
century wooden church, which was replaced by stone church in 1130-1140). In the
current state of research, we can assert that for the first half of the 12 th century the
spreading area of cemeteries surrounding churches was still limited to Western
Transylvania. Only since the reign of Geza II we started witnessing a spread of Arpadian
coins in the churchyard cemeteries in other parts of Transylvania (see the map 1 and 2).
The chronological points specified represent enough evidence to interpret the
phenomenon of cemeteries around churches, as a gradual propagation of the institution
of the Catholic Church in Transylvania from west to east; the phenomenon starts in the
second half of the 11th century when we talk about a spread on a smaller scale of the
influence of the Catholic Church only in western Transylvania; about the expansion of
the institution of the Catholic Church towards the eastern Transylvania we can talk only
since the mid-twelfth century, a phenomenon that is gradually increasing during the 13 th
century.

English translation: Iulia G

92
93
Tabel 1: Medieval churchyard cemeteries with coin finds from Transylavania
94
95
 Archaeological Recoveries.
The Medieval Church from Vrdia de Mure-Ttvrad (Arad County)

FLORIN MRGINEAN1
ZSOLT CSK 2
MARIA TMAN3

Abstract: The study aims to present new data and interpretations considering the plan of a
medieval church revealed through the archaeological research conducted decades ago in
Vrdia de Mure (Arad county), at a place referred to as La Cetate by the locals. Evidence
found on site and the analysis of the original documents preserved in the archives of the Museum
of Arad show that some corrections are to be made on the previously published data regarding
the church. Our intention is to find a correlation between the original general plan and a new
topographic survey and to attempt a 3D reconstruction of the building using this data. The four
excavation campaigns (19711974) revealed elements of stratigraphy, planimetry, and material
culture dating from at least three distinct historical periods: the Dacian era, the Middle Ages
(13th16th centuries), and the beginning of the Ottoman conquest (16 th17th centuries). The
medieval church from Vrdia (in Hungarian Ttvrad, in German Waradia, in Turkish
Varadiye) appears in a small number of written sources belongin to the time frame approached in
our study. Thus, the only certain information is that the church was part of the county and the
archdeaconate of Hunedoara. This prompted us to begin this project which provides yet
unpublished information regarding the new archaeological discoveries, supplemented with
analysis and modern methods in order to promote the medieval church of Vrdia de Mure,
which is undeservedly little mentioned in the field literature of today.
Keywords: archaeological discovery, church, cemetery, Middle Ages, Vrdia de Mure, Arad
County

The commencement of a relational network between parishes of the early medieval

period from the rural environment on the upper course of the Mure River was
considerably influenced by the Arpads, regarding administrative and ecclesiastic
structures alike. Whilst in the period prior and immediately after the great Mongol
invasion written sources and the archaeological discoveries are scarce from the middle of
14th century our information about these rural ecclesiastic edifices seems to increase.
This situation we think resulted due to the absence of a stable connection system
prior to the 14 th century between the settlements equipped with a church. Additionally,
the information at our disposal is ambiguous, and mentions mostly the clergy and
pecuniary contribution required by the papal tithesthese indicating the existence of a
parish. The documents dont discuss events related with church building, consecrations
of places of worship, clerks and their attending at different communitarian or public
events. This applies also to the church of Vrdia de Mure. In light of these

1
Museum of Arad, Piaa Enescu 1, 310131 Arad, Romania; email: finnlands@yahoo.com.
2
National Museum of Transylvanian History Cluj-Napoca, str. Constantin Daicoviciu 2, 400020 Cluj-
Napoca, Romania; email: csok.zsolt@gmail.com.
3
Politehnica University of Timioara, Faculty of Architecture, str. Traian Lalescu 2/A, 300223 Timioara,
Romania; email: mtamasan@yahoo.com.

97
circumstances we consider that archaeological research is of great importance, if
consider that under the course of little more than one century the excavations revealed
several ecclesiastic structures, some of major importance for our region. Interestingly in
off the large number of recorded edifices and the publication of several synthethesising
studies on the topography of medieval churches didnt increase the archaeological
research of these sites. The reasons may vary, research is lacking a general concept of
approach, the financial support is still withstanding and added, we have few scholars
specialized in this research topic.
Considering the toponymy of the area, this supported by modern archaeological
research methods may also play an important role in indentifying the location of
unknown ecclesiastical buildings. We dont wish to dwell on the matter, but pass some
examples of recent date presenting the results of classical research practices e.g. the
revision of early textual evidence, inquiry with locals combined with modern methods
such as georefrencing of data, non-invasive field scanning methods are to be mentioned
in the conclusions chapter.4
The church of Vrdia de Mure attracted the interest of several locals and
scholars, pioneers of field archaeology of the region of Arad through the remaining ruins
and retained architecture.5 Nevertheless first archaeological investigation took place
merely in the seventies, and publication of new information never happened in an
exhaustive manner. As such, we considered it wise to review all available data,
documentation and the discovered material primarily in several short articles and later
merge these in one monographic study. The current study seeks to revaluate only
information recorded about the parish of the village Ttvrad (today Vrdia de Mure)
discovered after the systematic researches conducted at place called La Cetate
(translated as stronghold or castle). Archaeological excavation took place between 1971
1974 and was led by Mircea Zdroba and Mircea Barbu, archaeologists of County
Museum of Arad,6 during which it became possible to indentify several features of
stratigraphy, planimetry and material culture pertaining to four distinct historical stages:
hallstatt, Dacian period,7 Medieval period (1316 th century),8 and the first stage of
Ottoman conquest (1617 th century).9
Geographical position. The settlement of Vrdia de Mure is situated in the
gorge of the Lower Mure valley, northward from Mure River and halfway between the
cities Arad and Deva. The site is located in the south-eastern end of the village, between
the national road 7 and AradDeva railroad on hill at the foot of the mountains Zrand.
At a 176.5 m altitude, it offers a great visibility over this gateway of the Lower Mure
valley over a distance of cca. 25 meters of the neighboring areas from south, south-east
4
The case of the discoveries at the border of Agriu Mare, Curtici, imand or Secaci.
5
Mrton Roska, Erdly Rgszeti Repertoriuma. I. skori (Thesaurus Antiquitatum Transsilvanicarum),
(Cluj, 1942), 293/85.
6
Mircea Barbu, Mircea Zdroba, Aezarea dacic de la Vrdia de Mure, Ziridava 9 (1978): 2125.
7
Barbu, Zdroba 1978, 2125; Mircea Barbu, Fortificaii dacice pe valea Mureului Inferior, Ziridava 19
20 (1996): 4557; Alexandru Berzovan, Preliminary Considerations on the Dacian Habitation in Vrdia de
Mure Dealul Cetate, Arad County (2nd century BC1st century A.D.), Ziridava StudArch 28 (2014): 87
114.
8
Pavel Vesa, Bisericile de mir ardene ntre tradiie i modernitate (Arad: Editura Mirador, 2000), 178;
Adrian Andrei Rusu, George Pascu Hurezan, Biserici medievale din judeul Arad (Arad: Trinom, 2000),
146148.
9
Klra Hegyi, A trk hdoltsg vrai s vrkatonasga. III, A temesvri, gyri, ppai, egri, kanizsai,
vradi s jvri viljet vrainak adattra (Budapest: HistriaMTA Trtnettudomnyi Intzete, 2007),
14651466.

98
and south-vest.10 This explains why this place was chosen as a place to build a
fortification in the Dacian period, and as a place of ottoman garrison in the premodern
period. In the medieval period the assembling of a church happened presumably out of
practical reasons: the hillside dominated the village center, it was froth from flooding
danger and wild animals.
Historical information. The village is first mentioned in a document issued by
the capitulum of Arad, on 1st of May 1342, telling us that the Dienes and the special
chaplain of the King and Queen stood witness to the division of the villages of the
provincia Waradya11 (including Waradya, Halalus, Ztayhaza, Stanhaza, Alsowkuesd,
Felsewkuesd districts) situated along the river Morus, jointly with several knights and the
kings closest advisors.12 Another source from the 14th century (Strigonium, 15 July
1386) recounts a less fortunate event, some merchants of Sibiu when passing through the
valley of Mure were attacked by a company of brigands, among them was Blasius,
sclavus hopes de Waradia.13 We have no accounts with direct reference to a village
church, most of our information is related to the market (oppidum) and the castle
(Waradya castellum) with the afferent dominion, as mentioned in a document from
1479.14
In terms of administration the medieval settlement Vrdia de Mure belonged to
the county/shire of Hunedoara. The village core didnt change much considering the
Josephinian Land Surveys (see Pl.1/12), however the identifying of a castellum which
seemingly may be related to the church discovered at the location called La Cetate
(trans. in: castle) remains troublesome. We conclude with assurance that it isnt to be
found in the area we researched, but elsewhere.
Short history of research. As mentioned above, the architectural remains
discovered at La Cetate captured the interest of the locals and intellectuals alike.
During de road mending preformed in the 1930ies of Arad-Deva highway (DN7) seem
to have damaged and disturbed a portion of ruins. Few pieces recovered were from the
people of village, but this event also impelled the beginning of systematic archaeological
research of the site.15 Below we chose to cite all information gathered about the medieval
period of the site, based on written documents and mostly the geographical analysis
relevant in the case of the church and the surrounding cemetery. We wish to indicate that
the data presented is unique, being that until this we had at our disposal only one general
plan, published after the excavations preformed.16
As noted earlier the first archaeological investigations were conducted in 1971, by
Mircea Zdroba and Mircea Barbu. The campaign happened in two stages, the first
excavation between June 11th and 30th and the second between October the 15th and 30th.
Their research targeted the plateau, tracing a section with east-west orientation, named S1
and discovering several wall structures. This determined the authors of the excavation to

10
See http://maps.hungaricana.hu/en/MOLTerkeptar/2212/.
11
Provincia in the 14th century is defined as a territory of nobility or the center of several territories
belonging to nobility [see Gyula Krist, A vrmegyk kialakulsa Magyarorszgon (Budapest, 1988)].
12
Ferenc Piti, Anjoukori Oklevltr. XXVI. 1342 (BudapestSzeged, 2007), 147.
13
Nagy Fekete, Ladislaus Antonius Makkai, Documenta historiam Valachorum in Hungaria illustrantia,
usque ad annum 1400 p. Christum (tudes sur l'Europe Centre-Orientale, 29) (Budapest, 1941), 325.
14
Dezs Csnki, Magyarorszg trtnelmi fldrajza a Hunyadiak korban, VI (Budapest, 1890), 763764;
Alexandru Roz, Kovch Gza, Dicionarul istoric al localitilor din judeul Arad (Arad: Trinom, 1997),
260.
15
Barbu, Zdroba, Aezarea dacic, 2122.
16
Rusu, Hurezan, Biserici medievale, 147, fig. 23

99
open another trench about 2327 meters northward from S1, on the eastern side of the hill.
Thus, they managed to distinguish the northern semicircular apses of the church (Pl.2). 1
1.3 meters deep they recorded a thick layer of cobbles and remains of mortar, which came
into being perhaps due to some plundering activity in the early modern period, or as a
result of general decay produced through aging. (Pl. 3/1). In this section, they also found
human bone matter belonging to the disturbed layers of plundered graves.
The second excavation campaign also had two phases, the first between the 16th
and 27 June, the second between the 5th October and 18th November, year 1972. The
th

excavations targeted the whole area of the hill and surroundings. The research of the
early church continued with two trenches, B and C. In trench B, they recorded one wall
structure and a few graves (Pl. 3/3). Sadly, the trench isnt registered on the general plan
of excavations, but presumably it was placed in the area of the aisle/ nave situated near
the sanctuary! Trench C was executed as a counterpart for trench A, aiming to uncover
the whole surface of the apses, visible too this day. We preformed a new topographical
survey,17 starting from the apses and documenting the whole area of discoveries in order
to map and reconstitute several elements of this site.
The results of the third and fourth excavation campaign are presented merely
through some drawings preserved in the Museums Archives. Several trenches traced the
area of the plateau and allowed the researchers to attain a general plan of the church.
During the third excavation preformed in 1973, the scholars opened 3 trenches (D, E, F)
of which the last two bear more importance in this case, because they were traced in the
area of the church aisle. In trench E (Pl. 3/4) they discovered several graves, with no
stratigraphical data, and in trench F (Pl. 3/5) they caught the foundation of two poor wall
structures closing an L shaped corner, and part of a disturbed grave.
The last excavation campaign conducted in 1974 conveyed us much insight
related to the plan of the church: especially the central area, south and northern sides and
the south-west and north-west edges of the structure. The researchers traced two
trenches, first one named G was placed on the southern side, de second one named H was
placed on the northern side of the church. We dont precisely know where and when but
other two sections were excavated, unfortunately the documentation got misplaced but
some of the material discovered is preserved in the Museums archaeological storage
area.
Nevertheless, the archaeological documentation at our disposal, altogether with
its deficiencies doesnt impair the great contribution made by the two scholars.
Regrettably that the result the excavations conducted havent been published but only
partially. One general plan of the excavations (incomplete) depicting the church and a
portion of the surrounding graves was published relatively late,18 and is in need of further
correction based upon revising the old drawings kept in the Museums Archives. These
are to be completed by the descriptions of Pavel Vesa, made subsequent to receiving data
from one of the authors who performed the excavations.19 Considering all circumstances
we decided to resume the research on this site, revise the whole material and comprise a
monographic study of the church and area. The first step was to publish a part of the
material originating from the Dacian period,20 with this article thereafter and later on

17
The topographical survey was conducted in February of 2013 by Florin Mrginean, Zsolt Csk, Zsuszanna
Kopeczny and Anca Nioi.
18
Rusu, Hurezan, Biserici medievale, 147, fig. 23.
19
Vesa, Bisericile de mir, 178, note 1228.
20
Berzovan, Preliminary Considerations, 87114.

100
another study which deals with the stages of Ottoman conquest, thus getting closer to
what we envisioned.
The church remains. Regarding the archaeological excavations conducted we
have established general outline of the layout of the church, but we are lacking details,
therefore we need to mention further new archaeological research is required. Still, in the
view of the preserved drawings we gather the church had an area with avant-corps
(dcroche) of 2.65 m; a semicircular apse at 3.25 depth with a 4.50 m wide opening onto
the nave. The nave is 19.80 meters long and 11.65 meter wide. The thickness of the walls
varies, in the case of the its between 0.60 m0.70 meters and in the case of the apse its
about 1 meter broad. Noted, the plan (grund) drawing for section H, which is placed in
the northern area of the nave shows through the use of dotted lines merely the negative of
the wall structure, it seems the building material has been partially robbed. We encounter
a similar situation on the western side, in S1 the scholars werent able to uncover the
how the wall structure closes, but merely an arrangement of stones, and it isnt clear if
this is where the cessation of the wall or there was intentionally fissure in the structure. If
it were to be the western enclosure of the church, the dimensions change and add a total
of cca. 1.5 meter to the length of the church. (Pl. 2). This is issue is to be clarified later
on through other archaeological surveys.
The conglomerate of cobles in the central area of the church capture by S1 may
clue to the position of the altar table. Stratigraphy shows no evidence of flooring, but
with most certainty it was a timber floor, made out of planks set with nails, as shown by
the findings in the church. The excavations didnt produce any new architectural
elements, e.g. chambranle or keystones, which leads us to conclude that nave had a
simple plank or coffer ceiling. Roof covering must have been done with shingle, and in
later phases with ceramic tiles, some fragments of these were preserved in the storage of
the Museum of Arad.
Currently based on our information we arent able to establish the number of
construction phases in the building historic of church, or which section pertain to the
earlier phases. The documentation at our disposal shows a massive wall structure in the
north-eastern corner of the nave, which we assume it is a part of the sacristy. In the
absence of further research conveying us details about the layout of this area, a cca.12
meter wide piece of land, south of the ramp belonging to Dacian fort, but we dont wish
to discuss further any other functional aspects.
Another properly delimited area is located in the south-west edge of the nave,
with 6 x 6.35 meter scale and 0.60 meter thick wall structures. Most certainly it was built
together with the church, and not in a later period. The fissure preserved in the length of
the southern wall of nave, marked with dotted line on the general plan seems to indicate
an entrance of the church. We consider that the access road captured nod marked on the
topographical survey to be another indication in this regardit is located on the south-
eastern end of the hill (Pl. 4), cutting partially the ditch of the Dacian fortification. It
seems to be one of the few such testimonies from the medieval period in our space.21 In
our 3D reconstruction of the church we adopted two functional ascriptions for this area: a
simple space (e.g. porch), possibly covered; or a tower with a modest elevation, made
out of timber. (Pl. 56).
The building material used for the church consists of limestone, river cobbles

21
Oana Toda, Evidence on the Engineering and Upkeep of Roads in Late Medieval Transylvania, Annales
Universitatis Apulensis, Series Historica 17, 2 (2013): 173200.

101
and stones gathered from a nearby quarry, and mortar the main binder component. 22 The
several discovered clamps and nails belong to the timber elements of the church.
Outside the church, one meter from north-eastern corner a circular stone structures have
been also discovered, with the external diameter of 2.20 m and 0.35 m wide. Gathering
from the recorded layouts and available documentation we dont know the level of
foundation of this structure, but the graphical recording it is noted a depth of 1.30 meters
for inside area and a 2.35 meter depth for the outside area, direction west. We find it
plausible that the structure described has the function of a fountain or a cistern.23
The cemetery. The graves discovered around and mostly inside the church may
convey some indication of earlier phases of the cemetery and the building.
Unfortunately, in the absence of any reference to how the funeral findings relate to the
foundation of the church it is impossible to deduce any relevant conclusions. After the
study of graphical recordings, it seems a number of 28 ( 1) have been found, some of
them well preserved others disturbed. The authors of the excavation didnt mention
anything about the grave goods. After renewing the drawings, we chose to keep the
initial numeration, as such in the documentation of the excavation performed between
1971 and 1973 they marked 19 ( 1) graves, and in the last year 9 other graves.
Below we wish to make a short presentation of the graves according to the areas
or sections of discovery. Thus, in the first trench the two scholars unearthed 5 graves
situated in the central area of the church. The drawings clearly suggest that the deceased
were overlaying each other; reinhumation may have been the case and cause. The depth
of the burials varies between 0.35 and 0.50 meters; the drawing doesnt note any
additional data e.g. stratigraphical, layout of pit. At the same depth in trench A they
discovered 2 graves, situated north of the apses. The drawings seem to suggest the
rectangular shape of the burial pit, orientation NW-SE, explained maybe by the
inhumation beside the apses of the church. In the same trench, at a depth of 1 or 1.30
meter in the layer consisting of many stones they uncovered the part of 1 or 2 deceased
(Pl. 3/1). In section C, places south from the apses inside the wall structure they
discovered a skull, marked as M8. The scholars in their notes suggested that the
foundation of the structure must have disturbed an earlier burial situated in the area, the
builders chose to embed the skull in the architectural issue. In section B, which isnt to
be found on the general plan another grave is noted with M9, uncovered near the
foundation of a wall structure with east-west orientation. During the campaign of 1973
they discovered two other graves in section E and F, but they didnt record them on the
general plan. Those discovered in E suggest different stages of inhumation, as shown by
the different heights and overlaying of skeletons which were recorded on the drawings.
The structure is partially disturbed burial found in F is near the foundation of a wall
structure of which we dont know how it relates with the rest of the churchs structure.
Returning to the topic of layout and distribution of burials we state that the
position of M2, M3 and M4 uncovered in the first campaign, and the position of M6, M8
maybe even M7 offers us in off evidence to conclude the existence of a cemetery dated
to an early period, prior to the church, which has been investigated by M. Zdroba and M.
Barbu. The latter noted about these burials that most of them seem to be graves of adults,
but they discovered the skeletons of children this being the only anthropological
information available. In general, the deceased were buried in a supine position, on their

22
The information was taken from a short comprising excavation report of the church drafted by M. Barbu.
23
Rusu, Hurezan, Biserici medievale, 147.

102
backs, merely in case of M3 and M6 we have additional information about the
positioning of the arms (Pl. 2).
A place for conclusions and aspirations. The affiliation of the village Ttvrad
to the county of Hunedoara allows us to consider that the church may have appertained
to the archdiocese bearing the same name, included in the church jurisdiction of
Transylvania. In the absence of any clear mentioning, any eloquent archaeological
evidence it is difficult to conclude anything about the early period of the cemetery and
building phases of the clerical structure. It certain that the church and surrounding
cemetery functioned until the Ottoman conquest, the middle of the 14th century, when
they decided to build a small garrison.24 We wont insist on the matter, but this theory is
corroborated by archaeological material found inside and outside of the church, and by
parallels of nearby areas (the case of Tau is for example very similar, as many others).25
Attempts as of late, issued to indentify ruins of the medieval period or from the pre-
modern period have failed, they didnt bear any significant information.26
After the last functional phase, the church was abandoned, forgotten and
splurged of its building material to the foundations, as such today only the apses is
visible. It isnt recorded on none of the Josephinian maps, suggesting that the structure
was really damaged by the modern period. It is possible that the unidentified castellum,
mentioned in earlier written sources was demolished together with the church.
The study of the church belonging to the medieval village of Ttvrad, depicts
the image of a community with modest possibilities, due to which the clerical structure
obtained an average size in comparison with other similar structures of the neighboring
areas. The absence of architectural components carved out of stone is suggestive of the
low financial resources of those who build it. The graphical reconstructions we propose
for the church compensate and help the identification of parallels (Pl. 56).
The whole material presented allows us to affirm that our research intermediate
phase, which need further archaeological investigation, permitting us to establish closing
conclusions regarding layout and chronology of structure. We consider that the manner
in which the placement of the church of Vrdia de Mure has been identified should be
followed by a series of other examples in the area of Arad, the future attempts of scholars
are to be motivated through the success of the research conducted in the other
neighboring areas,27 as mentioned in the footnote. The few examples we can mentioned
currently are to be augmented by several other churches disappeared to the end of the
medieval period and during the modern period,28 but indentified again by our team. For
example, identifying the location of the medieval church placed at the border of the
village Agriu Mare, which bears the toponym of Bisericu, or the case of the village
Alma (Almos),29 which belonged to the archdiocese of Pncota; the church seems to be
attested with a Dominic priest in the register of papal tithes (1334), following this the

24
Hegyi, A trk hdoltsg.
25
All the aspects related to localizing turkish structures placed somewhere at the border with the Principality
of Transylvania, during the second half of the 16th century; aspects and changes in the material culture we
present in a separate article, under publication.
26
Aks Karczag, Tibor Szab, Erdly, Partium s a Bnsg erdtett helyei. Vrak, vrkastlyok,
templomvrok, barlangvrak, sncok s erdtmnyek a honfoglalstl a 19. szszad vgig (Budapest:
Semmelweis, 2010), 375376; Gergely Tolnay, Palnkvrak Magyarorszgon (Budapest: Martin Opitz,
2011), 138.
27
Imre Szatmri, Bks megye kzpkori templomai (Bkscsaba, 2005).
28
Rusu, Hurezan, Biserici medievale, 28.
29
DIR. C, veacul XIV, vol. III, 249251.

103
settlement was included into the actual village of Agriu Mare and the old place of
worship was abandoned.
A similar situation is to be anticipated in the case of the findings by the border of
the city of Curtis. The research led us to consider the existence of possible place of
worship and surrounding cemetery. The place identified by us stands under heavy lands
use and on filed theres only but a small mound or hillock standing out of its
surrounding, pointing us out the possible location of a ruin. The topographical
information shows a place called Holumb. We considered the possibility of a church
due to the grit stone, mortar fragments and human bone matter found during our field
survey. We believe these features and discoveries indicate the presence of a church, but
the settling of this issue is possible only through further archaeological excavations.
Nevertheless, the scarce information related to the medieval history of the former village
is an incitement to theories. Thus, we know of a Kurteghaz (Biserica scurt, trans. in
Little church) as mentioned in 1519, or Kurtafejregyhz (Biserica scurt alb) in 1553
which may or may not affirm a place for the church in Curtici, as we discussed. A
toponym with the words Bisericu or La bisericu, meaning little church is
indicated at 2.5 km, towards south-west of the city (whilst our discoveries were south-
east from the city) towards Cua or Cuto, where in the 20th century some ruins were
recorded. All data considered, we adopt the view that our proposition should be
considered just a working assumption.
We also chose to mentioned the discoveries at the border of imand and Curtici,
gained through filed surveys, presenting us with material (bone matter, fragments of
ceramic building material with mortar and the fragment of a crucifix) which indicate a
church, which we identified as the church of the village ravaged in the 17th century,
Tvisegyhz (Thwiseghaz, Thywseghaz, Thws eghhazchurch with thorns) mentioned in
1433, 1462 and 1561.30
The absence of these churches in the papal tithes, and the onomastics of the ones
mentioned in the Ottoman census preformed at middle of the 16th century point to the
affiliation of the church with orthodox religion. We may attribute to this cult, with
reassurance the church f Seca, situated south-west of the core of the village, between the
confluences of Mraca (Maraska) and Ferice valleys.31
All these examples once investigated through meticulous archaeological
excavations may bear contributions of great value considering dimensions, layout of
these clerical structures and aspects of living and economy of each residing community.
Withal, these investigations would complete missing elements pertaining to the
geography of Transylvanian ecclesiastic architecture, which in the early medieval period
is characterized by a powerful manifestation of western and eastern religious practices.

English translation: Britta Burkhardt

30
Lszl Blazovich, A Kros-Tisza-Maros-kz teleplsei a kzpkorban (Szeged, 1996), 306.
31
Florin Mrginean, George P. Hurezan, Augustin Murean, The Medieval Church in the Village of Seca
(Arad County) and its Vestiges, Ziridava StudArch 28 (2013): 253358.

104
The placement of the site and the village Vrdia de Mure

Depiction of the church and its location on the map from 1837

105
1.

2.

Pl. 1: 1. Location of the site after first Austrian military map (17631787)
2. Location of the site after second Austrian military map (18061869)
(after http://mapire.eu/en/)

106
Pl. 2: General ground plan (19711974)

107
Pl. 3: 1. Intermediar drawing trench A; 2. Intermediar drawing trench C; 3. Drawing
trench B; 4. Drawing trench E; Drawing trench F

108
Pl. 4: GIS and topographic survey

109
 -

Pl. 5: 3D graphics reconstruction of the church

110
Pl. 6: 3D graphics reconstruction of the church

111
 The Archaeology of the Medieval Churches in Braov:
St Martins Church

DANIELA MARCU ISTRATE1

Abstract: The present study provides an overview of the archaeological excavations on the Hill
of St Martin (Martinsberg), emphasizing their contribution for reconstructing the history of the
church and its surroundings. St Martins Lutheran Church stands on the north-western
promontory of Fortress Hill (Dealul Cetuii) in Braov, next to the old parish house, fragments
of an enclosure wall, annexes necessary for the functioning of the parish and a small cemetery.
The church and the parish house, together with the nearby located fortification were the only
elements dominating the surroundings at the beginning of the 20 th century. At present, the
churchs silhouette is almost indecipherable because of all the buildings that have been built
during the last decades and covered up the Martinsberg almost entirely. The building preserves
the western sector of a medieval Gothic church, probably dating to the 14 th century. This church
underwent some modifications in the 15th and 16th centuries, the most significant being the
addition of some chambers on the southern side of the nave. In 17951796 the old sanctuary was
demolished, the nave was extended to the east and a new chancel was built. Subsequently the
building underwent various repair works and a general restoration in the 1960s, to which its
present-day shape is entirely owed. The first opportunity regarding an interdisciplinary research
arose only by 2008 in the context of a new restoration project. The research focused upon the
study of the Lutheran church, a former Roman-Catholic one dedicated to St Martin. The study
consisted of architectural, geotechnical and structural analysis, as well as of archaeological
sampling on the churchs inside and outside. The archaeological diggings took place during two
stages, first during autumn 2008 and secondly, during spring 2009. As it is the case in many of
these situations, the size and location of the archaeological section were strictly determined by
the restorations interests. 18 trenches were opened, 9 walled up structures were studied, as well
as 70 graves, 4 different types of complexes and an important number of archeological objects,
all of which highly important chronological indicators. Archaeological research could not
determine with precision when the church was built, but it has confirmed that the church was in
operation during the last decades of the 14 th century. Older vestiges have not been unearthed, so
the hypothesis of an earlier dating, possibly even in the 13 th century, remains to be verified. There
are only a few possibly medieval burials around the church, located on the western and southern
sides. On the northern side was a household sector with storage pits, instead of a cemetery that
the status of a parish church would have demanded. The church was placed from the outset on the
southern side of a medieval enclosure, forming an ensemble with other buildings, the most
important of which was located on the site of the present-day parish house. In this context, it is
evident that the place of worship was intended for a small community, most likely a seigneurial
residence.
Keywords: Braov, medieval residence, medieval church, Martinsberg, archeological research

Although it was formed relatively late, Braov was one of the most important
commercial cities in the Hungarian Kingdom and, implicitly, in Central-Eastern Europe
in medieval times. The foundation of this settlement is usually dated by historians to the

1
Vasile Prvan Institute of Archaeology Bucharest, str. Henri Coand 11, 010667 Bucureti, Romania;
email: dmarcuistrate@gmail.com.

113
beginning of the 13th century, in the context of the colonization of Burzenland with
German guests, under the protection of the Teutonic Knights.2 Braov was even
considered a Teutonic settlement,3 even though its first documentary mention dates from
1235. Up until the middle of the 14th century, the settlement had a slow evolution,
oftentimes interrupted by the Tartar invasions. In the second half of that century,
however, it underwent a steady development, which was frequently reflected in
contemporary documents.
Almost no written information has been preserved from the early period in
which the settlement gained shape. Written sources are not very generous even for the
following period, up until the end of the 17th century, most of them having been lost in
the devastating fire of 1689, which destroyed the historical centre almost entirely,
including the most important administrative buildings and churches. Archaeology should
be the main source of information for a reconstruction of this long period in the history
of the city, especially as regards its formative period. However, Braov has, almost
inexplicably, one of the poorest urban archaeologies. The historical centre has not
undergone any major renovation, even though it has been constantly modernized in
recent decades. Town-planning works, as well as, in fact, most of the specifically
targeted restorations have only inadvertently benefited from archaeological expertise or
research. Unlike in any other city of Transylvania, it may be said that archaeology has
always remained a luxury in Braov, despite having had very early beginnings, in the
first part of the 20th century.4
Still, the past decade has witnessed many archaeological discoveries, especially
in the field of ecclesiastical architecture.
In 2008, several archaeological investigations were conducted in the proximity
of St Bartholomews Church, a 13th-century building, erected under the influence of the
Cistercian building site in Cra. The digging was occasioned by the extension of the
parsonage, so it had no direct contact with the church. However, what is very important
is that a coin dating from the 12th century was unearthed, representing the oldest such
discovery and a valuable chronological clue for the beginnings of the settlement.5
In 2008 archaeological research started also on the Hill of St Martin, one of the
presumed early habitation nuclei. Although this research was not very ample, it yielded new
information relating to the topography of the medieval and modern buildings and it brought
to light numerous archaeological objects, which are valuable both for dating the main
construction stages and for raising awareness about the material culture of different eras.

2
Harald Roth, Kronstadt in Siebenbrgen. Eine kleine Stadtgeschichte (Kln, Weimar, Wien: Bhlau, 2010),
65; Paul Niedermaier, Siebenbrgische Stdte (Bukarest: Kriterion, 1979), 123127; Paul Niedermaier, Der
mittelalterliche Stdtebau in Siebenbrgen, im Banat und im Kreischgebiet (Heidelberg: Arbeitskreis fr
Siebenbrgische Landeskude, 1996), 200201; Franz Killyen, Die Anfnge der Stadtwerdug Kronstadts,
in Paul Philippi (hrsg.), Beitrge zur Geschichte von Kronstadt in Siebenburgen (Siebenbrgisches Archiv
17) (Kln, Wien: Bhlau, 1984), 3590; Maja Philippi, Kronstadt. Historische Betrachtungen ber eine
Stadt in Siebenbrgen (Bukarest: Kriterion, 1996), 85.
3
Maja Philippi, Structura social a Braovului n evul mediu, in Transilvania i saii ardeleni n
istoriografie (Sibiu-Heidelberg: hora & Arbeitskreis fr Siebenbrgische Landeskude, 2001), 153154.
4
M. Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germani n sudul Transilvaniei. Istorie, arheologie i arhitectur (secolele
XIIXIII) (Bucureti: Academia Romn, 2011), 166167; A. Prox, Die Zisterne in der Brasoviaburg,
Mitteilungen des Burznlander schsischen Museums 3, no. 12, (1938): 710; (no author) Die
Baugeschichtlichen Ergebnisse der Grabungen in der Schwarzen Kirche, Mitteilungen des Burzenlnder
Schsischen Museums 34 (1938): 93102.
5
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Gabriel Izdril, Braov, jud. Braov. Punct: Ansamblul Bisericii Sf. Bartolomeu,
str. Lung nr. 251, CCA. Campania 2008 (2009).

114
 The most extensive archaeological investigations were carried out on the site of
the Black Church, considered to represent ground zero in the development of the urban
structure.6 In 2003 and 2005 the renovation works conducted south-west of the church
revealed the ruins of a chapel with a polygonal apse, probably dating from the second
half of the 13th century. The ruins were deemed to have belonged to a Cistercian chapel,
first mentioned in 1388 and demolished in 1559.7
The restoration of the public market around the Black Church, known as the
Honterus Courtyard, created the first opportunity for extensive archaeological research in
the historical centre in 20122013. The excavations combined scientific and utilitarian
objectives, aiming to collect historical information but also detailed structural data about
the buildings and the land.8 Numerous vestiges have been discovered: tombs, traces of
habitation (hearths, dwellings, pits, annexes, latrines, etc.) and fortification, constructions
made of stone and mortar, potsherds, as well as objects made of metal, glass, stone and
bone. The oldest of them date from the Dacian period, but the vast majority belong to the
Middle Ages and the Modern Period.
The present study provides an overview of the archaeological excavations on
the Hill of St Martin, emphasizing their contribution for reconstructing the history of the
church and its surroundings.

Description of the church. St Martins Evangelical Church stands on the north-western

promontory of Fortress Hill in Braov, next to the old parsonage, fragments of an
enclosure wall, annexes necessary for the functioning of the parish and a small cemetery.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the church and the parsonage dominated the
surroundings together with the nearby fortress, being the only buildings on the ridge of
the mountain (Pl. 1). Today, the silhouette of the church is almost indecipherable among
the buildings that have entirely covered the Hill of St Martin and its main faade has
remained blocked behind a recent fencing (Pl. 2). The access is difficult, being possible
only from the east, through the courtyard that separates the church from the parsonage,
along the northern faade (Pl. 5).
The building preserves the western sector of a medieval Gothic church,
probably dating from the 14th century. This church underwent some modifications in the
15th and 16th centuries, the most significant being the addition of some chambers on the
southern side of the nave. In 17951796, the old sanctuary was demolished, the naves
were extended to the east and a new chancel was built. Subsequently the building
underwent various repair works and a general restoration in the 1960s, to which its
present-day shape is entirely owed, in detail, including the marking of the two
construction stages on the outer parament: stone masonry for the old, medieval part of
the church and, respectively, stone masonry alternating with rows of bricks for the newer
part.
The present-day church consists of a hall with a short choir, ending in the three
sides of an octagon, which features a vestry on the southern side. The western faade is

6
gnes Blint, Biserica Neagr din Braov. Noi propuneri privind cronologia i contextul construciei, Ars
Transsilvaniae 19 (2009): 518; Helmut Zeidner, Die Schwarze Kirche, in Kronstadt. Eine
siebenbrgische Stadtgeschichte, hrsg. von Harald Roth (Mnchen: Universitas, 1999), 150160.
7
Dana Jenei, Construcii succesive pe locul Liceului Johannes Honterus din Braov. Capela cistercian
Sf. Ecaterina, in In honorem Gernot Nussbcher (Braov: Foton, 2004), 401409.
8
Daniela Marcu Istrate (ed.), Redescoperirea trecutului medieval al Braovului: curtea Bisericii Negre /
Unearthing the medieval past of Braov: The Black Church yard (Cluj Napoca: Mega, 2015).

115
elevated through a tower. Access to the church is provided by three portals, two of which
are of medieval origin. The main portal is located on the western side, closed within a
slightly ogival arch, with a multiply-articulated stone frame, with pear-shaped, circular
cross-section tori (Pl. 3). In the northern wall of the nave, to the east, lies another portal
with a stone frame, ending, at the top, at a slightly broken angle. The small portal opens
towards the parsonage, having probably been designed for the special use of the priest.
The third portal is located at the westernmost tip of the northern wall and is due to the
enlargement that was completed in around the year 1800 (Pl. 3 and 7).
The interior is lit through numerous small, rectangular windows, with stone
frames, dating from around the year 1800 and highlighted during the latest restoration.
Only one of the old windows has been preserved in its entirety, at the westernmost
extremity of the southern wall of the nave: it is a Gothic ogival window, very likely
dating from the first construction stage. A similar window probably existed in the
northern wall, where today we can only see the upper part of the embrasure in which a
wooden frame was fitted.9 Another old window is preserved in the southern wall: a
rectangular embrasure with a stone frame which features a simple moulding, a cavetto
bounded by a ribbed pattern, the bottom tip facing inwards.
The interior space is uniform, covered with a ceiling decorated in Baroque style,
with stucco medallions, the boundary between the nave and the sanctuary being marked
at the level of the plaster. In the western section, there are wooden pews arranged in a U
shape; they were constructed at the end of the 18th century, partially doubling the stone
pews.
Outside, along the southern side, the traces of a building that appears to have
been added to the church at one point are marked on the surface of the ground; this
building was connected to the church by a stone-framed portal, which was in operation in
155910 (and is now walled in). A recent reconstruction attempt (plastered ruins, covered
with tiles) indicates a square compartment, closed to the west with a wall running along
the entire length of the plot. Several arches open up along the shorter sides (probably a
contrivance to allow viewing the built-in portal), while two portals made of stone blocks,
with an almost semicircular embrasure, are encased in the long side. The stone frame
facing the church corresponds to the square chamber and we may assume that it lies
approximately in situ, having been used, at some point in time, for direct access from the
west. The stone frame facing the cemetery is shorter and wider, but appears to come
from a door, too. Of course, these structures are due to the restoration of the 1960s and it
is impossible to ascertain the extent to which the reconstruction was faithful to the reality
on the ground.
Underneath its present-day appearance, the churchs medieval past can barely
be surmised, based on the walls of the western part and on the numerous artistic
components made of stone, wood and painted plaster. The restoration of St Martins
Church was launched in 2008, starting with the thorough study of the building by
archaeologists, historians, restorers of paintings, stone and wood, architects and
engineers. Although they were only partial, the researches conducted here led to
significant observations relating to the history of the church, facilitating knowledge of its

9
The window was probably blocked in the 18th century, when the wooden pews were installed inside the
church.
10
According to an inscription incised on the Western muntin, hic fuit 1559. The inscription has been
reported to me by Mrs. Agns Ziegler, whom I wish to thank here for all her support during the research I
carried out at St Martins Church.

116
technical condition and also bringing to light elements that had remained hidden, such as
valuable fragments of murals from the 14th century. Thus, was created the appropriate
support for a restoration project that is currently under way and that is largely aimed at
preserving the inner and outer shape and appearance that the building acquired via the
extension works conducted in the 18th century.11

The archaeological research. Archaeological research was carried out, in the context
described above,12 in the autumn of 2008 and in the spring of 2009. In addition to the
technical objectives that are customary in such situations (the structure of the
foundations and the foundation spits, the quality of the terrain, the history of the ground
level), what was at stake was shedding light on the construction stages and, in particular,
reconstructing and dating the original shape. Another question was related to the
construction or constructions on the southern side of the nave, which impart to the
church an entirely unusual planimetry. The research project was designed to meet these
requirements by digging alongside every side of the church, at the junction points of the
two main stages and where the southern wall meets the buildings that were added later,
either preserved in the form of ruins (to the west) or still standing (the vestry attached to
the choir). Inside, the excavations were geared mainly towards the discovery of the old
apse: a section was drawn in the axis of the church, being extended in length until it
entered the modern building, and several grid units were outlined on the northern and
southern walls (S.17 and S.18), which were supposed to capture the naves shoulders and
the birth of the sanctuary. In the area of the present-day altar, excavation S.13 on the
inside and, respectively, excavations S.5 and S.10 on the outside sought to identify the
ruins of the enclosure wall of the medieval cemetery (Pl. 4).
In total, 18 excavations were carried out, inside and outside, enabling the study
of several built structures, about 70 tombs and various other complexes. Archaeological
research brought to light a large number of archaeological objects, which have made it
possible to date some of the stages the church has undergone from the moment of its
construction to this day. Some of the most relevant objects are, of course, the coins: 115
items have been discovered, the earliest having been issued by King Sigismund of
Luxembourg (13861437) and the most recent being related to the restorations of the
wood flooring in the early 20th century. Most coins, however, date from the 18th century,
being deposited as offerings (Charons obol) in the tombs inside the church.

The archaeology of the medieval church. St Martins Church is often mentioned in the
scholarship as being not only one of the oldest churches in Braov, but also a possible
centre of habitation for a Saxon settlement in the 13th century (at the beginnings of the
colonization of Burzenland with German-speaking guests). The ensemble in which the
church functioned is related to significant historical events, such as the encounter
between Sigismund of Luxembourg and Prince Mircea the Elder in 1395 or its serving as
the seat of the comites in the region. The oldest documentary mention occurred in 1395,
when, at the time of his stay in Braov, King Sigismund of Luxembourg made an annual
donation of 40 guilders for religious services in the Capela Beati Martini in monte
Brassoviensi. On this basis, it was assumed that by the end of the 14th century a church

11
The restoration file was generously made accessible to us by archaeologist Fekete Mrta, whom we thank
here.
12
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Biserica evanghelic Sfntul Martin, Braov. Arheologie, arhitectur, restaurare.
Catalog de expoziie (Braov, 2012).

117
was already in operation on the Hill of St Martin, but up until 2008 there were no proper
conditions for conducting an extensive research of the monument.13
Archaeological research has confirmed this hypothesis, establishing that the
western section of the present-day structure corresponds to the medieval churchs nave.
A series of coins issued during the reign of King Sigismund (13861437) were
discovered in a storage pit located on the northern side, between the church and the
parsonage, but also in the excavations conducted inside, near the western portal. The
coins, along with numerous pottery fragments, have confirmed that the church was in
operation in the last decades of the 14th century. On the other hand, on the southern wall
of the nave, to the west, a mural datable to the 14th15th centuries was discovered.14 This
shows that not only the archaeologically studied foundations of the old church have been
preserved, but also important parts of the elevation.
Archaeological research could not determine with precision when the church
was built, but inventoried numerous data regarding its technical characteristics. It
established the fact that the foundation ground was a red, hard rock, whose maximum
height is in the area of the altar, descending then both westward and eastward, more or
less noticeably. This configuration of the terrain influenced the manner of completing the
foundations, which were placed on the rock or on a layer of very hard red clay, at
variable depths, so much so that along the trajectory of the same wall there are noticeable
differences that exceed 1 m, with a maximum depth at the western limit.15 On the eastern
side, the rock is close to the present-day ground level and the side walls of the churchs
nave do not have, in fact, a foundation. Due to this peculiarity of the terrain, it was
possible for the apse of the church to disappear without a trace during the demolition
carried out in the 18th century: even though the demolition was certainly operated at floor
level, it can be said that the building was actually levelled to the ground!
The eastern boundary of the walls of the nave has been identified, along a total
external length of 16.80 m. However, no element that can be linked to the apse surfaced
in inner trenches: by way of hypothesis, we may assume that there existed an apse that
was probably recessed, of semicircular or rectangular shape. The western faade of the
church, situated on a steep slope, was provided, in the construction stage, with two
buttresses that are still in existence today. The absence of other buttresses shows that the
interior was fitted with a ceiling.
The foundations were regularly made with fragments of local stone (generally
small and medium-sized), bound with lime mortar mixed with coarse gravel, used in
small quantities. The elevation of the church was made, at least partially, of ashlar. On
the northern side is preserved a kind of plinth made of two layers of blocks, the lower
one featuring a visibly bevelled upper edge (Pl. 7). On the southern side the bevelled
element is preserved only at the eastern extremity; on the rest of the surface, we may
distinguish up to four rows of blocks, aligned in a vertical plane (Pl. 9). This difference
certainly conceals changes that we have not been able to decipher yet. Therefore, we
cannot say what the original structure of the wall might have been.

13
Eduard Morres, Die kleinen Kirchen, in Erich Jekelius (Hrsg.), Das Burzenland, Bd. 3. Kronstadt, 1.
Teil (Kronstadt: Verlag Burzenlnder Schs. Museum, 1928), 154155; Gustav Treiber, Mittelalterliche
Kirchen in Siebenbrgen ([Mnchen], 1971), 211212; Gernot Nussbcher, Die Kronstdter Martinskapelle
bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts, Karpatenrundschau, Braov, 31/03.08.1995.
14
Lornd Kiss, Cercetare de parament la biserica evanghelic Sf. Martin din Braov, 2008. Documentation
from the restoration file, used with the authors agreement.
15
For example, the foundation of the northern wall descends by 1.44 m from west to east!

118
 As far as we can study them at the moment, the three old portals appear to be in
situ: the parament around them does not make visible any traces of interventions
subsequent to the building of the church, which would have entailed disturbing the
elevation for creating an embrasure and introducing a frame. The western and northern
portals, ending in an ogival arch at the top, may date from the first construction stage.
Regarding the northern portal, a hypothesis that has been advanced is that it may have
been relocated (Pl. 3 and 7), even though the wall seems to have maintained its integrity,
as suggested by the medieval painting preserved inside on the upper half of the wall,
around the area of the frame. The southern portal is the product of the period of transition
from the Gothic to the Renaissance: it can be assumed that a part of the southern wall
was re-built at that time.
The stone blocks visible in the masonry and the medieval frames are made from
extremely friable, brownish sandstone, which has been much eroded due to atmospheric
agents.
The ground level inside the old church was approximately 0.60 m lower than the
present-day level. On all the walls in the western area there are noticeable fragments of
old plaster descending to this elevation level, consistent also with the only landscaped
level from which traces have been preserved: the rectangular brick flooring, laid in a
layer of sand (a few bricks have been preserved near the southern pillar of the pews) (Pl.
10). At the same level there is also the initial threshold of the western portal, the offset of
the western wall foundation as well as the upper part of the foundations of the two pillars
that support the western pews. The pillars were designed to have a solid plinth consisting
of a single block of stone cut in a hexagonal shape, sitting on a stone foundation drowned
in a whitish grey mortar, very solid, mixed with a lot of lime and sand. Given that the
basis of the hexagonal plinth corresponds to the old ground level, we were led to believe
that the pews were arranged in a timeframe that was quite close to the moment of the
building of the church, perhaps even closer than it was previously estimated.16
An important stage occurred in the first half of the 15th century, several
documents mentioning construction works and donations (1427, 1442, 1447), possibly
caused by the burning of the church during the Turks attacks in 1421.17 The first priest
was mentioned around this time: Petrus.18 Several coins from this period confirm a
sustained activity on the Hill of St Martin: coinages issued during the span between the
reign of King Albert (14371439) and the time of Governor Iancu of Hunedoara (1443
1456) were also discovered in the storage pits, a rolled coin minted by Vladislav I
(14401444) being found outside, near the western side of the church. This information
documents most likely some improvements that were brought to the old building, repairs
or possible additions: at the level of the foundations, however, only a single stage is
detectable, which must date from the previous century.19 It is possible that the western
pews belonged to this period, alongside other interventions that are yet to be identified.

16
In the scholarship, the pulpit is dated to the 15th century; research conducted on the parament recently has
confirmed this dating. Kiss Lornd, Cercetare, passim.
17
Treiber, Kirchen, 211.
18
Nussbcher, Martinskapelle, passim.
19
G. Treiber is of the opinion that the Church was completely restored towards the middle of the 15th
century, after having been largely destroyed by a fire in 1421, during a Turkish invasion. The author assumes
there was a five-sided altar, strongly recessed. Treiber, Kirchen, 211212. In the archives of the Black
Church I found the plate the author refers to in the note on page 211 as having been lost in Transylvania. The
possibility that the Church was rebuilt after 1447 is also taken into account by Morrres, Die kleinen
Kirchen, 153.

119
 In any event, by the last decades of the 15th century the chapel had been
completed and was in operation, the religious services delivered there being mentioned
repeatedly.20 In 1529 the edifice was desecrated by the troops of the Moldovan
Voivode Petru Rare, who laid siege to the city, but we do not know if this caused real
damage to the building. The strong traces of burning on the southern portal could be
interpreted as a consequence of these adverse events. Shortly afterwards, in 1535, the
first picture of the church was painted by a famous artist of the time, Gregorius, in the
background of judge Lucas Hirschers portrait, the most important patron of the chapel.
Seen from the south-west, the church is rendered with a nave and a small choir,
represented with a straight wall, which would most likely suggest a rectangular shape.21
In the north-western part a tower with a high roof is depicted, which may have served at
that time (also?) as a belfry, partially visible behind the parsonage. The church is
surrounded by such a short wall that it makes visible the upper part of the southern
portal: it is undoubtedly an enclosure and not a fortification wall. No building can be
seen on the southern side, on the site of the present-day ruins: had it already been
demolished or had it not been erected yet? The answer was not definitively suggested by
this stage of the research.
The whole arrangement on the southern side remains an enigma, because it has
only partially entered the scope of the investigation and its present-day shape is actually
a valorization that we do not know how much credence should be given. What is certain
is that the medieval church had, at one point in time, an extension to the south, next to
the nave, consisting of a more or less square chamber added (?) to a wall that divides the
churchyard into two: the southern part, towards the cemetery, and the northern and
western parts, towards the parsonage (Pl. 8).
Perhaps this division was not fortuitous, considering that the two sides of the
church played a different role from the outset. The part towards the parsonage, which
happened to be on the northern side, remained invested with a secular function: at least
until the middle of the 15th century, storage pits and not a cemetery operated here, as
would have been natural for a parish church.22 The cemetery, with very few graves, was
formed along the western and, especially, the southern sides of the church.
This organization of the space shows that the church initially had a different
status than that of a parish church, around which we should identify the dense cemetery
of its parishioners. The building seems to have been designed rather as the component of
an ensemble, most likely a seigneurial court.23 The version of a chapel that functioned
alongside a residence located on the site of the present-day parsonage, partly
recognizable in its structures, seems the most appropriate.24 This status would
20
Nussbacher, Martinskapelle, passim.
21
Ibid., with an attempt at a graphic reconstitution. The planimetry of the altar is subject for discussion since
no traces of this structure are left in situ. The polygonal version proposed by G. Treiber seems highly
unlikely to me, in terms of not only its shape, but also of its size.
22
The only burial discovered on this side of the church, the interment being made in a brick crypt, covered
with a tombstone, belongs to the priest Jacobus Tutius, who passed away in 1719, during an outbreak of
plague. Gernot Nussbcher, Ein wiederentdeckter Grabstein auf dem Martinsberg, Karpatenrundschau,
Braov, 18.12.2008, 3.
23
Pavel Binder, Unde a ncheiat Mircea cel Btrn tratatul braovean din 1395? Consideraii privind
localizarea curii feudale din Braov, Cumidava 4 (1970): 5967.
24
See also the opinion of Harald Roth, who also noticed the peculiar situation of this church. This author
wonders, starting from the interest that Sigismund of Luxembourg and, after him, many other kings showed
in this church, whether it was a place reserved for the royal visits to Braov. Roth, Kronstadt in
Siebenbrgen, 65. For a discussion on the status of this residence, see Daniela Marcu Istrate, Ergebnisse der

120
convincingly justify the particularities listed above, including the presence of the narrow
portal on the northern side of the nave. The western portal is the most important in
architectural terms, but practically it was probably rarely used, due to its location at the
edge of the uninhabited steep hillside terrace. When the church began to receive a large
number of parishioners, playing perhaps the role of a parish church for a small
community, it became necessary to have a way of access to the ridge of the hill, the
southern portal being therefore opened.
For the time being, we can state only that these structures were built later than
the medieval church. Archaeological research has shown that when the transverse wall
was added to the church, it disturbed at least one medieval grave. In addition, this wall
has a much deeper foundation than that of the church, showing that this chamber had an
important superstructure, perhaps even a second level (Pl. 8 and 9).
In the form in which they were restored at the surface of the terrain, the walls
appear to be approximately 0.60 m thick, but we do not know if this is also true at the
level of the foundation. Inside there have been highlighted several arrangements of the
ground level, first through a wooden floor that burned on the spot and then through brick
flooring laid on sand. Unfortunately, no dating element was captured in the
archaeological probing, all of these traces being found right at the surface, under a thick
layer of rubble and tiles. The inscription incised on the built-in portal, on an edge of the
western muntin, suggests that in 1559 the portal was freely accessible from the outside, a
situation that had lasted at least since 1535. The planimetry of the buildings, their
function and their ascription in time, before or after the first half of the 16 th century,
remain thus problems that are yet to be solved.
The enclosure wall. The planimetry of the buildings on the Hill of St Martin had another
component, namely an enclosure from which some fragments have been preserved, to
this day, on the western side, towards the town, in the form of a relatively low stone wall,
supported by buttresses. The scholarship mentions a fortified enclosure, a claim that is
based on analogies rather than on evidence.25 In the 1535 painting, there appears a low
enclosure, but of course we cannot know whether this was the original shape. In any
case, the ensemble to which the medieval church belonged was surrounded by a stone
wall, whose foundation we discovered on the eastern side, overlapped by the modern age
sanctuary. To what extent it was conceived as a fortification or was a simple private
space enclosure remains a challenge for future research.
The archaeology of the church in the modern period: cemetery, chapel, and crypt.
At the end of the 18th century, the medieval topography was significantly modified
through the demolition of the church altar and the enclosure wallor of major portions
thereof. The nave was extended to the east and the new altar that was built occupied the
entire area up to the older enclosure wall. The builders strove to incorporate the ruin of
the latter into the foundation of the altar, which produced a visible decentring of the
eastern side.
From a technical standpoint, this second stage is characterized by an elevation
composed of stone mixed with brick, bound with grey lime-sand mortar. In the masonry
structure, the elevation features recesses of variable thickness and its foundation base
was seated, without exception, on the rock, following its dislevelments, which had as a
consequence extremely unequal depths, as we also ascertained in the case of the old

archologischen Untersuchungen auf dem Martinsberg in Kronstadt, Forschungen 59 (2016), in print.

25
Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germani, 165.

121
church. Where the rock was located at small depths, the builders tried to compensate for
this shortcoming by widening the foundations whose recess reached 0.60 m. The
southern side of the choir has an erratic recess, both horizontally and vertically.
With these transformations, the church almost doubled its area, occupying
practically the entire medieval enclosure. Subsequently a vestry was built, being placed,
in a less customary manner, also on the southern side. The distinction between the
secular and the profane space was maintained thus during the modern era.
A large community had probably already developed on the Hill of St Martin,
needing now a larger church. Its main function in the period seems to have been
funerary. The entire church became a kind of crypt: numerous burials occupied the whole
area inside, stacked in multiple layers; hence, the latest coffins surface as soon as the
floor is dismantled. A remarkable feature of this cemetery is that the wooden coffins and
the garments inside them have been preserved exceptionally well. A few coffin lids have
preserved inside inscriptions painted with the names of the deceased, their year of birth
and death, sometimes with other literary additions. 26
Conclusion. Recent archaeological investigations have brought new information relating
to the medieval history of the church on the Hill of St Martin. The stratigraphic
situations, the built structures and, above all, the archaeological objects have confirmed
that the church was in operation during the last decades of the 14th century. Older
vestiges have not been unearthed, so the hypothesis of an earlier dating, possibly even in
the 13th century, remains to be verified. The church had a relatively small size: a 16.80 m
long nave and a recessed altar, probably of semicircular shape, from which we have
found no trace. It is likely that the total length did not exceed 20 m for a width of about 8
m. Perhaps this is why it is most commonly referred to as a chapel.
It was surprising that there are only a few possibly medieval burials around the
church, located on the western and southern sides. On the northern side was a household
sector with storage pits, instead of a cemetery that the status of a parish church would
have demanded. It is also interesting that all the additions made to the church were
placed on the southern side: a chamber or a set of chambers already in existence in
around the year 1500 were built roughly in the median area of the nave, communicating
with it through a portal with a Renaissance frame. Even later, in around 1800, a vestry
that was added to the sanctuary was also placed on the southern side, complying with a
topography of medieval extraction.
All these observations show that the church was placed from the outset on the
southern side of a medieval enclosure, forming an ensemble with other buildings, the
most important of which was located on the site of the present-day parsonage. In this
context, it is evident that the place of worship was intended for a small community, most
likely a seigneurial residence, which corresponds, in fact, with most of the suggestions
that we can unravel from the few testimonies of those times and with the local tradition.27

26
Marcu Istrate, Biserica evanghelic Sfntul Martin, 19.
27
Binder, Unde a ncheiat Mircea cel Btrn, acc. to note 22, 6465.

122
 Pl. 1: St Martins Church and the parsonage in around 1900.
Historical photo from the archive of the Gundelsheim Transylvanian Institute

Pl. 2: St Martins Church and the parsonage today

123
124
Pl. 3: The northern and western faades of the church, restoration proposal (arch. Fekete Mrta)
125
Pl. 4: The general layout of the church and the archaeological excavations
 Pl. 5: The southern faade seen from the cemetery

Pl. 6: The foundations of the extensions from the modern era:

the southern wall (left) and the vestry (centre)

126
a.

b.

Pl. 7. a: The northern faade, masonry detail with the plinth made of stone blocks
b. the foundations of the northern and western walls

127
a.

b.

Pl. 8: General overview of the southern side of the church and the ruins of the
disappeared buildings: a: view from the east and b: view from the west.

128
 a.

b.

Pl. 9. a: The foundation of the southern wall of the church (centre) and
b: the foundation of the dilapidated building (left).

129
 a.

b.

Pl. 10: Image from the time of the excavations, in the western part of the church,
underneath the pews: a. overview and b. detail of the western portal.

130
 The Southern Transylvania in the 13th century, a Border between Catholic Space
and Non-Catholic Space

MARIA CRNGACI IPLIC1

IOAN MARIAN IPLIC2

Abstract: The territorial expansion of the orders and of the colonization with western guests / of
the Saxon and Szekler colonizers and the architectural configurations they adopted and
disseminated is very clearly delimited in the 13th century religious landscape of southern
Transylvania and in the topography of the Catholic Romanesque churches in the area. These
Catholic churches built in a Romanesque style, the cemeteries that surround them, the discovery
of some liturgical vessels that are specific to a Catholic population that used such goods are all
part of a clear borderline between the Catholic and the non-Catholic areas. They are placed on
the southern line of the royal land / fundus regius / of the Seven Seats, delimited to a significant
extent by the natural frontier of the Olt River (see the map 1 and 2). The contrast is even more
evident if we consider the fact that at the end of the 12 th and the beginning of the 13th centuries
that fundus regius / Saxon territory became a stable and efficient military and religious frontier,
having its center at Sibiu (see the map 1), as well as Brsa Land from the second half of the 13 th
century, with its center at Braov (see the map 2). From the point of view of the ecclesiastic
landscape, the densest network of Catholic parish churches dating around 1200 can be found in
southern Transylvania, surrounding Sibiu, a colonized area with western guests, where the
largest Romanesque basilicas are to be found (Sibiu, Cisndie, Cristian). Starting from the fourth
decade of the 13th century, the monastic activities, as well as the activities of the building sites in
the urban centers contributed to the spread and generalization of the stone architecture in the
rural areas. Furthermore, this density grow of the network is to be remarked especially around
future cities (Braov, Media, Sebe). If during the second half of the 12 th century and the first
half of the 13th century the network of Catholic parish churches is not yet well developed, starting
from the second half of the 13th century, especially following the Mongol invasion, this network is
enriched and a generalization of the stone architecture in the rural areas is first remarked in the
villages nearby the county centers (see the map 2).
The dense network of Catholic Romanesque churches in southern Transylvania in the 13 th
century, as well as the establishment of the two Cistercian monasteries, the two
Premonstratensian ones and the distribution of the Dominican monasteries, followed by the
Franciscan ones starting from the fifth decade of the 13 th century prove once more that southern
Transylvania was religiously a well-defined area, part of the eastern limes of Christianitas, one of
the most powerful border segments of western Christianity.
Keywords: churchyard cemeteries, medieval churches, Transylvania, the 12th and 13th centuries,
religious landscape

This work was supported by CNCSIS UEFISCDI research project number PN-II-IDE-PCE-2011-03-0744:
South Transylvanian Medieval Monuments: Past, Present, Future. Between Archaeology, History and 3D
Modelling.
1
Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sibiu, Bd. Victoriei Boulevard 40, 550024 Sibiu, Romania,
mariatiplic@icsusib.ro, www.arhin.ro, www.icsusib.ro.
2
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, Bd. Victoriei 57, 550024
Sibiu, Romania; email: ioan-marian.tiplic@ulbsibiu.ro, www.arhin.ro.

131
Geographic references. In the 13th century, a significant part of the south-east border of
the Arpadian Kingdom3 set along the Sub Carpathians and Southern Carpathians,4 a
mountain region characterized by high peaks and massive mountains (with an altitude of
18002000 m) and which neighbours the Transylvanian depression.5 This mountain region
of approx. 500 km is sectioned in several gatespassing valleys: Oituz Valley, Tabla
Buii Valley, Rucr-Bran Valley, Oltului Valley (Turnul Rou Valley), Jiu-Strei Plateau
Valley (Lainici Valley), Timi-Cerna Valleywhich make the connection between
Southern Transylvania, Northern Oltenia and Northern Muntenia6 (see the map 1).
In the southern part of the Transylvanian Plateau and the northern part of the
mountain chain mentioned before, there is a chain of clearly defined depressions: Braov
Basin, Fgra Basin, Sibiu Basin, Slite Basin, Sebe Basin, Mure-Haeg valley (or
Ortie-Haeg), and Haeg Basin. Over the years, these geographical units united
historically, creating the regions: Brsa Land, Fgra Land, Sibiu Land, Slite Chair
(Mrginime), Sebe Chair (Unterwald / The Land under the Forest) Ortie Chair, and
Haeg Land. As a counterpart of the valleys mentioned, in the south of the Southern
Carpathians and the Sub Carpathians delimited by Getici Nappes and Sub-Carpathians
Nappes, there are located two rows of valleys, the first sub-mountainous and the second
hillock, which is a distinctive feature of both Getici Nappes, the Getic Plateau and
Subcarpathians Nappes; the most important valleys are Trgu Jiu-Cmpu Mare, Jiblea
(river Olt), Arefu, Arge and Cmpulung (Muscel),7 micro-regions naturally demarcated
and protected, which according to the methodology initiated by Radu Popa for the Land
of Maramure and Haeg,8 in the 13th century they could be identified in documents9 with

3
Geographically, the south- east part of the Hungarian kingdom in 13th century was from northern Bosnia to
Sub Carpathians, covering around 1000 km. In terms of policy and development directions of the 13 th
century of the Hungarian kingdom in the Carpathian-Balkan we mention here only erban Papacostea,
Romnii n secolul al XIII-lea. ntre cruciat i imperiul mongol (Bucureti: Enciclopedic, 1993); erban
Turcu, Sfntul Scaun i romnii n secolul al XIII-lea (Bucureti: Enciclopedic, 2001); Pl Engel, Regatul
Sfntului tefan. Istoria Ungariei medievale (8951526) (Cluj-Napoca: Mega, 2006), the English edition Pl
Engel, The Realm of St Stephen. A History of Medieval Hungary, 8951526 (London-New-York, 2001);
Viorel Achim, Politica sud-estic a regatului ungar sub ultimii Arpadieni (Bucureti: Enciclopedic, 2008).
4
Based on studies of toponymy, endorsements documentary and archaeological findings there were
identified five stages of development of Arpadian kingdom from western borders to the east and south-
eastern Transylvania; changes that took place chronologically between 9001200. In the fourth stage, during
the reign of King Geza II (11411162), the Hungarian kingdoms borders touched the Olt line and the south-
eastern Transylvania, and in the last phase, dated around 1200, the boundaries were up to the Eastern and
Southern Carpathians, according to: K[urt] Horedt, Contribuii la istoria Transilvaniei n secolele IVXIII
(Bucureti: Academia R. P. R., 1958), 109131; Adrian Ioni et alii, Feldioara Marienburg. Contribuii
arheologice la istoria rii Brsei. Archologische Beitrge zur Geschichte des Burzenlandes (Bucureti:
Academia Romn, 2004), 5659; Ioan Marian iplic, Organizarea defensiv a Transilvaniei n Evul Mediu
(secolele XXIV) (Bucureti: Militar, 2006), 101178.
5
In professional literature, we frequently find it named as the Transylvanian Plateau.
6
Enciclopedia geografic a Romniei, coord. Grigore Posea (Bucureti: tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1982), 3042.
7
Ibid.
8
It is about the reconstruction of the initial structure in a regressive manner, through historical and
archaeological research, through studies of toponymy, and chronological analysis, ethno-sociological studies,
anthropology, linguistics etc., see Radu Popa, ara Maramureului n secolul al XIV-lea (Bucureti:
Academia R. S. R., 1970); Radu Popa, Premisele cristalizrii vieii statale romneti, in Constituirea
statelor feudale romneti, coord. Nicolae Stoicescu (Bucureti: Academia R. S. R., 1980), 2627; Radu
Popa, La nceputurile evului mediu romnesc. ara Haegului (Bucureti: tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1988).
9
We are pointing here the famous Diploma of the Knights Hospitaller, from 2 nd of June 1247 [full text both
in Romanian and Latin is found in: Documenta Romaniae Historica, D. Relaii ntre rile Romne, vol. I
(12221456) (Bucureti: Academia R. S. R., 1977), 2128, no. 10 (hereafter: DRH. D)], which represents a
contract between the king of Hungary, Bela IV and the Joannites, through which the latter were to obtain,

132
The Land of Litovoi Voivode (Trgu Jiu-Capu Mare Valley / Northern Oltenia), The
Land of Frca (Vlcea-Jiblea area), The Land of Ioan (neighbouring that of Frca) and
The Land of Seneslau, the Voivode of Romanians (northern Muntenia: Arefu, Arge, and
Cmpulung areas); the southern exterior of the Carpathians belongs to a part of
Cumania.10 This short geographical characterization was presented in order to clarify that
in historiography some Romanian political entities (forests, knezat territory, lands and
Voivodeship) were mentioned in the 13th century along the Southern Carpathians which
also spread their authority over both sides of the mountains; the existence of these
relationships is found in the Romanian history frequently through the chronicle chart of
the so-called dismounting.11
Source Editions and Historiography. For the 13th century and the area
presented above, mainly for the first part of the 13th century, there is a small amount of
written resources,12 the main ones being the documents issued by the Chancellors of

under some conditions, besides possessions, the entire country of Severin together with is mountains which
belong to it and all the other belongings, as well as the lands of Ioan and Farca, up to Olt River; besides the
Land of Litovoi, whom we leave to Romanians; regarding the land of Litovoi, called terra Litua, the
Knights of St John were allowed to take half of all income and things of that are gathering on behalf of the
King from the Romanians living in the Litua Land, apart from the Haeg Land those related to it; the
Voivode of Litovoi dominion extended, therefore, on both sides of the Carpathian Mountains, namely in
northern Oltenia and Haeg, which was in the interior of Carpathian mountains (Popa, ara Haegului, 249
256). In addition the Knights also received all Cumania from Olt river and mountains of Transylvania,
under the same duties as shown above for the country Severinapart from the country's Seneslau, the
Voivode of Romanians, to whom we left it, as they possessed it until nowand fully in all those duties,
appointed above, on land Litua; Cumania also extended to the Sub Carpathians on both sides comprising
under its authority also the Land of Brsa [Sergiu Iosipescu, Romnii din Carpaii Meridionali la Dunrea
de Jos de la invazia mongol (12411243) pn la consolidarea domniei a toat ara Romneasc. Rzboiul
victorios purtat la 1330 mpotriva cotropirii ungare, in Constituirea statelor feudale romneti, 4244; Ioan-
Aurel Pop, Noi comentarii asupra diplomei cavalerilor ioanii (1247) i a contextului emiterii sale, in
Romnii n Europa medieval (ntre Orientul Bizantin i Occidentul Latin). Studii n onoarea profesorului
Victor Spinei, vol. ngr. de Dumitru eicu, Ionel Cndea (Brila: Istros, 2008), 225242].
10
The geographical identification of lands and of Cumania mentioned in the famous Diploma of the Knights
Hospitaller, from the 2nd June 1247, provoked a long historiographical dispute, the bibliography on this
subject being huge; we remind here only some of the most important: Iosipescu, Romnii din Carpaii
Meridionali, 4195; Maria Holban, Din cronica relaiilor romne-ungare n secolele XIIIXIV (Bucureti:
Academia R. S. R., 1981), 989; Popa, ara Haegului, 265285; Papacostea, Romnii n secolul al XIII-lea,
passim; Achim, Politica sud-estic, 49154;Victor Spinei, Episcopia Cumanilor. Coordonate evolutive,
Arheologia Moldovei 30 (2007): 137180; Pop, Noi comentarii asupra diplomei cavalerilor ioanii (1247);
Ioan-Aurel Pop, Sorin ipo, Silviu Dragomir i dosarul Diplomei cavalerilor ioanii (Cluj-Napoca:
Academia Romn, Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2009).
11
Popa, Premisele cristalizrii, 2627; see also Gheorghe Brtianu, Tradiia istoric despre ntemeierea
statelor romneti, ed. ngr., studiu introductiv i note de V. Rpeanu (Bucureti: Eminescu, 1980), 85152;
Iosipescu, Romnii din Carpaii Meridionali; Nicolae Stoicescu, Desclecat sau ntemeiere? O veche
preocupare a istoriografiei romneti. Legend i adevr istoric, in Constituirea statelor feudale romneti,
97164.
12
We will list here the main collection of documents published by the Romanian historiography: Documente
privitoare la istoria romnilor, culese de Eudoxiu de Hurmuzachi, vol. I: 11991345, culese i nsoite de
note i variante de Nic. Densueanu (Bucureti, 1887); Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte der Deutschen in
Siebenbrgen, Erster Band: 11911342, ed. Franz Zimmermann, and Carl Werner (Hermannstadt, 1892);
Izvoarele istoriei Romnilor, vol. IXV, trad. de G. Popa-Lisseanu (Bucureti, Iai, 19341939); Documente
privind istoria Romniei. C. Transilvania, veacul XI, XII i XIII, vol. I: 10751250 (Bucureti: Academia R.
P. R., 1951); Documente privind istoria Romniei. C. Transilvania, veacul XIII, vol. II: 12511300
(Bucureti: Academia R. S. R., 1952); DRH. D, vol. I; Fontes Historiae Daco-Romanae. Izvoarele istoriei
Romniei, III: Scriptores Byzantini saec. XIXIV, ed. Alexandru Elian et Nicolae erban Tanaoca
(Bucureti: Academia R. S. R., 1975); Fontes Historiae Daco-Romanae. Izvoarele istoriei Romniei, IV:
Scriptores et acta Imperii Byzantini saec. IVXV, ed. Haralambie Mihescu et. alii (Bucureti: Academia R.

133
Hungarian Kingdom and Papal Authority; the chroniclesbe them byzantine, Latino-
Magyar, Slavic, Occidental or Arabic-Persian that had detailed information about the
political, military and religious organization of the people that lived in the area
(Romanians, Magyar, Slavs, Hungarians, Germans / Saxons, Petschenegs, Cumans etc.)
were even fewer.13
Although the documentary sources for the geographical and chronological
boundaries in question are all published, a number of interpretations were produced
based on them, which in turn have generated an entire historiography that is proficient on
the subjects about the history of Romanians in the 10th14th centuries, Romanian and
Turanics, Magyar and Saxon colonization in Transylvania or origins / genesis and
formation of Romanian feudal states. The chance of reconstructing the historic and
religious context, the material and spiritual culture of the population that lived on both
sides of the Carpathians in the 12th and 13th centuries,14 could bring new information
remains, predominantly, to archaeological and field research. It is shown that in the south
of the Carpathians, archaeological findings from the 12th13th centuries are very few in
number compared to other historical periods or other geographical areas.15 Instead, the
investigation of archaeological research undertaken along the northern slope of the
Southern Carpathians is more advanced; for some of the geographical units mentioned
research directions were initiated decades ago and they have made a number of
clarifications and highlights about the historical habitat of those units where Romanian
medieval lands, Szekler and Saxons Seats developed.16 Moreover as far as the current
state of archaeological research allows, despite the fact that a common conclusion
concerning homogenization or standardization of material culture was reached, there is a
tendency of agreeing on ethnical differentiations, though communities of people
(Romanian, Szekler, Hungarians, Germans, Slavs, Cumans, Petschenegs, etc.) who lived
in the regions mentioned and who have created individually regional medieval

S. R., 1982); Codex Diplomaticus Transsylvaniae. Diplomata, epistolae et alia instrumenta litteraria res
Transsylvanas illustrantia I. 10231300, ed. Zsigmond Jak (Budapest: Akadmiai, 1997).
13
In this respect, we will list here, the most important studies: Aurel Decei, Relaii romno-orientale.
Culegere de studii (Bucureti: tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1978), 15117, 193208; Adolf Armbruster,
Romanitatea romnilor istoria unei idei, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit (Bucureti: Enciclopedic, 1993),
1751; Francisc Pall, Diplomatica latin din Transilvania medieval, ediie ngrijit i studiu introductiv de
Ionu Costea (Cluj-Napoca: Argonaut, 2005), passim; Victor Spinei, Cronicari italieni despre repercusiunile
marii invazii mongole din 12411242 asupra romnilor, SMIM 19 (2001): 169206.
14
In this study, we do not intend to talk about the most controversial problem of the origins and development
of the feudal Romanian state which generated a huge amount of bibliography, among the last studies with
their bibliography we mention: erban Papacostea, Prima unire romneasc: voievodatul de Arge i ara
Severin, SMIM 27 (2010): 924.
15
The best synthesis on the centuries discussed here, which has also some objective and realistic
interpretations belongs to Adrian Ioni, Spaiul dintre Carpaii Meridionali i Dunrea Inferioar n
secolele XIXIII (Bucureti: Academia Romn, 2005), passim.
16
Popa, ara Haegului; Thomas Ngler, Amlaul i Fgraul. De la feude ale rii Romneti la teritorii
administrate de sai, Anuarul Institutului de Cercetri Socio-Umane Sibiu 1 (1994): 4355; Dumitru eicu,
Banatul montan n evul mediu (Timioara: Banatica, 1998); Antal Lukcs, ara Fgraului n Evul Mediu
(secolele XIIIXVI) (Bucureti: Enciclopedic, 1999); Elek Benk, Mittelalterliche archologische Funde
im Szeklerland, in Die Szekler in Siebenbrgen. Von der privilegierten Sondergemeinschaft zur ethnischen
Gruppe, unter Mitarbeit von Paul Niedermaier und Gabriella Olasz, hrsg. von Harald Roht (Kln, Weimar,
Wien: Bhlau, 2009), 1343; Adrian Ioni, Grupuri de colonizri reflectate arheologic n Transilvania
secolului al XII-lea, in ntre step i imperiu. Studii n onoarea lui Radu Harhoiu, vol. ngr. de Andrei
Mgureanu, Erwin Gll (Bucureti: Renaissance, 2010), 391402; Maria Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii
germani n sudul Transilvaniei. Istorie, arheologie i arhitectur (secolele XIIXIII) (Bucureti: Academia
Romn, 2011), 66135.

134
civilization, which, if analysed comparatively, can distinguish, within certain limits,
characteristics, cultural and spiritual differences. We are in a geographic area where at
least three civilizations are intersected: the Western, Byzantine / south of the Danube and
the Steppe.17
We want to outline this intersection of different worlds only in terms of the
characteristics of the religious landscape or presence or absence of a particular complex
of churches, churches with cemeteries, and cemeteries, and partly in terms of material
religious culture (liturgical vestments, books, bells, ornaments, pottery decorated with
religious motifs, objects of pilgrimage, engolpions, etc.). Since the subject is one of great
interest in Europe, in the Romanian historiography there was no special study on the
analysis and characterization of the comparative religious landscape (ecclesiastical
landscape) or network of parish churches and cemeteries around them, density,
distribution and their role in the region. Existing approaches in the literature, which can
be found in the footnotes, are dedicated to a specific area only from the perspective of
the political-military and case studies18 from the perspective of developing the
architectural forms of ecclesiastical edifices19 and less in terms of military20 or religious21
boundaries / borders. Research of the southeast Hungarian Arpadian Kingdom,
respectively Transylvania as border of Christianitas was addressed only theoretically, in
the tradition of cultural-historical approaches22 and less or not at all through the
methodology applied in landscape archaeology and reconstruction of the landscape
through the method of Geographic Information System (GIS).
Owing to the progress of archaeology in recent decades, especially to the
medieval churches archaeology, even with the limits that are imposed currently by the
state of archaeological research using processual methods, we can still achieve some
characterizations and we can outline the differences and peculiarities of the religious
landscape, which emerged and developed through the contact between different
populations with different spiritual requirements, from the Catholic space, namely
Christian-Catholic civilization and non-Catholic space, namely Orthodox Christian

17
Victor Spinei, one of the best specialists in the history of the Middle Ages, characterized the eastern area
of the Eastern Carpathians, Moldova, in a very suggestive way: The territory of Moldova is not intended as
a geographical entity where they conducted isolated and independent phenomena, but rather as a region with
continuous contact with the outside world, area of ethnic-cultural coexistence, located in an inseparable link
with the other Romanian regions and multiple relationships with large areas in Eastern, Southern and Central
Europe, neighbours that have not determined a slow and rectilinear evolution, but one whose pace was
sometimes accelerated or delayed from different causes [Victor Spinei, Moldova n secolele XIXIV
(Chiinu: Universitas, 1992), 16].
18
We will cite here the most recent published papers Generalprobe Burzenland. Neue Forschungen zur
Geschichte des Deutschen Ordens in Siebenbrgen und im Banat (Siebenbrgischen Archiv, 42), ed. Konrad
Gndisch (Kln, Weimar, Wien: Bhlau, 2013).
19
Virgil Vtianu, Istoria artei feudale n rile romne, vol. I (Bucureti: Academia R. P. R., 1959); Virgil
Vtianu, Studii de art veche romneasc i universal (Bucureti: Meridiane, 1987); Rzvan Teodorescu,
Bizan, Balcani, Occident la nceputurile culturii medievale romneti (Bucureti: Academia R. S. R., 1974),
130348.
20
The research of the military or political borders of Transylvaniathe south-eastern borders of the Hungarian
Kingdom settled on natural obstacles (Carpathian Mountains) in the Middle Ages, see Constantin Rezachevici,
Istoria popoarelor vecine i neamul romnesc n evul mediu, (Bucureti: Albatros, 1998), 32were only
theoretically settled, see Ioan Marian iplic, Hotar, grani i / sau frontier n evul mediu timpuriu, Acta
Terrae Septemcastrensis 2 (2003): 155165, and less in the perspective of landscape reconstruction by modern
methods, such as non-invasive land research, space analysis, digital cartography etc.
21
Turcu, Sfntul Scaun, 132145, 251276, 284310.
22
Ibid.; Achim, Politica sud-estic, 1925.

135
civilization and civilization of pagans.
In the following pages, the manner of approaching the subject will be a
benchmarking and a contrastive analysis, on the geographical segment given, which will
highlight the major differences and antithetical phenomena in terms of the religious
landscape,23 namely between Catholic and non-Catholic areas. Although the 13th century
was discussed both from historical, architectural and in a certain grade from the
archaeological perspectives, the comparative research method of the archaeological
landscape and religious landscape of the two geographical areasnamely southern
Transylvania representing a part of the border with southeast Arpadian Kingdom and
northern Oltenia and Muntenia, which were successively under Cumanian domination,
domination from the south of the Danube, Hungarian and Mongolian dominationcan
provide valuable information on the cultural and spiritual needs of the diverse population
who lived in the area.
In recent decades, in historiography a theory regarding the politics of Arpadian
kings was generalized, especially concerning the reigns of King Andrew II and Bela IV,
politics of territorial expansion of the Hungarian kingdom in the space of Carpathian and
Balkan territory, policy that was moulded on the policy of the papacy regarding the
ecclesiastical and spiritual conquest; the tools used to develop this policy were analysed
in detail. Referring strictly to the area of southern Transylvania, which, since the second
half of the 12th century and the first decades of the 13th century, was stated both as a
border area for the Hungarian kingdom and as peripheral area of the expansion of the
Roman Catholic Church in south-eastern Europeknown in literature as Christianitas
border.24 The tools by which they operated: military orders (order of the Teutonic
knights from 1211 to 1225,25 the alleged presence of the knights of St John, 124726),
Catholic religious orders (premonstratensian monasteries certified in Sibiu and Brasov27
in 12341235; the Cistercians founded the monastery of Cra sometime between 1205
and 120628 and possibly in Braov between 12021228;29 the first Dominican
monasteries in Transylvania before the Mongol invasion are present in Sibiu and
possibly in Alba Iulia, and until 1303 the ones from Bistria, Sighioara, Vinu de Jos and
possibly Odorheiul Secuiesc30 were founded; the Franciscans are certified in 1268 in

23
The landscape archaeology is a very new branch of research in Romania, and the findings in the field are
mainly focused on antique sites. For the Middle Ages, this research direction has just been established [see the
synthesis paper of Paul Niedermaier, Habitatul medieval n Transilvania (Bucureti: Academia Romn,
2012)], the few interdisciplinary projects are just monographic and in progress, see Dorel Micle, Cenadul n
contextul geografiei istorice. O analiz a evoluiei condiiilor de habitat, in Filosofia Sfntului Gerard de
Cenad n contextul cultural i biografic, coord. Claudiu Mesaro (Szeged: Jate Press, 2013), 158173; Florin
Mrginean, Locuire i neaezare la Mureul de jos n vremea arpadienilor, Transilvania 34 (2015): 4044.
24
Turcu, Sfntul Scaun, 132145.
25
Harald Zimmermann, Der Deutsche Orden im Burzenland. Eine diplomagtische Untersuchung (Studia
Transylvanica, Bd. 26) (Kln, Weimar, Wien: Bhlau, 2000); Generalprobe Burzenland.
26
Pop, ipo, Silviu Dragomir i dosarul Diplomei cavalerilor ioanii, cu bibliografia.
27
EO I, 180, no. 176.
28
Dan Nicolae Busuioc-von Hasselbach, ara Fgraului n secolul al XIII-lea. Mnstirea cistercian
Cra, vol. III (Cluj-Napoca: Centrul de Studii transilvane, 2000).
29
Dicionarul mnstirilor din Transilvania, Banat, Criana i Maramure, coord. A. A. Rusu (Cluj-Napoca:
Presa Universitar Clujean, 2000), 80; see another hypothesis at Dana Jenei, Construcii succesive pe locul
liceului Johannes Honterus din Braov. Capela Sf. Ecaterina, in In honorem Gernot Nussbcher, vol. ngr. de
Daniel Nazare, Ruxandra Nazare i Bogdan Fl. Popovici (Braov: editura Foton, 2004), 401403.
30
Mihaela Sanda Salontai, Mnstiri dominicane din Transilvania (Cluj-Napoca: Nereania Napocae, 2002),
5083. The Dominican monasteries of Sebe, Braov and Cluj were founded after the second decade of 16th
century (Ibid.).

136
Bistria and in 1300 in Sibiu31), and the German32 and Szekler33 colonization were
conducted on the south-eastern border of the Hungarian kingdom.
For strengthening the conquered territories and for the guard of the territories in
southern Transylvania, the royalty trained Romanians and Petschenegs whose
settlements were under the mountain and foothill valleys on both sides of the
Carpathians. Following this defensive organization, some buffer zones or border marks
were created. These were defined geographically by the mountain ranges of the
Carpathians and the valleys strung along both sides of the Carpathians. They were
constituted in a homogeneous and dense group of Romanians;34 later on, these areas
inhabited by Romanians, those Romanian countries from the edges of Transylvania,
will be embedded in the structures of the administrative-political kingdom (Haeg Land,
Maramure Land, Romanian districts from Mountainous Banat),35 and others will be
transformed for a period of time in fiefs / duchies of Wallachian rulers (Land of Fgra,
Land of Amla).36

As it is known, 12th and 13th centuries are documented relatively incompletely, leaving
space for different assumptions and reconstructions, however, a feature / common
conclusion that emerges from both documents and historical / archaeological studies is
obvious: the ethnic structure of the population in southern Transylvania and their
religious affiliationSaxon,37 Romanian, Petschenegs and Szeklerare suggestively
described in several documents in the late 12th century and early 13th century,38 among
which the most important ones are:
A. The document from December 20, 1191 is the one that certifies the
establishment by King Bella III (11711196) of a German church in Transylvania and its
organization as a free entity, namely in a provostship (ecclesia Theutonicorum
Ultrasilvanorum in praeposituram sit liberam istitutam39) firstly subordinated to the
Papal authority and then to the Archbishopric of Esztergom (Strigonium);40 at the time of
its creation, an event that supposedly happened in the summer of 1189 or in 1190, the
entity of Sibiu encompassed the future territories of Sibiu, Nocrich, Cincu and Rupea,

31
Mihaela Sanda Salontai, Biserici medievale ale ordinelor ceretoare din Transilvania, in Art
romneasc, art european. Centenar Virgil Vtianu, coord. Marius Porumb, Aurel Chiriac (Oradea:
Muzeul rii Criurilor, 2002), 5168.
32
Thomas Ngler, Aezarea sailor n Transilvania (Bucureti: Kriterion, 1992), the German version
Thomas Ngler, Die Ansiedlung der Siebenbrger Sachsen (Bukarest: Kriterion, 1979); Crngaci iplic,
Oaspeii germani, passim.
33
Benk, Mittelalterliche archologische Funde, 1343; Ioni, Grupuri de colonizri, 391402.
34
Radu Popa, Caransebe i districtul su romnesc n secolele XXIV, SCIVA 40, 4 (1989): 353370.
35
Radu Popa proved the evolution of Romanian habitats in the Haeg Land and the Maramure Land from
the administrative and juridical point of view in the Hungarian Kingdom, from the status of forest / royal
hunting place (silva / silva regis) to that of land (terra) and then that of County, transformed afterward
in district (Popa, ara Haegului, 188198; Popa, ara Maramureului, 168181).
36
Ioan Moga, Marginea. Ducatul Amlaului i scaunul Slitei, in Ioan Moga, Scrieri istorice 19261946
(Cluj: editura Dacia, 1973), 5688; Ngler, Amlaul i Fgraul, 4354; Lukcs, ara Fgraului, 149196.
37
We use here the generic term of Saxon for the accidental colonists settled in Transylvania, who had the
status of hospites, even if in documents they can be found as Flandrenses, Theutonici, Saxones, and
Latini.
38
We want to highlight the fact that besides the four people documented in the south of Transylvania, the
archaeological studies, toponymy and anthroponomy studies have identified also groups of Slavs, Magyars,
and other Turanians.
39
Ub. I, 12, no. 1; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, vol. I, 11, no. 18; EO I, 129, no. 21.
40
Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germani, 4750

137
and territory in the north of the Olt river and Sibiu valley. This ecclesiastical
organization overlapped in a proportion of about 70% the administrative-political-legal
organization, the county of Sibiu, documented since 1224 and it supposed the existence
of some ecclesiastical construction and a network of Catholic parisheswe mention here
churches that are dated architecturally and archaeologically in the second half of the 12 th
century and the first decades of the 13th century: Ortie, Zlatna, Cricu, Sebe,
Grbovacetate, Cristian (jud. Sibiu), ura-Mic, Ocna-Sibiului, Turnior, Sibiu,
Hamba, Guteria, elimbr, Cisndie, Cisndioara, Caol, Daia, Roia, Scdate (?),
Vurpr, Axente Sever, Media (?), Mona (?), Sighioara Biserica din Deal, Bruiu,
Cincu, Rodbav, Viscri, Drueni; another document suggesting in this area a network of
Catholic parish churches is the document in the late 12th century (December 14, 1199)
reminiscent of Flandrenses Priests (Flandrenses sacerdotes), and for the first half of the
13th century, the few documents from 1223,41 123542 and 124043 support a very small
percentage the existence of Romanesque churches certified architecturally and / or
archaeologically (see the map 1).
B. In a royal diploma from June 23, 125044 there are mentioned a part of the
military actions of the comes of Sibiu, Iwachinus, the son of comes Beche, including the
action from 1210, when Iwachinus is appointed by King Andrew II commander of the
army (ductorem exercitus) for the military campaign against Bulgarian Vidin, at the
request of aid of Tsar Asan Boril; for this military expedition, the comes of Sibiu,

41
The year of 1223 represents the first concrete document about the existence of a church in the territory of
German colonization and it is the church of Sibiu (Zebeniensis ecclesia), whose Romanesque ruins were
recently discovered inside the Gothic church of Huet Square (archaeological research conducted by Maria
Emilia iplic and Ioan Marian iplic) and the famous Romanesque church of Cisndioara, whose
Romanesque design remained unchanged; according to the document from 1223 Mount St Michael in
Transylvania with the church and the land that belongs to him (monte sancti Michaelis cum ecclesia et terra
sibi pertinente) was in turn owned by the church of Sibiu, the Walloon cleric magister Gocelinus and then by
the Cistercians of Cra (Ub. I, 2628, no. 38; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, vol. I, 199200, no. 145; EO I,
158159, no. 125).
42
In 1335 a group of German / French catholic priests from 6 villages in the south of Transylvania were
documented: Leon de Dubucha, Gotfridus de Aqua calida, Nicolaus de Cormosbach, Conradus de Venetiis,
Bernardus de Debran, Hermannus et Gerlacus sacerdotes de Sarcam. They refused to recognise the
authority of Bishop of Alba Iulia, as they were subordinated, according to the diocesan right, to the
archbishop of Strigoniu (Ub. I, 6264, no. 72; DIR. C, veacurile XI, XII i XIII, vol. I, 286287, no. 239; EO
I, 181, no. 180). After 1241 the catholic communities were no longer mentioned, as they were destroyed,
most probably, by the Mongol invasion from the spring of 1241. Because of this document, it is believed that
some Romanesque churches existed, but in the present state of the research, they were not identified in the
field.
43
According to the document in 1240, the diocese of Transylvania insistently claimed four churches from
Brsa Land (Feldioara, Snpetru, Hrman i Prejmer), which King Bela IV granted to the Cistercian Order
with all the rights and revenues (Ub. I, 6869, no. 76; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, vol. I, 319320, no.
267; EO I, 185, no. 190). On the other hand, the document certifies indirectly the constructive process of
churches with the presence of Catholic communities from Brsa, before the Mongol invasion and the
phenomenon of the spreading of Christian cemeteries in the 13th century (infra parochias seu territorium
dictarum eclesiarum nulla deinceps absque ipsorum consensu ecclesia vel capella de novo construatur nec
altaria erigantur nec coemeteria consecrentur). From an archaeological perspective, in the current state of
research in Brsa Land there are certified only two Christian cemeteries, the one from Feldioara and Braov
Black Church being dated in the second half of the 12th century and / or at the beginning of 13th century,
see Ioni et alii, Feldioara Marienburg, 2958; Daniela Marcu Istrate (coord.), Redescoperirea trecutului
medieval al Braovului: curtea Bisericii Negre = Unearthing medieval past of Braov: The Black Church
Yard (Cluj-Napoca: Mega, 2015), 175, 222.
44
DIR. C, veacurile XI, XII, i XIII, vol. I, 338, no. 292; DRH. D, 2829, no. 11; EO I, 212, no. 37;
Papacostea, Romnii n secolul al XIII-lea, 36, 65.

138
Iwachinus has gathered Saxon, Romanian, Petschenegs and Szeklers.45 The document
is one of the most important because it reveals the ethnic composition of southern
Transylvania, i.e. groups of people that defend the border of southern Transylvania,46 and
also because it mentions that on their way to Vidin an armed conflict on the river
Obotz was held against the three captains of Cumania. In the current state of
research for the period from the end of the 12th century to the beginning of the 13th
century, in terms of archaeological and religious landscape and in terms of the culture of
religious materials, three populations mentioned in documents can be distinguished very
clearly in territory:
a. Saxons are identified in more locations in southern Transylvania, their cemeteries
being located without exception around churches; the archaeological researches
identified cemeteries with anthropomorphic graves or so called graves with fosse
anthropomorphe belonging to the first wave of German guests who settled
here immediately after the second half of the 12th century (Ortie fortress, Alba
Iulia Romano-Catholic cathedral, Sebe Lutheran Church, Sighioara Church on
the Hill, Sighioara Biserica Mnstirii, Sighioara Dealul Viilor (?), Cisndie
tomb stone, Cricu Lutheran Church, Sibiu Huet Square, Drueni, Feldioara,
Media Lutheran Church, Mona Lutheran Church, Scdate church,)47 (see the
map 1). There are also cemeteries located around the church assigned to German
guests which were not identified with niche for head (see Caol,48 Ruja,49 Viscri?,50
Dealul Frumos?51); those churchesthe chapel components of noble residences,
where archaeological research has not identified cemeteriesbelong also to German
guests (see Cisndioara,52 Clnic,53 Prejmer?,54 Zlatna basilicas phase55); liturgical

45
associatis sibi Saxonibus, Olacis, Siculisa et Bissenis (Ibid.).
46
Regarding the communities of guardians of the borders see H. Gckenjan, Hilfsvlker und Grenzwchter
im mittelalterlichen Ungarn (Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte des stlichen Europa, 5) (Wiesbaden,
1972); Alexandru Madgearu, Romni i pecenegi n sudul Transilvaniei, in Relaii interetnice n
Transilvania (secolele VIXIII), coord. Zeno Karl Pinter, Ioan Marian iplic, Maria Emilia iplic (Bucureti:
Economic, 2005), 111120; iplic, Organizarea defensiv a Transilvaniei, 75178.
47
Adrian Ioni, Mormintele cu gropi antropomorfe din Transilvania i relaia lor cu primul val de
colonizare german, in Relaii interetnice n Transilvania, 217228; Daniela Marcu Istrate, Angel Istrate,
Morminte cu ni cefalic descoperite la Alba Iulia (sec. XIIXIII). Contribuii privind istoria oaspeilor
occidentali n Transilvania, in Relaii interetnice n Transilvania, 229244; Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii
germani, 121135. For the discussion regarding the assignment of several graves from Sighioara-Dealul
Viilor cemetery to Germans hospites or Szeklers see Radu Harhoiu, Adrian Ioni, Cercetri arheologice la
Sighioara Dealul Viilor, punctul necropol. Un tezaur monetar din secolul al XII-lea, in Studii n
onoarea profesorului Victor Spinei, 199223.
48
Ioan Marian iplic, Maria Emilia iplic, Beatrice Ciut, Iulian chiopu, Caol (Hermny, Kastenholz,
Kastnhults), com. Roia, jud. Sibiu. Punct: Dealul Bisericii, CCA. Campania 2008 (2009): 9192.
49
Maria E. Crngaci iplic, Zeno-Karl Pinter, Ioan-Marian iplic, Biserica evanghelic din Ruja. Studiu
istoric i arheologic, Arhitectura religioas 3 (2004): 183201.
50
Mariana Dumitrache, Evoluia cetii rneti de la Viscri, jud. Braov, n lumina cercetrilor
arheologice i de arhitectur, Cercetri arheologice 4 (1981): 253284.
51
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Delia M. Roman, Archaeological Data Concerning the History of the Evangelical
Church in Dealul Frumos, Sibiu County (sic!), MCA 7 (2011): 153172.
52
Radu Heitel, Das romanische Baudenkmal von Cisndioara (Michelsberg), Forschungen 17, 2 (1974): 4959.
53
Radu Heitel, Cetatea din Clnic (Bucureti: Meridiane, 1968); Marcel Nicolae Simina, Cetatea din Clnic
(jud. Alba) (Consideraii pe marginea cercetrii arheologice), Arheologia Medieval 3 (2000): 95115.
54
Daniela Marcu Istrate, Contribuii la istoria bisericii evanghelice i a cetii din Prejmer pe baza
spturilor arheologice realizate de Radu Heitel, Ars Transsilvaniae 21 (2011): 147148.
55
Gheorghe Petrov, Biserica Adormirea Maicii Domnului din Zlatna, jud. Alba, Arhitectura religioas 2
(2002): 123135.

139
 objects dating from the 12th and the 13th centuries were discovered mainly in the
territory of future Saxon chairs (the cross from the altar from Cisndie, the chalice
from Beriu, aqua manila from elimbr and Boarta, the fragment of corpus Christi
from Dobrca, the candlestick from Sibiu, the censer from eica Mare etc.); at this
stage, we must point out that such liturgical objects could have been in use in every
Catholic church in Transylvania, but for that period of time the Saxon settlers were
considered the major producers and consumers of such goods;56
b. Romanians were identified in Haeg Land; the church and cemetery around it from
Streisngeorgi, Strei (?) Peteana (?) Densu, Sarmisegetuza-Britonia were attributed
to them;57
c. Szeklers have been assigned with graves around the church of Grbova, 58 the first
phase of funerals around the single nave church in Drueni,59 Viscri (?);60 there is
another category of cemeteries that are grouped around churches that have been
assigned to the historiography of Szeklers61 (see the case of Zbala62 and Peteni63
cemeteries); churches and cemeteries have also been observed in other parts of
Transylvania, but what caught our attention is that for most of them only the cemetery
was identified, without the contemporary church, or only the church was identified, or
the church and cemetery, but without having a clearly defined dating relationship
between the two.64

56
Crngaci iplic, Oapseii germani, 98102.
57
Popa, ara Haegului, 62, 69, 8182, 225231; Eugenia Greceanu, O prezen de tradiie bizantin n
arhitectura romneasc de zid din ara Haegului n veacurile XIIXIII: monumentul de cult din Peteana,
jud. Hunedoara, Revista Muzeelor i Monumentelor. Monumente istorice i de art 17, 1 (1986): 6978;
Adrian Andrei Rusu, Biserica Sf. Nicolae i curtea nobiliar a Arcetilor de la Densu (jud. Hunedoara),
Arheologia medieval 7 (2008): 165. In the current state of research for the south of Transylvania, the
archaeological research have shown the presence of Romanian communities in 11th13th centuries only in the
case of Land of Haeg, and this fact was due to interdisciplinary research conducted by Radu Popa;
Unfortunately, due to poor archaeological research there can only be launch hypotheses for a partial
reconstitution of the habitat of the valleys found along the southern Transylvania: Brsa Land, Fgra Land,
Slite Chair/ Mrginime.
58
See the latest research on the subject: Elek Benk, A kzpkori szkelyek, in A kzpkor s a kora jkor
rgszete Magyarorszgon, I, editors Elek Benk, and Gyngyi Kovcs (Budapest, 2010), 221254; Benk,
Mittelalterliche archologische Funde, 1828 and Ioni, Grupuri de colonizri, 391400.
59
See the footnote 47.
60
See the footnote 50.
61
Ioni, Grupuri de colonizri, 396.
62
Zoltan Szkely, A zabolai (Zbala Romnia) kora-kzpkori temet, Veszprm Megyei Mzeumok
Kzlemnyei 1920 (19931994): 277305.
63
Zoltan Szkely, Elemente bizantine n inventarul necropolelor din sec. al XII-lea de la Zbala i Peteni,
jud. Covasna, Muzeul Naional 5 (1981): 137140; Zoltan Szkely, Necropola medieval de la Peteni
(com. Zbala, jud. Covasna), SCIVA 41, 1 (1990): 87110.
64
Moreti Citfalu: Horedt, Contribuii la istoria Transilvaniei, 5758; Kurt Horedt, Moreti 2.
Grabungen in einer mittelalterlichen Siedlung in Siebenbrgen, Bd. 2 (Bonn: Habelt, 1984), 5460;
Sncraiul de Mure(?): Kurt Horedt, Untersuchungen zur frhgeschichte Siebenbrgens (Bucureti, 1958),
145; Cristuru Secuiesc: Zoltn Szkely, Unele probleme ale cercetrii epocii feudale timpurii n sud-estul
Transilvaniei (sec. XXIII), Aluta 3 (1971): 150; Chilieni: Zoltn Szkely, Cimitirul i biserica din
feudalismul timpuriu de la Chilieni (ora Sf. Gheorghe, jud. Covasna), MCA 16 (1986): 215224;
Avrmeti, Crciunel, Mereti, Reci, Rugneti: Benk, Mittelalterliche archologische Funde, 1819;
Benk, A kzpkori szkelyek, 221254); Daia Secuiasc: Daniela Marcu, Biserica reformat de la
Daia, jud. Harghita. Cercetri arheologice, SCIVA 49, 2 (1998): 157180); Sntana de Mure: Daniela
Marcu Istrate, Gheorghe Petrov, Sntana de Mure, com. Sntana de Mure, jud. Mure. Punct: Biserica
reformat, CCA. Campania 2001 (2002), no. 200; Gheorghe Petrov, Daniela Marcu Istrate, Biserica
medieval din Sntana de Mure (jud. Mure). Contribuii arheologice la istoria monumentului, ActaMN

140
d. regarding the Petchenegs attested in the document, their clear archaeological field
identification cannot be determined in the southern part of Transylvania (their
presence is, however, evinced by some toponyms of a Turanian origin inherited to the
south of the Olt river, in Fgra Land65), but archaeologically they can be identified
to the Carpathians south;
e. the Cumans, the second Turanian group mentioned in the document, were identified
between the Southern Carpathians and the Lower Danube, more precisely in the part
called Muntenia, being archaeologically distinguished by horse-riders graves, which
were, however, also specific to the Petchenegs, and which disappeared starting from
the 13th century.66
With reference to the Petchenegs and the Cumans, their political and military
dominance can be determined mostly in Muntenia, where they resided, and to a lower
extent in Oltenia, where they are hard to trace archaeologically due to their equestrian
nomadism.67 As regards the religious landscape composition, the only optical reference
points are their tumuli graves placed, without exception, in a flat plain area, most often
near a watercourse. An important detail is the fact that this type of horse-riders graves
was only discovered in the plain area of Muntenia.68 There were no such tumuli horse-
riders graves from the 11th13th centuries discovered in the sub-Carpathian area of
Muntenia, the Curvature sub-Carpathians, Oltenia and Transylvania.69 In this
archaeological context, we need to evoke the conversion of the Cumans and the founding
of an episcopate in the Curvature sub-Carpathians in 1227.70 The process of
Christianization of the Cumans, which started at the beginning of the 13th century, lasted

3940, 2 (2005): 333344; Armeni: Daniela Marcu Istrate, Biserica romano-catolic din Armeni,
Arhitectura religioas 3 (2004): 165182; Istvan Botr, Armeni, com. Ciucsngeorgiu, jud. Harghita.
Punct biserica romano-catolic, CCA. Campania 2007 (2008): 4243; Joseni: Florin Gogltan, Andrea
Demjn, Joseni, com. Joseni, jud. Harghita. Punct: Biserica romano-catolic, CCA. Campania 2010
(2011): 193194); Jacodu: Zoltn Sos, Cercetri arheologice la biserica unitarian din Jacodu (jud.
Mure), Arheologia Medieval 6 (2007): 111128; Odorheiu Secuiesc-Sntimbru: Andrs Sfalvi, Zsolt
Nyrdi, Odorheiu Secuiesc, jud. Harghita. Punct: Pustiu Mic, CCA. Campania 2006 (2007): 245246;
umuleu Ciuc: Istvan Botr, rpd-kori Teleplsrszlet Csksomlyn, A Cski Szkely Mzeum
vknyve 10 (2014): 2946; Snmartin jud. Harghita (?): Istvan Botr, Adatok Cskszentmrton (R:
Snmartin) kzpkori trtnethez, A Cski Szkely Mzeum vknyve 1112 (2016): 927; Sntimbru
jud. Harghita: Zsolt Nyrdi, A perished medieval Settlement in Udvarhelyszk (Udvarhely Seat),
Marisia 32 (2012): 155192; Uliei: Andrs Sfalvi, Csongor Derzsi, Ulie, com. Ulie, jud. Harghita.
Punct: Biserica veche, CCA. Campania 2005 (2006): 380381; Lzarea (?), Cipu (?), Bra (?),
Sngeorgiu de Mure, Snvsii: Lszl Keve, Valea Mureului Superior n secolele XXIII, tez de
doctorat, Universitatea Lucian Blaga din Sibiu, (Sibiu, 2013), 2223, 5153, 55, 5963.
65
Busuioc-von Hasselbach, ara Fgraului, vol. I, 171334.
66
Ioni, Spaiul dintre Carpaii, 111112.
67
Ibid., 54115. Adrian Ioni indexed the archaeological discoveries dated between the 11th and 13th
centuries made in the space within the Southern Carpathians and the Lower Danube and concluded that the
presence of the steppe populations is evinced by the specific burial rituals, clothing articles, weapons,
ceramics and by some toponyms (54115). Regarding the horse-riders grave, the author indexed 21 graves
that were discovered in 16 localities: Bucureti Lacul Tei, Movilia, Adncata, Ciulnia, Platoneti, Oltenia,
Curcani, Licoteanca, Rmnicelu, nsurei, Jilava, Tangru, Vitneti, Ulmeni, tiubei, Ziduri (Ibid., 55).
68
Ibid.
69
In the case of the Land of Fgra, Antal Lukcs emphasizes the discrepancy between the inheritance of
Turanian / Petchenegs toponyms, namely the documented mentions of the beginning of the 13th century
attesting the presence of the Petchenegs, and the total lack of horse-riders grave or other artefacts (clay
cauldrons, for instance) to prove their existence in the area (Lukcs, ara Fgraului, 47).
70
Spinei, Episcopia cumanilor, 137180, with its bibliography.

141
for more than a century, also implying a change in the burial ritual.71 We emphasize
again the lack of Cuman graves belonging to the 11th13th centuries in the territory of the
Cuman Episcopate,72 of which the area of Brsa Land is also supposed to have been
part.73 The absence of archaeological evidence is also indirectly sustained by the
omission of any Cuman mentioning in the renowned papal document of Gregory IX,
dated the 14th of November 1234 and written for the future Hungarian king, Bela IV.74 In
this document, the ethnic diversity (of Romanians, Hungarians, and Germans) and the
confessional one in the mountainous area of the south-western Moldavia and north-
eastern Muntenia are very suggestively expressed.
C. The renowned Diploma Andreanum of 1224,75 issued by King Andrew II for
the German guests in Transylvania (fideles hospites nostri Theuthonici Ultrasilvani),
who were brought to southern Transylvania by order of King Geza II (11411162),
resulted in the establishment of a large autonomous area in between Baraolt to the east
and Ortie to the west and directly controlled by the Kingdom of Hungary. The counties
in which the territory delimited in the Andreanum was split up until 1224 were dissolved
and only one of them remained: the County / Shire of Sibiu. Furthermore, the king also
offered the German guests (hospites teutonicum) for own use the forest of the
Romanians and the Petchenegs (silva Blacorum et Bissenorum). Geographically, the
settlements of the German guests were placed alongside the southern part of
Transylvania, on approximately 200 km. From a religious perspective, this area was
limited: by a density of Romanesque stone churches, built around Sibiu in the second
half of the 12th century and the first half of the 13th century, by the presence of a
Premonstratensian monastery76 and of a Dominican monastery in Sibiu in the fourth
decade of the century, and by the existence of a Cistercian monastery in Cra, alongside
the Olt river77 (see the map 1). A common feature of the Romanesque churches built by
the German communities from the County of Sibiu, one that differentiates them from the
rest of the Catholic space in Transylvania and Hungary, but also from the non-Catholic
space located to the south of the royal land received by the Germans and the Teutonic
knights, is the frequent use of a basilica plan, with three to five bays, the main nave

71
In this respect, we mention the conversion to Christianity of the Cuman leaders Burchi and Benborch, who
were buried in a Dominican chapel of the Holy Virgin (Spinei, Episcopia cumanilor, 154156).
72
Ibid., 172.
73
Iosipescu, Romnii din Carpaii Meridionali, 44; Horedt, Contribuii la istoria Transilvaniei, 146159;
Spinei, Episcopia cumanilor, 172.
74
[...] In Cumanorum episcopatu, sicut accepimus, quidam populi, qui Walati vocantur, existunt, qui etsi
censeantur nomine christiano, sub una tamen fide varios ritus habentes et mores, illa committunt, que huic
sunt nomini inimica. Nam Romanorum ecclesiam contempnentes non a venerabili fratre nostro, episcopo
Cumanorum, qui loci diocesanus existit, sed a quibusdam pseudoepiscopis, Grecorum ritum tenentibus,
universa recipiunt ecclesiastica sacramenta, et nonnulli de regno Ungarie, tam Ungari, quam Theutonici et
alii orthodoxi, morandi causa cum ipsis traseunt ad eosdem, et sic cum eis, quia populus unus facti cum
eisdem Walathis eo contempto, premissa recipiunt sacramenta, in grave orthodoxorum scandalum et
derogationem non modicam fidei christiane. Ne igitur ex diversitate rituum pericula proveniant animarum,
nos volentes huiusmodi periculum obviare, ne prefati Walathi materiam habeant pro defectu sacramentorum
ad scismaticos episcopos accedendi, eidem episcopo nostris damus litteris in mandatis, ut catholicum eis
episcopum illi nationi conformem provida deliberatione constituat sibi iuxta generalis statuta concilii
vicarium in predictis, qui ei per omnia sit obediens et subiectus. DRH. D, 2021, no. 9; see Spinei,
Episcopia cumanilor, 162163.
75
Ub. I, 3235, no. 43; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, vol. I, 208210, 383384, no. 157; EO I, 161162,
no. 132.
76
EO I, 180, no. 176.
77
See supra-note 28.

142
being prolonged to the east by a square choir, with a semi-circular apse at its end, and
sometimes having a massive bell tower to the west.78 If the area where the Germans
settled can be clearly determined, the identification and delimitation or the spread of that
forest of the Romanians and the Petchenegs remains a long debated subject in the
Romanian historiography, there being several theories discussed.79 We opt in favour of
the hypothesis launched by Radu Popa decades ago, which today is marginalized by
historiography, claiming that silva Blacorum et Bissenorum spread across the entire
length of southern Transylvania up to Banat, including Land of Haeg at that time, in
122480 (see the map 1 and 2). From an administrative-juridical perspective, at first, part
of this Romanian forest must have also been the terra Blacorum attested in 1222 in the
document issued by King Andrew II for the Teutonic Order, neighbouring Land of
Brsa, a territory that was given to the Teutonic knights in 1211,81 and the terra exempta
de Blaccis, attested in the 1223 document, through which King Andrew II reinforced for
the Cistercian abbey from Cra, founded during the first years of the 13th century, the
domain between the Arpa and Crioara rivers, i.e. the territory taken away from the
Romanians for the foundation of the abbey.82 The two attested territories of terrae
Blacorum were preponderantly identified with Fgra Land.83 We must state again the
fact that the establishment of the Cistercian order in southern and south-eastern
Transylvania had a missionary role of converting the pagans and the eastern Christians,
said to be schismatic.84 Founding the two Cistercian monasteries in the first decades of
the 13th century, one at Cra, in Fgra Land (where the impressive monument of an
early gothic period is still preserved85) and the other at Braov86, in Brsa Land, was not
arbitrary. Both of them were part of the Roman Churchs mission in the eastern regions
of the Christianitas, and were at the same time situated on the border line of the
Hungarian Kingdom and of the expansive papal authority. These documentary

78
Vtianu, Istoria artei, 2540; Alexandru Avram, Arhitectura ecleziastic, in 800 de ani biserica a
germanilor din Transilvania (sic!), ed. Th. Ngler, (Thaur bei Innsbruck, [1991]), 3768 (German edition:
Alexandru Avram, Die Kirchenbaukunst, in 800 Jahre Kirche der Deutschen in Siebenbrgen, hrsg. von
Th. Ngler (Thaur bei Innsbruck, [1991]), 4171; Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germani, 6780.
79
Otto Mittelstrass, Beitrge zur Siedlungsgeschichte Siebenbrgens im Mittellalter (Mnchen, 1961), 59;
Gckenjan, Hilfsvlker und Grenzwchter, 106; Popa, ara Haegului, 188; Ngler, Aezarea sailor, 124
126; Papacostea, Romnii n secolul al XIII-lea, 7780; Lukcs, ara Fgraului, 149161; Busuioc-von
Hasselbach, ara Fgraului, vol. I, 60117, vol. II, 778; Achim, Politica sud-estic, 46.
80
The evidence suggested by Radu Popa in this respect is based on the research of written sources,
toponymy and anthroponymy studies and mostly on archaeological research, see Popa, ara Haegului,
passim and 188. A similar hypothesis can also be found in older historiography. For instance, in 19011903,
Dimitre Onciul wrote that the forest of the Romanians and the Petchenegs mentioned in the 1224 document
had less determined borders southwards, where it went beyond the mountains, encompassing especially
Fgra Land and the region of Amla, probably also Haeg Land, regions that were later unified with
Wallachia Dimitre Onciul, Titlul lui Mircea cel Btrn i posesiunile lui, in Scrieri istorice, vol. II,
critical edition and foreword by Aurelian Sacerdoeanu (Bucureti: Editura tiinific, 1968), 79.
81
Ub. I, 12, no. 19; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, vol. I, 151, 370, no. 77; EO I, 134, no. 38.
82
Ub. I, 2628, no. 38; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, vol. I, 199200, 379380, no. 145; EO I, 158159,
no. 125.
83
According to the latest historiographical interpretations, Lukcs, ara Fgraului, 149161; Achim,
Politica sud-estic, 46.
84
See Turcu, Sfntul Scaun, 251258.
85
Busuioc-von Hasselbach, ara Fgraului, vol. II, 119186.
86
A disappeared monastery that was not identified in situ; for more information on the moment of its
foundation, see several theories: Dicionarul mnstirilor din Transilvania, 80; Jenei, Construcii succesive
pe locul liceului, 401403; Marcu Istrate (coord.), Redescoperirea trecutului medieval al Braovului, 9, 19
21, 3233, 59, 103106.

143
identifications of the borderlines can be clearly recognized in the fieldwork from the
perspective of both religious landscape and archaeological discoveries, and we refer here
to the churchyard cemeteries and to the liturgical vessels of the 12th13th centuries.87 It is
important mentioning that although in the specialized literature, expressing a full
agreement on the localization of terra blacorum and silva Blacorum et Bissenorum in
southern Transylvaniawith different nuances, namely their identification either in
Fgra Land, or in the area of the Cibin or Sebe mountains, respectively, the region of
Amla88 and the territory named Unterwald (the land underneath the forest)89 by the
Saxons or in Haeg Land90archaeologically and religiously, the Romanians were only
identified in Haeg Land, where in the 12th and 13th centuries there were some court
Orthodox churches, their plan being that of single-nave churches, with a rectangular altar
(Streisngeorgiu, Strei) or a semi-circular apse (Densu and Peteana).91 Until now, there
were no 12th or 13th century churches and necropolises / cemeteries attributed to the
Romanians or the Petchenegs identified in Brsa Land,92 Fgr Land,93 Amla duchy
(the domain of the Salgo castle / the seat of Slite) and Unterwald.
The viewpoint of a vast part of the Romanians and Petchenegs forest coinciding
with the southernsouth-western area of the Sibiu county should not be omitted. By
applying the regressive method for the area of Mrginimea Sibiului, we notice that part
of this forest was already in the Salgo castle domain at the beginning of the 14th century,
comprising nine villages: Cuna, Amna, Scel, Orlat and five other Romanian villages
(villis Olaceis),94 and forming a common border with part of the territory of the Sibiu
Chair. The domain of the Salgo castle was partially constituted as a property of the
counts of Tlmaciu. Later on, from 1366 onwards, it was intermittently organized, in the
same network of settlements for the most part, as a feudal domain of the Wallachian
rulers, known in the official documents as the Amla royal possession or duchy.95 The
northern-north-eastern part of this territory was neighbouring the lands of the Saxons
from Cristian, Cisndie and Cisndioara. Between Cisndioara and Cisndie, there was a
settlement that has since disappeared, Villa Ruetel, of the Walloon Johannes Latinus
placed among the Teutonic knights, whose territory was at one moment property of the
church from Cisndie. It was named Gehonnes (Johannes) by the Saxon locals, toponym
that can be found on old maps. There is yet another valuable monument in Cisndioara: a
small Romanesque basilica placed on a hill and visible from afar. It was donated to the
Cra monastery by another countMagister Gocelinus, in 1223, the donation including

87
See supra-notes 4756.
88
Ngler, Amlaul i Fgraul, 4653.
89
See Niedermaier, Habitatul medieval n Transilvania, 4344.
90
Popa, ara Haegului, 188.
91
From the point of view of the religious landscape in Haeg Land, the 14th century is characterized by a
density grow in the parish churches network.
92
See infra-note 136139.
93
Although Antal Lukcs assumes the existence of an ecclesiastical structure in Fgra Land during the 13th
14th centuries, one subordinated to a south-Danubian episcopate, he also remarks the absence of any religious
edifices and cemeteries from those centuries (Lukcs, ara Fgraului, 128138). The archaeological research
made in 2000 at the church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary from Voievodenii Mari resulted in the
identification of some graves from the 15th century and of some foundation elements of a prior edifice that the
authors reticently attributed to the first half of the 14th century Antal Lukcs, Aurel Dragne, Cele mai vechi
biserici romneti din ara Fgraului, Acta Terrae Fogarasiensis 3 (2014): 331352.
94
Ub. I, 365367, no. 395; Documente privind istoria Romniei. C. Transilvania, veacul XIV, vol. II
(Bucureti, Editura Academiei R. P. R., 1953), 4951, no. 118 (hereafter: DIR. C, veacul XIV).
95
Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germane, 10, 29.

144
the Saint Michael Mountain together with the church. For the first half of the 13th
century, if not for almost the entire century, the two above mentioned characters
(Johannes Latinus and Magister Gocelius), having their noble residence96 near Cisndie
(in this respect, the name of a street in Cisndie is very suggestive: Grffengasse,
meaning of the counts and being the access road from Cisndie to Cisndioara),
represented two important figures of the Saxon elite. They received significant privileges
due to their military services for the kingdom: estates, the right to travel freely without
paying taxes in the kingdom, the right to be judged only in the presence of the king or of
the palatine count etc.97 We assume that the number of these knights (miles) in the area
of Cisndie,98 Cristian and Sibiu was larger than the documents show (considering the
names of localities derived from the ones of the eponymous heroes: Herman = villa
Hermanni = Sibiu, Christian = Christiana island,99 Humbert = villa Humberti = Guteria,
Alard = villa Alardi, Eppo / Eberhard = villa Epponis = Turnior etc.).100 The existence
of these counts, whose main activity, besides being border guards and knights (miles) in
the military campaigns of the king, was that of tradesmen, partially explains the financial
resources for building the imposing ecclesiastical edifices in Sibiu, Cisndie and Cristian
and for the beautiful Romanesque basilica on the Saint Michael mountain in Cisndioara.
Located in a religious geographical landscape, the four Catholic churches had a
well-defined initial role in the 12th13th centuries. The Romanesque basilica with a tower
in the western part of Sibiu is the second largest Romanesque church in Transylvania,
having a length of approx. 46.5 m, after the church from Cincu (approx. 52.5 m),101 also
situated at a border, followed by the one from Cisndie, of 44.7 m and the ones from
Cristian and Sebe Alba (the latter built near the area called by the Saxons Unterwald /
the country underneath the forest).102 Except for the Episcopal Church in Alba Iulia, to
the present stage of the research, the Romanesque churches recalled, built around 1200,
represented the largest Romanesque churches in Transylvania, all situated at the southern
border, on royal land, a Catholic space neighbouring the Blacorum et Bissenorum forest
(of the Wallachians and the Petchenegs), a non-Catholic space. The occidental guests
settling in this area must have also had the mission of building an ecclesiastical
landscape, besides the military services that they had to fulfill at the border of the
kingdom. Built in a context when most of the constructions, if not all, were made of

96
Maria Crngaci iplic, Arheologia reedinelor nobiliare n Transilvania. 1. Reedinele elitei sseti
(secolele XIIprima jumtate a secolului XIV). Studiu preliminar, Banatica 23 (2013): 347370.
97
Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germane, 52, 5657.
98
In 1323, which is also the year when Cisndie was first attested, the count Nicolaus of Tlmaciu, the one
possessing the Salgo domain, owned a house in the city of Cisndie (civitas Gyznoyo) (Ub. I, 371, no. 400;
DIR. C, veacul XIV, 6364, no. 141).
99
Ioan Moga considers that insula Christiana (Christeninsel) mentioned in the 1223 document (Ub. I, 27, no.
38) could indicate the fact that the village was founded through a collective settling of a Catholic
population, in a space inhabited by a population of another confession (in medio paganorum, or in medio
schismaticorum) (Ioan Moga, Contribuiuni la istoria colonizrilor din Transilvania. Numirile satului
Cristian i semnificaia lor istoric, in Moga, Scrieri istorice 19261946, 8990).
100
Crngaci iplic, Arheologia reedinelor nobiliare, 356357 and its bibliography.
101
Paul Niedermaier, Der mittelalterliche Stdtebau in Siebenbrgen, im Banat und im Kreischgebiet. I. Die
Entwicklung vom Anbeginn bis 1241 (Heidelberg: Arbeitskreis fr Siebenbrgische Landeskunde, 1996),
252.
102
Gustav Treiber, Mittelalterliche Kirchen in Siebenbrgen, ([Mnchen], 1971), 35, 67. The Romanesque
church of Sebe had a length of approx. 40 m. We suppose that the church in Cristian had a similar
dimension of 4043 m. We did not take into consideration the church from Alba Iulia, the building phases of
which, we refer here to the date of the second cathedral, is yet another controversy in the field.

145
wood, in the 12th13th centuries, the imposing churches and their enormous towers
(Cisndie, Sibiu, Cristian, Sebe Alba, Cincu), visible from afar, became thus the main
objective of the religious landscape and, in the structure of the settlement, an optical
landmark and a symbol of the offensive force of the Catholic powers and of the papal
proselytism in an area dominated by pagan populations or schismatic Christians. As
mentioned in the beginning of our paper, . Papacostea theorized very distinctively the
reciprocal expansionism of the territorial conquest politics coordinated by the Arpad
kings and the papal programme of ecclesiastical and spiritual conquest in Eastern
Europe.
D. Another very important set of charters referring directly to the organization of
a segment of the Hungarian Kingdoms south-eastern military border, namely the south-
eastern Transylvanian one, at the beginning of the 13th century, are the ones emitted for
the Teutonic Order in 12111225,103 in 1227,104 1234105 and 1240106. In 1211,107 King
Andrew II gave the Teutonic Knights a country in Transylvania named Brsa, towards
the Cumans (quandam terram Borza nomine, ultra silvas versos Cumanos), which was
deserta et inhabitata. In return for the property and other numerous privileges, the
Teutonic knights had to defend the border of the kingdom against the Cumans and, if
possible, to help expand the kingdom through their settlement (ut et Regnum per
conversationem eorum propagatam dilatetur). Their mission of defending the kingdom
against the incursion of the pagan Cumans was fulfilled; the kingdom was expanded to
the exterior area of the Carpathians curvature and, furthermore, they seemed to have
managed to convert a part of the Cumans to Christianity.108 The military monastic order
of the Teutonic knights is perceived in literature also as one of the military instruments
used by the papacy to expand its spiritual dominance in the Carpatho-Danubian space. In
view of the explicit formulation of the 1211 charter, giving them the territory of the
south-eastern part of Transylvania and the right to build castles, as well as earthen and
wooden fortified cities,109 which could be made of stone from 1222,110 historiographers
tried to identify in situ the five castles and the churches built in Brsa Land. Several

103
The documents have been long debated in historiography, including the issue of their constructive activity
or of their identification from an archaeological perspective, be they fortifications or ecclesiastical edifices.
We mention here some of the most important and recent works: Maria Holban, Despre aria de ntindere a
cavalerilor teutoni din ara Brsei (12211225), in Holban, Din cronica relaiilor romno-ungare, 1048;
Papacostea, Romnii n secolul al XIII-lea, 756; Spinei, Moldova, 6668; Zimmermann, Der Deutsche
Orden im Burzenland; iplic, Organizarea defensiv a Transilvaniei, 8294; Achim, Politica sud-estic;
Adrian Ioni, Die Besiedlung des Burzenlandes im 12.13. Jahrhundert im Lichte der Archologie, in
Generalprobe Burzenland, 107124; Marcu Istrate, Contribuii la istoria bisericii evanghelice i a cetii din
Prejmer, 135152.
104
DRH. D, 1415, no. 6; Spinei, Episcopia cumanilor, 151156.
105
DRH. D, 2021, no. 9; Spinei, Episcopia cumanilor, 161162, nota 165.
106
Ub. I, 6869, no. 76; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 319320, no. 267; EO I, 185, no. 190.
107
Ub. I, 12, no. 19; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 151, 370, no. 77; EO I, 134, no. 38.
108
Information regarding this conversion appear in the documents following their expulsion from Brsa
Land by King Andrew II, document emitted by pope Gregory IX (Ub. I, 51, 5253, no. 59, 61; DIR. C,
veacul XI, XII i XIII, 245246, no. 206, 208). erban Papacostea and Victor Spinei suggestively described
the political and spiritual motivations of the Latin Europe, as well as the crusade role of the Teutonic order in
Brsa Land, with the knights mission of converting Cumans to Christianity (Papacostea, Romnii n secolul
al XIII-lea, 3135; Spinei, Episcopia cumanilor, 146). The evangelization of the Cumans was continued by
the Dominicans in 1227, by means of the foundation of the Cumans Episcopate.
109
Ub. I, 12, no. 19; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 151, 370, no. 77; EO I, 134, no. 38.
110
Ub. I, 1820, no. 31; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 182184, no. 130; the editor of the collection of EO
diplomatic registers considers the document to be questionable (EO I, 154155, no. 119).

146
speculations were made regarding this supposed constructive effervescence. In the
present stage of the research, such intensity, presumed to have expanded outside the
Carpathian arch, is not sustained either architecturally, or by archaeological field
research results. The existence of some stone castles111 and late Romanesque and early
gothic churches in Brsa Land determined many exegetes in the field to link them
topographically to the Teutonic moment, considering that they were preceded by an older
phase attributed either to the Teutonic moment, or to some German guests colonized in
Brsa Land112 (for instance, due to the central plan in the shape of an equal-armed cross
of the church from Prejmer, unique among medieval churches in Transylvania, older
historiography considered its building was initiated by the Teutonic knights, interrupted
by the Mongol invasion and completed in the second half of the 13 th century, under the
influence of the Cistercian building site in Cra113). Regarding the churches supposed to
have been built at the time of their stay in Brsa Land, older literature pleaded for the
hypothesis of the churches built by the Teutonic knights in Prejmer, Feldioara, Snpetru
and Hrman, supported by the document from the 21st of March 1240, through which the
Cistercians became the new owners of the four churches in Brsa Land.114 Except for the
two 1223 documents confirming that in Brsa Land, the pagan invasion, the cause of
this land remaining empty and deserted, having been stopped, there is now a high
number of clerics115 and priests, for the 1235 document attesting the presence of a
dean and some priests116 and the 12341235 one attesting the existence of a

111
Although part of the fortifications benefited from archaeological research, the results regarding the
identification of a Teutonic level are not decisive, the identification issue remaining an open one. With
reference to their placement, the latest researches consider that the castles built by the Teutonic knights were
Cruceburg (Kreuzburg), in the area of Prejmer or Teliu, castrum munitissimum, with a proposal of
identifying it with the castle from Ceteni situated near the territory belonging to Cumania Neagr (the
Black Cumania), Feldioara (Marienburg), the Codlea castle (Schwarzburg), the Oratea castle, the Braovia
castle (Braov), the Hlchiu castle (Heldenburg) or / and the Rnov castle (Rosenau)for the research
history of the castles of the Teutonic knights and the latest theories regarding them, see Adrian Andrei Rusu,
Castelarea carpatic. Fortificaii i ceti din Transilvania i teritoriile nvecinate (sec. XIIIXIV) (Cluj-
Napoca: Mega, 2005), 434443; iplic, Organizarea defensiv a Transilvaniei, 121131.
112
See the latest published works of Adrian Ioni (Ioni et alii, Feldioara Marienburg, 14, 2958) and
Marcu Istrate, Contribuii la istoria bisericii evanghelice i a cetii din Prejmer, 135152.
113
Vtianu, Istoria artei, 6364, 70, 105106, 163; Vasile Drgu, Arta gotic n Romnia (Bucureti:
Meridiane, 1979), 1725.
114
Ub. I, 6869, no. 76; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 319320, no. 267; EO I, 185, no. 190; Michel
Tnase, Avatarurile unui act de donaie. Donaia fcut Cistercienilor, n ara Brsei de ctre Bela IV, la 17
martie 1240, Revista istoric 12 (1993): 5580. Through the 1240 document, King Bela IV gave the
Cistercian Order some churches in Brsa, Transylvania, namely the castles of Feldioara, Snpetru, the
Hrman Mountain and Prejmer with all their incomes, rights and belongings [] deciding that from this
moment onwards, on the lands or in the parishes of these churches there cannot be built any new church or
chapel without their consent, neither can altars or cemeteries be made and consecrated.
115
This is a document through which the Teutonic knights asked the pope for a dean or an archpresbyter
(Ub. I, 24, no. 35; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 195196, no. 140; EO I, 154, 158, no. 117, 124, see also
the theory of Maria Holban, Despre aria de ntindere a cavalerilor teutoni din ara Brsei, 14). See also the
document of the 12th of December 1223, in which Pope Honorius III demanded that the Bishop of
Transylvania no longer keep the priests and clericals of Brsa Land under his jurisdiction (Ub. I, 2425, no.
36; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 201, no. 146; EO I, 159, no. 126). The archpresbyter was named only on
the 30th of April 1224 (Ub. I, 2930, no. 40; DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 204205, no. 151; EO I, 160, no.
128).
116
In this document, Pope Gregory IX demanded the bishop of the Cumans to investigate into the conflict
between the bishop of Transylvania and the decanum et sacerdotes de terra Burze (Ub. I, 6162, no. 71;
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 284285, no. 238; EO I, 181, no. 179).

147
Premonstratensian monastery in Braov,117 the 1240 document is the first one attesting
the presence of some churches in Brsa Land, only the ones in Feldioara, Snpetru,
Hrman and Prejmer being named.118 Although the year 1240 is perceived by most
specialists as a terminus ante quem for the existence of churches in the Teutonic
period119, to the present moment, those churches were not field identified.
Archaeologically, all four churches were probed120 and considering everything that has
been published so far, although foundations of walls from around the year 1200, partially
overlapped by the foundations of the second half of the 13th century churches, were
identified in Prejmer and Feldioara, a preliminary analysis cannot yet be made with
reference to: a plan of those ruins, their ascription to a certain structure, a spatial
placement of the construction within a locality, its position in relation to a cemetery or its
architectural evolution.121 However, what can be pointed out from the archaeological
research results is the presence of some massive wall foundations and some cemeteries
(the case of Feldioara, Prejmer and Braov the Black Church), which mark the
existence of some churches and cemeteries around the year 1200, clearly part of a
churches network, with little information on their distribution, density and role in the
network. A coin emitted by Bela III (11721196) discovered in Prejmer, underneath the

117
EO I, 180, no. 176.
118
See the syntagm some churches in Brsa, Transylvania (see supra-note 114). When this charter was
emitted, there were for sure other churches as well in the Brsa Land, for instance in Braov, where there
were at least two churches built in the first half of the 13 th century (see a short synthesis and the pertaining
bibliography regarding the four nuclei forming the medieval Braov in Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germane,
163167 and the latest archaeological research works around the Black Church from Braov and the
corresponding conclusions in Marcu Istrate (coord.), Redescoperirea trecutului medieval al Braovului).
119
Based on architectural and plastic elements, the historians estimated that the churches in Prejmer,
Feldioara and Hrman were built in the second half of the 13 th century. The medieval church in Snpetru was
demolished in 1794 and a new one was built in 1797 Vtianu, Istoria artei, 6364, 70, 105106, 163;
Drgu, Arta gotic, 1725, 28, 34; Ruxandra Balaci, Noi aspecte iconografice n pictura mural gotic din
Transilvania: Hrman i Snpetru, Studii i cercetri de istoria artei. Seria Art plastic 36 (1989): 317;
Hermann Fabini, Atlas der siebenbrgisch-schsischen Kirchenburgen und Dorfkirchen, Bd. I.
(Hermannstadt, Heidelberg: Monumenta und Arbeitskreis fr Siebenbrgische Landeskunde, 1998), 309,
448, 554555, 733; Mihaela Sanda Salontai, Biserica fortificat din Prejmer (Bucureti: Academia Romn,
2006).
120
In Feldioara, the archaeological researches of 19901995, 19981999 and 2006 were coordinated by
Adrian Ioni and took place in several points. Following the research works around the Romanesque church,
in the space created by the oval enclosing wall, 4 trenches and expansions were marked, where 32 graves of
the 15th17th centuries were found. The most interesting discovery, however, is that of the foundation of an
older building than the Romanesque church, which could be linked to a Teutonic chapel. In the square
between the parish house and the Lutheran church, a cemetery was discovered and it was attributed to the
German guests, based on the burial ritual. It was identified as belonging to the second half of the 12 th century
and first decade of the 13th century, period in which it is supposed to have functioned around a church that
was not yet identified (Ioni et alii, Feldioara Marienburg, 14, 2958). In Prejmer, archaeological
research was done by Radu Heitel between 19601970, on the occasion of the restoration work done at that
time, the results being published in Marcu Istrates Contribuii la istoria bisericii evanghelice i a cetii din
Prejmer, 135152. In Hrman, archaeological research was accomplished by M. Dumitrache in 1970, the
results being only partially published: Mariana Dumitrache, Materiale ceramice din cetatea rneasc din
com. Hrman, jud. Braov, CA 3 (1979): 409420. In Snpetru, research was done by Daniela Marcu
Istrate, the results not yet being published (Marcu Istrate, Contribuii la istoria bisericii evanghelice i a
cetii din Prejmer, 150, nota 68).
121
Regarding new approaches to research, see the four coordinates that can be used in analysing the
historical evolution of a medieval church, Maria Crngaci iplic, Ioan-Marian iplic, Ioan-Cosmin Ignat,
Memorie i patrimoniu. Inventarul bisericii evanghelice din Cisndie (judeul Sibiu), in Avere, prestigiu i
cultur material n surse patrimoniale. Inventare de averi din secolele XVIXIX, editor Dan Dumitru Iacob
(Iai: Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2015), 605606.

148
floor of the church in a filling stratum, the lack of a cemetery in this site,122 together with
the discoveries made at Feldioarathe lutheran church (where parts of some wall
substructures older than the actual Romanesque church, partially overlapping its
foundation,123 were discovered, although their relation to the cemetery in the second half
of the 12th century and attributed to a community of German guests is unknown124),
CisndioaraSaint Michael church [where no graves were identified and a denarius
emitted by Stephan III (11621172) was discovered],125 and Clnica fortified noble
residence [where archaeological researches identified no graves, but where seven Arpad
coins were discovered inside and near the chapel: two from Bela IV (12351270) and
five from Stephan V (12701272)]126 are all facts that prompt us to launch two
hypotheses. We speak about some ecclesiastical edifices built in Brsa Land at the end of
the 12th and / or the beginning of the 13th centuries by the monastic / knightly orders and /
or some chapels built as part of some noble residences, similar to the ones supposed to
have existed in Sibiu, Ortie, Sighioara, Cisndie, Cisndioara, Clnic etc. by some
counts / western knights with an important military role127 in defending this border
segment and creating an ecclesiastical landscape.128 The presumption of some counts /
military elites leading the communities of German guests from Brsa Land should not be
dismissed, given the topography of the places where the swords with a type N pommel
(according to Oakeshotts typology) or type VI (according to Pinters typology) were
discovered around Sibiu (elimbr and Vurpr) and in Brsa Land (Codlea and
Snpetru). They were identified as belonging to the end of the 12th and middle of the 13th
centuries129 and having strong analogies with the southern and western Germany.130 If we
connect all these pieces of information, the failed colonization of the German guests 131
(consider the cessation of the Feldioara cemetery), the establishment of the Teutonic
order in Brsa Land, the foundation of the Cuman episcopate in 1227 by the Dominican
monks in a space inhabited mostly by Orthodox Romanians who were reticent about the
Catholic missionary endeavours,132 the presence of a Premonstratensian monastery in
12341235 and, possibly, of a Cistercian one in the first half of the 13th century in
Braov,133 all these elements support the idea of an intense missionary activity of the
Catholics at the south-eastern border of the Arpad kingdom. It lasted about a century and

122
Marcu Istrate, Contribuii la istoria bisericii evanghelice i a cetii din Prejmer, 145149.
123
Adrian Ioni, Feldioara, com. Feldioara, jud. Braov. Punct: Biserica evanghelic (sector B), CCA.
Campania 2006 (2007): 151152. Historiographers consider Feldioara the centre of authority of the Teutonic
Knights in Brsa Land.
124
Ioni et alii, Feldioara Marienburg, 2958.
125
Heitel, Das romanische Baudenkmal von Cisndioara, 4959.
126
Heitel, Cetatea din Clnic; Simina, Cetatea din Clnic, 95115.
127
Crngaci iplic, Arheologia reedinelor nobiliare, 355368.
128
Crngaci iplic, iplic, Ignat, Memorie i patrimoniu, 612615.
129
Zeno Karl Pinter, Spada i sabia medieval n Transilvania i Banat (secolele IXXIV) (Reia: Banatica,
1999), 127131; Zeno Karl Pinter, Arme din perioada aezrii Ordinului Teutonic n Transilvania, Studia
Universitatis Cibiniensis. Series Historica 10 (2013): 5166.
130
Maria Crngaci iplic, Weapons and Military Equipment Found on the German Settlement Area from
Southern Transylvania (the 12th13th centuries). Some Aspects and Perspectives Studia Universitatis
Cibiniensis, Series Historica (Supplementum No. 1, Proceedings of the 1st International Conference
Interethnic Relations in Tranylvania. Militaria Mediaevalia in Central and South Eastern Europe) 8,
(2011): 81.
131
Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germane, 32.
132
The Episcopate was not founded on a territory ruled by Cumans, but in an area where the majority of
people were Romanians. (Spinei, Episcopia cumanilor, 176).
133
Jenei, Construcii succesive pe locul liceului, 401403.

149
only started to be fruitful from the second half of the 13th century, when we can speak of
a network of parish Catholic churches. We consider that the Christianitas border was
established in Brsa Land only starting from the second half of the 13th century.
By way of conclusion, we can speak at this point of the research about the
existence of a religious geographical landscape around the year 1200 in Brsa Land,
comprising Catholic churches and cemeteries (see the map 1). For the moment, we do
not have information about the relation between cemeteries and churches, or telling us
weather these churches had a cemetery grouped around them, or the graves from the first
half of the 12th century were gathered around a presumed church. In spite of the
documents from 1223, 1224, 1227, 1234, 1235 and 1240, and of the few archaeological
data, together attesting the presence of a dean, some priests, a Premonstratensian
monastery and some churches in Brsa Land, we can only speak of an ecclesiastical
architecture and a definite network of Catholic churches starting from the second half of
the 13th century, when churches were built in Prejmer, Feldioara, Hrman, Braov
Corona (?), Braov Saint Bartholomew church, Braov Saint Martin church, Rotbav,
Bod, Hlchiu, Codlea, Ghimbav, Cristian, Rnov (Saint Matthew church), Vulcan. The
Saint Bartholomew church in Braov, with its length of 59 m, was one of the largest
churches in Transylvania at that time, larger than the ones in Sibiu, Cisndie, Cristian,
Cincu,134 larger even than the Cra monastery, considered to be an outpost of
Catholicism in terra olachorum de Kyrch. The basilica from Feldioara (with a length of
approx. 45 m) and the church with a cross-shaped central plan from Prejmer are also of
large dimensions, considering their volume. Historically, for the region of Brsa Land
they are, similar to the churches around Sibiu and the Cra monastery in Fgra Land,
the main objectives of the ecclesiastical landscape, a visual landmark and a symbol of the
offensive force of the Catholic powers. The old theory according to which a part of the
new German settlements in Brsa Land was established near Romanian settlements is
still to be proved,135 considering two aspects: a) indirectly, the 1234 document136 and the
1288 one,137 which are very suggestive regarding the ethnical elements and the
confessional belonging to Christianity of the southern and south-eastern populations in
Transylvania (their belonging to Orthodoxy in the case of the Romanians)138 and b) the
Romanian neighbourhoods attested in the 14th century in Braov (cheii Braovului) and
Rnov (Pe Dobrice), named Bulgaria in the official documents, and, starting from the
second half of the 14th century, the existence of some stone churches in these
neighbourhoods, both of them having Saint Nicholas as their patron saint.139

134
See supra-notes 101102.
135
Gernot Nussbcher, Contribuii la istoria administraiei oraului Braov n perioada medieval (secolele
XIIIXVI), Historia Urbana 2, 1 (1994): 80.
136
This is the famous papal epistle of Gregory IX, addressed to the future Hungarian king, Bela, asking him
for the resubmission of the Romanians to the Catholic Bishop of the Cumania (DRH. D, 2021, no. 9) (see
also supra-note 74).
137
nobilibus Ungarorum, Saxonibus, Syculus et Valachis de Cybiniensis et de Burcia comitatibus
Transilvanis (DIR. C, veacul XIII, vol. II, 297, no. 337). The archbishop of Strigoniu, Lodomer, demands
the prepositus, deans, parsons and all Hungarian noblemen, Saxons, Szeklers and Romanians from the
counties of Sibiu and Brsa in Transylvania not to listen to King Ladislaw IV, who was in good relations
with the Cumans and had adopted their pagan customs and rituals (see Engel, Regatul Sfntului tefan, 13).
138
Tudor Slgean, Transilvania n a doua jumtate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului
congregaional (Cluj-Napoca: Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2003), 222226.
139
Maria-Elena Ionescu, Cteva date cu privier la biserica ortodox Sfntul Nicolae Vechi din Rnov,
Revista Muzeelor i Monumentelor. Monumente istorice i de art 45, 2 (1976): 29, 32, notele 27 and 50;
Dana Jenei, Biserica ortodox Sfntul Nicolae Vechi din Rnov, Terra Sebus. Acta Musei Sabesiensis 2

150
Conclusions. The territorial expansion of the orders and of the colonization with western
guests / of the Saxon and Szekler colonizers and the architectural configurations they
adopted and disseminated is very clearly delimited in the 13th century religious landscape
of southern Transylvania and in the topography of the Catholic Romanesque churches in
the area. These Catholic churches built in a Romanesque style, the cemeteries that
surround them, the discovery of some liturgical vessels that are specific to a Catholic
population that used such goods are all part of a clear borderline between the Catholic
and the non-Catholic areas. They are placed on the southern line of the royal land /
fundus regius / of the Seven Seats, delimited to a significant extent by the natural frontier
of the Olt River140 (see the map 1 and 2). The contrast is even more evident if we
consider the fact that at the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries that
fundus regius / Saxon territory became a stable and efficient military and religious
frontier, having its center at Sibiu (see the map 1), as well as Brsa Land from the second
half of the 13th century, with its center at Braov (see the map 2). From the point of view
of the ecclesiastic landscape, the densest network of Catholic parish churches dating
around 1200 can be found in southern Transylvania, surrounding Sibiu, a colonized area
with western guests, where the largest Romanesque basilicas are to be found (Sibiu,
Cisndie, Cristian). Starting from the fourth decade of the 13th century, the monastic
activities, as well as the activities of the building sites in the urban centers contributed to
the spread and generalization of the stone architecture in the rural areas. Furthermore,
this density grow of the network is to be remarked especially around future cities
(Braov, Media, Sebe). If during the second half of the 12th century and the first half of
the 13th century the network of Catholic parish churches is not yet well developed,
starting from the second half of the 13th century, especially following the Mongol
invasion, this network is enriched and a generalization of the stone architecture in the
rural areas is first remarked in the villages nearby the county centers (see the map 2).
The dense network of Catholic Romanesque churches in southern Transylvania
in the 13th century, as well as the establishment of the two Cistercian monasteries, the
two Premonstratensian ones and the distribution of the Dominican monasteries, followed
by the Franciscan ones starting from the fifth decade of the 13th century prove once more
that southern Transylvania was religiously a well-defined area, part of the eastern limes
of Christianitas (see the map 1 and 2), one of the most powerful border segments of
western Christianity. The endeavours of the Hungarian Kingdom to expand from a
territorial and confessional perspective to the south of the Carpathians141 in the 13th
century failed, and the border of the western Christianity did not encompass more than

(2010): 611.
140
Delimiting the territorial frontiers of a state in accordance with the natural borders (see the case of the
Danubian or Renan limes) was certainly the ideal organization of the frontiers. In fact, in the 12th century, the
Olt river course was the natural stable border of the Arpad kingdom, the river line being enforced in the
crossing areas with small fortifications (see iplic, Organizarea defensiv a Transilvaniei, 2325 and its
bibliography).
141
Only starting from the fifth decade of the 14th century, the politics of confessional expansion of the
Hungarian Kings were fruitful, materializing in the foundation of two Dominican convents (one in
Cmpulung in 1344 / 1345 and the other in Trgovite before 1370), two Franciscan convents (in Severin
between 13651369 and Trgovite in 1507) and some Catholic Episcopates (the Episcopate of Milcovia in
1347, of Arge in 1381 and of Severin in 1380) [see Alexandru Ciocltan, Comunitile germane la sud de
Carpai n evul mediu (secolele XIIIXVIII) (Brila: Editura Istros, 2015), 205227]. The author emphasizes
the fact that the main role of the Dominican and Franciscan settlements from the south of the Carpathians
was to ensure spiritual assistance to the Catholic colonists living in the principality, function that they
shared with their parsons (Ibid., 227).

151
southern Transylvania in the Middle Ages. The borderline of the Oriental and the
Southern Carpathians, which became a frontier, separated not only states, but also
different areas of civilization, that of western Catholicism and the one of eastern
Orthodoxy.142

English translation: Iulia G

142
Papacostea, Romnii n secolul al XIII-lea, 9.

152
153
154
 The administrative subordination of the provostship in Sibiu / Hermannstadt

ALEXANDRU-FLORIN CIOLTEI1

Abstract: The institution of the provost (praepositus) in Sibiu/Hermannstadt developed as a

fundamental characteristic in the history of the Transylvanian Saxons settlement during the
Middle Ages. As an ecclesiastical administrative structure, the provostship (praepositura) helped
the Transylvanian Saxons community maintain its features and identity. It was brought into
existence as an institutional power serving the German settlers who were living in Transylvania
within the confines of the territories offered by King Geza II. The other settlers had come to be
subordinated to the bishopric in Alba Iulia. The 13th century was a dynamic and important one in
the history of the provostship (praepositura). The problem that arose derived from the
provostships (praepositurae) subordination and its jurisdiction. This being the case, the popes
intervention couldnt have been avoided. His interest was to use this ecclesiastical structure in
order to subordinate this respective area to the Western Church. The present paper aims
therefore to analyze the conflict ignited among the archbishopric in Esztergom, the one in
Kalocsa and the bishopric in Alba Iulia / Weienburg. All of these ecclesiastical institutions
struggled and fought against one other in order to subordinate the provostship (praepositura) in
Sibiu/Hermannstadt. Thus, by presenting the provostships (praepositurae) characteristics and
role, as well as the personalities who influenced all these ecclesiastical medieval institutions, we
attempt to analyze the political, religious and social landscape that led to the materialization of
this institutional conflict.
Keywords: provostship (praepositurae) of Sibiu, bishopric of Transilvania, archbishopric of
Esztergom, the Transylvanian Saxons rebellion, German colonisation.

King Geza II was the sovereign who started to enlarge the Hungarian Kingdom, thus
expanding its authority as well. Therefore, one of the consequences of such measures
was the German settlement in Transylvania. As such, a series of privileges and duties go
into matter between the Hungarian king and the German settlers. The latter engage
themselves to protect the lands they have received. These lands were especially
endangered by the attacks led by the so-called Cumans, an ethnic group living south and
east of the Carpathian Mountains. In return for their service, the German settlers were
rewarded with a number of privileges, such as jurisdiction, personal liberty, the right to
migrate, tax exemption and the right to own property. Their jurisdiction meant that the
German settlers werent obliged to obey any foreign court. Their right to own land also
implied their right to leave this land as inheritance to their heirs. Next to their obligation
of defending the realms borders, the German settlers vowed faith to the king and were
conditioned to serve him as their liege lord, both militarily and financially.2 These duties

1
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, Bd. Victoriei 57, 550024
Sibiu, Romania; email: cioltei_alexandru@yahoo.com.
2
Maria Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germani n sudul Transilvaniei. Istorie, arheologie i arhitectur
(secolele XIIXIII) (Bucureti: Academia Romn: 2011), 3132; Ioan Albu, Mobilitt der im
mittelalterlichen ungarischen Verteidigungssystem eingebundenen Vlkerschaften und die Grndung der
rumnischen Frstentmer Krieg, in: Christoph Rass (ed.), Militrische Migration vom Altertum bis zur
Gegenwart (Studien zur Historischen Migrationsforschung, Band 30) (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schningh,

155
are mentioned in the famous document issued by King Andrew II in 12063 and in the 1224
diploma.
During the second half of Geza IIs reign (11411162), southern Transylvania
was also occupied by German settlers, namely during the 50s and 60s. Within the
province of Sibiu, the settlement process ended by the start of the 13th century.4 The first
document stating the German settlement in southern Transylvania dates back to 1192
1196.5 This document raises a few questions that represent a historiographical challenge,
caused mainly by the use of the term terra deserta. Although steps into solving this
problem have already been made,6 its uncertainty is yet to be resolved.7 The area
between Ortie and Baraolt was the first to be occupied by German settlers. This area
was also mentioned in the document issued in 1224.8 Historiographical, this area is
known as the so-called fundus regius. Its elongated shape emphasizes the military and
defensive character that defined the purpose of colonizing Germans in this very same
area, namely at the Southern Carpathians border.9 The southern Transylvanian defensive
system was completed during the first half of the 13th century, after 1211, once the
Knights of the Teutonic Order were settled in the Burzenland. The Knights of the
Teutonic Order had built a series of strongholds10 in this area.
There arent any known political-administrative entities attributed to the German
settlers in southern Transylvania until the beginning of the 13th century.11 An explanation
for such a situation might be suggested by the ongoing process of settlement occurring at
that time. It was through the granted privileges that the German settlers were able to
withstand being integrated into the Hungarian institutional system and finally to develop
their own territorial-administrative institutions that went on to become known as the so-
called seats. This is why the diploma issued by King Andrew II in 1224 mentions the
county of Sibiu, turned later into the seat of Sibiu.12
A document released by Pope Celestin III (11911198) on the 20th December,
1191 is mentioning the Transylvanian Saxons ecclesiastic organization. The document
further states the functioning of the provostship in Sibiu, the so called ecclesia
Theutonicorum Ultrasilvanorum in praeposituram sit liberam instituta.13 The
documents importance is enhanced by the fact that the Holy Father in Rome specifies
the provostships judicial character, namely that of prepositurae exemptae. The

Paderborn, 2016), 6668.

3
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 3132, no. 53; Ub. I, 910, no. 17.
4
Thomas Ngler, Aezarea sailor n Transilvania (Bucureti: Kriterion, 1992), 73.
5
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 1112, no. 19; Ub. I, 23, no. 2.
6
tefan Pascu, Voievodatul Transilvaniei, vol. I (Cluj: Dacia, 1972), 126129; Lszl Makkai,
Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (8961526), in History of Transylvania, vol. 1, From
the beginnings to 1606 (New-York, 2001), 421423.
7
erban Turcu, Despre semnificaia termenului desertum n documentul referitor la prepozitura sailor
emis de cardinalul Grigore de Sancta Maria in Portico Octaviae, Anuarul Institului de Istorie George
Bariiu din Cluj-Napoca. Series Historica, Supplement 1, (2015): 157174; Albu, Mobilitt, 6068.
8
It regards the famous diploma issued by King Andrew II: DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 208210, no. 157;
Ub. I, 3235, no. 43. For a more detailed research see also Harald Zimmermann, Das Andreanum und
seine Probleme. Alte und neue berlegungen, Forschungen 56 (2013): 950; Albu, Mobilitt, 5775.
9
Ioan Marian iplic, Organizarea defensiv a Transilvaniei n evul mediu secolele XXIV (Bucureti:
Militar, 2006), 8083; Albu, Mobilitt, passim.
10
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 15015, no. 77; Ub. I, 1112, no. 19.
11
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 338341, no. 292; Albu, Mobilitt, 6268.
12
Ub. I. 3235, no. 43
13
Ub. I, 12, no. 1.

156
provostship is thus taken from the canonical jurisdiction of the bishop in Alba Iulia.14
King Bela III (11721196) is known to be the one to have founded the provostship in
Sibiu and established the provostships jurisdiction. His attempt awoke a conflict
between Adrian, the Transylvanian bishop and P., the provost of Sibiu. In order to solve
this dispute, the Holy Father appointed cardinal Gregory as a mediator. It is under this
circumstance that the term terra deserta first comes to be introduced in the document
released by King Bela III regarding the provostships rights over the German settlers.15
The provost was the official leading the provostship. His prerogatives were
determined as an aid for the bishop. He was supposed to oversee the members of the
capitulum and their activity. Furthermore, in the bishops absence the provost was
supposed to lead ceremonies on his behalf, the latter being the formers assistant, his first
aid. The provostship in Sibiu, through its mere existence was proof of the importance
given to the relation contoured between Transylvanian ecclesiastical structures /
institutions. Although the provost is normally considered the bishops aid, in the case of
Sibius provost, the latter is declared the aid of the bishop in Rome, namely the Holy
Father.16 Consequently, the provost in Sibiu was declared the direct representative of the
Pope, on behalf of his interests in Transylvania.
The privilege attesting the provostships founding has not been preserved. This
privilege was later mentioned in the document released between 1192 and 1196. The
document was written down under the circumstances arisen as a result of the conflict
emerged between these two institutions, the provostship in Sibiu and the Transylvanian
bishopric.17 It was at that time, that King Geza II (11411162) had granted the so-called
terra deserta as a gift to the German settlers. The purpose of this generous gift was
implied that they settle in the region qui tunc errant in illo solo deserto, quod gloriosae
memoriae Geysa rex Flandrensibus concessit.18 Gezas son, Bela III, founded the
provostship in Sibiu for the German settlers occupying the above-mentioned terra
deserta. At this point we are obliged to point upon a contradiction that arose at that time:
the provost P. stated that all the Flanders settlers were to be his subjects, while the bishop
in Alba Iulia was willing to grant him only those German settlers occupying the terra
deserta given to them by Geza II. The Holy Fathers position on this matter is to be
found in the same document, as follows: Nos vero idem cum domino rege sentientes et
eandem interpretationem habentes in animo praedictum verbum sic interpretamur, quod
de nullis aliis Flandrensibus intelleximus nec alios praepositurae supposuimus, nisi
dumtaxat illos, qui tempore, quo ipsam praeposituram constituimus, in illo tantum
habitabant et erant habitaturi deserto, quod Geysa rex Flandrensibus prioribus
concessit.19 Therefore, the provostship in Sibiu was to include under its jurisdiction the
territory received by the German settlers from King Geza II. Nevertheless, this conflict
found its end only as a result of the intervention undertaken by Pope Innocent III. He was
the one to emphasize the validity of the papal legates verdict, namely cardinal Gregory,
regarding the provostships territorial jurisdiction, stretching only over the territory

14
Rzvan Neagu, Episcopi i Episcopii n estul Ungariei Medievale. Tipologii Episcopale n Diecezele de
Transilvania, Oradea i Cenad n Evul Mediu (Cluj-Napoca: Mega, 2016), 80.
15
It regards those settlers known in documents as Flanders.
16
erban Turcu, Fondarea prepoziturii sailor ca proiect transilvan al Sfntului Scaun, Anuarul Institului
de Istorie George Bariiu din Cluj-Napoca. Series Historica 49 (2010): 29.
17
Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germane, 30.
18
Ub. I, 23, no. 2.
19
Ibid.

157
received from Geza II.20 This territory included the area north of the Olt river,
subsequently known as the capituli of Sibiu, Nocrich, Cincu and Rupea. Their territory
was smaller in comparison to the area found under the jurisdiction of the county of Sibiu.
According to the diploma issued by King Andrew II, the latter stretched from Ortie all
the way to Baraolt. Despite the Popes intervention, stated in the document released
between 1192 and 1196, the relation between the provostship in Sibiu and the bishopric
in Alba Iulia continued to be a tense one. This being the case, Pope Innocent III felt
obliged to address the priests shepherding over the German settlers located outside the
stipulated jurisdiction. As a consequence, Pope Innocent released a new document in
1199. His ruling was once again favoring the bishop in Alba Iulia, enforcing furthermore
the Transylvanian bishoprics authority over those German settlers parishes21 known to
refuse the bishops authority, preferring to appeal to the archbishop in Esztergom or the
provost in Sibiu Strigoniensis archiepiscopus vel Cibiniensis praepositus.22
Another key moment for the provostships evolution was brought upon by
another document issued by Pope Innocent III on the 15th of July, 1211. It was through
this document that the Holy Father demanded bishop Wilhelm of Transylvania to name
one magister R. as Sibius provost. He was already chosen by King Andrew II to occupy
this position.23 Bishop Wilhelm had not carried out the Popes demands and the latter had
found himself in the position of releasing another document appointing Berthold of Meran,
archbishop and provost in Kalocsa with this task. It was on the 18th of January, 121224 that
the Holy Father issued another document in this respect, naming Berthold of Meran
responsible for confirming magister R. as Sibius provost.25 It was most likely that Andrew
II was influenced by the archbishop of Kalocsa and his sister, queen Gertrude,26 to demand
the Pope to convert the provostship in Sibiu into a bishopric under the Kalocsa
archbishoprics authority. Nevertheless, the Holy Father rejected such a demand, being
fully aware of the conflict that would have been ignited between the bishop in Alba Iulia
and the archbishop of Esztergom, the latter also showing interest in subordinating a future
bishopric of Sibiu.
Burzenland was another conflict area concerning the subordination of an
ecclesiastical institution. The Knights of the Teutonic Order werent under any kind of
ecclesiastic authority, may it have been the archbishopric in Kalocsa, Esztergom or Alba
Iulia. There arent any evidences regarding the Orders religious affiliation. Most likely,
the kings intention was to turn the provostship in Sibiu into a bishopric that was
supposed to include the Knight of the Teutonic Order as well.27 The provostship in Sibiu
and the Deanery of the Burzenland were known as two institutions that managed to avoid
the authority of the Transylvanian bishop. This avoidance couldnt have taken place
without the intervention of the archbishop of Esztergom. His influence in this matter is to
be explained through the positions held both by the provost and the dean, these being

20
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 13, no. 21; Ub. I, 34, no. 4.
21
Turcu, Fondarea prepoziturii sailor, 3233.
22
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 1415, no. 25; Ub. I, 45, no. 5.
23
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 152, no. 78; Ub. I, 1011, no. 18.
24
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 152153, no. 80; Ub. I, 12, no. 20.
25
Turcu, Fondarea prepoziturii sailor, 3435.
26
Queen Gertrude was Andrew IIs first wife. Her influence upon the king is a well-known matter. That was
how she tried to help her brother occupy key positions, as well as to promote members of the Transylvanian
Saxons community as such, Zoltn J. Kosztolnyik, Hungary in the Thirteenth Century (New York: East
European Monographs, 1996), 4850.
27
Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germane, 49.

158
similar to the ones held by any bishop under the authority of the Esztergom
archbishopric, the latter holding also the position of the Holy Fathers legatus natus.28
The exact year when the provostship entered the authority of the archbishopric in
Esztergom remains unknown. Nevertheless, the bull issued by Pope Gregory IX (1227
1241) in 1231 confirms the institutions status of ecclesia Theutonicorum
Ultrasilvanorum in praeposituram sit liberam instituta.29 Most likely, the provostship in
Sibiu entered the jurisdiction of the Esztergom archbishopric after the Mongol invasion
(12411242). The Mongols victory threw Transylvania in a drastic state, which
determined the Pope to allow King Bela IV a series of political exemptions, granting him
thus political freedom within his realm. These exemptions meant a departure from all
former advancements made during the papacy of Celestin III, Innocent III, and Honorius
III. As such, the German settlers provostship in Sibiu had come once again to be
pressured by the Transylvanian bishopric and capitulum.30 Its confusing situation caused
by the Mongol invasion was finally cleared in 1264. It was then that archbishop Philipp
of Esztergom had granted the Transylvanian Saxons priests a series of rights, while also
stating that the latter and the dean of Sibiu were to be rendered under his authority.31 The
relation between the provostship in Sibiu and the archbishopric in Esztergom was once
again stated in 1288, when Lodomerius, archbishop of Esztergom, was threatening to
excommunicate the people inhabiting the counties of Sibiu and Braov, proving once
again the existing institutional subordination of both counties.32
During the second half of the 13th century, the provostship in Sibiu once again
encountered itself in a difficult situation caused by the Matthew Csks (the
Transylvanian voivode) authoritarian politics. Matthew Csk, Transylvanian voivode
between 12741275 and 12761277, was striving to subordinate all administrative
structures within his territory. During the 1270s, after the passing away of King Stephan
V (12711272) and the coronation of his son, Ladislaus IV (12721290), the Hungarian
Kingdoms interests were put in motion partly by the Csk family, mostly because the
king was only 10 years old.33 The Transylvanian Saxons administrative autonomy and
ecclesiastic jurisdiction began to be threatened when Matthew Csks interests started
colliding with those of the Transylvanian bishop, Peter Monoszl (12701307). The
voivode wished to subordinate the county of Sibiu,34 while the bishop in Alba Iulia
wanted to expand his domain over the territorial jurisdiction belonging to the
ecclesiastical institution in Sibiu.
The events of 1277 portray a violent break out of the Transylvanian Saxons
community as a result of the pressure they were being put under by the most important
Transylvanian institutions, namely the one of the voivode and the one of the bishop. At
the time of its revolt, the Transylvanian Saxons community was a deep-rooted one,
living in southern Transylvania for almost a century, struggling to maintain its own
identity against all subordinating efforts led by the bishopric in Alba Iulia.35 The 1277

28
Rzvan Neagu, Episcopi i Episcopii, 83.
29
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i XIII, 244, no. 204; Ub. I, 50, no. 58.
30
Tudor Slgean, Transilvania n a doua jumtate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului
congregaional, (Cluj-Napoca: Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2003), 82.
31
DIR. C, veacul XIII, 6566, no. 6061; Ub. I, 9192, no. 104105.
32
DIR. C, veacul XIII, 296299, no. 337.
33
Kosztolnyik, Hungary in the Thirteenth Century, 257.
34
Slgean, Transilvania, 176.
35
Cosmin Popa-Gorjanu, Conflict i memorie n Transilvania secolelor XIIIXIV. Episcopia Transilvaniei
i Gyan fiul lui Alard, in Secolul al XIII-lea pe meleagurile locuite de ctre romni, ed. Adrian Andrei

159
revolt became possible also because of the political instability characterizing the
Hungarian Kingdom at that time.36 The matter of succession regarding the Esztergoms
archbishops seat was the spark that fired up the revolt shortly after the seat became
vacant in 1276. The problems regarding choosing a new archbishop led to an open
political conflict that started a civil war. The Csks were rooting for the naming of
Nicolaus Kn,37 archbishop of Esztergom, after they had already given him their support
in order to become the Transylvanian provost. Peter Kszegi, bishop of Veszprm, was
Kns opponent. Kszegis support came from the aristocratic families rivaling with the
Csks. The conflict escalated to the point when Peter Csk, comes palatinus, was
vandalizing the bishopric cathedral in Veszprm, in the summer of 1276.38
The events of 1276 ignited the Transylvanian Saxons reaction. Due to the
subordination of the provostship in Sibiu towards the Esztergom archbishopric, the
victory of Nicolaus Kn would have meant losing their independence towards the
Transylvanian bishopric. Matthew Csk protected his interests by firstly turning the
position of comes Cibiniesnis from a position of royal dignitary into one attributed to his
own entourage.39 Secondly, Matthew Csk decided to strengthen his authority over the
Transylvanian Saxons provostship. That meant transferring the latter under the
jurisdiction of the Transylvanian bishopric. All the above have determined the
Transylvanian Saxons community to choose the armed resistance.40
The rebellions decisive moment took place on the 21st of February, 1277, during
what came to be known as the Reminiscere Sunday. The Transylvanian Saxons, led by
Gyan,41 son of Alard, from Ocna Sibiului / Salzburg, attacked, robbed and torched the
bishopric cathedral in Alba Iulia. Several clergymen lost their lives during this attack,
amongst whom Agapit, archdeacon, Mihail, archdeacon of Ozd, Bartholomew,
archdeacon of Trnava and the priest Racha.42 Furthermore, the document reporting these
events mentions the death of 2000 people. Although this number is an exaggerated one,
it shows the devastating proportions of this action.43 By setting the cathedral on fire, a
series of adornments, books and documents were also destroyed.44 Gyans attack was
seen as an attack upon Christianity itself. Together with the people he led, Gyan was
excommunicated on the 19th of July, 1278.45 The Transylvanian Saxons attack expanded
shortly all around Transylvania, many lives being lost and many bishopric and priestly
properties being destroyed and burned out, even though they had survived the
Reminiscere Sunday.46 The attack on the bishopric cathedral in Alba Iulia was directed
against the voivode Matthew Csk and his oppressive politic opposing the Transylvanian
Saxons freedoms.

Rusu (Cluj-Napoca: Mega, 2006), 171172.

36
Pascu, Voievodatul Transilvaniei, 174175.
37
Nicolaus Kn had held the position of archbishop of Esztergom before, namely in 1273; see also
Kosztolnyik, Hungary, 258.
38
Ibid., 260262.
39
Tudor Slgean, Transilvania, 176177.
40
Ibid., 179.
41
Regarding Gyan and his descendants see also Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germane, 6163.
42
DIR. C, veacul XIII, 187, no. 202.
43
Gyula Krist, Geschichte des Frhen Siebenbrgens (8951324) (Studien zur Geschichte Ungarns 7)
(Herne: Schfer, 2005), 197198.
44
Kroly Vekov, Locul de adeverire din Alba Iulia, secolele XIIIXVI (Cluj-Napoca: Centrul de Studii
Transilvane, 2003), 140.
45
DIR. C, veacul XIII, 193195, no. 214.
46
Slgean, Transilvania, 180.

160
 The Transylvanian Saxons rebellion manages to banish the Csks out of
Transylvania. Their success was boosted also by an external favorable context. Later on,
armed forces led by Fyntha Aba assaulted the Transylvanian Saxons living in the
province of Sibiu.47 The Transylvanian Saxons rebellion came to an end in 1279, once
Peter Aba took the position of comes Cibiniensis and magister agasonum.48
In the early 14th century, the jurisdiction of the provostship in Sibiu had come to
be the same as it was in 1224, consisting of the territories belonging to the future seats of
Sibiu, Nocrich, Cincu and Rupea. The Transylvanian Saxons ecclesiastical institution in
Sibiu continued to function as such, namely as an independent administrative entity. The
provostship was ultimately dissolved by King Sigismund of Luxemburg in 1424.
Final considerations. The second half of the 13th century is marked almost
entirely by the Transylvanian Saxons social convulsions, emphasized by political and
ecclesiastical causes and effects. At the same time, ecclesiastical and administrative
institutions were characterized by a regional centralization process, threatening
autonomous institutionsthe county and the provostship of Sibiuin southern
Transylvania. The royal authoritys decline will lead to an amplified struggle led by the
Transylvanian Saxons in order to maintain their autonomy that was highly threatened by
the bishopric in Alba Iulia between the late 13th and the 14th century.

47
DIR. C, veacul XIII, 254255, no. 288.
48
DIR. C, veacul XIII, 201203, no. 225.

161
 The Order of St Paul the Hermit in the Hungarian Kingdom:
The orders remains in Puca, Sibiu County

CORINA HOPRTEAN1

Abstract: The medieval monastic landscape during the 13th century has known many variations
and changes. The political international context, the papacys strive to gain majority over the
Orthodox European areas and the Hungarian realms desire to complete the conversion of
heretics living inside its borders have led to the rise of a new monastic order, developed inside the
latters territories. This new monastic community was that of the Pauline Order, also known as
the Order of Saint Paul the Hermit. The order grew only to become the third largest Hungarian
monastic order after the one of St Francis and St Benedict. The present paper aims to illustrate
the orders expansion within Transylvania. Although the history of the Pauline monasteries in
Transylvania is a road less traveled, this didnt stop researchers to trace the existence of at least
5 monasteries belonging to the Order of St Paul the Hermit in the above-mentioned areas.
Amongst these, one should mention the ones in Puca (Sibiu County), Tui and Alba Iulia (Alba
County), Patalani (Cluj County) and Voivodeni (Salaj County). The paper outlines itself as an
attempt to map all of these out and emphasize a case study based on the existing information
regarding the remains of the Pauline monastery in Puca (Sibiu County).
Keywords: Hungarian Kingdom, the order of St Paul the Hermit, Pauline monasteries, Puca
(Sibiu County).

From a historiographical point of view, the topic of St Paul the Hermit and his monastic
order isat first sightan approachable one. Charters describing the events in the
orders history have been kept and its prior generals have written histories regarding its
activity. The best-known history is the one started by prior general Gregorius Gyngysi
in the 1520s and continued for decades by the following prior generals of the Holy
Cross Monastery, near Budapest.
The topic also ignited interest during the second half of the 20 th century, having
been researched by the likes of Tamas Guzsik, Zoltn Bencze or Jszef Trk and more
recently, in the last 20 years, by Hungarian researchers like Jzsef Laszlovszky or
Beatrix Romhnyi. These last efforts have emphasized the need to approach the orders
legacy by means of landscape studies. In regard to the orders Transylvanian legacy,
attempts have been made, studies undertaken, but neither a general approach, nor an
archaeological one comprising all Transylvanian Pauline monasteries has been shaped.
Structural studies were carried out at the former Pauline monasterys site in Teiu (Alba
County) by a team from the Babe-Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca. An archaeological
team led by Ioan Marian iplic from the Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu has
conducted the digging campains within the premise of the Pauline monastery in Puca
(Sibiu County). Last but not least, we ought to mention nige Benczes published
landscape studies in respect to the Pauline monastery of Sncraiu de Mure (Mure
County) as an attempt to reconstruct its monastic landscape.

1
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, Bd. Victoriei 57, 550024
Sibiu, Romania; email: corinahopartean@yahoo.com.

163
 The birth of the Order of St Paul the Hermit. Known as the only monastic
order founded within the Hungarian Kingdom, the Order of St Paul the Hermit grew into
a homogenous entity around 1225 after a series of hermit communities decided to come
together as one. The order grew into the third largest one, being outnumbered only by the
Order of St Francis and the one of St Benedict. Its support came mainly from the ranks
of the Hungarian nobility.
The history of the Hungarian hermit monks can be traced back to 1060, when
bishop Mor of Pcs mentioned the fact that hermit monks, such as Andrs and Benedek,
were living on the shores of the river Vag.2 During King Solomons reign (10631073),
Vc or Waacy3 was another known hermit monk living in solitude in a forest near the
future premise of a town which came to be named after him. Furthermore, during the 13th
century, the town of Patacs and its surroundings were part of the Pcs diocese. In 1225,
bishop Bertalan of Pcs granted the hermit brothers living within this area permission to
gather and come together into forming a single community on the so called Jakobsberg,
near rgsi, where he allowed them to build a monastery4 under Bertalans authority.
One of the main points on the map of monasteries dedicated to St Paul the
Hermit consisted in the area next to the town of Pilis, namely the forest in its vicinity. It
was during the second half of the 13th century, that three Pauline monasteries were
granted permission to be erected within the premise of this royal forest, these being the
Holy Cross Monastery, the Holy Spirit Monastery and St Ladislaus Monastery, all of
which having been developed from the legacy and activity of three hermit brothers that,
shortly before the Mongol invasion, decided to withdraw from all mundane form of life
inside a grotto located within the Pillis forest.5 One of these three hermit brothers was
Eusebius, a former canon in Esztergom, who was to become known as the orders
founder. In 1256, Eusebius took part in the synod held in Esztergom as the hermit
brothers representative and as such he also addressed Pope Urban IV (12611264) in
order to receive his permission to embrace the Rule of St Augustine, request which was
declined. Nonetheless, Eusebius efforts took shape when Pal, bishop of Veszprem
(12591274), granted the hermit brothers permission to continue living as monks within
the confines of seven monasteries.6 The order was finally stated as such in 1308 and was
included in the ranks of orders following the rule of St Augustine. This success was the
result of the efforts undertaken in this respect by Lrinc, prior general at the Holy Cross
Monastery, which became the orders headquarter.7 Henceforth, the orders
development faced an open road. In 1327, Pope John XXII (13161374) ordered the
archbishop of Kalocsa to revise the number of Pauline monasteries inside the realm, the
latter registering thus a total of 30 monasteries, each being a home for 2030 monks.8
It was during the 14th century, during the reigns of King Charles Robert (1301

2
Jzsef Trk, Lszl Legeza and Pter Szacsvay, Plosok (Budapest: Mikes, 1996), 40.
3
Gbor Sarbak, Prior General Gregory Gyngysi and the History of the Pauline Fathers in the Early 16 th
century, in Infima Aetas Pannonica: Studies in Late Medieval Hungarian history, ed. by Pter Kovcs, and
Kornl Szovk (Budapest: Corvina, 2009), 253
4
Zoltn Bencze, Der Paulinerorden im mittelalterlichen Ungarn. Das Hauptkloster von Budaszentlrinc im
Spiegel geschichtlicher und archologischer Daten, in Budapest im Mittelalter, ed. by Gerd Biegel
(Braunschweig, 1991), 45.
5
Trk, Legeza and Szacsvay, Plosok, 41; Zsuzsa Eszter Pet, Medieval Pauline Monastic Space in a
Royal Forest: Spatial Analysis in the Pilis, Annual of medieval studies at CEU 21 (2015): 248
6
Trk, Legeza, and Szacsvay, Plosok, 42.
7
Bencze, Der Paulinerorden, 415.
8
Trk, Legeza and Szacsvay, Plosok, 42.

164
1342) and his son, King Louis the Great (13421382), that the order received the
confirmation of both its status and privileges, being taken under the protection and
authority of the Holy See and receiving land and properties from the royal authority, as
well as being exempt from paying the tithe and tax resulted from harvesting its
vineyards.9 It was thus that the 14th century quickly became the orders flourishing
period.
Life in a Pauline monastery. Depicting the day to day life in a Pauline
monastery isnt that hard of a task, considering the written sources that came down to us
in form of charters, documents and even written histories regarding the order. Comparing
historiographical information with archaeological one, the portrayal of a Pauline
monastery, under all its aspects, will end up the same. Out of the seventy Pauline
monasteries10 standing around the year 1500, almost all of them were considered small
structures, built to harbor only the 1015 monks, sometimes less, living within its
premise. The churchs size is regarded also as an indication that only the monks were
attending mass service and they did not count on the presence of others. If the church
was stone-built, the other buildings inside the compound and the annexes as well were
made of wood and destined for storage and other industrial activities.11
Their size was linked also to their locations, Pauline monasteries having been
erected in rural areas, more specifically in the vicinity of forests and water courses.12 It
was in such areas that the Pauline monks could sustain their needs through their day to
day activities. One current research direction developed at the Central European
University in Budapest encompasses an approach starting from the Paulines milling
activities and the way that this particular sustainable activity had shaped or even re-
shaped the natural landscape. Such a study approach could be applied in all regions
where Pauline monasteries had been erected, or could even be an indication or an
argument of having been a location for such ecclesiastic structure, given the fact that
some of them have disappeared. Other activities helping the Pauline monks to sustain
themselves were wine-growing, fish farming or even renting houses13 they had received
in urban spaces and didnt inhabit. Due to their sheltered status, the Paulines were given
many donations, including arable lands, pastures, meadows, plots and even entire
villages.14 In respect to other aspects of the monks lives or activities, one cannot
emphasize their inclination towards literary activity, their order being more of a
pantheistic one. Nevertheless, the orders prior generals were learned men, even if we are
only to take into account the likes of Gregorius Gyngysi.
The Pauline monasteries in Transylvania during the Middle Ages. A history
of the Pauline order in Transylvania has yet to be written. Some mentions about former
monasteries that used to belong to the order are to be identified in several volumes. For
example, in her volume Confreriile medievale n Transilvania (secolele XIVXVI)
Lidia Gross is mentioning the existence of 5 monasteries: in Slaj County, in Cluj

9
Ibid., 43.
10
Beatrix F. Romhnyi, Life in the Pauline Monasteries of Late Medieval Hungary, Periodica
Polytechnica 43, 2, (Budapest, 2012): 54.
11
Jszef Laszlovszky and Beatrix Romhnyi, Cathedrals, monasteries and churches: the archaeology of
ecclesiastic monuments, in Hungarian archaeology at the turn of the millennium, ed. by Zsolt Visy and
Mihly Nagy (Budapest, 2003), 374.
12
Ibid. 375; Pet, Medieval Pauline monastic space, 254.
13
Romhnyi, Life in the Pauline Monasteries of Late Medieval Hungary,54.
14
nige Bencze, A Medieval Pauline Monastic Landscape in the Szekler Land, Transsylvania Nostra,
Year 9, 34 (2015): 16.

165
County, two in Alba County (one in the village of Tui and the other in a former village,
Brban, now part of Alba Iulia) and the fifth in Sibiu County, namely the one in
Puca.15 More recently, nige Bencze has published an article16 regarding the Pauline
monastery in Sncraiu de Mure, in Mure County, therefore one more site of a former
Pauline monastery having been added to the ones already mentioned by Lidia Gross.
If one should search for any written evidence of former Pauline monasteries
within Transylvania, then written sources are to be analyzed. Thus, one is able to be
surprised by the increasing number of Pauline monasteries that had been built in
Transylvania during the Middle Ages. For example, it shouldnt come as a surprise that
King Louis the Great founded a Pauline monastery in the region of Maramure in 1363.17
Another Pauline monastery is being mentioned by a document issued in 1369. The latter
was drawn in order to establish the confines of two estates, Brban (the same
mentioned by Lidia Gross) and Miceti, both in Alba County. While stating the kings
ruling, the document uses the domain of a Pauline monastery as a reference point. 18
Thus, this could have been one of the two monasteries mentioned by Lidia Gross. The
town of Teiu is also known as the location of a former Pauline monastery. The Pauline
monasterys ruins were mentioned in the first half of the 19th century, in Rudolph von
Jennys guide of the Habsburg Empires states after he undertook a long journey visiting
the empire. On his way from Cluj-Napoca to Alba Iulia he stopped shortly in Teiu where
he came across the monasterys ruins. In his guide, von Jenny also mentions that the
monastery was built with money coming from the prey taken by John of Hunyad after the
battle of Sntimbru against the Turks in 1445.19 More recently, in the early 2000s, a
research team from the Babe-Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca undertook an
archaeological digging campaign on the premise of the former Pauline monastery in
Teiu.20 Therefore, Teiu is to be regarded as the location of a third Pauline monastery in
Alba County. Another document, issued on June 7th, 1458 states that King Matthew urges
the authorities in Sibiu and Braov to summon a carpenter named Ulrich to pay back 100
guilders that he received as payment for his work within the Pauline monastery in
Hunedoara, work that he did not complete.21
Other monasteries belonging to the order of St Paul the Hermit were built in the
counties of Timi and Arad, but these are yet to be researched. An important source for
such a research might be the work of Bishop Bunyitay Vince (18371915), a Roman-
Catholic bishop of the Oradea Diocese. He was also a member of the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences and had written a series of studies regarding the history of his
diocese.
The Pauline monastery of Puca (Sibiu County). Puca is a village in Sibiu
County, stretching along the Seca River. Our interest for this particular village has been
awakened by the ruins struggling to face the hardship of time and mans aggression.
These ruins belong to the church of a former Pauline monastery erected during the 15th
century. Thus, the object of our study is part of a chain of Transylvanian monasteries

15
Lidia Gross, Confreriile medievale n Transilvania (secolele XIVXVI) (Cluj-Napoca: Argonaut, 2009), 123.
16
Bencze, A medieval pauline monastic landscape, 1017.
17
DRH. C, vol. XII, 119, no. 142.
18
DRH. C, vol. XIII, 568569, no. 368.
19
Rudolph von Jenny, Handbuch fr Reisende in dem sterreichischen Kaiserstaate, ed. by Adolf Schmidl
(Vienna: Carl Gerold, 1835), 321.
20
http://hiphi.ubbcluj.ro/personal/kovacs_zsolt/cv.html.
21
Ub., vol. VI, no. 3123,1415.

166
dedicated to the Order of St Paul the Hermit that have been built as a measure taken in
implementing and emphasizing the alignment of the Hungarian Kingdom to the Western
Church ruled from Rome.
The villages first written evidence dates back during the reign of Louis IV
(12721290), when the king endowed the estate of Pokafolua to Paulus, the priest in
Apoldu de Sus, and his brother Poka.22 After the latters death, the estate was inherited
by his successors. In 1309, a document mentioned one Jacobus de duabus Turribus
presbyteros seu rectores ac universitatem sacerdotum decanatus,23 thus indicating an
ecclesiastic structure with two towers. This was the first church built within the
community, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The church, erected during the 13th century
was a Romanesque one and its two western towers helped identify the village, namely
duae turris or Trnen.24
Also by means of documents, we are now able to assert that the Pauline
monastery in Puca was already functioning as such by 1418, when a document issued
states that Pope Martin (14171431) had granted the Pauline brothers an indulgence.25
Unfortunately, as is the case with the majority of Pauline monasteries we do not have
written evidence that describes the brothers modus Vivendi. The hill top on which the
monastery was build can only emphasize its reduced premise, sheltering up to 15
brothers that were most likely dividing their time between wine-growing, fish farming or
milling.26
The monastery was short lived, having been destroyed during an Ottoman raid,
thus making the lack of any written evidence more plausible. By 6th April, 1446, a papal
document was issued, stating that the properties of the former Pauline monastery were to
be transferred to the Order of St Francis.27 The above-mentioned raid could be related to
some restoration works ordered by John of Hunyad inside the church in Sntimbru
(located some 30 km away from Puca) in order to commemorate his brothers sacrifice.
The latter had passed away in 1434 or 1442 during an Ottoman attack.28 Thus, the events
leading to the monasteries partial destruction might be related to this episode.
Nonetheless, even after this transfer of property to the Order of St Francis, documents
portraying events in Puca were still referring to the structure as being a Pauline
monastery. In this respect, we are obliged to mention a conflict ignited by the Kereky
family, guilty of trespassing the monasterys property, attacking a monk, cutting down
trees from the monasterys forests and letting their pigs destroy its pastures. The

22
Maria Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germani n sudul Transilvaniei (Bucureti: Academia Roman, 2011), 258
and Ub. II, no. 628, 4850.
23
Ub. I, 240.
24
Sabin Adrian Luca, Zeno Karl Pinter and Adrian Georgescu, Repertoriul arheologic al judeului Sibiu
(Sibiu: Economic, 2003), 163.
25
Konstanz 1418 Mai 14.: Papst Martin V. verleiht dem von Ladislaus, dem Pfarrer von Dobring und
Kannoniker von Weissenburger Kirche (per ipsum novissime constructum) Pauliner Kloster der hl. Maria
n Tren (claustrum beatae Mariae virginis in villa Pokafalva, in quo fratris sancti Pauli primi heremitae
resident) einen Ablass. (Ub. IV, 78, no. 1844).
26
Beatrix Romhnyi, Klster und Stifte im mittelalterlichen Ungarn, Sdost Forschungen 58,
(1999): 17.
27
Rom 1448 April 6.: Supplik des siebenbrgischen Vizewoiwoden Nikolaus von Salzburg, dass es ihm
verstattet werde, den Konvent und das Kloster der H. Maria in Trnen, die einst von den Brdern des Ordens
des Paulinereremiten besetzt jetzt infolge der Einflle der Trken verlassen wren, den Brdern der
Franziskanerobservanz zu vergeben. Von der ppstlichen Kanzlei: Fiat, ut petitur. Datum ut supra (Ub. V,
251, no. 2644)
28
Virgil Vtianu, Istoria artei feudale, vol. I (Bucureti: Academia R. P. R., 1959), 249.

167
Transylvanian voivode punished the Kereky family by making them pay 1000 guilders
worth fine.29
From an architectural perspective, the ruins still standing today on the ground of
the former Pauline monastery represent a small percentage of it, having been influenced
also by the structural works undertaken by Franciscan monks after they had taken over
the premise. There arent any indications regarding the surrounding wall or other
structural elements functioning as defense mechanisms. The only architectural feature
still standing is the church, nonetheless in a precarious state, its roof top having
disappeared for more than two decades. The church is standing on a hilltop located cca 1
km away from the 13th century Romanesque church. The Pauline church is of reduced
size; its altar is shaped as a polygonal aps. The structure is surrounded by buttresses,
three on its northern side and three on its southern one, embracing the openings of
former windows. Indications of southern and northern secondary entrances are visible on
these sides, between the buttresses. The western side encompasses the main entrance, of
grand size. The archaeological diggings didnt lead to the discovery of remains coming
from other annexes, nor of a bell tower.
Conclusions. The approach of Transylvanian Pauline monasteries and their
legacy is still at its beginning. Archaeological diggings and landscape studies are to be
seen as research approaches, which could improve the portrayal of a monastic landscape
belonging to the order of St Paul the Hermit in Transylvania. Furthermore, of great
importance is to establish the number and location of all former Pauline monasteries in
this region or at least try to do so in a more organic manner. Thus, a road of many
possibilities might stand open to further researchers. The primary sources linked to field
information might better shape what was once the day to day life in a Pauline
Transylvanian monastery and its influence within its surrounding landscape, to the
neighboring community and to other Pauline communities.

29
Klausenburg 1475 Januar 3.: Der siebenbrgische Woiwode Blasius Magyar ersucht den Konvent
Koloysmonostor bei der Untersuchung der Ausschreitungen der Adligen de Kereky gegen das Marienkloster
der (Pauliner) Eremiten in Trnen (Pokafalwa) mitzuwirken. Die Adligen sind angeklagt, einen dem
Kloster gehrenden Wald schlagen, gelassen und auf eine dem Kloster gehrende Wiese ihre Schweine
getrieben zu haben. Auch sollen ihre Familiaren Valentin Ambrosius und Laurencius Sel sowie ein
Stephanus einen Wagen mit Holz aus dem Wald im Klosterhof gestrmt und einen Klosterangehrigen
berfallen und ausgeraubt haben. Der dadurch erwachsene Schaden wird mit 1000 Gulden veranschlagt
(Ub. VII, 30, no. 4023).

168
Fig. 1. Map of known existing locations of former Pauline monasteries in Transylvania

Fig. 2. Satellite photography: the location of the Pauline monastery in Puca

169
Fig. 3. The western faade of the church of Pauline monastery in Puca

Fig. 4. The eastern faade the church of Pauline monastery in Puca

170
Fig. 5. The southern side of the church of Pauline monastery in Puca

Fig. 6. Detail of a Renaissance frame on the northern side

171
 Archaeological Evidences of Monastic Patronage:
Several Case Studies

SZOCS PETER LEVENTE1

Abstract: In the context of medieval Central Europe, the growing number case studies has
widened the church-centered archaeological approach to include the whole monastic complex,
providing new data on its architectural features and on the surrounding cemetery. These features
provide a large number of new evidences, which must be contextualized with the written or other
sources. In case of monastic patronage, the analysis of cemeteries, of the individual burials and
the grave goods, seems to be the most significant. Although there are as yet no attempts at
synthetic analysis, several elements of cemetery topography, especially the inner structure and the
structures of burials (whether they are built or embedded with stones or bricks) have been
interpreted as signs of social status that might identify the burials of founders and patrons of the
monastery. In parallel, certain grave-goods (like S-ended earrings) regarded in the previous
research as significant for social attributions, were accredited with less importance, questioning
their chronology and even their use.
Apart from burials, elements of monastic complex, such as chapels, cloister buildings, or annexes
to the church might have several functions in context of the patronage. Moreover, art historical
debates discuss the function of western galleries and of the oratories inside of the abbey church
as places of the patrons and spaces of social display. The paper analyzes, through several case
studies from the medieval Hungarian Kingdom, those elements of the monastic complex which
might indicate the relation of the monastic community with their lay patrons.
Keywords: monastic patronage, private monasteries, churchyard cemetery, burial inventory

In the context of medieval Central Europe, the growing number of recent case studies in
monastic archaeology widened the church-centered archaeological approach to include
the whole monastic complex. These case studies provided a great deal of new
archaeological data on the buildings of the monastic complex and on the surrounding
cemetery. The large number of new archaeological evidences, interpreted in context with
the written documents and other types of sources, offered the possibility to clarify
several issues linked to medieval monasteries. One of these aspects is the issue of private
patronage, including the complex set of relations between lay founders and patrons with
the monastic community. In this paper, I will analyze a set of archeological evidences
through several case studies, from the medieval Hungarian Kingdom, which might have
significance in the issue of private patronage.
Before turning to the proper cases studies, it is worth to consider first the
research of the Cistercian Abbey of Bordesley (England),2 which is significant because
monastic patronage has been deliberately addressed here with archaeological methods.
The rich set of finds offered the possibility to interpret them in the context of equally rich

1
County Museum Satu Mare, str. Vasile Lucaciu 21, 440031 Satu Mare, Romania; email:
peter.szocs@gmail.com.
2
Grenville G. Aston and Susan M. Wright, Perceiving Patronage in the Archaeological Record: Bordesley
Abbey, in In Search of Cult. Archaeological Investigations in Honor of Philip Rahtz, ed. Martin Carver,
(Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1993), 125137.

173
written sources, therefore it makes this case a model for this issue of patronage.
Bordesley Abbey was under royal patronage, but its research allowed archaeologists to
identify several architectural and archaeological features whichin their interpretation
were signs of private patronage. Two important observations resulted from their work in
this sense. First, the number of features which might be related to patronage can be
enlarged; apart from the spectacularbut rareso-called founders graves and
patrons galleries, the rhythm of building projects and renewal of the monastic
complex was interpreted as an indicator of new endowments. Certain architectural
featuresceramic floor-tiles and stone-carvings decorated with the coats of arms of the
patronswere explained as expressions of noble patronage, too. Moreover, the structure
of the cemetery, the location and chronology of lay burials and their position within the
monastic complex, was correlated with the patronage. Another significant result of the
Bordesley Abbey research project emerged from the combination of archival data with
the archaeological and architectural information. Periods of large and quick renovations
were identified with archaeological / architectural methods in the abbey. These
renovations were more expensive than the monastic community could have afforded,
considering their average income. The combination with the archival information
demonstrated that these rebuilding periods were correlated with a growing number of
endowments. The opening of new parts of the abbey church for lay burials was also
interpreted as a response to the pressure of the patrons. In other words, the information
provided by each source group was contextualized with the help of the others. The wave
of endowments explains the architectural changes, the new archaeological features, and,
at the same time, these changes illustrate the purpose and effect of the endowments.3
In context of Central Europe, the case of Bordesley Abbey has only
methodological significance because archival sources are not so abundant and the non-
royal foundations were not so extensively researched in order to provide rich and various
discoveries. It is difficult, therefore, to assess in such details issues monastic patronage.
But several observations might prove helpful in order to address issues of patronage in
these regions, too.
One of the earliest examples is offered by the Abbey of Ellsmonostor. The
monastery was founded at the beginning of the 12th century, the abbey church was a
triple-aisled basilica, built at the beginning of the 12th century (fig. 1).4 On the northern
side of the apses, a rectangular room was built in the same phase with the church. In a
later phase, this northern side room was rebuilt with an apse, and it was used for burials.
Graves, carefully built in brick with pitched tent covers, were sited here. In the same
phase, two western towers were built to the church, and on the southern side of the
basilica two more buildings were addedarranged around a rectangular courtyard with a
well in the center. There were also burials inside the southeastern annex. Moreover,
inside the basilica, several burials with grave goods indicating high social status were
discovered. A small parish church stood 50 m to the westbuilt in the same period as

3
The view of authors on the role the monastic community played in this process is interesting for the general
study of monasticism. The monastic community was regarded previously as more or less a passive partner in
this relationship. It accepted the endowments and it provided spiritual and other services as a reward:
prayers, retirement for poor and old members of patron family, and burial place for them. In the case of
Bordesley Abbey, the authors emphasize the active role of the community in attracting patrons and
endowments, implementing a more or less conscious development plan.
4
va Pvai, Ellsmonostor kutatsa [The research of Ellsmonostor], in A kzpkori Dl-Alfld s Szer
[The Southern Part of the Great Plain and Szer during the Middle Ages], ed. Tibor Kollr (Szeged-Budapest:
Csongrd Megyei Levltr-Open Art, 2000), 219232 (hereafter: Dl-Alfld s Szer).

174
the first phase of the abbey churchand around it (as around the basilica) lay a large
cemetery (altogether more than 320 graves were identified). A ditch from the earliest
phase surrounded the whole complex. The monastic complex was situated on the site of a
10th and 11th century settlement; the village moved 50 m south of the monastery, and it
was situated there from the 11th to the 17th century. As it was mentioned, high-status
burials were placed inside the basilica, the northern side chapel, and the southeastern
annex. Their chronology is, however, not clear (which space was used in which period).
The high level of material culture is indicated by finds discovered close to the northern
wall of the abbey church, near the chapel: fragments of several crosses with enamel
decoration (with Corpus of Christ, the figure of the Holy Virgin and fragments of
decorative plaques).5
Due to the architectural features, similar to monastic sites under private
patronage, research on the Benedictine Abbey of Boldva6 is significant, even though it
was a royal foundation dedicated to St John the Baptist. In the southern part of the
abbey-church, a small parish church of rounded shape dedicated to St Margaret was
identified, built at the same time as the abbey, during the 1170s (fig. 2). The buildings of
the cloister were on the northern side, but they were built in a later period. Both churches
were surrounded with cemetery, and the analysis of grave goods permitted to identify
several high-status burials, grouped next to the abbey church and inside of it. Similarly,
research on the royal abbey of Somogyvr, lasting roughly four decades, has provided
significant results for all types of monastic sites.7 The quadrum of the monastic buildings
were on the northern side of the abbey, while farther to the north, a small parish church
was identified, surrounded by a cemetery (fig. 3). Around the abbey church and parish
church, more than half thousand graves were identified, making it possible to establish
its chronological evolution, and to identify zones where burials of higher social status
were concentrated. The whole complex was surrounded with earthworks, ditches, and
later with stone fortifications. In both cases, the presence of high status burials indicate
that royal monastic foundations established relations of patronage with private persons,
and this special relation was evidenced in special burial places.
Returning to the monasteries under private patronage, at the abbey of Kna8 a
large cemetery was researched around the church (built in the second half of the 12th
century). On the northern side of the abbey church, a nave-long side-chapel used for

5
va Pvai, Egy limoges-i Mria figura az ellsi monostor (Csongrd megye) terletrl [A figure of the
Holy Virgin in Limoges style, discovered on the site of the Ells Monastery, Csongrd County], in A
kkortl a kzpkorig. Tanulmnyok Trogmayer Ott 60. szletsnapjra, ed. Gbor Lrinczy (Szeged:
Mra Ferenc Mzeum, 1994), 455461; see also Pvai in Dl-Alfld s Szer, 228; and Paradisum Plantavit.
Benedictine Monasteries in Medieval Hungary, ed. Imre Takcs (Pannonhalma: Archabbey of Pannonhalma,
2001), cat. no. IV. 345. 188 (hereafter: Paradisum Plantavit).
6
IlonaValter, A boldvai bencsaptsg [The Benedictine Abbey of Boldva], Mvszet 25 (1984): 4;
IlonaValter, Boldva, reformtus templom [The Calvinist Church of Boldva], 2nd rev. ed. (Budapest: Tjak,
Korok, Mzeumok, 1998), [TKM 399]; IlonaValter, A boldvai reformtus templom (volt bencsaptsg)
[The Calvinist Church at Boldva, the former Benedictine Abbey], in Myskovszky Viktor s a mai
memlkvdelem Kzp-Eurpban. Nemzetkzi konferencia Myskovszky Viktor szletsnek 160.
vfordulja alkalmbl. Kassa, Brtfa1998. mjus 1821, ed. Alexander Balega (Budapest-Bratislava:
Orszgos Memlkvdelmi HivatalPamiatkovy Ustav, 1999), 162169.
7
Kornl Bakay, Somogyvr. Szent Egyed monostor. A somogyvri bencs aptsg s vdmveinek rgszeti
feltrsa. 19722009 [Somogyvr. The Monastery of St Giles. Archaeological Research on the Abbey of
Somogyvr and its fortifications. 19722009], (Budapest: Memlkek Nemzeti Gondnoksga, 2011).
8
Katalin H. Gyrky, A Buda melletti Knai aptsg feltrsa [Research on the abbey of Kna near the city
of Buda], (Budapest: Akadmiai, 1996).

175
burials was built of stone-blocks (fig. 4). At the southeastern corner of the church, graves
were identified that had been paved and built with great stone-blocks, but with no special
finds in the graves. The adjacent settlement and its parish church were identified in the
neighborhood of the monastery, across the valley.9 The higher status of burials inside of
the side chapel is indicated by their special position, and the exigent technique of
realization.
Further relevant researches were made at Csoltmonostor,10 where the monastic
complex was built through three periods (fig. 5). A ditch surrounding the monastic
complex was identified which functioned during the two early periods (when the
quadrum was built, but during the third period it was filled), while, in the third period, a
wall surrounded the monastic complex. A cemetery with more than 300 graves was
identified here, the high-status burials were grouped around the abbey church. At
Srvrmonostor,11 the monastery is located in an earthen fortification which dates from
the Bronze Age (fig. 6). The fortification was reused in the Arpadian Age, two small
villages are located inside the earthworks. On the southern part of the abbey church a
small chapel (?) was identified, and to southwest a cloister wing. A large cemetery
(around 200 graves) was excavated; some of them had rich inventories (hair rings,
finger-rings, coins, cloth accessories), and others were built with bricks.
The research on Btmonostor Abbey provided additional results.12 The
monastery was founded in 1198, and the Abbey church was a triple aisle basilica, with
three apses, decorated with carved stones, during the Arpadian age church (fig. 7/1).13
The side apses had rectangular ends on the outside. Due to the massive foundations of
the easternmost and westernmost pillars, four towers are presumed to have stood here.
Two smaller foundations lay between the eastern pillars (it is presumed that they
supported a gallery). A rectangular space was built at the southeastern corner of the
church. Around the abbey church, a ditch was identified, filled with twelfth-century
finds, among them fragments of a metal basin with enamel decoration.14 The monastery
was destroyed during the Mongol invasion, but it was rebuilt in the 14th century for
Austin hermits. In the area enclosed by the ditch, a Gothic parish church, an ossuary

9
Researches coordinated by Gyrgy Terei, under press.
10
Irn Juhsz, Csolt nemzetsg monostora [The monastery of the Csolt Kindred], Memlkvdelem 36, no.
2 (1992): 105; the dating of the building-periods was revised by Melinda Tth, Csoltmonostora [The
Monastery of Csolt], Henszlmann Lapok 4 (1994): 610; for a new survey of the resultswith the former
chronologysee also Irn Juhsz, A Csolt nemzetsg monostora [The monastery of the Csolt Kindred], in
Dl-Alfld s Szer, 281303; and Sndor Tth, A 1112. szzadi Magyarorszg Benedek-rendi
templomainak maradvnyai, [Remnants of Hungarian Benedictine Abbeys of the 11th and 12th centuries] in
Paradisum Plantavit, 242243.
11
Klmn Magyar, Nagyecsed-Srvr nemzetsgi kzpont kutatsa (197577) [Research of the Kindred
Residence at Nagyecsed-Srvr], Communicationes Archaeologicae Hungariae (1984): 146186; for the art,
historical interpretations see Tth, A 1112. szzadi Magyarorszg Benedek-rendi, 240; Sndor Tth,
Srvrmonostor, in Paradisum Plantavit, 368370; and recently, Krisztina Havasi, Srvrmonostor XI.
szzadi kfaragvnyainak katalgusa el [Introduction to the Catalogue of the eleventh Century Stone
Carvings from Srvrmonostor], in Kzpkori egyhzi ptszet Szatmrban [Medieval Ecclesiastical
Architecture of Szatmr], ed. Tibor Kollr, Gellrt ment, Istvn Bardoly, Pter Levente Szcs
(Nyregyhza: Szabolcs-Szatmr-Bereg Megyei nkormnyzat, 2011), 2659 (hereafter: Szatmr).
12
Piroska Bicz, A Btmonostori satsok [Archaeological research at Btmonostor], in Kzpkori
rgszetnk jabb eredmnyei s idszer feladatai, ed. Istvn Fodor (Budapest: Mveldsgyi
Minisztrium MNM, 1985), 363369.
13
On the carved stone decorations at the abbey of Btmonostor see Paradisum Plantavit, 388.
14
Piroska Bicz, Romn kori tltredk Btmonostorrl [A Fragment of a Roman Basin found at
Btmonostor], Cumania 13 (1992): 87111; Paradisum Plantavit, cat. no. IV.6. 189.

176
chapel and 2642 graves were identified. According to a survey made by Henszlmann in
1871, two graves, built with bricks / stone slabs, were identified inside the Romanesque
church in front of the main altar, and identified as the burials of patrons or founders (fig.
7/2).15 This make the case of Btmonostor particularly significant: it shows a clear
evidence for burial of patrons, placed at very special position and constructed with high
standards.
At Babcsa,16 the abbey churchdedicated to St Nicholashad a single nave
with a single apse and a western hall in which a brick-walled grave was identified (with a
niche for the head). The church and a surrounding cemetery were encircled by a ditch
(fig. 8). To the north and south, traces of a village were identified; to the south, a small
parish church and a cemetery (contemporary with the abbey) were found, surrounded by
another ditch. The curia of the patron family was built to the west during the 14th century.
No difference between the two cemeteries in status of the burials was observed by the
researchers at that time. The ground plan of the abbey church of Bodrog-B,17 the
monastery of the B kindred dedicated to the Holy Cross, was similar to Babcsait had
one nave, one apse, and a western hall (fig. 9). Around it, 150 graves were identified
grouped in two periods (11th to 13th century and 14th to 15th century). The graves were
placed densely, disturbing each other. Three settlements were identified around the
church (cca. 500 m).
In the case of the abbey of Jk, the archeological research discovered a small
church with a centralized ground-plan, built at the site of the monastery before the
foundation act of the abbey (dated around 1220).18 A rectangular brick building also
stood to the southwest at that time, interpreted as the curia of the landlords (fig. 10). The
abbey church was built between 1220 and 1256; in this phase, the small parish church
was rebuilt in a quadrifoil form, while a square tower was added to the rectangular
building. Although only preliminary results are known of the numerous research
campaigns carried on at the site,19 through the analysis of the cemetery20 and its
topography, the small church next to the abbey church was identified as the parish
church of the village (lying toward the north), while the rectangular building seems to
have served as the residence of the patron kindred during the Arpadian Age.
At Zsmbk21 inside of the 12th century church, especially in the western hall and

15
Imre Henszlmann, Magyarorszg -keresztny, romn s tmeneti sytl m-emlkeinek rvid ismertetse
[Short Presentation of Hungarian Monuments of Early-Christian, Romanesque and Transitional Style]
(Budapest: Memlkek Orszgos Bizottsga, 1876), 114117, fig. 185.
16
Klmn Magyar, A babcsai Nrciszos-Basakert teleplstrtnete [The settlement history of Babcsa,
the site of Nrciszos-Basakert], Somogyi Mzeumok Kzlemnyei 10 (1994): 7391.
17
Klmn Magyar, A Bodrogals-bi nemzetsgi kzpont rgszeti kutatsa [Research at the Kindred
Center at BodrogAls-B], Somogyi Mzeumok Kzlemnyei 14 (2000): 115161.
18
For a summary of the architectural and art historical research on the abbey, with previous literature, see
Alice Mezey-Debreczeni and Edit Szentesi, A Jk nemzetsg, a jki Szent Gyrgy-monostor s Jk falu [The
Jk kindred, the St George Abbey of Jk and the settlement of Jk], in A jki apostol szobrok [The Apostles
Statues of Jk], ed. Edit Szentesi (Budapest: Balassi, 1999), 334; and Alice Mezey-Debreczeni, Jk in
Paradisum Plantavit, 400405.
19
Reports on the research campaigns were summarized by Ilona Valter, A Jk nemzetsg rpd-kori
lakhelye Jkon [The Jk kindred, the St George Abbey of Jk and the settlement of Jk], Communicationes
Archaeologicae Hungariae (2005): 537564.
20
Kinga ry and Antnia Marcsik, Embertani vizsglatok Jk 1118. szzadi npessgn
[Anthropological Analysis of the population of Jk living during the eleventh to eighteenth century], Savaria
35 (2012): 1397.
21
Dezs Dercsnyi and Ilona Valter, Zsmbk, Templomrom, 3rd rev. ed. (Tjak Korok Mzeumok
Kisknyvtra 184) (Budapest: TKM Egyeslet, 1998).

177
in the western zone of the nave, burials built with stone blocks were discovered, and
identified with the founder and patrons grave (fig. 11). Additional information on the
topography of monastic complexes and the cemeteries surrounding them were offered by
the research at Haht22 (significant especially for the extension of the research and field
survey to the whole micro-region, fig. 12), Szermonostor (fig. 13),23 and
Vrtesszentkereszt (fig. 14).24
Finally, the results of the archaeological research at kos, 25 although only
partial, permits seeing the building of the abbey church in the context of its Arpadian
architectural ensemble, comprising the church itself, fitted with a side chapel, surrounded
by a cemetery, and enclosed by a ditch (fig. 15). This complex seems to have had no
other buildings related to the monastery or perhaps they were made of wood or earth, and
their traces may not be identifiable with archaeological methods. The name of the
settlement, identical with the name of the kindred, suggests that there was a residence of
the kos patron kindred in the neighborhood of the monastery during the Arpadian
period. The precise date of the monastery foundation cannot be determined, but the
results of the archaeological investigations, considering especially the inventory of the
early graves, suggest that the monastic site started during the last quarter of the 12th
century. The rare spatial distribution of the early burials, and the grave goods discovered
in these burials are not typical to the parish cemeteries. These features indicate that the
cemetery was used rather by a smaller community with higher social status in early
phases, and the village cemetery must be located somewhere else.

Among the presented cases above, graves built and covered carefully with stone slabs or
bricks were identified at Ellsmonostor, Kna, Zsmbk, Nagyecsed-Srvr,
Vrtesszentkereszt, and similar discoveries were made at several further cases, too.26

22
Lszl Vndor, Archologische Forschungen in den mittelalterlichen weltlichen und kirchlichen Zentren
des Haht-Buzd-Geschlechts, Antaeus 23 (1996): 187190, 205207.
23
Ferenc Horvth, Szer plbnia temploma s a telepls kzpkori trtnete [The Parish Church of Szer
and the Medieval History of the Settlement], in Dl-Alfld s Szer, 123142; Ott Trogmayer, Fecerunt
magnum aldumas Gondolatok Szer monostornak ptstrtnetrl [Fecerunt Magnum aldumas On
the Architectural History of Szer Abbey], in Dl-Alfld s Szer.
24
va M. Kozk, A vrtesszentkereszti aptsg [The Abbey of Vrteszentkereszt], (Mvszettrtnet
Memlkvdelem 4) (Budapest: Orszgos Memlkvdelmi Hivatal, 1993).
25
The early results of this combined research were incorporated in my MA thesis, entitled The Problems of
Kindred Monasteries: A Case Study of kos Monastery (Budapest: Central European University, 2002),
and published in part in: Pter Levente Szcs, The Abbey Church of kos: An Architectural and Functional
Analysis of a Kindred Monastery Church, Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU 9 (2003): 155180; more
recent results of the research were presented in three studies: Pter Levente Szcs, Az kosi reformtus
templom rgszeti kutatsa [Archaeological Research on the Calvinist Church of kos], in Szatmr, 6065;
Tams Emdi, A kzpkori kosi templom s Schulek-fle helyrelltsa [The Medieval Church of kos
and its Renovation conducted by Frigyes Schulek], in Szatmr, 6685; and Bla Zsolt Szakcs, kos,
reformtus templom. Mvszettrtneti elemzs [The Calvinist Church of kos. Art Historical Analysis],
in Szatmr, 8691. A more recent summary of the research on the abbey church see Pter Levente Szcs,
Az kosi monostor s az kos nemzetsg [The kos Monastery and the kos kindred], in A Szilgysg s
a Wesselnyi csald (1417. szzad) [The Szilgy Region and the Wesselnyi Family], ed. Gza Hegyi and
Andrs W. Kovcs (Kolozsvr-Cluj: EME, 2012), 724. Finally, the issues and results related to the research
of the kos monastery were incorporated in my PhD thesis, Private Monasteries of Medieval Hungary
(Eleventh to Fourteenth Centuries): A Case Study of the kos Kindred and its Monasteries, defended at
Central European University, Budapest in 2014 (in print).
26
Further examples with similar discoveries were identified on Esztergom-Sziget, see Zsuzsa Lovag,
Esztergom-Sziget, in Paradisum Plantavit, 347349; Feldebr, see Jlia Kovalovszki, rpd-kori
bronznt mhely Feldebrn [Bronze-casting workshop at Feldebr], in Entz Gza nyolcvanadik

178
Moreover, graves constructed with stones or bricks are not only present around
monastery churches, but also, they appear in cemeteries belonging to rural communities.
The interpretation of these burials, regarding their chronology, social significance and /
or regional specificities varied, until a systematic analysis was made by gnes Ritok. 27
Starting with the analysis of the markers of medieval burials, gnes Ritok widened her
analysis of churchyard cemeteries,28 and suggested several cases where the social
differentiation can be detected. This is the case of the cemetery of St Michael parish in
Esztergom-Kovcsi, where it can be observed that the burials of clerics were quite often
marked with stone slabs.29 Abandoning the use of stone slabs in churchyard cemeteries
during the 14th century also seems to be linked with the status of the burials; Ritok
suggests30 that the abandonment of stone slabs outside the church is in correlation with
the growing number of the burials inside the church and the foundation of funeral
chapels. The higher-status members of the communitywho had earlier built their
graves with stone (or brick) outside the church moved their burials inside from this point
onward, because they could afford it.
Over all, basing on these considerations it seems plausible to assign burials
constructed with higher standards, i.e. with stones and bricks, to higher social strata. In
addition, observations made in the topography of churchyard cemeteries proved to be
significant in the issue of private patronage. Apart of the evidently emphasized position
of founders / patrons in front of the main altar at Btmonostor, high status burials were
grouped at special zones of the churchyard cemetery, next to the abbey church (Boldva,
Somogyvr, Jk, Csoltmonostor, Srvrmonostor, Babcsa, Bodrog-B and Zsmbk) or
inside of side chapels (Ellsmonostor and Kna). Beside of Btmonostor, in case of
Ellsmonostor and Zsmbk, burials inside the abbey church were identified with the

szletsnapjra, ed. Ilona Valter (Budapest: OMVH, 1993), 8798; at the abbey church of Lbny the grave-
stones of patrons belonging to the Hdervri-Kont and Pt families were recorded by Arnold Ipolyitheir
attribution, though, has been questioned recently: Zsfia Bendig-Zsilinszky, Ipolyi Arnold rajz- s fnykp
gyjtemnye az esztergomi keresztny mzeumban [The Collection of Drawings and Photos belonging to
Arnold Ipolyi in the Christian Museum of Esztergom], Memlkvdelem 54, no. 5 (2010): 302307, 305
306. Further cases from monasteries of Bks and Csongrd counties were identified by Ildik Papp, Tgls
s tglakeretes temetkezsek Csongrd s Bks megyben az rpd-kortl a ks kzpkorig [Burials with
bricks and brick frames in Csongrd and Bks counties from the rpdian Age to the Late Middle Ages],
(Szeged: OTDK, 1998).
27
gnes Ritok, A magyarorszgi falusi templom krli temetk feltrsnak jabb eredmnyei [Latest
Results of Excavations of Village Churchyards], Folia Archaeologica 46 (1997): 165177; gnes Ritok,
Szempontok a magyarorszgi templom krli temetk elemzshez [Elements in the Analysis of the
Churchyard Cemeteries], in Es tu scholaris. nnepi tanulmnyok Kubinyi Andrs 75. szletsnapjra, ed. F.
Romhnyi Beatrix et al., (Monumenta Historica Budapestinensia XIII) (Budapest: BTM, 2004), 115123;
gnes Ritok, A templom krli temetk felfedezse [The discovery of Medieval Churchyards], in
Architectura religioas medieval din TransilvaniaKzpkori egyhzi ptszet ErdlybenMedieval
Ecclesiastical Architecture in Transylvania, vol. 4, ed. Pter Levente Szcs et al. (Satu Mare: Editura
Muzeului Stmrean, 2007): 249276; gnes Ritok, A templom krli temetk rgszeti kutatsa
[Archaeological research on churchyards], in A kzpkor s a kora jkor rgszete Magyarorszgon, vol. 2,
ed. Elek Benk and Gyngyi Kovcs (Budapest: MTA Rgszeti Intzete, 2010), 473494.
28
Ritok gnes, Templom krli temetk rpd-kori srjelei Magyarorszgon [Grave markers of
rpdian-Age in the Churchyard cemeteries of Hungary], Communicationes Archaeologicae Hungariae
(1997): 205213; Pl Lvei, Temeti srjelek a kzpkori Magyarorszgon [Grave markers in Medieval
Hungary], in a hall rnyknak vlgyben jrok. A kzpkori templom krli temetk kutatsa
[Reseach on Medieval Churchyard Cemeteries], ed. by gnes Ritok and Erika Simonya (Opuscula
Hungarica VI) (Budapest: Magyar Nemzeti Mzeum, 2005), 7784.
29
Ritok, Templom krli temetk rpd-kori, 209.
30
Ritok, Templom krli temetk rpd-kori, 208.

179
burial place of the patrons, too.
Apart of the burials, the patrons residence is obvious evidences of their presence
in the monastic complex. Such case was identified at the Abbey of Jk, where the
dimensions and the annexes discovered here indicate that this site was the principal
residence of the patron kindred. The importance of the residence is underlined with the
fact, that the settlement, the abbey and the patron kindred was called all the same: Jk.
Similar situation was identified at Babcsa, though the patrons residence was built
somewhat later than the monastery and it was placed at a bigger distance.
As the presented cases show, among the archeological features discovered, the
construction type of the burials, the topography of the cemetery and the presence of the
patrons residence are significant for the issue of patronage. These features can be
enlarged in this respect with the analysis of several elements of monastic complex, such
as chapels, cloister buildings, or annexes to the church. One of the most significant
aspects might be the function of western galleries and of the oratories inside of the abbey
church as places of the patrons and spaces of social display. All of these features,
however, exceed the possibility of archeology and must be addressed with art historical
and architectural methods.

180
Fig. 1: Groundplan of Ellsmonostor (after Pvai 2000)

181
Fig. 2: Groundplan Boldva Abbey (after Valter 1998)

182
 Fig. 3: Groundplan of Somogyvr Abbey (after Bakay 2011)

Fig. 4: Grounplan of Kna Abbey (after Katalin H. Gyrky 1996)

183
 Fig. 5: Groundplan of Csoltmonostor (after Juhsz 2000)

Fig. 6: Groundplan of Srvr Abbey at Nagyecsed (after Magyar 1984)

184
 Fig. 7: 1. Groundplan of Btmonostor (after Bicz 1985)

Fig. 7: 2. Groundplan of Btmonostor (after Henszlmann 1876)

185
Fig. 8: Groundplan of Babcsa Abbey and the surrounding earth-fortifications (after Magyar 1994)

Fig. 9: Ground plan of the Bodrog-B Provostry (after Magyar 2000)

186
 Fig. 10: Groundplan of Jk Abbey (after Valter 2005)

Fig. 11: Groundplan of Zsmbk Provostry (after Valter 1998)

187
 Fig. 12: Groundplan of Haht Abbey (after Vndor 1996)

Fig. 13: Groundplan of Szermonostor (after Trogmayer 2000)

188
Fig. 14: Groundplan of Vrtesszentkereszt Abbey (after Kozk M. 1993)

Fig. 15: Groundplan of kos Abbey (author)

189
 When the Byzantine Mount Athos also prayed in Latin
The amazing history of the foundation of the Benedictine Monastery

MARCO MERLINI1

Abstract: The present study aims at giving a comprehensive and consistent account of the founding of the
Benedictine house on Mount Athos at the end of the first millennium. It belonged to the first generation of
coenobia that started the structured monastic life on the Holy Mountain. It was a Western outpost in the
stronghold of the Eastern monastic tradition for three centuries, from circa 985 to 1287 A.D. In spite of the
violent split between the Eastern Church and the Western Church and, more generally, between East and
West, the Benedictine Athonithe house not only took an active part in governing the community of Mount
Athos, but became a chief monastery.
Dating and rationale of the construction of this anomalous monastery remained an open discussion for a
long time. Previous studies acknowledged a reasonable founding date, but due to their misunderstanding of
some Latin signatures on Athonite acts, the myth of an Amalfitan foundation of the Athonite Benedictine
coenobium was established.
Merlini explains that this once thriving medieval monastery known only since 1010 as Amalfion ()
was possibly founded around 985 as Apothikon ( , of the Warehouses) by Longobards of
Benevento. Around the turning of the millennium, other Benedictine fathers from the small but dynamic
duchy of Amalfi took possession and ruled it. They could then easily assert themselves over the brothers who
founded Apothikon, who enjoyed much less economical resources and were politically less influential.
The study describes the reasons why this monastic foundation was associated with the city of Amalfi in the
subsequent Athonite collective memory as well as in most modern scholarship, even if Apothikon originated
from the political-religious plans of the autonomous Longobard Principality of Benevento. The Principality
of Benevento was basically obedient to the Western imperial authority and often in open diplomatic and
military confrontation against the Duchy of Amalfi, which was pro-Byzantine, free of any Longobard
political and legal control, and strictly Roman-Orthodox.
The article sets up the origin of Apothikon and the related foundation myth within the Grand Game at the
turning of the first millennium that was based on the subtle balance of conflict-cooperation between Mount
Athos, the Longobard kingdom and in particular the southern Principalities of Benevento and Capua, the
Byzantine Empire, the Papacy, the Benedictine Order, the town of Amalfi, and the powers of Jerusalem. The
construction of the Latin house by a Longobard noble person occurred under the tradition according to
which the earliest not-Greek Athonite monasteries have been built or taken over by monks who were rulers,
in their previous secular life, of their respective countries, or members of the reigning families. They were
driven by Christian piety, spiritual prestige, and strategic geopolitical approach. These aristocratic monks
arrived and settled at the Holy Mountain in topic moments of the relationship between their countries of
origin and the Byzantine Empire.
Keywords: Mount Athos, Medieval monasticism, Byzantine monasticism, St Benedict, Benedictine Order,
Amalfi, Longobards, Medieval Papacy, Byzantine Empire, Principality of Benevento

Apothikon-Amalfion, a pawn in the geopolitical East-Western Great Game

Only few, but imposing, remains of a Latin rite monastery survive as the intriguing
abnormality that in medieval times was one of the leading bodies of the Greek Byzantine
Mount Anthos. The Benedictine coenobium was settled about halfway between the
monasteries of Great Lavra and Karakallou, in a region now best known as the location

1
The Institute of Archaeomythology 1645 Furlong Road, Sebastopol, California 95472 USA; Association
Together for Athos (Italy); Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu Institutul pentru Cercetarea i
Valorificarea Patrimoniului Cultural Transilvan n Context Europen, Bd. Victoriei 57, 550024 Sibiu,
Romnia; email: marco.merlini@mclink.it.

191
of the sacred spring of Saint Athanasius the Athonite. It is known in archives as
Amalfion () since 1010, but was possibly founded two decades before as
Apothikon ( , of the Warehouses).2 It was built by Benedictine monks
from the autonomous Lombard principality of Benevento in the Southern area of the
Italian peninsula and subsequently run by other Benedictine fathers from the small duchy
of Amalfi, at that time a dynamic maritime city south of Naples.

Image 1: The location of Apothikon-Amalfion within the context of Greece and Mount
Athos. Drawing by Beatrice Picca Piccon

Apothikon-Amalfion belonged to the first generation of coenobia that started the

stabile and structured monastic life on the Holy Mountain and forged its spirituality in
the pre-Comnenus period. It was built after the Great Lavra and Iviron, and before
Vatopedi. The Italian Benedictines were among the earliest foreigner monks who settled
on Agion Oros.3 For three centuries, from 985990 to 1287, this Western outpost in the
stronghold of the Eastern monastic tradition provided an eloquent and living testimony
of the Latin monastic and liturgical tradition at the heart of Mount Athos. It was among
the leading monastic institutions of the Holy Mountain even centuries after the Great
East-West Schism (i.e. after 1054) and decades after the sack of Constantinople (1204).

2
Lavra 15 in P. Lemerle, A. Guillou, N. Svoronos, D. Papachryssanthou (eds.), Actes de Lavra, I. Des
origines 1204, (Archives de lAthos 5), Edition diplomatique, 2 vol. (Paris: P. Lethielleux, 1970), 140
[hereafter: Actes de Lavra Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970];
Vera von Falkenhausen, La Chiesa amalfitana nei suoi rapporti con l'Impero bizantino (XXI secolo),
Rivista di studi bizantini e neoellenici 30 (1993): 91; Vera von Falkenhausen, Il monastero degli amalfitani
sul Monte Athos, in Chial S., L. Cremaschi (eds.), Atanasio e il monachesimo al Monte Athos. Atti del XII
Convegno ecumenico internazionale di spiritualit ortodossa. Sezione bizantina (Bose, 1214 September
2004) (Bose: Qiqajon Edizioni, 2005), 105.
3
Michael Angold, The Cambridge History of Eastern Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2008), 15.

192
In July 1081, Emperor Alexius I even appointed the Benedictine house Imperial
Monastery (basilik mon, ), that is under the direct jurisdiction of the
throne.
Most of the history of Apothikon-Amalfion is still shrouded in obscurity. The
documentary traces are rarefied; their dating and reliability are sometimes problematic.4
Information on the anomalous monastery is mainly conveyed by the pious oral tradition
of the Athonite monks, a millenary memory that did not experience significant
interruptions but is imbued with spiritual exhortation and historical justificationism. The
story of Latin Athonite monasticism is a crucial reminder that West and East have met on
the Mountain, and that both have been enriched by that encounter.5 Therefore, the very
existence of an Athonite cloister that followed the Roman tradition is a piece of evidence
that some monks would prefer to forget. Other monks discover with surprise the
flourishing of a house celebrating the Latin rite and following the Benedictine rule in the
past of the Holy Mountain.6
One of the most controversial fact concerns the legendary founding of the
Benedictine house on Mount Athos. The present study aims to give a comprehensive and
cohesive account of it by discussing several contentious issues concerning the foundation
of the anomalous Athonite house: building and consecration dating; identity of the
founder; geopolitical reasons of the founding; strategic role assigned to the new
monastery; its name (Apothikon); and when/why it turned into Amalfion. The main
enigma to solve is why a monastic foundation born from the Lombard Beneventan and
Capuan dinasty is known in the Athonite collective memory as the house of the
Amalfitans. Benevento and Amalfi were not only two different States, but their relations
were quite problematic. The Lombard Duchy, deferential to the Western imperial
authority, often collided with the Duchy of Amalfi, which was pro-Byzantine, free of any
Lombard political and legal control, and strictly Roman-Orthodox.
The spiritual and organizational experience of building Apothikon, later
Amalfion, participated to an extraordinary historical romance in which protagonists were
not only the Italic monks who moved to the East and the Greek Athonite brothers who
welcomed them.
The Latin monastery was founded in the heartland of Orthodox monasticism as a
pawn of the grand political, economic and religious match that had as a background the
subtle balance of conflict-cooperation between Mount Athos, the Lombard Kingdom and
in particular the southern Lombard Duchies-Principalities of Benevento and Capua, the
town of Amalfi, the Byzantine Empire, the papacy, and the Benedictine Order.7

4
Leo Bonsall, The benedictine Monastery of St Mary on Mount Athos, Early Churches Review 2, 3
(1969): 262267.
5
Marcus Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, in K. Ware, G. Speake (eds.), Microcosm of the
Christian East (Bern: Peter Lang, 2010), 98; ukasz Fajfer, East and West on the Holy Mount Athos.
Dialog or clash of traditions? in M. Zivojinovic (ed.), Ostblicke 1 (2010): 3443; ukasz Fajfer, Amalfi
and Athos between the East and the West, in M. Kuczyska (ed.), wita Gra Athos w kulturze Europy.
Europa w kulturze Atos (Gniezno, 2010), 3135.
6
Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, 97.
7
, .
(: , 2016) (Marco Merlini, Athos Unknown. History of the Benedictine Monastery on the
Mount Holy (Moscow: 2016).

193
 Image 2: The massive medieval square tower emerges from the Mediterranean wood. It is
all what nowadays survives of the once thriving medieval monastery known as Amalfion
() since 1010, but possibly founded around 985 as Apothikon ( ,
of the Warehouses). Photo Marco Merlini

We will detect facts and motivations on the founding of Apothikon within the
aforementioned Grand Game recognizing strategy, tactics and rationale of the different
actors.

The States of the Langobardia Minor establish an intermediary with the basileus
The founder of Apothikon belonged to the nobility of the autonomous Lombard Duchies-
Principalities of Benevento and Capua. These powers dominated the Northern area and
part of the inner territory of the present region of Campania, including Molise and the
Northern area of the current region of Apulia. They were contiguous to the Byzantine
theme of Longobardia that roughly corresponded to the North-Central Apulia and North-
Eastern Basilicata. Their relations with Byzantines neighbors were simultaneously
intense and conflicting, alternating clashes and reconciliations according to a scheme of
relationship that was repeated cyclically until the final disappearance of the Lombard
grasp. The boundaries between the two neighboring authorities were uncertain. Even in
liturgical life, the borders between Lombard Latins of Capua-Benevento and Byzantine
Greeks of the Katepanate were not so sharply defined as one might expect. Calendars
and rituals from Benevento and Naples often contained both Greek and Latin elements,
and even bilingual hymns.8 In some instances, Greek texts of the Byzantine worship

8
Giovanni Vitolo, Vescovi e diocesi, in G. Galasso, R. Romeo (ed.), Storia del Mezzogiorno, vol. 3

194
were transliterated into Latin characters in manuscripts to be employed during
momentous liturgical feasts of Benevento.9

Image 3: The complex political situation of the Italian peninsula at the time of the
founding of Apothikon. Drawing by Beatrice Picca Piccon

Furthermore, the Italic population of the Byzantine theme of Longobardia was ethnically,
culturally, linguistically, and religiously more akin to the Lombard ruling class than to
the high-ranking Greek officials directly sent from the Constantinople court to govern
them. The letter ones were and remained strangers to the local social-cultural setting due
to their short-period presence and Byzantium as their only point of reference. The Italic
inhabitants of the Byzantine Longobardia were for the most part Lombard, Latin-

(Naples: Editalia, 1990), 91.

9
Klaus Gamber, La liturgia della diocesi dellItalia centro-meridionale dal IX allXI secolo, in Bertolini O.
(ed.), Vescovi e Diocesi in Italia nel Medioevo (sec. IXXIII), Proceedings of the Conference Storia della
Chiesa in Italia, 59 Sept.1961 in Rome (Italia sacra 5) (Padua: Antenore, 1964), 14565; Thomas Forrest
Kelly, The Beneventan Chant, Cambridge Studies in Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989),
203218; Thomas Forrest Kelly, The Sources of Beneventan Chant, Variorum Collected Studies Series
(Ashgate: Ashgate Variorum, 2011).

195
speaking, and above all Roman Catholics.10 Taranto, Brindisi, and other towns in Apulia
were home to both Greek and Lombard residents, and both communities were under the
ecclesiastical jurisdiction of a Latin-rite bishop even if they belonged to the
administration of the Byzantine State.11 The expansionist tendencies of the princes of
Benevento instigated Apulian revolts against Byzantium. Nonetheless, Constantinople
and its civilization fascinated this Germanic Lombard nobility.
In the second half of the 10th century, the Southern Lombard principalities of
Benevento and Capua were basically independent from Byzantium except for some
periods. They needed an intermediary with the Byzantine imperial government. Such an
intermediary should not be directly politically connoted but capable to play on different
tables, neither should be subjected to Byzantium nor independent, and strategically
located as an outpost in the Byzantine Empire. The problem solving was worked out by a
noble Beneventan monk (Leo of Benevento, alias Leo the Roman, alias Leo the Great)
thanks to his solid connections in the Queen of cities and with the imperial power.
Within the political-religious frame, he exploited the solution already practiced for the
abovementioned Apulian cities: the erection of a Benedictine coenobium under the
ecclesiastical obedience of Rome, but under the rule of Constantinople; located midway
between Central-Southern Italy and the Byzantine capital city; and inserted within the
pulsating hart of the Greek-Byzantine monasticism.
We know just a little more than the name of the pious Benedictine monk who
built Apothikon. A high ranked and esteemed person who choosed a career based on a
humble and ascetic life and was successful on it, but there is no record of him in the
Italian archives.
The Athonite monastic sources inform us that Leo of Benevento was of Lombard
origins and archdeacon at the Roman Church of Benevento.12 According to documents
redacted around 1045, he was one of the brothers of the Duke of Benevento (frater
Beneventani ducis).13 Pandulf II of Benevento (??1014 and r. 9811014), nephew of
Pandulf I Ironhead, is the most reputed to be the powerful brother of Leo the Monk. He
was Duke of Benevento from 981 and became associated Prince of Capua, with the title
of Pandulf III, from 10081009 to his death.14
As already documented by the present author, it is highly probable that Leo, born
at the Lombard Benevento and trained as a monk in a neighboring Benedictine
monastery (possibly Montecassino itself), i.e. in a territory around the capital of Western

10
Vera von Falkenhausen, The South Italian Sources, in Byzantines and Crusaders in Non-Greek Sources,
10251204, ed. M. Whitby, (London, 2007), 96.
11
James D. Morton, TAM GRECOS QUAM LATINOS. A Reinterpretation of Structural Change in Eastern-
Rite Monasticismin Medieval Southern Italy, 11th12th Centuries, thesis for the degree of Master of Arts,
Queens University Kingston, Ontario, Canada (June, 2011), 19.
12
Falkenhausen, Il monastero degli amalfitani sul Monte Athos; Vera von Falkenhausen, Il monastero
sul Monte Athos, Insieme per lAthos (Rome), in press, 2.
13
Paul Peeters, Histoires monastiques gorgiennes, Analecta Bollandiana (Soc. des Bollandistes) 3637,
(19171919), 36; Bernadette Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et Euthyme et le statut du monastre des Ibres
sur lAthos, Rvue des Etudes Byzantines 49 (1991), 109; Kiros Kokkas, Gra Atos. Brama do nieba
(Czstochowa: Edycja witego Pawa, 2005).
14
Peeters, Histoires monastiques gorgiennes, 37, n. 2; Oliver Rousseau, Lancien monastre bndictin
du Mont Athos, Revue liturgique et monastique 14 (1929): 539. Agostino Pertusi, Nuovi documenti sui
Benedettini Amalfitani dellAthos, Aevum 27, fasc. 5 (settembreottobre 1953): 10; Agostino Pertusi,
Monasteri e monaci italiani allAthos nellAlto Medioevo, in Le millnaire du Mont Athos 9631963.
tudes et mlanges 1 (Chevetogne: ditions de Chevetogne, 1963), 224; Bonsall, The benedictine
Monastery, 266.

196
Christendom and/or ecclesiastically subjected to papacy, arrived on Mount Athos via
Constantinople. Leo could have become a monk in the hub of the Benedictine Order, but
should have gone to the hub of the Byzantine sprirituality only from the capital of
Eastern Christendom.15
His arrival from Constantinople has been maintained also by a number of
scholars from the Orthodox side (such as Sophronios Kalligas and Gerasimos
Smirnakis), as to sustain the unhistorical assumption that the founders of the Benedictine
monastery were Italian Orthodox fathers who had a metochion in Constantinople
from which they transported what they needed to build the Athonite house.16 Belin and
Kalligas hazarded to sustain that the Benedictine cloister in the capital city was the
depending on Athonite foundation.17 According to a not better defined Athonite
tradition reported by Smirnakis, the name of the founder of the Latin monastery was
Beneventos who built it by gathering many monks most of whom were Amalfitans.18
The eventuality that Benedictine Italic monks settled on Mount Athos relocating
from the capital city of the Byzantine Empire is indirectly confirmed. Contacts between
the monastic houses on Agion Oros and Constantinople were well established by the
mid-10th century, when Athanasius the Athonite started conceiving his revision of
monasticism re-invigorating the coenobitic tradition. The volume of business that took
monks to and from the heartland of Eastern monasticism and Constantinople increased
after the foundation of the Great Lavra as well as the incorporation of the Holy Mountain
into the sphere of direct imperial concern. Athanasius himself visited the city after
building his house, possibly residing in the imposing and influential Studite monastery.
The matters of Mount Athos started to be a main topic of discussion at the court and
cleric circles; vice versa, the affairs of the governing bodies of the empire were issue of
debate among the leaders of Agion Oros. Within such a framework, it is reasonable to
conclude that Leo and his companions originated from the Lombard Principality of
Benevento and after monastic training within Montecassino orbit or even in the
Cassinate abbey itself, disembarked in the Athonite peninsula via the Byzantine capital
city, even if not necessarily from the Amalfitan enclave.19
The setting down on Mount Athos from the metropolis of the Byzantine Empire
of monks tonsured in the Italic peninsula (as well as other foreigner brothers like the
Georgians) around the end of the 10th century has an important corollary.20 It marks a

15
Marco Merlini, Founding a Latin monastery on Mount Athos: the challenge of Apothikon, later
Amalfion, in Proceedings of the Conference The Holy Mount Athos the Unique Spiritual and Cultural
Heritage of Humanity, Belgrade, June 2326, 2013, International Fund for restoration and preservation of
cultural and spiritual heritage of the St Panteleimon Monastery, Mount Athos (2014); ,
.
16
S. Kalligas, , (Hagion Oros, 1895), 93. Cf.
Pertusi, Nuovi documenti, 3, note 4. The idea that the Latin monastery was founded by orthodox monks
was presumed also by Riley [Athelstan Riley, Athos or The Mountain of the Monks (London: Longmans,
Green, 1887), 152].
17
M. A. Belin, Histoire de la latinit de Constantinople (Paris: A. Picard et fils, 1894), 18 n. 3; Kalligas,
, 3 n. 4. Discussing Constantinople during the second half of the 13 th century, Tsougarakis
[Nickiphoros I. Tsougarakis, The Western Religious Orders in Medieval Greece, Dissertation, The
University of Leeds Institute for Medieval Studies January, (2008), 11] stated that or the monastery of the
Holy Saviour or that of St Mary Latina might have been the daughter house of St Mary on Mount Athos.
18
G. Smyrnakis, (To Agion Oros. Mount Athos), Panselenos, Athens, 1903. Photographic
reprint of the 1903 edition, supplemented by an index of names, (Karyes, 1988), 419.
19
Rosemary Morris, Documents: Athos, in Oxford Handbooks Online, (2008).
20
Michel Balard, Amalfi et Byzance XeXIIe sicles, Travaux et mmoires du Centre de Recherche

197
major expansion of the geographical radiance of the spiritual magnetism of the Holy
Mountain. Most of the newcomers passed through regions where monasticism, as revised
by Athanasius the Athonite, was already known and well appreciated. Mount Olympus in
Bithynia (Asia Minor) was the focal place of the Georgian monks who had long been
established there. Constantinople was the most important center of the Italic brothers.
The Romans monks who subsequently arrived to Agion Oros asking to be put under
Leos spiritual guide also moved from the capital city of the Byzantine Empire.21
By exploiting geopolitical information on the Italian peninsula at that time, we
can complete the explanation of the reasons behind the erection of the Latin Athonite
monastery by Leo of Benevento. After being crowned in Rome by the pope on 2
February 962, the emperor of the West Otto I (912973) claimed the Regnum Italicum
that, according to the Carolingian tradition, coincided with the entire Italian peninsula.
To transform this claim into reality, the emperor enlisted a strategic new vassal, the Duke
of Capua and Benevento Pandulf I Ironhead (uncle of Leo the Founder), and offered him
the Duchy of Spoleto-Camerino in 967.22 In parallel, Pope John XII (955965) gave the
Archbishopric status to Capua in reward to Pandulf I services.
Up to a short time before, Capua and Benevento recognized the authority of
Byzantium. Annoyed with the somersault, in Spring 968 emperor Nikephoros Phokas
strongly complained with the Bishop Liutprand of Cremona (920?972), ambassador in
Constantinople of Otto I, the founder of the Holy Roman Empire. He contested the oath
of vassalage to the Saxon emperor given by the traitor and rebel Pandulf I, whom he still
considered under the Byzantine command. Consequently, Nikephoros Phokas asked
Liutprand the immediate return of Pandulf under the Byzantine control as a condition to
establish friendly relationship with Otto I.23
Members of the ruling families of Benevento and Capua were often held as
hostages at the court of Constantinople, where they lived for several years, enjoyed some
imperial benefits and achieved a successful career in imperial service. Landulf II of
Benevento (??961), second son of Landulf I (910943) and brother of Pandulf I, was
educated at the Byzantine court.24 Romuald, another brother of Pandulf I, was called
inter Graecos to puericia fuerat by his coevals. In 968, he met Liutprand at the imperial
court of Nikephoros Phokas.25 A short time later, Romuald travelled to Italy to fight
together with the Byzantine army.26 Its not totally unlikely that another kinsman of the
Beneventan princes, after becoming a monk, moved to Constantinople and then to Mount
Athos to erect a Western rite monastery, since the emperor Nikephoros Phokas was the

dHistoire et Civilisation de Byzance 6 (1976): 91; Ren Gothni, Graham Speake (eds.), The Monastic
Magnet: Roads to and from Mount Athos (Oxford, Bern: Peter Lang, 2008), 12, 356, and n. 42.
21
Romani qui in urbe regia aliisque civitatibus errant, in Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et Euthyme.
22
Giovanni Gay, LItalia Meridionale e l'Impero Bizantino dall'avvento di Basilio I alla resa di Bari ai
Normanni (8671071) (Firenze: Libreria della Voce, 1917) (French orig. ed. 1904), 296 ff.
23
Liutprando da Cremona, Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana, in Paolo Chiesa (ed.), Liudprandi
Cremonensis. Antapodosis, Homelia paschalis, Historia Ottonis, Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana,
(Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Medievalis, 156) (Turnhout: Brepols, 1998), 354; cf. 352353; Gay,
LItalia Meridionale, 308309.
24
Letter 82 in Romilly James Heald Jenkins, Leendert Gerrit Westerink, Nicholas I, Patriarch of
Constantinople. Letters. Greek Text and English Translation (Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae 6)
(Washington DC, 1973), 340.
25
Paolo Chiesa (ed.), Liudprandi Cremonensis Opera omnia (Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio
Medievalis, 156) (Turnhout: Brepols, 1998), 203.
26
Cronaca salernitana 172, in Ulla Westerbergh (ed.), Chronicon Salernitanum (Studia Latina
Stockholmiensia 3) (Stockholm, 1956), 176.

198
major sponsor of the Athanasius lavra and the coenobitic Agion Oros.
It is remarkable to note that in the same period Euthymius, son of John the
founder of Iviron and future hegumen of the monastery, was spending much of his
childhood and early youth as a hostage in the imperial court of Constantinople, along
with other young Georgian nobles.27 It was possibly the start-up of parallel historical
events and mutual admiration that characterized Apothikon-Amalfion and Iviron for a
long time. We will investigate this important issue in the next paragraph.
Since the end of the sixties of the 10th century, struggles between the papacy and
Constantinople became even more visible. In May 969, Pope John XIII (965972)
elevated the Lombard episcopal see of Benevento to the archiepiscopal rank, and put it at
the head of three suffragan dioceses settled within the Byzantine territory and state
authority. Pope John XIV (983984) added three more Byzantine episcopal sees to the
Roman Archdiocese of Benevento, while John XV (985996) gave Salerno the
jurisdiction over four sees located in the Byzantine Lucania and Calabria. In brief, the
papacy reinforced Pandulf Ironheads authority on ten bishoprics situated within the
Byzantine Katepanate, with the aim to politically acquire them via religious influence.
In Summer 969, Pandulf lead the Capuan-Beneventine militia to siege the
fortress-city of Bovino in northern Apulia (Byzantine Katepanate) on behalf of the Saxon
emperor, but he was captured by the defenders of the city. Sent to Constantinople in
chains, he betted on the forthcoming end of Nikephoros Phokas reign. Indeed, in
December 969 he was murdered by his relative John Tzimiskes, who was crowned new
emperor. John I Tzimiskes (circa 925976) was driven by a less aggressive attitude
toward the Holy Roman emperor. Hence, he gave the Price of Benevento and Capua the
opportunity to return to Italy, as his representative, to negotiate peace with Otto I the
Great. The new rank and task did not preclude the Byzantines to keep Pandulf I Ironhead
hostage in Bari until the German emperor accepted to negotiate a more permanent peace
and to give his son Otto II in marriage to Teophane, Tzimiskes niece.28
After the restoration of peace, Pandulf I enjoyed an exceptional situation: while
attesting his devotion to the Western emperor, he practically kept freedom between the
two empires. Therefore, for the first time the Lombard duchies of Benevento, Capua,
Salerno and Spoleto-Camerino were united under one authority. The emergence of such
a vast and pro-German Lombard state caused serious concern to its neighbors.
This situation changed in March 981 when Pandolf I Ironhead died and Emperor
Otto II invaded Byzantine Apulia and Calabria on the pretext of expelling the Sicilian
Arabs. Conversely, he was defeated by the Arab army. 29 The young emperor tried again
to march on Southern Italy in 983, but he had to return to Rome where he died at the end
of the year.
Meanwhile, the territory assembled by Pandulf I broke into pieces. Guided
insurrections expelled his sons Landulf IV from Benevento and Pandulf II from Salerno,
where they were reigning since the death of their father. Benevento became again a
separate state under the rule of Pandulf II (brother of Leo the Founder), nephew of

27
Obsidem... Euthymium cum aliis e regia stirpe principibus in Peeters, Histoires monastiques
gorgiennes, 17; Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et Euthyme, 87 ff; Nicolas Adontz, Etudes armno-
byzantines (Lisbon: Livraria Bertrand, 1965), 301; D. Papachryssanthou (ed.), Actes du Prtaton (Archives
de lAthos, 7) (Paris: P. Lethielleux, 1975), 83.
28
Gay, LItalia Meridionale, 317318.
29
Ibid., 326 ff.

199
Pandulf I Ironhead and previously marginalized by him.30 The patrician Manso I of
Amalfi (r. 9571004), a vassal of Byzantium, was able to establish his authority on
Salerno.31
The relationship between Pandolf II and Otto III (9831002), son and successor
of Otto II, was quite difficult and in 1000 the emperor besieged the city of Benevento for
several weeks, possibly due to the contention for some relics of Saint Bartholomew,
revered apostle of Jesus. His remains were brought from Armenia in 838 via Lipari
Island and he became the foremost patron saint of Benevento. It was the main beam of
the political cult of patron saints relics made to converge in Benevento (St Mercurio, St
Donato, St Felice, St Felicita and progeny, St Marciano of Frigento, St Deodato of Nola,
St Gennaro, and St Trofimena). The aim was to legitimize the ruling Lombard dynasty
and celebrate its warrior tradition under the protection of soldier martyrs.32 However, the
emperor Otto III had just built in Rome, on the Tiber island, a new church consecrated to
St Bartholomew. The conflict on the holy memento was inevitable. At the end of it, the
emperor pretended to have moved the relics of the apostle of Jesus to Rome, even if the
Bevenentans claimed they gave him a fake (the remains of another saint, Paolino from
Nola) and kept the original ones. Both the relics are highly venerated at present times.33
Exploiting the weakness and internal conflicts of the Holy Roman Empire and its
vassals throughout the late 10th and early 11th centuries, the Byzantine imperial
government re-established military and administrative control over large Southern areas
of the Italian peninsula and reorganised administrative and religious structures. One of its
main problems was the perpetual threat and alternating relations with the Southern
Lombard princes of Capua-Benevento who challenged the Byzantine authority as much
as they could.
This sequence of events, which changed the political configuration in Southern
Italy to the unsteady benefit of Byzantium, marked the context of Leos and companions
arrival on Constantinople and their subsequent setting up on Mount Athos. Leo was a
Lombard prince of a bordering region of the Byzantine State that was exhausted by civil
war. Benevento and Capua territories had been regarded by the Byzantines as belonging
to their possessions, and the ruling princes as their vassals. Traditionally they were, but
Pandulf I and successors found a space of manoeuvre and exploited it. The naissance of
an Athonite anomalous monastery under Lombard impulse was consistent with the
illustrated geopolitical drift. Apothikon was: under the papal ecclesiastical authority, but
also embedded in the Byzantine state; settled in the heart of the Byzantine territories, but
midway between Southern Italy and Constantinople; placed within the centre of the
Greek-Byzantine monasticism, but enjoyed the autonomous statute achieved by it;
located on the spiritual focus of the Eastern Church, but following the Roman Latin rite;
into papal obedience, but under direct imperial administrative jurisdiction bypassing
patriarchal control; and under the direct government of the Montecassino abbey, center

30
Ibid., 331332.
31
Ibid., 271.
32
Amalia Galdi, Traslazioni di reliquie in Campania tra poteri politici e religiosi (secoli IXXII), in M.
Talalay (ed.), Dal lago di Tiberiade al mare di Amalfi. Il viaggio apostolico di Andrea il primo chiamato
(Biblioteca amalfitana, 11) (Amalfi: Centro di cultura e storia amalfitana, 2008), 73.
33
Georg Heinrich Pertz (ed.), Annales Beneventani. Monumenta Germaniae Historica vol. 3, (Hannover,
1839). Latin monastic and regional chronicle from Benevento. It is edited in three redactions: A.1, written
between 11131118 and covering the years 7871113; A.2, written in 1119 and accounting from Incarnation
to 1128; and A.3, written between 11071118 and recording the years 10961130; Gay, LItalia
Meridionale, 373374.

200
of the Benedictine order, but playing an active and chief role in governing the Holy
Mount of Eastern brothers.
The founding of a Lombard coenobium within the Byzantine spiritual epicenter
was actually a political act designed to stabilize the swings of the pendulum in the
conflictual-cooperative relationship of the Southern Italian Lombard principalities with
the Byzantine imperial government. It marked their established peripheral autonomy but,
at the same time, the necessity to set up a new alliance with Byzantium and, in particular,
directly with the imperial power. A noble Beneventan of the ruling dynasty
accomplished this ambitious task thanks to strong kinship connections in the Byzantine
capital city and with the imperial personae.
Consistently, Apothikon was a stakeholder without manifest political
connotations, but politically conscious and capable. It was invested of enough power to
intervene on large-scale international political affairs with Constantinople admitting its
centrality. It had enough stability, prosperity, and longevity to contribute to the shaping
of the political state of affairs between the Italic principalities of Southern Italy and the
Byzantine Empire. In conclusion, it was not a haphazard creation, but rather the product
of careful planning.34

John and Arsenius help us fixing the consecration date

For a long time, the erection date of the monastery that became Amalfion remained an
open discussion. Still nowadays both a Western tradition and an Athonite old convention
adhere to the obsolete Eugne-Melchior Vogs, Alexandre Stanislas Neyrats,
Francesco Perillas, and Eugne Merciers affirmation that the Omorphono convent
was founded by monks sent by Amalfi under instigation of Pope Innocent III (1161
1216, r. 11981216), who aspired to latinize the main monastic center of Orthodoxy. 35
The assertion would be consistent with the papal issuing of two bullae (in 1209 and in
1213) that placed Agion Oros under direct protection of the Holy See after ordering to
the Latin arms settled in Macedonia immediate ending of rapacious rides and systematic
pillage on Athonite monasteries. Between the two official acts, in 1210 the pope gave
verbally approval to St Francis rule voted to 'apostolic poverty.
Innocent III, who had initially opposed the attack and sack of Constantinople, in
the first act expressed respect to the Athonite monasticism, adorned of 300
monasteries, and recognized Agion Oros, as a Holy Place, the House of God, and a
Gate to Heaven. He also deplored the crimes committed under the orders of the Latin
superintendent of Mount Athos, the bishop of Sebaste, and relieved him of his position.36
Four years later, Pope Innocent III personally met Athonite delegates in Rome

34
, .
35
Eugn Melchior de Vog, Syrie, Palestine, Mont Athos. Voyage aux pays du passe (Paris; E. Plon et Co.,
1878), 292; Alexandre Stanislas Neyrat, LAthos. Notes dune excursion la presqu'le et la montagne des
moines (Paris: Plon, 1880), 46; F. Perilla, Il Monte Athos: descritto e illustrato, edizione dellautore,
(Thessaloniki, 1927), 35. However, at pg. 41 note 183, Perilla reports critically Vogs assertion having
Muravieff examined a Latin inscription of the Amalfitan hegumen on a deed dated 1169. See also Riley,
Athos or The Mountain of the Monks, 152. It is a deed held in the archive of St Panteleimon monastery.
Eugn Mercier, La spiritualit byzantine: L'orient grec et chrtien (Paris: Les Ed. du Cygne, 1933), 417.
36
Innocenzo III, Lotario de Conti, De custodia monasteriorum Montis Sancti. in Jacques Paul Migne (ed.),
Patrologia cursus completus (Series Latina, 216) (Paris: Garnier Fratres, 1890), PL 216, 229; Giorgio
Hofmann, Athos e Roma, Orientalia Christiana 5, Rome, (1925): 148150; Jean Richard, The
Establishment of the Latin Church in the Empire of Constantinople (12041227), Mediterranean Historical
Review 4, 1, (989): 4562; Titus uczko, wita Gra Athos, Magisterarbeit, (Szczecin, 1993), 30.

201
who had been forced to appeal him against the protraction of vexatious activities. By
issuing the related bulla, once again he praised the Holy Mountain in magniloquent
terms, confirmed his personal protection over it and ratified all its previous imperial
Byzantine rights and privileges. Athonite reactions to the papal mark of favor are not
recorded.37 The postulation that the Latin Athonite monastery was erected under
instigation of the pope in the early 13th century conflicts with the total absence of any
mention of it in the abovementioned documents. In any case, Innocent III could not
impose, in practice, his patronage on Mount Athos. A Latin hierarchy was installed that
involved, among others, the archbishops of Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras, and Corinth,
plus some other dozen bishops including six ones from the Peloponnese.38
In contrast to a supposed foundation in early 13th century, Thomas Brown and
other scholars proposed a timeline aimed to avoid a presumed overlap between the Latin
monastery founded by Leo of Benevento in the 10th century and an earlier Amalfitan house
on the Holy Mountain. According to this point of view, the Athonite tradition confuses
Leos monastic community with an earlier Amalfitan presence.39 According to Plested, the
establishment of a Latin house has to be dated before 984, between 980 and 984.40 Belins
supposition that the builder of the Benedictine coenobium was Athanasius of Trebizond
(Athanasius the Athonite) in 970 is simply an historical non-sense.41 In a middle timescale,
Manouel Ioannes Gedeon proposed the year 1046 as the building date.42
Early 13th century; mid 11th century; late seventies or early eighties of the 10th
century: the range of options concerning the founding time of this anomalous monastic
community is so large because it is not mentioned neither in the Beneventan or Amalfitan
archival documentation, nor in what survives of the Athonite chronicles. Besides, the
archive of the Latin coenobium no more exists. The only information we can gather on its
erection are from Athonite hagiographic texts. Unfortunately, they are disparate sources
and not always completely trustworthy. For example, the narrative of Iviron describes in
detail the close relationship between Ivirites and Lavriotes, and between Ivirites and
Benedictines, presenting the Georgian monastery as the earliest sister-house of the Western
monks. However, there is no mention of any relationship between the Italic community
and the Great Lavra of Athanasius, although it resided there. The Lavriote tradition,
instead, sets Leo and his brotherhood mainly in relation with the holy Athanasius, who is
presented as their mentor and protector, and his monastery as their motherhouse.43
Still now, a document about the foundation of the Latin monastery should be
kept in the archive of the Great Lavra. Information was from the Greek consul in
Thessaloniki G. Dokos, who visited Mount Athos and redacted a report to the Greek
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (dated 5 August 1889) on the measures for strengthening
Hellenism on the Holy Mountain against the increasing Russian influence. He expressed

37
Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, 106.
38
Vito Sibilio, La Chiesa romana e lOriente bizantino nel XIII secolo, Lortodossia (XIXIII secolo).
Porphyra 13 (Associazione Culturale Bisanzio, 2009): 56103.
39
Thomas S. Brown, Ethnic independence and cultural deference: the attitude of the Lombard principalities
to Byzantium c. 876 1077, Byzantinoslavica 54 (1993): 11.
40
Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, 100, 101.
41
Belin, Histoire de la latinit, 18, n. 3.
42
Manouel Ioannes Gedeon, , , O Athos: AnamniseisEggrapha
Simeioseis [Athos: MemoriesDocumentsNotes] (Constantinople, 1885), (reprinted, Athens, 1990), 92.
According to him, the Western rite monastery was coeval with Dochiariou, but the latter was already
mentioned in Tzimiskes typikon of 971972.
43
Smyrnakis, , 419.

202
doubts about the authenticity of the archival information concerning such an anomalous
fact as the erection of a non-Orthodox monastery. Thus, he advised the Lavras
antiprosopes not to display this act until another, more reliable (according to his
viewpoint), document would be found. Two copies of Dokos report occur in the archive
of Stefanos Dragoumis, the Greek Foreign minister at that time.44 The archive of the
Great Lavra is now under reorganization. The author of the present study is in the
process to have the permission to vision and check the document.
Lets try instead to sequence the few available documentary traces on the
founding of the Western rite house thanks to the support of the monks who struggled
there and in the companion monasteries. Around 972, the typikon of Tzimiskes I reveals
the existence of at least forty-six Athonite houses. All the abbots signed the act in Greek
and apparently, they are all Greeks.45 Neither Latin houses nor other foreigner ones
existed at that time. The ecumenical character of the monastic community of Mount
Athos, granted by the presence of monasteries founded and/or acquired by not-Greek
monks, started to be real not before a decade.
Georgians John and Euthymius, the earliest group of foreign monks registered by
the sources, reached the heartland of Eastern monasticism around 97046 to put themselves
under Athanasius authority ( ). They began erecting Iviron circa 980 exploiting
the assets of their illustrious relative Tornikios (?985), a gallant Byzantine high-ranking
military officer.47 Iviron became very shortly the most important Georgian spiritual and
cultural centre. Around 980, Leo of Benevento debarked on the Holy Mountain with his
disciples when the Georgian monastic community was just established and the buildings
were in construction or just being erected.48 When the number of disciples who desired to
take the monastic habit increased significantly, thanks to new arrivals from
Constantinople and other cities in and out the Byzantine Empire, he decided to build his
own monastery and obtained spiritual and material support from the Georgian brothers
settled at Iviron.49
The erection of the Latin house by an aristocratic person confirms the tradition
according to which the earliest not-Greek monasteries have been founded or taken over
by monks who were rulers, in the previous secular life, of their respective countries

44
One copy of the report is kept in the Gennadion library archive in Athens: Archeion Gennadiou, Archeion
St, Dragoumi, fak. 32.1, Athos-Mones Agiou Orous, s. 99102. Cf. Lova A. Gerd, Russkiy Afon 18781914,
Ocherki tserkovno-politicheskoy istoriimerlini (Moscow: Indrik, 2010), 4243; Merlini, Founding a Latin
monastery on Mount Athos.
45
Papachryssanthou, Actes du Prtaton, Signatures in 1: 163175.
46
Bonsall, The benedictine Monastery, 262267. It happened around 965 according to Uspenski and other
scholars See Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 282;
Papachryssanthou, Actes du Prtaton, 84, n. 217; D. Nastase, Les dbuts de la communaut oecumnique
du Mont Athos, Byzantina Symmeikta () 6 (1985): 254, 255, 310.
47
Adontz, Etudes armno-byzantines, 305, 309, 310; Papachryssanthou, Actes du Prtaton, 84, n. 225; 88,
40, n. 192; J. Lefort, N. Oikonomides, D. Papachryssanthou, H. Metreveli (eds.), Actes dIviron, I. Des
origines au milieu du XI sicle (Archives de lAthos, 14) (Paris: P. Lethielleux, 1985) 3536; Martin-Hisard,
La Vie de Jean et Euthyme, 9496, 109110; Rosemary Morris, Monks and laymen in Byzantium, 843
1118 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 190; Tamara Grdzelidze, Georgian monks on Mount
Athos: Two Eleventh-Century Lives of the Hegoumenoi of Iviron (London: Bennett and Bloom, 2009).
Regarding the Euthymius royal blood, see Adontz, Etudes armno-byzantines, 254, n. 3.
48
Pandulf II became Duke of Benevento in 981. According to Nastase (D. Nastase,
10 , (Un couvent athonite ignor du Xe sicle) Byzantina Symmeikta () 5
1983): 293], this date can be regarded as terminus post quem for the moving of monk Leo toward Est.
49
Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et Euthyme, 109 ff; Theodor Nikolaou, Un pont entre lEglise dOrient
et dOccident: le monachisme, Irnikon 57, 3 (1984): 314.

203
(the Serbian Chilandari, the Bulgarian and former Greek Zographou, 50 the Russian
monastery tou Rs,51 and the Turkish Koutloumousiou52), or members of the
reigning families of their countries (the Georgian Iviron). These titled monks were
driven by Christian piety, spiritual prestige, and strategic political approach. Their
arrival and setting up on Mount Athos occurred in topic moments concerning the
relationship between their States or countries of origin and the Byzantine Empire.
Among the so many parallels and mutual attraction between the Georgian builders of
Iviron and the Beneventan constructors of Apothikon is the symmetrical arrival of both
founders from the two opposite extremes of the Byzantine Empire to meet in the
middle of it, at Agion Oros. Leo was one of the brothers of the Duke of Benevento; the
leaders of the Iberian monastery belonged to one of the great feudal families engaged
in marking areas on the most distant and threatened frontiers that Byzantium strived to
exploit as advanced strongholds and to integrate as closely as possible in the state
system. Thats why Euthymius and other young Georgian nobles were taken as
hostages in the imperial court of Constantinople, in concomitance with the major
Eastern campaign of the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros Phokas in 964. His army
included significant quotas of Caucasians and Armenians. When he moved to
Cappadocia, bringing with him the Empress and the two children Basil and
Constantine, Nikephoros needed to ensure the loyalty of its Georgian auxiliaries. 53
All Athonite narratives converge in describing close neighborly relations
between the Great Lavra, Iviron and the Latin monastery up to compare them to three
peas in a pod. They acted synergically in promoting the coenobitic style of life against
hermitic resistance and in establishing the revitalized Holy Mountain as a point of
reference for the Christian monasticism. Consistently, the erection of the Benedictine
house took place in the period between 980 and 1000.
Dom Rousseau54 and Pertusi55 narrowed the time-range down to the decade 980
990 on the basis of the Chronica Monasterii Casinensis written by the future cardinal
Leo Marsicanus of Ostia (10461115), and then reported in the Dialogues by the future
pope Victor III (former abbot of Montecassino between 1058 and 1087).56 The texts
introduce the Benedictine John of Benevento. This monk has several similarities with
Leo the Founder of Apothikon: he descended from a noble family of Benevento and was

50
It was after the conquest of Bulgaria, completed in 1018. I. Duje, Le Mont Athos et les Slaves au
Moyen Age, in Le millnaire du Mont Athos 9631963. tudes et mlanges (Chevetogne: ditions de
Chevetogne, 1963) (reprint in I. Duje, Medioevo bizantino-slavo 1, Rome, 1965), 501.
51
The earliest mention of a Russian monastery on Mount Athos is from February 1016 when Grasime,
hegumen of tou Rs, signed an act of the Great Lavra. Lavra 19 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou,
Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 37; Alexander Soloviev, Histoire du monastre russe au Mont
Athos, Byzantion 8 (1933): 230; V. Min, Russkie na Afone i russko-vizantijskie otnoenija XIXII
vv., Byzantinoslavica 9 (19471948): 62 ff.
52
It was built by a monk who was a prince of the Seljuk dynasty. Paul Lemerle, Actes de Kutlumus. Album
d. Diplomatique (Archives de lAthos 2) (Paris: Editions P. Lethielleux, 1946), 45; G. Moravcsik,
Byzantino-turcica: Die Byzantinischen Quellen derr Geschichte der Turkvolker, vol. 2, second rev. edn.
(Berlin, 1958) (reprint Brill, 1983), 171; Charles M. Brand, The Turkish Element in Byzantium, Eleventh-
Twelfth Centuries, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 43 (Harvard, 1989), 6; Nastase, Les dbuts de la communaut
oecumnique du Mont Athos, 260 ff.
53
Ioannis Skylitzs, Synopsis historiarum, Ioannes Thurn H. (ed.), edition princeps (Corpus Fontium
Historiae Byzantinae 5) (Berlin-New York, 1973), 268.
54
Rousseau, Lancien monastre bndictin du Mont Athos, 536 ff.
55
Pertusi, Nuovi documenti, 810; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 222223.
56
See also Dom Philibert Schmitz, Histoire de l'ordre de Saint Benot, I, (Paris: Les ditions de Maredsous,
1942), 246.

204
well known in monastic circles with a reputation for piety. The reader is informed that
John of Benevento was tonsured in Montecassino abbey and resided at Mount Athos
per aliquot temporis spatia sheltered by his Italic brothers.57 It was there from about
993994 to 996.58 It is inferable that in these days the Benedictine house was already
being built on the Holy Mountain.
An additional element concerns the founding chronology. The first signature on
Athonite documents by a Latin abbot was made in 991. He was not Leo of Benevento,
but a certain John who styled abbot (higuminus) in Latin script.59 Therefore 991 is the
terminus ante quem for the erection and consecration of the Western monastery in the
heartland of Byzantine monasticism.
In agreement with Pertusi, we can restrict the building of the Latin rite monastery
further to the quinquennium 985990 on the basis of two parchment documents that we
can utilize as terminus post quem. They are kept in the archives of the Great Lavra, but
originated in Iviron. The first is a lavriote deed from December 984 concerning a donation
from the Lavra of Athanasius the Athonite to Iviron represented by the hegumen John. It is
signed for the earliest time in Latin language and script by Latin monks among the
witnesses to the benefaction. They are John and Arsenios: Ego Jo(hannes) monachus
testis sum and Ego Arsenios[;] uro[;] indignus monachus testis sum.60 John and
Arsenios probably were among the companions of Leo the Founder.61
According to Plested, the fact that the mentioned two monks are witnesses, and
not members of the Great Lavra which was directly involved into the transaction, is
overlooked in a number of secondary sources.62 Nonetheless, it is evident that on 984 the
erection of the Latin house had not yet occurred or finished and that the Italic monks
tonsured abroad still dwelled at the Great Lavra that functioned as their motherhouse.63 It
also confirms the close relationship between the Latin monks and the Georgian brothers
as narrated by the Bios of the saints John and Euthymius.64
A document of Iviron from the following year (985) shows the signature of the
same two monks serving as witnesses again. However, in this case the first father
subscribed the act as Ego Johannes monachos ton Apothikon testis sum.65 The
toponym Apothikon (of the Warehouses) indicates the promontory on the Morphonou

57
Pertusi, Nuovi documenti, 810; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 222223.
58
Rousseau, Lancien monastre bndictin du Mont Athos, 538; Pertusi, Nuovi documenti, 9; Pertusi,
Monasteri e monaci italiani, 223; Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, 102.
59
Lavra 9 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 118 ff. Pertusi,
Nuovi documenti, 10; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 224; Aidan Keller, Amalfion: Western Rite
Monastery on Mount Athos: A Monograph with Notes and Illustrations (Austin: St Hilarion Press, 1994
2002), 8; Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, 102.
60
I, Monk John, am a witness and I, Arsenius, ... unworthy monk, am a witness. Franz Dlger (ed.), Aus
den Schatzkammern des Heiligen Berges. 115 Urkunden und 50 Urkundensiegel aus 10 Jahrhunderten
(Mnchen: Mnchner Verlag, 1948), 292295, n. 108.61. Iviron 6 in Lefort, Oikonomides,
Papachryssanthou, Metreveli, Actes dIviron, 140 n. 60; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 221. The
editors of the Actes dIviron completed as Ego Arsenios filio d(o)m(in)o Lupo indignus monachus testis
sum. Falkenhausen von rendered the signature in the following plain format: Arsenios filio domino Lupo
indignus monachus (Falkenhausen, Il monastero degli amalfitani sul Monte Athos, 104; Falkenhausen, Il
monastero sul Monte Athos, 2).
61
Iviron 6 in Lefort, Oikonomides, Papachryssanthou, Metreveli, Actes dIviron, 140; Bonsall, The
benedictine Monastery; Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, 101.
62
Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, 100, n. 9.
63
Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 221.
64
Falkenhausen, Il monastero sul Monte Athos, 2.
65
Iviron 7 in Lefort, Oikonomides, Papachryssanthou, Metreveli, Actes dIviron, 151.

205
bay where the Latin monastery was built and where the high square tower still
dominates. It is generally identified with Cape Kosri, contiguous to the northern limit of
the lavriote territory as defined in the typikon of Athanasius.66 In this document there is
another significant shift: the second monk did not sign anymore as Arsenios but as
Arsenius. He moved from the Greek language to the Latin language.67
In conclusion, multiple indications suggest that the Benedictine coenobium was
build when Athanasius the Athonite and John the Ivirite were both alive (i.e. before circa
10001004 and before 1005100668) and shortly after the building of Iviron (around
980), sister-house to Apothikon.69 The most plausible date for the consecration is circa
985. From c. 980 to c. 984, according to a lavriote tradition Leo and brothers lodged as
welcomed guests of Athanasius whereas a ivrite tradition states they have been sheltered
in the just erected monastery of the Iberians.70 A large Athonite brotherhood started-up
with eloquent reputation for piety and integrity patterned on the rule and teachings of
Saint Benedict of Norcia (480547) under the motto Ora et Labora (pray and work
holding both actions together).71 It occurred some two decades after the erection of the
Great Lavra which was considered a main benchmark, and a quinquennium after the
founding of Iviron that was a partner point of reference.
The proposed chronology makes the abovementioned conflicting assumptions
obsolete. The Benedictine house was built neither after a previous Amalfitan occurrence
on the Holy Mountain, nor during the disputes that prepared the Great Schism, nor at the
acme and as a result of the Latin-Orthodox conflict.72

The monasterium amoenum in the debut of the ecumenical Athonite community

Mid-late 10th century was the heroic age of Mount Athos under the propel of monk
Athanasius (925/930100073/100474), who a was native of Trebizond and a former
professor in Constantinople. Agion Oros was already a well-recognized spiritual centre
before his arrival in about 958. However, Athanasius foundation of the Great Lavra
( )75 as an imperial coenobium, around 962/963,76 was a turning-point that

66
Iviron 7 in Lefort, Oikonomides, Papachryssanthou, Metreveli, Actes dIviron, 137 ff., and 147 ff; Pertusi,
Monasteri e monaci italiani, tav. III; Falkenhausen, La Chiesa amalfitana, 91 ff.; Falkenhausen, Il
monastero degli amalfitani sul Monte Athos,104 ff.
67
Plested, Latin Monasticism on Mount Athos, 100.
68
Ph. Meyer, Die Haupturkunden fr die Geschichte der Athosklster, Grsstentheils zum ersten Male
herausgegeben und mit Einleitungen versehen von Ph. Meyer (Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1894) (reprint
Hakkert, Amsterdam, 1965; repr. Adamant Media Corporation, 2003), 25; L. Petit, Vie de S. Athanase
lAthonite, Analecta Bollandiana 25 (1906): 77; Peeters, Histoires monastiques gorgiennes, 23 ff., 32,
3637 27, and 60; Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et Euthyme, 109 ff; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci
italiani, 222; Falkenhausen, Il monastero sul Monte Athos, 2. Concerning the
uncertainness of the date, see J. Noret, (ed.) Vitae duae antiquae sancti Athanasii Athonitae, The Athanasian
Vita A (Corpus christianorum. Series graeca 9) (Turnhout, Louvain, 1982), CXCXI, n. 25.
69
Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 221; Keller, Amalfion, 5.
70
For the Lavriote tradition, see Smyrnakis, , 419. For the Ivriote tradition, see Nastase,
, 293; Nastase, Les dbuts de la communaut oecumnique du Mont Athos, 253.
71
Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et Euthyme, 109 ff; Bonsall, The benedictine Monastery, 262267.
72
Merlini, Founding a Latin monastery on Mount Athos; , .
73
Falkenhausen, Il monastero sul Monte Athos, 1. According to Pertusi, Monasteri e
monaci italiani, 222, Athanasius passing was between 997 and 1011.
74
M. Sarris, Some Fundamental Organizing Concepts in a Greek Monastic Community on Mt. Athos, Thesis
submitted to the Anthropology Department of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the
degree of Ph.D., University of London (London, 2000), 38.
75
Falkenhausen, Il monastero sul Monte Athos.

206
radically changed the configuration of Athonite monasticism. Firstly, the Holy Mountain
of hermits living in isolated dwellings77 established itself as the designated spiritual land
of monks settled in large and well-organized monasteries. Secondly, the peninsula of the
monks was hinged to the imperial power thanks to the sponsorship and protection of
Athanasius friend and spiritual son Nikephoros Phokas (c. 912969), eminent general
and then emperor, and of his killer and successor John I Tzimiskes. 78 Thirdly, Mount
Athos skipped from half-concealment to notoriety both in South-EasternEastern Europe
and in Western Europe. It started to generate veneration and awe as a microcosm of the
celestial order on the Earth.79 Consistently, the Holy Mountain became the preferred
destination of monks arriving from all over the Christian world after hearing about the
invigorate holiness of the place.80 The Italic Benedictines were among the first
immigrants. They did not migrate from the Byzantine territory and Church established in
Southern Italy, but from the papal and Lombard area in Central Italy.
The erection date of the Benedictine monastery (c. 895) reveals the heartland of
Eastern monasticism as a welcome space to Western monks before the Great Schism.
The willingness to cooperate and offer material and spiritual support is made palpable by
the intentional emphasis and vivid details placed in the Bios of Athanasius. It indicates
spontaneous friendship and spiritual appreciation to the aristocratic Leo, the Lombard
Beneventan Benedictine who built a Western rite cloister not far from his Greek
Byzantine lavra.
The narratives on Athanasius accentuate his role as a major attractor to the Holy
Mountain even for not-Greek crowds (Italics, Georgians, Albanians, Armenians, and
Hispanics among the others), because his fame triggered a new ascetic ardor in the whole
monastic oecumene beyond the Byzantine horizon.81 From the Italian peninsula, the
document mention monks who rushed from Rome, Italy, Amalfi, and Calabria.
Within this context and according to the Byzantine perspective of the early 11th century,
Rome indicates the Central Italy region that was Latin speaking and under the direct
obedience of the pope.

76
According to Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 222, Athanasius arrival on Mount Athos was in 958
and the erection of the Great Lavra happened between 961 and 965. Cf. Petit, Vie de S. Athanase
lAthonite, 23 n. 2; 33 n. 1; Germaine Rouillard, Paul Collomp (eds.), Actes de Lavra, Tom. I: (8971178)
(Archives de lAthos, 1), Edition diplomatique et critique (Paris: P. Lethielleux, 1937), XXIX.
77
Rosemary Morris, The origins of Athos,in Mount Athos and Byzantine Monasticism. Papers from
Twenty-Eight Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Birmingham, March 1994 (Aldershot, 1996), 37
46.
78
Gustave Schlumberger, Un empereur byzantin au Xe sicle. Nicphore Phocas (Paris: E. de Boccard,
1923), 315320; Louis Brhier, Le Monde byzantin, I, Vie et mort de Byzance (Paris: Albin Michel, 1947),
195; Louis Brhier, Le Monde byzantin, II, Les Institutions de l'empire byzantin (Paris: Albin Michel, 1948),
547. Fragments of the Typicon that prescribed the organization of the monastery are published in Meyer, Die
Haupturkunden fr die Geschichte der Athosklster, 106, 31 ff. Se also Nikephoros Phokas chrysobulls
(Papachryssanthou, Actes du Prtaton, 8183; Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos,
Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 3738. Concerning Tzimiskes typikon for Mount Athos in 971972, see
Papachryssanthou, Actes du Prtaton, 20215, with text at 20915.
79
Falkenhausen, Il monastero degli amalfitani sul Monte Athos,103.
80
Kallistos Ware, Saint Athanasius the Athonite: Traditionalist or Innovator? in A. Bryer, M. Cunningham
(eds.), Mount Athos and Byzantine Monasticism. Papers of the Twentyeighth Spring symposium of
Byzantine Studies, Birmingham, March 1994 (Aldershot: Variorum, 1996), 316.
81
Noret, Vitae duae antiquae sancti Athanasii Athonitae, Vita A, 158.74; Vita B, 43.176.

207
 Image 4: The tower of Amalfion and Mount Athos. Photo Marco Merlini

In particular, Rome individuates the possessions of the House of Capua, to

which the Duke of Benevento and Leo the founder belonged. Just before the turning of
the millennium they were alternatively and cyclically almost autonomous, under the
influence of the Byzantine Katepanate, or under the authority of the papacy. 82 Italy
denotes the Katepanate of Sothern Italy, i.e. the province of the Byzantine Empire with
Bari as capital city and comprising, up to 1071, mainland Italy south of a line drawn
from the Garganic promontory to the Gulf of Salerno.83 Although north of that line,
Amalfi maintained allegiance to Constantinople through the Katepanate, but it was at
most under papal authority. The marine city ruled Apothikon after 25/50 years from its
Lombard foundation and transformed it into Amalfion. Since the mid-eight century,
Calabria belonged to the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople and
was Greek speaking.
Consequently, Athonite acts inform us that other Italic monasteries have been
erected on Mount Athos at the turn of the millennium: the houses of Sicilians (986
1108)84 and Calabrians (10801108).85 These monastic communities possibly passed via

82
, .
83
It included Apulia and part of Basilicata.
84
Toa Sikelo. Lavra 57, in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970:
68, 69; Papachryssanthou, Actes du Prtaton, 90; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 242243.
85
Toa Kalabro. Lavra 57, in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970:
68, 69; Dlger, Aus den Schatzkammern, 278. 2627; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 241; Gaia
Zaccagni, Il Bios di San Bartolomeo da Simeri, Rivista di studi bizantini e neoellenici 33 (1996), 193274.

208
Constantinople as the Benedictines of Apothikon did. However, there were major
differences among them. Sicilians and Calabrians were Greek-speaking brothers from
Southern Italian territories dependent on the patriarchy of Constantinople and not on the
papacy of Rome.86 They perceived themselves as an integral part of the Byzantine
oecumene. Indeed, the conventional end of the Byzantine rule in the Southern regions of
the Italian peninsula was in 1071.87 Until that date one can consider their inhabitants as
subjected to the Eastern Roman Empire. Once trained at Agion Oros, the monks of
Byzantine culture but not ethnically Greeks had often the task of propagating the
Athonite version of Christianity in their areas of origin or transmitting it to the
populations bordering the Empire, transplanting there the blessed lifestyle of Mount
Athos. Nothing of similar was requested to the Athonite Benedictines, who had as their
main duty the bridging between the Western Church and the Eastern Church and the
spread of the Byzantine spiritual approach into the Western milieu translating Greek
hagiographic texts into Latin. Finally, the Sicilian and Calabrian cloisters obtained minor
geopolitical importance than the Latin monastery. When they were on the verge of the
collapse, it acquired the envied title of imperial monastery. 88
The founding of the Benedictine monastery on Mount Athos has not to be
connected to the active presence of Greek holy monks who took refuge in Campania
from Calabria and Sicily to flee Arab raids and invasions in the late 10th century, as
proposed by Pertusi.89 The Greek rite occurred in just one church, St Nicholas at
Gallucanta on the ArnalfiSalerno border.90 Instead, it was due to a group of Latin-
speaking monks who belonged to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the papacy and arrived
to the Holy Mountain, via Constantinople, from Central-Southern regions of the Italic
peninsula that were independent from the Byzantine Empire.91

A Latin cloister hinged on the direct Byzantine Imperial power

The key player of the Grand Game for West-East supremacy was the Byzantine imperial
government and its reasserting power in Southern Italy. The Latin coenobium came into
existence as an essential component of the heartland of Eastern monasticism when
Byzantium was trying to draw the contiguous Lombard states into its diplomatic orbit,
and to bypass the German emperor as protector of Montecassino abbey despite it
following the Latin rite and papacy obedience.92
Consistently, Apothikon was incorporated into the imperial direct sphere of
interest since its founding. The Western rite house was among the earliest monasteries on
the Holy Mountain to have been recognized the imperial patronage and its affairs were
matter of concern to the Byzantine court. More surprising, such a protection was
confirmed by several emperors throughout the post-schism period and corroborated with
the donation of new privileges and territories.93 The strategic interest in the Benedictine

86
Falkenhausen, The south Italian sources, 96; Keller, Amalfion, 4.
87
This date is conventionally given in historical surveys and handbooks as corresponding to the
abandonment of Bari, seat of the Byzantine governor. Cf. Falkenhausen, The south Italian sources, 96.
88
, .
89
Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 225 ff.
90
Patricia Skinner, Medieval Amalfi and Its Diaspora, 8001250 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 217.
91
Anna Sapir Abulafia, Christians and Jews in the Twelfth-Century Renaissance (London and New York:
Routledge, 1995), 120; Merlini, Founding a Latin monastery on Mount Athos.
92
Herbert Bloch, Monte Cassino, Byzantium and the West in the Earlier Middle Ages, Dumbarton Oaks
Papers 3 (1946): 168.
93
Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 228229; Marco Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del

209
house was reaffirmed even by the Comnenian dynasty (10811185) as an element of the
restoration of the military, territorial, economic and political position of the Byzantine
Empire and the efforts to trigger a Byzantine revival based on diplomatic and military
initiatives.94

Image 5: The heraldic panel in white marble depicting an eagle to the seal the imperial
protection. It is positioned towards the top of the tower. Drawing by Beatrice Picca Piccon

More generally, the founding of the Benedictine house should be framed within
that magic moment when the will of the Byzantine emperors supported the relatively
quickly grow of the Athonite community into a vibrant symbol of the ecumenical
Christian empire, or rather, into a veritable microcosm of Christian imperial ecumenicity.
In the Athonite system, the Great Lavra held the principal place by representing
not merely an emperor or another, but the sovereign power exercised by the Byzantine
emperors. According to the Lives of Athanasius, all groups of foreigner monks who
established on Agion Oros were subjected to Athanasius,95 who was their common
guardian and protector.96 Even the monastic settlement of the Georgians, the earliest
foreigner brotherhood recorded by the sources, remained for a long time dependent on
the imperial monastery of the Great Lavra and the founder, John the Iberian, continued to
recognize Athanasius authority even when he became hegumen of his autonomous

Monte Athos che oper dal X al XIII secolo per unire le Chiese cristiane, Centro di cultura e storia
amalfitana (Amalfi, 2015).
94
John II Comnenus also made a donation of lands to the Latin monastery sometime between 1118 and 1143.
95
Noret, Vitae duae antiquae sancti Athanasii Athonitae, Vita A, 74.158.
96
Noret, Vitae duae antiquae sancti Athanasii Athonitae, Vita B, 176.43.12.

210
monastery.97 This submission constituted monastic obedience (). However, it
fixed and exerted also the widening of the political Byzantine sphere of influence via
religious impulse. As aforementioned, the founders of the foreign monasteries connected
to Athanasius the Athonite were members of families ruling on their countries, which
often were at the extreme limits of the empire or over them and Byzantium tried to force
the borders with diplomatic efforts and wars of expansion.98 Therefore, the submission to
the patron of Mount Athos also expressed the political faithfulness and cultural-religious
assimilation of the noble regional leadership to the emperor of Constantinople or, in
some cases such as the Calabria, it manifested and exercised emperors direct control
over their ruling territories.99 The mechanism of ensuring loyalty by foreign noble
monks, which was at the basis of the authorization for their founding or for acquiring an
Athonite monastery, was parallel, very similar and consistent to the efforts of their kin to
achieve Byzantine honorific titles such as ypathos, anthypatos, and vestes and high
positions in the civil and military hierarchy as governors and generals.

The shadow of papacy

The erection of the Athonite Latin monastery helped the papacy to reshape its
relationship with the Lombard ally and the competitor Byzantium. In particular, it was a
unique opportunity to expand Latin Christendom into the so-called frontier territories.
The Holy See tried to make use of the Athonite Benedictine foundation to impose, in
practice, its patronage on the emerging hub of the Greek-Byzantine monasticism within
the more general efforts to imprint Latin civilisation upon the Byzantine territories. In
particular, papacy made an attempt to exploit Apothikon as a bridgehead to the
Byzantine Empire and the Church of Constantinople within a policy of reconciliation
with Rome driven by Rome.
The papal strategy did not lack consistency. However, it is hard to escape the
impression that the Beneventan and Capuan secular authorities that supported the
foundation of Apothikon were much more interested in obtaining political benefices
from the emperor and his court than in driving the Greeks into papal obedience.
A Benedictine foundation was chosen because this monastic order had a
dialoguing role between the Latin and Greek colliding forces, diplomatic finesse, fertile
cross-cultural connections, centralized organization, and zealous pursuit for obedience.
Indeed, another protagonist of the Grand Game was the influential abbey of
Montecassino (Abbatia Territorialis Montis Cassini) that was situated in the territory of
the principality of Capua. Founded by St Benedict in c. 529, it had a special relationship
with the Greek culture and spirituality that spread along the Italian peninsula.100 The visit
of St Nilus of Rossano to Montecassino, in c. 980, is a famous case study of an
archetypal encounter between Greek and Latin Christians.101 Nilus chanted an all-night
vigil at the abbey, including Greek hymns of his own composition dedicated to St
Benedict. He also answered questions about Latin and Greek norms, practices, and

97
Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 43, 44.
98
Rome, Italy, Amalfi, and Calabria to the West; Iberia and Armenia to the East; Bulgaria (completed to
be conquered in 1018), and the Kievan State in the Eastern Christian oecumene.
99
Nastase, Les dbuts de la communaut oecumnique du Mont Athos, 310; Merlini, Founding a Latin
monastery on Mount Athos; , .
100
Bloch, Monte Cassino, 163124.
101
Tia M. Kolbaba, Latin and Greek Christians, in Thomas F. X Noble and Julia M. H. Smith (eds.), The
Cambridge History of Christianity, Vol. 3: Early Medieval Christianities, c. 600c.1100 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2008), 225228.

211
appearance (beard and clothing) from the resident monks. His conclusion was that, in
spite of dissimilarities, the Rule of St Benedict and the customs of Greek monasticism
were equally valid.102
Montecassino was in contact, at least until the early 12th century, with the
Byzantine authorities established in Southern Italy and directly with the emperors
(Constantine IX Monomachos, Michel VII, and Alexios I).103 Its extensive proprieties in
the Byzantine Apulia were regularly ratified by the katepans.104 Contacts between the
Benedictines and the patriarchate of Constantinople have been numerous, persistent, and
even mutually beneficial beyond the clash between the Western Church and the Eastern
Church.105 The abbots of Montecassino were ceaselessly involved in diplomatic activities
by bridging, sometime in a risky manner, Rome and Constantinople.106 One of the most
suitable places where to accomplish this task certainly was their cloister on Mount
Athos, as this community was standing in the power of both the Byzantine emperor and
the Constantinople patriarch.
In order to erect its Athonite house, Montecassino exploited its close ties with
Mount Athos.107 Apothikon was the first Benedictine monastery to be built in Greece. 108
It effectively supplied the great mother-abbey of their monastic order, acting as its agents
in the Byzantine imperial power and as far away as Jerusalem.109
In the process of creating the ecumenical community of Agion Oros, Athanasius
the Athonite was the magnet who attracted the Italic Benedictines. He also expressed
genuine interest on the Regula Monachorum of St Benedict. The text was written at
Montecassino abbey probably around 530 and practiced on Mount Anthos by the monk
Leo and his brothers.110 Greek translations of such rules or extracts of them were
probably circulating in Agion Oros, brought by hermits or monks arrived from the
Southern territories of the Italian peninsula.111 The biographers of Athanasius and of
John the Iberian and Euthymios wrote about the rules and the way of life in the Athoite
Benedictine house in approving terms. Athanasius the Athonite was even criticised by

102
Olivier Rousseau, La visite de Nil de Rossano au Mont Cassin, in La Chiesa greca in Italia
dall'VIII al XVI secolo. Atti del Convegno Storico Interecclesiale (Bari, 30 apr. - 4 mag. 1969)
Vol.1-3, (Padova, 19721973); Morton, TAM GRECOS QUAM LATINOS, 56, 61.
103
Falkenhausen, The South Italian Sources, 105.
104
F. Trinchera (ed.), Syllabus Graecarum membranarum (Napoli: tipografia J. Cataneo, 1865), 11, 12, 14,
17; Franz Dlger, Regesten der Kaiserurkunden des ostrmischen Reiches, vol. 1, (Mnchen, 1924), 1, n.
555 1924: 911. Cf. Vera von Falkenhausen, Montecassino e Bisanzio dal IX al XII secolo, in L'et
dell'abate Desiderio. Bd. 3, 1: Storia arte e cultura. Atti del IV Convegno di Studi sul Medioevo
Meridionale (Montecassino-Cassino, 48 ottobre 1987), ed. Avagliano, Faustino (Montecassino,
1992), 74 and n. 23, 75.
105
Falkenhausen, Montecassino e Bisanzio, 87107; Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del
Monte Athos.
106
Falkenhausen, The South Italian Sources, 105.
107
Tommaso Leccisotti, Monte Cassino (Montecassino: Pubblicazioni Cassinesi, 1987), 4850, and 53;
Mariano DellOmo, Montecassino. Unabbazia nella storia (Biblioteca della Miscellanea Cassinese, 6)
(Montecassino, 1999), 35, 45; Roger E. Reynolds, The influence of eastern patristic fathers on the canonical
collections of South Italy in the eleventh and early twelfth centuries, in U. R. Blumenthal, A. Winroth, P.
Landau (eds.), Canon Law, Religion and Politics: Liber Amicorum Robert Somerville (Washington, D.C.:
Catholic University of America Press, 2012), 78.
108
Tsougarakis, The Western Religious Orders, 111.
109
David Abulafia, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2011), 269.
110
Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et Euthyme, 109 ff.
111
Falkenhausen, Il monastero sul Monte Athos, 5.

212
the pre-existing hermits for being partially influenced by the Rule of the Saint from
Norcia. The hagiographer of the Georgian saints indicated Apothikon as the
monasterium amoenum in quo plurimos fratres congregavit.112

Image 6: Fresco of St Benedict in the katholikon of Vatopedi monaster. Photo Alessandro Latini.

Parallels between the Benedictine order and the Athonite community did not
restrain to the liturgical sphere and the organizational networking system of monasteries,
they extended to the economic mechanisms and patterns of social influence. Both
Montecassino in Italy and the Great Lavra on Agion Oros were among the greatest
landowners of that time, playing a prominent role in economic developments that shaped
the European society and drove patterns of change in the later Middle Ages. 113 Even the
Athonite Benedictine monastery possessed extensive estates. In 1081, it was wealthy
enough to pay 24 pounds of gold to the monastery of Kosmidion to acquire the extended

112
Peeters, Histoires monastiques gorgiennes, 1823, 2630, 3638; Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et
Euthyme, 109 ff; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 220221, 224; Keller, Amalfion, 5.
113
Morton, TAM GRECOS QUAM LATINOS, 3.

213
land of Platanos (in eastern Macedonia, east of the River Strymon).114
However, the coenobitic Mount Athos grew as a federation of monasteries with a
central administration (the Protaton) headed by the protos and the Great Lavra as a point
of reference. In contrast, the Benedictine order was pyramidal and centralised in
Montecassino and Cava abbeys.115

From Apothikon to Amalfion, from the Beneventan frugality to the Amalfitan wealth
The Benedictine monastic settlement on Mount Athos had the typikon in Latin, because
it organized monks of Western rite and uses. The abbots signed official acts in Latin-
language, with one controversial exception. These subscriptions are in general written in
Beneventan. This script was developed in Montecassino abbey (and in Bari as well) and
became the most spread writing in Southern Italic peninsula at that time.116
As we have already mentioned, Leo of Benevento consecrated Apothikon around
985. However, in November 991 the hegumen was no longer him but a certain John.117
The second abbot was probably one of Leos six disciples, but we do not know for sure if
he was the same John who signed in 985 as Johannes monachos ton Apothikon. Among
the signatures validating the asphaleia of November 991, according to which the protos
Johannes assigned a dwelling to the monk Athanasius, the abbot of the Benedictine
monastery autographed, in Latin: Ioh(annes) monachus (et) higoumenos inter test(es)
manu mea scripsi.118 This is also the earliest documentary evidence of the Western
house.119
Lemerle120 and Pertusi121 claimed that the John who appeared on the 991 deed
signed John (the Amalfitan). Therefore, he was from Amalfi and was even in charge as
abbot of the Amalfitan monastery.122 According to them, the act is not simply the earliest
documentary attestation that a Benedictine house occurred on Mount Athos, but the first
proof that it was denominated Amalfion.
Unfortunately, the autograph John (the Amalfitan), maintained by them, is not
supported by any archival evidence. Neither the signature, nor anywhere else indicates
John (Iohannes) as arrived from Amalfi and as the ruler of an Amalfitan house. The
erroneous opinion is due to a misreading. In the first edition (Rouillard, Collomp) of the
Actes de Lavra, some illegible letters follow the words Ioh (annes) monachus and
precede fit that the publishers completed arbitrarily as (anus) in order to obtain the
expression fitanus: Joh (annes) monachus [ ]fit(anus) manu me[a scripsi].123 In order

114
Lavra 42 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 233235.
115
Morton, TAM GRECOS QUAM LATINOS, 88, 92.
116
Falkenhausen, La Chiesa amalfitana, 92 ff.
117
Pertusi informs us (Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 223224), unfortunately without any evidence,
that John the Amalfinos succeeded to Leo verso il 991 (around 991).
118
Rouillard, Collomp, Actes de Lavra, n. 10; Lavra 9 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos,
Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 122.54; Paul Lemerle, Les archives du monastre des Amalfitains au Mont
Athos, Eptris Htaireias Byzantinn Spoudn () 23 (1953): 54866, reprint in Paul Lemerle (ed.),
Le monde de Byzance: Histoire et institutions, XXII, (London: Variorum Reprents, 1978), 551 n. 1; Pertusi,
Monasteri e monaci italiani, 224; Keller, Amalfion, 8.
119
Pertusi, Nuovi documenti, 11.
120
Jean lAmalfitain in Lemerle, Les archives du monastre des Amalfitains, 551 and Jean d'Amalfi in
Ibid., 548.
121
Giovanni di Amalfi in Pertusi, Nuovi documenti, 409411. Giovanni (Amalfitano) in Pertusi,
Monasteri e monaci italiani, 227, 251.
122
Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 223224; Lemerle, Les archives du monastre des Amalfitains, 548.
123
Rouillard, Collomp, Actes de Lavra, 10. 29, 30.45; Pertusi, Nuovi documenti, 10.

214
to give the certainty that the referred John was definitely Amalfinos, Lemerle rendered
the signature in the following plain format: Johannes monachus Amalfitanus manu mea
scripsi.124 However, the publishers of the second edition of the Actes de Lavraamong
them Lemerle himselfgave a different reading for the same signature with no
association with Amalfi: Ioh (annes) monachus [et] higuminos inter test (es) manu
mea scripsi.125 Pertusi knew the latest and accurate reading.126 Nonetheless, he
continued naming the Latin monk as John (the Amalfino).127
A number of scholars consider that Ioh (annes) monachus [et] higuminos of 991
was the same abbot John128 who signed acts even in 1012,129 1016,130 and 1017.131
However, we have no archival support for this assumption. There is not any documentary
corroboration also for Lemerles and Pertusis presumption that even the Benedictine
witnesses who subscribed in 984 and 985 and the abbots who signed in 1012 and 1016
were Amalfitan monks.132
Regrettably, the misunderstanding concerning the occurrence since mid-eighties
of the 10th century of a Latin coenobium on Mount Athos called Amalfion and populated
by Amalfitan monks is still largely accepted by the scholarship.133 Even the publishers of
the second edition of the Actes de Lavra, despite assuring the certainty of their new
not-Amalfitan reading concerning Ioh (annes) monachus [et] higuminos on the 991
deed, continued to argue that it belongs to Jean, higoumne du couvent des
Amalfitains.134 According to them, in the new edition of the Actes de Lavra, the abbas
signatures in 1012 and 1016 acts have to be simply read, respectively: Joh (annes)
monachus135 and Joh (annes) monachus et abbas.136 Nonetheless, they annotate the
first signature as Celle du reprsentant du Couvent des Amalfitains. For the second
signature, they just refer on its presence.137
Concerning the deed signed on 1017, the Athonite archives do not possess the
original text any more, but only a copy of it. It was made in the 13th century and the

124
Lemerle, Les archives du monastre des Amalfitains, 551, and note 1.
125
Lavra 9 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 122. 54. La
lecture que nous donnons est certaine, they declare (118).
126
Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 224, and n. 22.
127
Quel Giovanni (Amalfitano), che firma il documento del 991 in Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani,
223. Giovanni (Amalfitano), abate di Santa Maria degli Amalfitani, in Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci
italiani, 251.
128
Ibid., 227, 251.
129
Lavra 17 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: n. 15. The act
is signed by Johannes monachus. Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 227, note 31.
130
Lavra 19 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: n. 15. The
document is signed by Johannes monachus et abbas. Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 227, note 32.
131
This time the signature was in Greek. Lavra 21 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos,
Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 165; Rouillard, Collomp, Actes de Lavra, n. 35; Lemerle, Les archives du
monastre des Amalfitains, 552; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 227, n. 33.
132
Lemerle, Les archives du monastre des Amalfitains, 549. Sont des latins (Amalfitains), in Lavra 44
in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 161. Pertusi, Monasteri e
monaci italiani, 221, 251. The misinterpretation has an important corollary, the convinction that: chiaro
di qui che nel 984 il monastero degli Amalfitani non era ancora stato fondato, Ibid., 221; ,
for an extended analysis.
133
Papachryssanthou, Actes du Prtaton, 83, 86; Keller, Amalfion.
134
Lavra 9 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 122. See an
interesting debug in Nastase, , 287293.
135
Lavra 17 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 148.51.
136
Lavra 19 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 155.32.
137
Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 45, 154.

215
abbots signature is drowned up as (John the Amalfitan
monk),138 i.e. a quite certain Greek translation and transliteration of a Latin signature
made by the copyist with a questionable level of accuracy.139
The earliest secure evidence for the existence of Amalfion is from an act of
1035, when we find a J(o)h(annes) hum(ilis) mo(na)chus Amalfitanus.140 If we avoid
the infernal circuit of the abbots signatures, the designation (monastery) of the
Amalfitanus appears for the first time in a deed of 1010.141 It is a memorandum that
reached us as a Greek copy, probably of the 13th century, drawn up in red ink and still
kept in the archive of the Great Lavra. The publishers of the act noticed the same hand of
the earliest copy of the aforementioned document of 991, due to the scribes Sergius and
Matthew.142 The provision concerns the determination of the territorial boundaries
between three monasteries: Great Lavra, Bouleutria (the Parliaments) and
Xeropotamos. The memorandum was drafted by the abbot of Xenofon and signed by
twelve monks. The signature of the abbot of the Benedictine monastery does not appear
among them, but the deed officially recognizes the rights of the (monastery) of the
Amalfitanus on territories to the West.
From these scant informations we can infer that already in 1010, the Latin
monastery was a well-structured entity. Furthermore, the designation Amalfion
appeared for the first time. But we possess this provision only in copies. The earliest
copy was redacted in Greek two centuries later, when Amalfion not only existed but was
playing a leading role in the government of the Holy Mountain. We cannot know if the
transcriber was referring to the rights of a monastery already established in 1010 as
Amalfion, or was describing the convent later named of Amalfitans, to quote the
interpretation of the editors of the second edition of the Actes de Lavra (1970).143
To sum up, until 1035 the examined archival records of the signatures of the
Latin abbots never report any association with Amalfi, but simply Johannes monachus,
or Johannes monachus et abba. The earliest proof of existence of a monastery called
Amalfion is in 1010, if we refer to the Greek copyists active later than two centuries.
Otherwise we need to wait until 1035, if we rely only on the first signature. In any case,
the Latin monastery was founded as Apothikon by Lombard Beneventans around 985
and reinvented as Amalfion by Amalfitans in the early decades of the 11th century. 144

Rationale of the Amalfitan acquisition of the Western rite house in the heartland of
Eastern monasticism
In the geopolitical East-Western Game a key role was played by the duchy-city of
Amalfi, which gave birth to the monks who acquired predominance on Apothikon after

138
Lavra 21 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 165.
139
Falkenhausen, Il monastero sul Monte Athos, 6. Nastases assertion (Nastase,
, 290) that the automatic translation in Greek invalidates the name of John Monk
Amalfitinou is too sharp and groundless to be sharable. See , .
140
Lavra 29 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 186.21.
Nastase, , 290.
141
This document is written in Greek. Lavra 15 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos,
Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 139141. I am grateful to prof. Christina Petropoulou for the contribution to
its reading.
142
Lavra 15 in Actes de Lavra, I, Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 139.
143
Lemerle, Guillou, Svoronos, Papachryssanthou (eds.), 1970: 137.
144
Merlini, Founding a Latin monastery on Mount Athos; , .

216
the turning of the millennium, restarting it as the affluent Amalfion.145 Since the
second half of the 10th century, Amalfi became a major player in the shipping trade with
the East, mainly with the Byzantine administration, but also with the Arabs.
Geographical contiguity with the Byzantine possessions in Southern Italy and
commercial interests in the Eastern Mediterranean induced this small maritime town to
cultivate relations with Byzantium more intensely and preferentially than all the other
semi-dependent or semi-independent Italic States, up to the point to become the main
referent of the Byzantine Empire. In the last quarter of the 10th century, the Amalfitans
had already heavily secured extensive trading privileges with the Byzantine Empire and
consolidated their position in the capital city, Constantinople. Their community resided
in its own enclave on the Golden Horn. It was administered by Amalfitan magistrates,
consuls, vicars, and judges applying laws and customs of the motherland.146 The colony
flourished rapidly, and developed a private harbor, warehouses, emporia, and
hospitals.147 It also organized a Western rite religious community with Latin churches
and Benedictine monasteries,148 and the Byzantine emperors were prodigal of protections
and privileges for them.149 It is remarkable to note the longevity of these Benedictine
houses, which were founded under the Byzantine government and with the consent of the
Greek Church.150 Even after the Norman invasion of Southern Italy and the occupation of
Amalfi, trade relations between the maritime city on the Tyrrhenian coast and the
Byzantine Empire continued and were further strengthened, albeit at a slower pace.
Honorary imperial titles were awarded to a number of dukes of Amalfi for

145
Ulrich Schwarz, Amalfi im frhen Mittelalter (911 Jahrhundert). Untersuchungen zur Amalfitaner
berlieferung (Bibliothek des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom, 49) (Tbingen, 1978), edited the
Amalfitan documents up to the year 1100.
146
Giuseppe Gargano, La toga e la spada: evoluzione delle magistrature in Amalfi medievale, in Rassegna
del Centro di Cultura e Storia Amalfitana 6 (1994), 113; Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del
Monte Athos.
147
W. Heyd, Histoire du commerce du Levant au Moyen ge (Leipzig: O. Harrassowitz, 18851886), 99,
101103; Belin, Histoire de la latinit, 18 ff; Gay, LItalia Meridionale, 50 ff., 232 ff., 544 ff; Adolf
Hofmeister, Zur Geschichte Amalfis in byzantinischer Zeit, Byzantinisch-neugriechische Jahrbcher 1
(1920): 94127; Adolf Hofmeister, Stammreihe der Herzoge von Amalfi aus dem Hause des Muscus
comes, Byzantinisch-neugriechische Jahrbcher 4 (1923): 328339; Adolf Hofmeister, Der bersetzer
Johannes und das Geschlecht Comitis Mauronis in Amalfi. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der byzantinisch-
abendlndischen Beziehungen besonders im 11. Jahrhundert, Historische Vierteljahrschrift 27 (1932), 225
ff., 493 ff., and 831 ff.; Michail Berza, Amalfi preducale (596957), Ephemeris Dacoromana 8 (1938):
349444; Anton Michel, Amalfi und Jerusalem im griechischen Kirchenstreit (10541090). Kardinal
Humbert, Laycus von Amalfi, Niketas Stethatos, Symeon II. von Jerusalem und Bruno von Segni ber die
Azymen, Orientalia Christiana Analecta 121 (1939); G. Coniglio, Amalfi e il suo commercio nel
Medioevo, Nuova Rivista Storica 1819 (19441945): 2829, 100114; Louis Brhier, Le monde byzantin,
III, La civilisation byzantine (Paris: Albin Michel, 1950), 208 ff; Balard, Amalfi et Byzance, 8595.
148
Belin, Histoire de la latinit, 18; Benedicto Gariador, Anciens monastres bndictins en Orient (Paris:
Socit Saint-Augustin, 1912), 9396; Bernard Leib Rome, Kiev et Byzance la fin du XIe sicle: rapports
religieux des Latins et des Grco-Russes sous le pontificat dUrbain II (10881099) (Paris: A. Picard, 1924),
100101; Raymond Janin, La Geographie ecclesiastique de I'Empire byzantin, I, le siege de Constantinople
et le Patriarcat Oecumenique, 3. Vols (Paris, 1953), 582; Keller, Amalfion, 2.
149
Janin, La Geographie ecclesiastique, 583; Giuseppe Galasso, Il commercio amalfitano nel periodo
normanno, in Studi in onore di R. Filangieri, vol. 1, (Napoli, 1959), 81103; Krijnie N. Ciggaar, Une
description de Constantinople traduite par un plerin anglais, Revue d'tudes byzantines 36 (1976), 262;
Bruno Figliuolo, Amalfi e il Levante nel Medioevo, in G. Airaldi, B. Z. Kedar (eds.), I Comuni italiani nel
Regno crociato di Gerusalemme (Coli. Storica di Fonti e Studi 48) (Genova, 1986), 591 ff; Yves Renouard,
Gli uomini d'affari italiani del Medioevo (Milano: Rizzoli, 1995), 39 ff.
150
Tsougarakis, The Western Religious Orders, 112; Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del
Monte Athos.

217
having participated with their navies to the reconquest of Syria in 968, or for having
contributed to ransom Christian slaves from the hands of the Arabs.151 The already-
mentioned Duke Manso I was awarded with so many courtly titles to surpass the rival
nobles of Naples and Venice. The awards included even Amalfitan patricians in exile
from mainland. Subsequently, they have been extended to private individuals, probably
merchants, who lived in the Byzantine Empire or had traveled there.152
The maritime town coupled the establishment of some of the earliest trade roads
and stable colonies in the territories of the Byzantine empire, in particular in
Constantinople, with intense relations with the Arabs characterized by peaceful and
profitable trade.153 Amalfitan merchants exported from Southern Italy timber required by
the Arabs for the construction of ships, because the Byzantine conquest of Cyprus and
Syria had made them loose the main wood reserves.154 Returning to Western Europe,
their ships imported high-value goods (such as fabrics, spices, and masterpieces of
Byzantine goldsmiths)up to Ravenna and Pavia, purchased in the markets of
Constantinople or in the port-cities of the Syrian-Palestinian coast.
The fact that Amalfitan merchants were among the earliest Westerners to
establish active and regular business between the Byzantine capital city, the Near East,
and Northern-Eastern Africa155 explains the presence of a monastic institution related to
them on the Holy Mountain.156 But it is a challenge to identify dynamics and factors of
the Amalfitan governance on this anomalous monastery after some years it was founded.
The mere existence of affluent international economic relationship and a firmly
established mercantile presence at Constantinople do not explain the erection of the other
Italic Athonite monasteries by both the Sicilians and the Calabrians. Moreover, Amalfi
was not the only Italian maritime town to have maintained strong trade relations with
Byzantium and to have owned an enclave in the capital city. A little later, its competitors
(Venice, Pisa, Genoa, and Ancona) did the same and sometimes more successfully than
Amalfi.157 Nonetheless, Venetian, Genoese, Pisan, and Anconitain merchants never
followed the strategy to support the acquisition and ruling of any monastery on Agion
Oros by fellow countrymonks.
We have therefore to enucleate some specific cooperating causes to explain: a)
the supremacy achieved by the Amalfitans on the Athonite Benedictine monastery 25/50
years later its erection; b) the success of the ethnic denomination of the cloister as of
the Amalfitans in scholarship and in the Athonite collective memory even if it was built
by Beneventans and possibly Cassinates.
If the first cooperating cause is the aforementioned geopolitical location and
active international role of the Campanian maritime city among the two empires and the
other Central-Southern Italian power, as well as its economic and political power during
late 10th century and early 11th century, the other contextual elements concern Amalfi

151
Jean-Marie Martin, De lusage des dignits impriales en Italie (fin du VIIIdbut du XII sicle),
Travaux et mmoires 16 (2010): 546 ff.
152
Falkenhausen, The South Italian Sources.
153
Berza, Amalfi preducale (596957), 355; Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del Monte
Athos.
154
Armand O. Citarella, Il commercio di Amalfi nellalto medioevo (Salerno: Centro Raffaele Guariglia,
1977), 3198.
155
Raymond Janin, Constantinople byzantine. Dveloppement Urbaine et Rpertoire Topographique (Paris:
Institut Franais dEtudes Byzantines, 1964), 245253.
156
Pertusi, Nuovi documenti, 3; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci, 218220.
157
Janin, Constantinople byzantine, 249, 250.

218
political, religious culture and its identity.
Firstly, the arrival of the first Amalfitan monks to Mount Athos as disciples of
the Beneventan Leo corresponded to the achievement of the Amalfitan apogee, under
Duke Manso I.158 Amalfi strongly needed the support of the Byzantine imperial
government and sent signals to Byzantium for a formal tutelage. The ruling of an outpost
in the stronghold of the Eastern monastic tradition became a geostrategic mark loaded
with meanings and symbolic values aimed to manifest and seal the closeness-dependence
of Amalfi to the imperial government.159
It was the relatively autonomous Amalfitan colony on the Golden Horn that had
enough wealth, strategic interest, and political vision to establish a station middle way
Amalfi-Constantinople. Their trade network involving cities of the Italian peninsula,
Byzantine territories, the countries of the Near East and Northern-Eastern Africa with
Constantinople as a hub, highlighted the potentiality of the Latin coenobium on Mount
Athos as an intermediary between East and West. Therefore, they provided funding,
supplies, and, more crucially, personnel to the Benedictine cloister, which clearly
required external support to maintain its activity. The substantial contribution of the
Amalfitan merchants settled in Constantinople to the compatriot brotherhood on the
Byzantine Holy Mountain gave them enough resources to stand out from the other Italic
monks. The absence of any mention to the monastery in Amalfitan archives or chronicles
confirms close connections with the Byzantine metropolis and lax relationship with the
Italian mother-city.
The second co-factor is related to the promotion of the legends concerning the
origin of the Tyrrhenian town from a Byzantine ground as ideological legitimation and
emphasis of the intense and privileged relations that the Amalfitan merchants, nobles and
soldiers had with the empire and in particular with its capital city up to gain a fabulous
economic prosperity and political influence at the imperial court. According to some
legends, an umbilical cord connects Byzantium et Amalfi, i.e. the great mother, the New
Rome built by Constantine over the Bosporus, and the small but very smart daughter
nestled between sea and mountains. These are late reconstructions based on oral and
unverifiable sources. However, it is remarkable to note that they circulated when Amalfi
took up the challenge to take over Apothikon and blossomed as a means to ennoble the
Tyrrhenian town, historically justify close links with Constantinople, and ethnically root
its political pro-Byzantine propensity.
A legend states that Amalfi was built by Roman patricians who shipwrecked on
the Dalmatian coast while sailing eastward to populate the New Rome, freshly erected
by the Emperor Constantine. Their wander as refugees started around 330 and ended in
the 6th century with the founding of Amalfi as a fortified coastal hamlet.160
Another tradition, recovered by the historian Henrici Brencmanni, informs us
that Amalfi was built as a castrum before 591 by soldiers from Byzantium who joined
the existing Roman indigenous population within the context of the consolidation of
coastal stations after the Lombard invasion of Italy.161

158
Hofmeister, Der bersetzer Johannes und das Geschlecht Comitis Mauronis in Amalfi.
159
Nastase, Les dbuts de la communaut oecumnique du Mont Athos, 270.
160
Chronicon Salernitanum, Lombard text of the 10th century published in the eleventh volume of Rerum
Italie by Muratori (17231751b). Chronicon Amalfitanum, text of the second half of the twelfth century
reported in the first volume of Antquitates Italicae Medii Aevi by Muratori (17231751a). Cesario DAmato,
Scala, un centro amalfitano di civilt (Atrani: Tip. Jovane, 1975).
161
Henrici Brencmanni, Dissertationes de Republica Amalphitana (Naples: Nicolai, & Vincentii Rispoli,

219
 In Constantinople, the Amalfitan religious community and the related buildings
developed even after the East-West Schism in 1054 and the subjection of the Tyrrhenian
maritime town to the Normans.162 This evidence introduces us to the third co-factor
relating to the achieved Amalfitan dominance on Apothikon: for a long time some of the
Amalfitan leaders in the capital city were actively involved in political-dogmatic turmoil
between the Roman Church and the Byzantine Church, playing a connecting role with
the imperial power as the main interlocutor. Whereas the patriarch linked inextricably the
loyalty to the empire with the liturgical and religious conformity, the emperor was well
disposed to respect the religious traditions of his subordinates and vassals, being mainly
interested in the realization of a covenant against the Catholic Normans. Amalfitan
merchants, nobles, and soldiers, on their side, did not consider their loyalty to the empire
impeded or compromised by their Roman religious identity.163
As a consequence, the Amalfitan Church and the Amalfitan Benedictine
monasteries on Mount Athos and in Constantinople offered an active peacemaker
mediation between the East and the West during the troubles of the Schism, even if
attributing most of the responsibility of the crisis to the patriarch.164 The connecting efforts
were associated to a geographical exceptionally and diplomatic acrobatics that sometimes
reinforced Amalfis centrality whereas other times highlighted its liminality.165
Sharing protection of the apostle Andrew with Constantinople was an ideological
pillar of the political-religious bridging role of the Amalfitan ecclesiastical leaders
throughout the Latin Empire of Constantinople (12041261) and the subsequent
Byzantine revival.166
The close interconnection among dogmatic equidistance, religious-political
mediating role, and adoption of the protector saints of the Byzantine capital (not only
Andrew, but also others such as Irene) was clearly expressed on the bronze door that in
1057 the rich and noble merchant Pantaleo de Comite Maurone commissioned to
workshops of Constantinople and then donated to the cathedral of Amalfi.167

1738).
162
Skinner, Medieval Amalfi, 217.
163
Michel, Amalfi und Jerusalem, 53; Mary Stroll, Popes and Antipopes the Politics of Eleventh Century
Church Reform (Leida: Brill, 2011), 47, n. 59; Antonio De Rosa, Mauro Perani (eds.), Giovanni-Ovadiah da
Oppido, proselito, viaggiatore e musicista dell'et normanna, Atti del convegno internazionale, Oppido
Lucano, 2830 marzo 2004 (Florence, 2005) 39.
164
Giuseppe Gargano, S. Andrea Apostolo, Pietro Capuano, la Chiesa e la societ di Amalfi alle soglie del
Duecento, in Michail Talalay (ed.), Il Primo Chiamato (Biblioteca amalfitana, 11) (Amalfi: Centro di
cultura e storia amalfitana, 2008), 86.
165
Michel, Amalfi und Jerusalem, 3547; Antoine Dondaine, Contra Graecos. premiers crits polmiques
des Dominicains dOrient, Archivum fratrum praedicatorum 21 (1951): 323; Schwarz, Amalfi im frhen
Mittelalter, 5358.
166
Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del Monte Athos.
167
Guglielmo Matthiae, Le porte bronzee bizantine in Italia (Rome: Officina Ed., 1971); Margaret E. Frazer,
Church Doors and the Gates of Paradise: Byzantine Bronze Doors in Italy, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 27
(1973): 145162; Hans Belting, Byzantine Art among Greeks and Latins in Southern Italy, Dumbarton
Oaks Papers 28 (1974): 129; Andrea DAntuono, Amalfi. L'antica Repubblica Marinara, origine,
commercio, marineria, magistrature, avvenimenti, declino (Salerno: De Luca editore, 2000), 42; Antonio
Braca, Le culture artistiche del Medioevo in Costa dAmalfi (Biblioteca Amalfitana, 7) (Amalfi: Centro di
Cultura e Storia Amalfitana, 2003), 63 ff.; Skinner P., Commercio internazionale e politica locale
nellAmalfi medievale: le porte di bronzo e i loro donatori nellXI secolo, Rassegna del Centro di Cultura e
Storia Amalfitana 3132 (2006) 6578; Antonio Iacobini (ed.), Le porte del Paradiso. Arte e tecnologia
bizantina tra Italia e Mediterraneo (Rome: Campisano Editore, 2009).

220
 Image 7: The statue of St Andrew in the Piazza del Duomo (Cathedral Square) in Amalfi,
Italy. It was built in 1760 in baroque in style. Photo Marco Merlini

The double door depicts the paired and symmetrical figures of the Apostles
Andrew and Peter: the initiator of the Constantinopolitan Church and protector of
Amalfi, and the founder of the Roman Church. Virgin Mary seats left to Christ. She has
raised hands as an orante interceding between Her Son and both St Andrew and St Peter.
Possibly, the donor wanted to highlight under the religious symbolism also the
relationship between his Italian maritime city and Constantinople. This exchange was
reflected by his residing alternatively at Amalfi and at the Byzantine metropolis.
The reciprocal conveying of Eastern and Western cultural-religious approaches
as result of the ideological dynamism and cultural influence of the Amalfitan enclave in
Constantinople was the fourth contextual element that triggered its acquisition of the
Latin monastery on Mount Athos, even at the height of the age-old frictions between the
two Churches.
Amalfitan cultural-religious activity pro animae redemptione recruited monks
for Latin translations of Greek hagiographic texts and commissioned artistic
masterpieces to adorn churches, sanctuaries, and monasteries in the motherland.168 Less
168
Paolo Chiesa, Franois Dolbeau, Una traduzione amalfitana dell'XI secolo: la "Vita" latina di
sant'Epifanio, Studi medievali, Ser. 3, vol. 30 (1989), 919925. Falkenhausen, La Chiesa

221
recognized is that this activity was a key factor in establishing a base in the Latin
Athonite monastery and in its flourishing and lasting for centuries. Under the Amalfitan
rule, it assumed a key conveying role of different languages and cultures that were
circulating in the Byzantine Commonwealth. In particular, it facilitated the transmission
of Eastern-Greek hagiographic works in the West trough their Latin versions and the
spread of some aspects of the Latin liturgy to the East.169 For example, around the mid of
the 11th century, monk Leone of Amalfi redacted the Latin translation of a Greek version
of the renowned Narratio de Miragulo a Michaele Archangelo Chonis patrato (Account
of the miracle of St Michael in Chonis) (BHL 5947).170 The extant translation works of
the Latin monks indicates the importance of literary influence of the Athonite
monasticism in Western Europe.
Thanks to its cultural-religious bridging role, the Benedictine monastery appears
to have remained in communion with both the Latin Church and the Greek-Orthodox
Church even after the breakup of their relationship: Rome and Montecassino on the one
side, and the Athonite community and the Patriarchate of Constantinople on the other
side. Consistently with the international Amalfitan strategy and the Benedictine
approach, Amalfion was specimen of monastic cooperation that transcended the growing
division among the Churches.171
Finally, a key factor that triggered the Amalfitan predominance on the
Benedictine Athonite monastery was the proclivity as well as the myth of the Amalfitan
merchant to became Philochristos (lover of Christ), i.e. a pious lay person who gives
donations in cash or kind to monasteries.172 At that time, the Latin merchandisers of
Southern Italian origin who travelled across the Byzantine Empire were labeled
Amalfitans to indicate their fabulous richness, mobility, transculturalism,
cosmopolitanism, and exceptional success, as noticed by Patricia Skinner.173 The attitude
to grant huge charitable donations to the Church crowned by the monastic vocation in
old age was, ultimately, part of the myth of the Amalfitan merchant,174 as well as part of
the myth of the Amalfitan erection of an Athonite cloister even if it was actually built by
Lombard monks.

amalfitana, 100103; Paolo Chiesa, Le traduzioni in latino di testi greci, in Lo spazio letterario del
Medioevo. 3: Le culture circostanti, 1: la cultura bizantina,ed. Cavallo, Guglielmo (Roma, 2004),
508510; Iacobini, Le porte del Paradiso; Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del Monte Athos.
169
Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del Monte Athos.
170
Max Bonnet, Narratio de miraculo a Michaele archangelo Chonis patrato, Analecta Bollandiana 9
(1889): 317328, the Prologue in 202203. (Cf. Ibid., 287329); Nau [F. Nau, Le Miracle de Saint
Michel Colosses (rcit de Saint Archippos), texte grec publi avec lancienne traduction Latine,
compose au Mont Athos par le moine Lon (XIeXIIe sicle), Patrologia Orientalis, vol. 4. fasc. 7, n. 19
(1907): III: 542562; reprint, Turnhout: Brepols, 1981 e 2003)] provided the eleventh-century Latin
translation undertaken at Mount. Athos by Leo, monk of Amalfion, found in BnF lat. 11753, fols. 221
226. Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 234; Richard F. Johnson, Saint Michael the Archangel in
Medieval English Legend (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2005), 32, n. 7; John Charles Arnold,
Arcadia Becomes Jerusalem: Angelic Caverns and Shrine Conversion at Monte Gargano, Speculum 75
(July 2000): 56788; Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del Monte Athos, for and extended
analysis.
171
Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del Monte Athos.
172
Gothni, Speake, The Monastic Magnet, 36; Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del Monte
Athos.
173
Skinner, Medieval Amalfi, 219.
174
Cf. Skinner, Medieval Amalfi, 233.

222
Conclusions
Previous studies credited that some Latin signatures on Athonite acts belong to
Amalfitan monks since 984 and that since November 991 a brother from Amalfi was
even in charge as abbot of the monastery called of the Amalfitans. The Western rite
monastery actually founded around 985 by the Lombard Benedictine Leo, brother of the
Duke of Benevento Pandulf II, is known as the Amalfitan house in scholarship.
Our inquiring has evidenced that the surveyed documents actually do not give
any indication as to a Benedictine house called Amalfion since 1010. Athonite
archives do not record the Amalfitan origin of the monks who signed official documents
until 1035.
Why a Beneventan and possibly Cassinate monastery established as Apothikon
and acquired after 25/50 years by Amalfitans and then turned by them into Amalfion,
is recorded in a completely different way in the subsequent Athonite collective memory
as well as in most of modern scholarship? Why the foundation and the early years of
Apothikon have been cancelled and only a successful Amalfitan house was recalled?
Why Apothikon was associated with the pro-Byzantine city of Amalfi in the last
centuries, even if it originated from the political-religious plans of the Lombard, pro-
Holy Roman Empire Principality of Benevento?
Historians far from the complex geopolitical Italian scenario in the 10th and 11th
centuries apply this shortcut. Here same examples follow. The Monastery of
Benedictine Monks was called Amalfitan, because the founders of it came from the
Italian city of Amalfi.175 Amalfitan links with the imperial court were such that they
had founded a Benedictine monastery on Mount Athos by 983.176 The first Benedictine
monastery to be built in Greece was founded by a company of Amalfitan monks on
Mount Athos, centuries before the Fourth Crusade.177 Even Mount Athos, which by the
turn of the 10th century could boast of some three thousand monks, had its Latin or
western monastery founded from Amalfi. Clearly there was no state of schism.178 The
monastery was founded in 985 AD by monks from an Italian city today known as
Amalfi. The citizens of this rich city had close trade and political relations with
Byzantines Emperor Nikephoros Phokas. They also helped him during his war with
Muslims. Thanks to these relations the emperor and his advisors agreed to give a
permission to build a western monastery on the Holy Athos.179
The few circumstantial evidence on Amalfion, verifiable in the coeval documents
we have at disposal, narrate an historical adventure that was much less linear.180
The founding of the Western rite monastery has to be securely attributed to a
Beneventan.181 As we have already noticed, Leo the brother of the Prince of Benevento
was not exactly an Amalfitan. The Lombard State in Central-Southern Italy was basically
obedient to the Western imperial authority and often in open diplomatic and military
confrontation against the duchy of Amalfi, which was pro-Byzantine, free of any
Lombard political and legal control, and strictly Roman-Orthodox. Benevento and

175
Bonsall, The benedictine Monastery, 62.
176
Peter Lock, The Routledge Companion to the Crusades (London-New York: Routledge, 2013), 388.
177
Tsougarakis, The Western Religious Orders, 111.
178
D. M. Nicol, Byzantium and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century, The Journal of Ecclesiastical History
13 (1962): 120.
179
Fajfer, East and West on the Holy Mount Athos, 37.
180
, .
181
Falkenhausen, Il monastero degli amalfitani sul Monte Athos.

223
Amalfi were not only two different States, but their relations were not very smooth, at
least shortly before the coronation of Pandulf II, Leos presumed brother.182
We can connect Leos coenobium to the monasterium amoenum praised
around 1045 by the Ivirite monk who narrated the lives of the saints John and
Euthymius.183 In particular, we intercept notice concerning the occurrence of this
monastery in the hagiographic episode of Johannes Beneventanus de illustri prosapia
who did not found refuge in a cloister called Amalfion,184 as stated by most of the
scholars, but in the monasterium amoenum of the countryman Leo.185 The life of the
Georgian saints does not inform anywhere that such a monasterium amoenum founded
by Leo of Benevento was Amalfion, nor that it had any relation to one or more Amalfitan
monks, nor even with the town of Amalfi. The claim that hagiographical Athonite texts
record a monastery named Amalfion that was founded by Leo of Benevento has no
documentary support.
Nastase inferred from these pieces of information that the coenobium founded by
Leo186 and Amalfion were two different houses. According to him, the former had a very
short existence, an uncharted story, and an unknown exit; the latter was built by an
Amalfitan and not by a Beneventan, as suggested by the name Amalfion, and occurred
until the end of the 13th century.187 Nastase therefore recalled Browns suggestion188 that
scholarship overlaps the monastery founded by Leo of Benevento and the Amalfitan
house, but reversed the timeline of their foundation. According to him, Beneventans
erected their house earlier than the Amalfitans built their cloister. However, his opinion
concerning the establishment of two Western rite monasteries on Mount Athos in later
10thearly 11th century is without any documentary support and hardly to be justified. If
the presence of one is atypical; that of two is implausible.
Another previously founded Amalfitan house did not exist, because some years
later the turning of the millennium Amalfitans acquired the monasterium amoenum
built by Leo. The Beneventan house was known as the humbly Apothikon, because it
was a small and unsteady monastery. Athonite documents substantiate that its
construction was possible solely thanks to a huge endowment made by the Georgians,
because Leos and brethrens fundraising in the motherland was only partially successful.
They also evidence that the Latin brotherhood was under Great Lavra obedience.

182
Gay, LItalia Meridionale, 322, 331332; , .
183
Keller, Amalfion, 5; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani, 220; Martin-Hisard, La Vie de Jean et
Euthyme, 109 ff.
184
See the story in Wilhelm Wattenbach (ed.), Chronica monasterii Casinensis, in Monumenta Germaniae
Historica: Scriptores 7 (Hannover, 1846); Jacques Paul Migne (ed.), Leonis Marsicani et Petri Diaconi
monachorum casinensium chronicon monasterii casinensis et opuscula (Patrologiae cursus completus /
Series Latina, 173) (1854) (Repr. Brepols, 1978); Luigi Tosti, Storia della Badia di Montecassino, I (Rome:
L. Pasqualucci Editore, 1888); Gerhard Schwartz, Adolf Hofmeister (eds.), Dialogi de miraculis sancti
Benedicti auctore Desiderio abbate Casinensi, in Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores 30, 2
(Lipsiae, 1934); Hartmut Hoffmann (ed.), Chronica monasterii Casinensis = Die Chronik von
Montecassino, in Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores 34 (Hannover: Hahn, 1980); Valeria
Beolchini, Mansone, in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, Vol. 69 (Rome: Treccani, 2007); Merlini,
Founding a Latin monastery on Mount Athos; , .
185
Nastase, , 290, 291, 293; Nastase, Les dbuts de la communaut oecumnique du Mont
Athos, 253, 257; Merlini, Founding a Latin monastery on Mount Athos; , .
186
According to him, this monastic foundation was possibly known at that time as the the abbey of the
Beneventanou (Nastase, , 290291).
187
Nastase, Les dbuts de la communaut oecumnique du Mont Athos, 268.
188
Brown, Ethnic independence and cultural deference, 11.

224
Exploiting the aforementioned list of the regions of the Italian peninsula, it was possibly
indicated as the monastery of the Romans.189
The recognition that Amalfitans did not erect the Latin coenobium, but acquired
and managed it some years after its construction does not exclude that some Amalfitans
were among the disciples of the Beneventan Leo. Their presence on Agion Oros is
attested by St Athanasius Bios since the erection of his lavra.190 Under this framework,
we can retrieve Sangermanos suggestion that Amalfitans were preponderant among the
visitors of the Western rite cloister.191
Moat of the Amalfitan monks who arrived from Constantinople at the founding
of the monasterium amoenum, and/or just after its early years, belonged to the enclave
of their countrymen on the Golden Horn. It was characterized by: an international vision
and strategy; privileged relationship with the Byzantine imperial government, the
leadership of the Greek-Byzantine Church, and the political, diplomatic, economic and
cultural resources of the capital city; political interest but also ideological inclination of
bridging East-West cultural-religion milieu; considerable economic capital, and
propensity to invest in it; and enough piousness and generosity to provide huge founds in
beneficence pro remedio animae. Amalfitan merchants, nobles, and soldiers resident in
Constantinople decided to support the fellow countrymonks in the acquisition and
management of the monasterium amoenum.
As a result, a few years later the founding of the Benedictine house, the monks
native of Amalfi might have formed the majority of the community. It is also probable
that the Amalfitan monks easily assert themselves over the brothers who founded
Apothikon thanks to the sponsorship of rich and influential members of the Amalfitan
colony in Constantinople.192 Apothikon was politically less influential, enjoyed much
less economical resources and had increasing difficulties to carry them from the Italic
peninsula.
After the shift into Amalfion, the monastery started a successful story. For
example, in 1045 the typikon promulgated by Constantine IX Monomachos gave a
maritime privilege to the Benedictine house by allowing it to own a large ship to receive
supplies from the Amalfitan community of the Byzantine capital city.193 The ship docked
in the harbor of Morphonou, a short walk from the monastery. A small warehouse stored

189
, .
190
Noret, Vitae duae antiquae sancti Athanasii Athonitae, Vita A: 178; Vita : 47. Both the Lives include
Amalfi in a list of peripheral areas whose monks moved to Mount Athos at the time of Athanasius. The list is
in Ibid., 272.
191
Geraldo Sangermano, Istituzioni ecclesiastiche e vita religiosa nei Ducati di Amalfi e Sorrento, in La
Chiesa di Amalfi nel medioevo, Convegno internazionale di studi per il millenario dellarchidiocesi di
Amalfi (Amalfi-Scala-Minori, 46 dicembre 1987) (Centro di Cultura e Storia Amalfitana. Atti 3) (Amalfi,
1996), 80.
192
Falkenhausen, Il monastero sul Monte Athos, 3; Merlini, Founding a Latin monastery
on Mount Athos; Merlini, Amalphion, il monastero benedettino del Monte Athos.
193
Papachryssanthou, Actes du Prtaton, 6577, 99101, 105. The indication of the Athonite hegumens is
in: 1. 3738. Lemerle, Les archives du monastre des Amalfitains; Pertusi, Monasteri e monaci italiani,
228; Hln Antoniadis-Bibicou, tudes d'histoire maritime de Byzance. propos du Thmedes Caravisiens
(Paris, 1966), 132133; Balard, Amalfi et Byzance, 91; Lemerle, Les archives du monastre des
Amalfitains, 552; John Thomas, Angela C. Hero (eds.), Constantine IX: Typikon of Emperor Constantine
IX Monomachos, in Byzantine Monastic Foundation Documents I, (Dumbarton Oaks Studies, 35)
(Washington D. C., 2000), cap. 5, 287; Alan Harvey, Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire, 900
1200 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 239; Gothni, Speake, The Monastic Magnet, 36;
Falkenhausen, Il monastero sul Monte Athos, 7.

225
the goods to be imported and exported.194 For the merchant disposition of Amalfi, the
value of this imperial privilege was not merely in the tonnage of the ship, but also in the
tax exemption (exkousseia) of its load.
The change of sponsorship and management of the Latin Athonite house caused
a switch in its political affiliation, nevertheless it remained a Benedictine body. And it
was so up to its exit in 1287. The conversion from Benevento to Amalfi did not preclude
but enhanced its role as a pawn of its mother-abbey in the geopolitical East-Western
Great Game, which was strengthened and enlarged by the new economic interests and
political ambitions that fuelled the competition over Jerusalem and its holy places. But
this is another story.

194
Andrea Cerenza, Lorganizzazione monastica nel Ducato di Amalfi, in Istituzioni civili e
organizzazione ecclesiastica nello Stato medievale amalfitano, Centro di cultura e storia amalfitana (Amalfi,
1986), 181.

226
 Water Mills as stable Indicator for a Territorial Morphology,
an interdisciplinary research about medieval administration in border region, Wine District
/ Weinviertel, Lower Austria/Niedersterreich

MIRELA I. WEBER-ANDRECOV1

Abstract: This article argued for the recognition and preservation of a historical system and
environmental morphology that spanned most of Austrian history, before which there was not really
an Austria. According to the current state of knowledge which is largely based on available
(archival) documents, the origin of the water mills is dated back to a period between the 13th and the
17th century. In contrary, the present study, following an alternative interdisciplinary approach,
would indicate a much earlier dating: when understood as elements of larger medieval structures
planned and constructed in the frame of a regional feudal system for the sake of defense and
prosperity, the origin of the mills has to be re-evaluated in view of the other architectural elements
of these structures; in the area under consideration, these are e.g. mottes, castles, churches and
manor houses. Many of them can be dated through archival sources or other references, but for
others, in particular the mottes, no such keys exist. It is likely that they originate from the Ottonian
period (10th to middle of the 11th century AD) or even earlier (after Carolingian conquers against
Hungarian leadership). Their pertinence for the dating of the water mills is derived from the fact
that the whole water system, immanently linked to the construction of the mills, had obviously been
designed and constructed in a period when the mottes were still in function, i.e. before or not later
than their conversion into more solid stone built structures around the 12th century.
Keywords: water mills, landscape morphology, medieval history, cartography, Lower Austria

01. Austrian map and Lower Austria 2 around 02. Lower Austria, Danube, Vienna and
Vienna Zaya valley3

1
Independent researcher, assoc. Arca de la Moti Mortesdorfer Boot; Bellevuestr. 55, Vienna 1190
Austria email: mirelaweber@gmail.com.
2
https://www.google.at/search?q=austrian+map&client=firefox-b-
ab&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj0cHP85jQAhXnAcAKHUryCtoQ_AUICSgC&biw=1
600&bih=736#imgrc=nPQhKKYM0KbKdM%3A and
http://www.google.at/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Nieder%
25C3%25B6sterreich_in_Austria.svg/299px-
Nieder%25C3%25B6sterreich_in_Austria.svg.png&imgrefurl=http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieder%25C3%
25B6sterreich&h=167&w=299&tbnid=8bWEjruVlZFaPM:&zoom=1&tbnh=126&tbnw=227&usg=__TeGV
GZ65WgbEC75fdH0lAp5tvHg=&docid=LojZUsQ1XR9v8M&itg=1.: (2016_11_08)
3
http://www.freundliche-gruppenhotels-noe.at/.(2016_11_08)

227
1. Introduction. A focused research about the water mills of the Zaya began with their
inventory, during the summer term of 2013, a small inventory project proposed as part of
an industrial archeology seminar of the Technical University of Vienna, Institute of
History of Art, Building Archaeology and Restoration. This seminar informed the
working method used herein, and provided a systemic inventory that underlay, partially,
this research.4
The first synthesis of this workshop has revealed the existence of 46 water mills,
situated within the historical borders of 29 villages (Katastralgemeinde), a devastated
settlement (Aigen bei Michelstetten), today administrated from 11 communities
(Gemeinde), parts of 3 political districts (see Annexes 1).

03. Bodensteiner Mill (m04), Gnadendorf. 04. Schulz Mill (m07), Gnadendorf, postcard,
Historic picture, beginning of the 20th middle of the 20th century (privat archive Franz
century, archive of family Renner5 Schmied, Gnadendorf)

05. Reiskopfmhle (m12), Olgersdorf (v08)6 06. Oil painting of Schieffer Mhle/Mill
(m21), Paasdorf (v11)7

It is possible to distinguish the watermills on the Zaya or its affluents, as well it

4
Class of prof. dr. phil. Gerhard A. Stadler, commissioned from the sterreichische Gesellschaft der
Mhlenfreunde. The results are incorporated in an unpublished document, Gerhard A. Stadler, Mirela I.
Andrecov-Weber, Doris Berl, Dmitri Egorov, Gerold Esser, Celine Klipfel, Jelena Madzaric, Suchon
Mallikarmal, Stefy Popovici, Ana Lutghart Tincu, Petre Tiberius Trifan, Dokumentation der Mhlen im
Zayatal. Eine Inventarisation historischer Mhlenstandorte, Technische Universitt Wien, Institut fr
Kunstgeschichte Bauforschung und Denkmalpflege Im Auftrag der sterreichischen Gesellschaft der
Mhlenfreunde e.V. (Wien, 2014), 1: only a preliminary rough draft for deeper research, the numerous
issues not satisfactorily resolve, unable and beyond a number of new questions directed to the research.
5
Privat archive fam. Renner, Gnadendorf, actually inheritance of the ensemble.
6
Privat archive fam. Winter, Olgersdorf, heirs of the ensemble.
7
Copyright Stadt-Museumsarchive Mistelbach.

228
is difficult to differentiate the Zaya main stream from its channel. Including interviews
with the owners, collection of old pictures during the field research, it was necessary to
integrate also the non-Zaya-mills as part of a local system, focusing the stimulation of
the local population for their preservation as monuments of industrial archaeology,
landscape and cultural history of the region. Accordingly, the research makes not the
difference between the river and its affluent inside the border of a Zaya community. I
choose for the benefit of my research to integrate into the Zaya mills the watermills
lying inside the border of a village whose territory is crossed from Zaya, even they are
run from affluent from Zaya.
I denominate the villages being traverse from the Zaya River as Zaya-
communities / Zaya-villages.
Documentary certified as grandlord, only very few as monastery investments, the
most of them are property (from the beginning of the 14th century or later, from the 17th
century) until the middle of 19th or until their closing (approx. 1955) in the same hands
(see beneath), important noble families, princely houses as Sinzendorf, later Reuss-
Kstritz (17th century: 6 mills the father and 6 mills the son,8 difficult to be distinguished,
in the inventory are noted 11); Breuner (9); Liechtenstein (10).9 In 17th century 4 from all
are property of monasteries (Barnabiten: 27, Camandulenser: 34; Heiligenkreuz: 32,
Schottenkloster: 22).10

2. Method and historical perspectives. The research proposes a historical regression

trying to offer an explanation of the water geographical position, as well focusing the
beginning on the Zaya valley the water milling. The regression has different traps; the
interdisciplinary perspective is used as substructure of this construct.
The field research has brought various information about the human catastrophes
during the Second World War, when the particular position of the mill, at the border of
the village and isolated, are used for torture, rape or punishment. To avoid this
perspective and the ideological approach, I choose to focus the functional orientated
character of the architectural ensembles of the watermills and not the social aspects of
their history.
The present analysis is based on modern research methods, which do not follow
the dual humanistic interpretation tradition (Christians versus Pagans, Romans versus
Barbarians), as exemplified by Bloch in his comparative study of French and German
ministerial11 as well as his take on nationalities regarding their technical potentials (water
mills as marks of German versus Slavonic culture).12 In contrast, certain precaution
modulates the contemporary scientific discourse, in an effort to overcome asperities of
different nationalistic or social ideological approaches.

8
Ibid., 21: 1661 finden sich sechs Mhlen im Eigentum Rudolf Graf Sinzendorfs erwhnt sowie weitere
sechs Mhlen im Eigentum seines Sohnes Sigmund Friedrich.
9
Anton R. Bodenstein, Carl Ph. Hohenbhel, Mhlen in Weinviertel (Wien-Mnchen, 1985); Philippe Aris
(ed.), Geschichte des privaten Lebens, in 5 Bnden (Augsburg: Weltbild Verl., 1999): 3. Band: Von der
Renaissance zur Aufklrung, 615620.
10
The number reflects names, see the liste of mills. The names are, so far it was possible, the names of the
last miller who milled (at the end of the Second World War, many of them mills have produced only for the
private use or only scrap.
11
Marc Bloch, Un problme dhistoire compare: la ministrialit en France et en Allemagne, Revue
historique du droit 7 (1928): 90.
12
Marc Bloch, Avnement et conqute du moulin eau, Annales d'histoire conomique et sociale, T. 7,
(1935): 538540.

229
 Thus, modern analysis of the Roman Empire views its agricultural exploitation
as interrelated with the agrarian laws and administrative structures.13 Based on legal
arrangements and court decisions, preserving legally the local traditions of exploitation
(a form of encouraging the coloni14) and providing the stability through the continuous
negotiation between the actors involved in the agricultural network, the Roman Empire
elaborate a state structure permitting to develop a flourishing urban culture and the pax
romana.15 The consistence of the Roman as well the German concept of the law makes it
the pattern for the later Central European administration, around one of its cultural
centers, the city of Vienna and the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
The relational system between different social actors and the state, the
continuous negotiation between regions / lands / territories and the Imperial
administration makes possible the continuity and the stability of the state system as a
whole. The practiced dream of the reborn of the Roman Empire is reflected in its strong
relation between law, property, taxes and defense system in a new and complex context
of a multi-cultural, multi-ethnical, multi-religious and multi-language society.16 The
respect of ancient privileges, the transport of the local traditions and differentiated
interests in the Imperial administration during the epoch, necessities, and provocations
make remarkable its history, its orientated, functional flexibility. Focusing the internal
peace, the balance between the parts and the whole, the territorial protection and the
exploitation of the natural resources, the imperial administration support in fact a self-
imposed constrain, stimulating a differentiated flourishing culture based on loyalty and
affiliation on a cultural and legal system in a very similar way as the Roman culture.
This concept of the state is reflected also in the history of watermills on the
Zaya. The loyalty of the landlords regarding the imperial necessities and the possibility
to protect their old legal rights demonstrates the legal basis of a relational system.17
This stability produce by the noble casts generating specific landmarks of the
territory, not only on architectural, settlements or regional morphological scale, but also
13
New Institutional Economics / Historical New Institutional Economics, see Dennis P. Kehoe, Law and
Rural Economy in the Roman Empire (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007), 127.
14
Dennis P. Kehoe, The Economics of Agriculture on Roman Imperial Estates in North Africa (Gttingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988), 71: The coloni represented a class of small farmers working plots of land
on which they and their families provided most of the labor. Kehoe refers here to different authors focusing
the institution of coloni. The non-ethnical approach and the theoretical distance of the social difficulties of
these class make are giving the author the possibility of the neutral position, looking the facts inside their
time and society. Kehoe, Law and Rural Economy, 53: The assertion Coloni as social class supporting the
degradation or the improvement their social position can have an ethnic color during the history in different
regions. Their social position it is not a qualification of their ethnical or personal capacities, its reflecting
only their economical rights inside a precise society in a period of time.
15
Kehoe, Law and Rural Economy, 127; Philippe Aris, Georges Duby, Roger Chartier, Von der
Renaissance zur Aufklrung, 3. Band in Geschichte des privaten Lebens (Leinen: Fischer S. Verlag Gmbh,
1991), etc.
16
The Holy Roman Empire of German Nation was a complex structure including corporative states. Lower
Austria reflects this organization, four classes negotiating their contribution (taxes, military troops, defensive
buildings, etc.) and their legal right inside the land and with the imperial administration. Four classes have
formed this corpus: high nobility, cavalier (knights, large estate holders), deputy of bourgeoisie (town- or
market-people) and depute of the church, see Silvia Petrin, Die Stnde des Landes Niedersterreich
(Wissenschaftliche Schriftenreihe Niedersterreich 64) (St. Plten: Niedersterreichisches Pressehaus,
1982): 527: the co-existence minorities in different areas was a form of tolerance, or legal right respect, not
the expression of a tolerant policy of the Catholic Church.
17
Lower Austria has a legal form of governance, disscusing the imperial imperatives and decinding the
implementary lines. It was the form to preserve lands tradition in administration, economy, defense system
and social reports, see Petrin, Die Stnde des Landes.

230
on the economical and social values, transported during the centuries, can bring the idea
of the necessity of their protection as cultural inheritance, a recognition from the society,
providing some rules of preservation, like the craftsman in Japan or local population in
Africa or Asia are protected. In every field, they touched, they have produce values and
high culture: education, administration, settlement development, military protection,
esthetic, the political and ideological development during the 20th century has negative
influenced the transport of their inheritance and remarkable historical results.

3. State of research in Zaya valley. In general, no extensive research on the Zaya valley
and its watermills has been published so far. The essential information preparing the
inventory was provided by the publication of a primary list of the water mills along the
rivers and their affluent in a book by Bodenstein-Hohenbhel.18 The book focuses the
water mills on the entire region of Weinviertel, providing their most important
characteristics as founded by and properties of the grand landlord. Up to the middle of
the 19th century, all of them were owned either by the nobility or the church. The oldest
of these mills (Forsthubermhle in Pulkau valley,19 Pampichlermhle in Sulzbach20 and
Weisleinmhle in Rubach valley21) date to the middle or the end of the 12th century.
None of them are in the valley of the Zaya, whose first mill is dated at the end of the
13th century. The book has no footnotes or bibliography, but named the mill registers and
Liechtenstein rent-roll. Uncertainties using the provided list of mills arise by sometimes
unclear geographical localization, result of incomplete specifications in the mill
protocols of 17th century and in rent-rolls.
The Lower Austrian patrimony is described in two different Dehio publications.
The first22 describes the most important settlements along the Zaya valley (28 cadastral
communities) and the protected heritage contained in them. Just seven water mills in that
area are on the national lists of monuments. The second one focuses on the industrial
heritage of the entire region,23 describing another set of seven water mills.
The very precise and rich bibliography refers to different aspects of the history,
economy, settlements, routes, mottes, and other cultural heritage of Lower Austria and
sustains the understanding of Viennese hinterland and its development. The multivolume
history of Austria24 offers the general and the actual state of science, the most part of this
information being provided by the publications from the Verein fr Landeskunde von
Niedersterreich, of Austrian Institute of Historical Research, and of Austrian Academy
of Science, also used the documents and maps from the Austrian State Archives,
Cadastral and Map Archive of the Austrian Federal Office of Metrology and
Measurements (Bundesamt fr Eich- und Vermessungswesen, shortly BEV), the Archive
of the University of Technology of Vienna.
Within the Austrian archives research can be found a precise distinct hierarchy of
the administrative levels, the distinction between land and Imperial administration being

18
Bodenstein, Hohebhel, Mhlen in Weinviertel.
19
Ibid., 128: 1146, property of monastery Geras.
20
Ibid., 130: 1166.
21
Ibid., 132: 1190, property of monastery Klosterneuburg.
22
Dehio-Handbuch. Die Kunstdenkmler sterreichs. Niedersterreich nrdlich der Donau, (Wien: Anton
Schroll, 1990).
23
Gerhard A. Stadler, Das industrielle Erbe Niedersterreichs. Geschichte Technik Architektur (Wien:
Bhlau, 2006).
24
Herwig Wolfram (ed.), Grenzen und Rume. Geschichte sterreichs vor seiner Entstehung
(sterreichische Geschichte: 378907) (Wien: Ueberreuther, 1995), 10. Bnde.

231
one of its most important categories. The highly regimented of the law and the
hierarchical distinction give an Aristotelian vertebral structure on the entire system.
Reverberating from the whole to the parts, from the centralized state to the lands and
historical, from old system of rights and traditions to the contemporary necessities, and
imperial obligations, the Aristotelian perspective is a particularly useful instrument.

4. Watermills and the historically imperial military maps and cadastral planes. The
boom of the settlements development during the 20th and 21st century has made
necessary a historical map research to connect the mill with its territorially jurisprudence,
inside the limits of a village; as well, the water regulation, the train lines and autobahns
have modified the landscape and determined the mills abandoned after the Second World
War.

07. Actually map Ebendorf (v13)25 08. 3. Landesaufnahme (end 19th century),
detail of Ebendorf (v13)26

The state policy has encouraged the big industry, for agricultural exploitation
determining the farmland reassessment (Kommassierung / Flurbereinigung), re-
allocating the small long corridors in the first decade of the 21th century,27 to facilitate the
mechanical exploitation. Some of its negative effects are not only the disaggregation of
the farmers culture and depopulation of the villages, but also the dramatically
transformation of the cultural landscape and the lost of some territorial marks and
cultural heritage, i.e. the watermills and their canals, lake, bridges.
An exhaustive inventory was possible using the Austrian historical military
maps, a very precise instrument on this topic. The watermills are notated28 under their
function,29 form30 and location,31 sometimes also with their names. Comparing their form

25
http://atlas.noe.gv.at/webgisatlas/output/print_d9f07ca155024ae5a9b55ee3ed98b89d.pdf: (2016.11.08).
26
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
27
At the end of the 19th century begun the agrar operations (1883), see Hans Hruda, Die Entwicklung der
agrarischen Operationen und deren Auswirkungen auf den sterreichischen Grundkataster, in 150 Jahre
Grundkataster, Robert Messner (ed.) (Wien: BEV, 1967) 5163; modern one, between 2006 2010, stay
under the influence of the German agrarian reform, see Vorauslexikon zur Brockhaus-Enzyklopdie, 19th ed.,
7. vol., (Mannheim, 1986), 427: Flurbereinigung. The process of the agrar land re-allocation has different
names as Kommassierung, Flurbereinigung or Zusammenlegung. (see http://www.bmlfuw.gv.at/recht/bodenr
eform.html, http://www.wifo.ac.at/bibliothek/archiv/MOBE/1955Heft09_319_325.pdf,
http://www.meinbezirk.at/zwettl-niederoesterreich/politik/fast-haelfte-der-bauern-gegen-kommassierung-
d1226405.html, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zusammenlegung (25.05. 2015).
28
As the small children design the sun, a circle with short rays, for the first time observed on the military
maps, in the archive of the Bundesamt fr Eich- und Vermessungswesen, Vienna.
29
Steam-, wind-, tread-, ship/boat-, saw-, gunpowde rmill, in Conventionelle Bezeichnung fr einzelne

232
on the military map, on the scale of 1:28800 with the form on the cadastral plan, on the
scale of 1:2880, the amazing results are that the design respects every detail, against the
scale, making possible the study of their evolution, of the technical or architectural
development of the ensemble.

09. Feldmhle (Vogl mill, m11) and 10. 2. Landesaufnahme (18061869):

Reiskopfmhle (m12), near from Olgersdorf Feldmhle (m11) and Reiskopfmhle (m12),
(v08)32 near from Olgersdorf (v08)33,

The three historical military maps were created from the end of the 18 th until the
end of 19th century. They express a very similar legal content and use similar symbols,
the evolution consisting in technical or scientifically improvements of the measurements
and representation. The denomination and content of the cadastral plans, simultaneously
elaborated with the military maps demonstrate the consequent policy of the state,
regarding the general system of the taxes correlate with a military defense program.
When begin the connection between the military map and the notation of the
mill?
France map, known as Cassini map from the middle of the 18th century notes the
wind mill as well the watermill.

Terrain-gegenstnde, Grenzen, und fr die Kste, Blatt 3, 1875, archvive of the Bundesamt fr Eich- und
Vermessungs.
30
Bundesamt fr Eich- unv Vermessungswesen, archive (1875), document: Conventionelle Bezeichnungen
fr einzelne Terrain-Gegenstnde, Grenze, und fr die Kste: The map denomination organised in three
groups: milling mills (steam-, water-, wind-, tread-, or ship mill), sawmill and powder mill. Sometimes the
mills are noted with their local name, corresponding with the name used in other Austrian or personal
archives and documents.
31
I have compered their position in the historical maps and cadastral plans. The precision of their notation
had conduced to find them in the territory, also when they not exist anymore, as the Feldmhle,
Michelstetten, on the place of lost, devasteted village of Aigen, see the pictures 09 and 10.
32
http://mapire.eu/de/map/firstsurvey/?bbox=1825230.2437931881%2C6203395.127225781%2C1840517.6
494502234%2C6209701.1820593085_ 1. Landesaufnahme (17631787, Lower Austrian territory 1773
1781), (2016.11.08).
33
http://mapire.eu/de/map/secondsurvey/?bbox=1825846.5173337376%2C6203141.929569589%2C184113
3.9229907729%2C6209447.984403117 (2016.11.08).

233
 11. Austrian Military map legend, 188534 12. Cassini map (France) legend35

Generally, the history of cadastral plans reveals the connection between

colonization, local agricultural activities and taxes. The process began with the Greek
colonies around Mediterranean and was used on the large scale inside the Roman and
Byzantine Empire.36 The direct exploitation of the land was regulated by various
obligations, and the process was accompanied through local plans,37 often relating the
local tradition and central administration.38 The bibliography illustrates the precise
representation of the Roman / Byzantine cadastral plan comparing with their
contemporary large geographical maps.39
The modern European history of cadastre recognizes its beginning in 17 th
century in Scandinavia, remarkable for its proposal of the lot as a tax-unity.40 The
evolution in the concept, relating the legal support, classification, denomination, symbols
and measurement technology was marked in the 18th through the Milanese cadastre,41
trend-setting for the following cadastre systems. They noted the mills, production site
supporting taxes.42
34
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
35
http://vimoutiers.net/imagesrues/plans/cassinilegendew.jpg (2016.11.08).
36
Oswald A. W. Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps (London: Thames and Hudson, 1985), 154182.
37
Ibid., chapter VI, (VII, IX), results sustain also from the scholars as Paul Lemerle, The Agrarian History of
Byzantium from the origins to the twelfth century (Galway: Officina Typographica Galway University Press,
1979) and its observation about the high technical training of the agrimensores.
38
Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps, 87101.
39
Ibid.: Its study about the high procent of correctness measurements and details on the old maps can maybe
not demonstrate a direct continuity from the late antiquity to the 18th century, I suppose, but is won stage
gained in the respect of the aspiration, efforts and scientific results throughout the history.
40
Ingrid Kretschmer, Johannes Drflinger, Franz Wawrik, Lexikon zur Geschichte der Kartographie, 1.
Band (AL), (Wien: Franz Deuticke, 1986), 403407 and http://www.svea-pommern.de (20.05.2015).
41
Karl Lego, Geschichte des sterreichischen Grundkatasters (Wien: Bundesamt fr Eich- und
Vermessungswesen, 1968): 1: Centissimo milanese (1718, E.Karl VI. 1760, K. Maria Theresia) represent
the work of J.J. Marinoni, the Emperial Court Mathematician. Marinoni has involved scholars of his time,
organising under the military specialist the measurement and the inventary of the Milanese and ... land. The
progress consists in the establish of a rules and method for the whole process, the use of new instruments, the
same scale, the catalogue of caategories for lots and buildings supporting the taxes.
42
Kretschmer, Drflinger, Wawrik Lexikon, 403 and Lego, Geschichte des sterreichischen Grundkatasters,
13: France; Austrian cadastral plans for Lombardia and Venetia; Massa and Carrara, Belgium, Holland,
Luxemburg, Westfallen, Rheinland, Waadt, Geneva, Egypt. The new technical inovations, as triangulation,
more coordinations system, or stereographical projection, are included in the next generation of cadastral
plans: Bayern, Austrian crown lands, Hungary. The scholar debate around the begin of the signal / symbol
code is not a issue of this research, the difficulties are provide from the diverse form of the instrument
(imperial law, working instruction, publications). Karl Ulbrich, Die Entwicklung des Zeichenschlssels der
sterreichischen Katastralvermessung, in 150 Jahre Grundkataster, Robert Messner (ed.), Bundesamt fr
Eich- und Vermessungswesen Archive (Wien, 1967), 159f: consider the Patent of E. Josef II. (20.04.1785) as
the legal begin from the signal code, but the earlier Milanese cadastre has used the symbols. Idem: The first
published Austrian conventional symbols code, 1820: Vorschrift zur Zeichnung der Katastral Plaene.

234
 The ancient difficulties of the correlation between small-scale plans of the
cadastral measurements, staying under a high quality of measurements, and the scale of a
region or a continent43 were overcome in the second half of the 18th century by France
map, named Cassini map. In the time of his work on the first military modern map, Carte
de France or Cassini map44 (1750179345), Cassini de Thury46 worked on the area near
Vienna, on the Marchfeld (between 1761 and 176347), under mandate of E. Maria
Teresia, with Liesganig.48
The Cassini map and the following Austrian military maps (Josephinische,
Franziszeische und Franzisco-Josephinische Landesaufnahme49) are a similar
representation system and legal content, structured around the legal and formal nucleus
of the Milanese cadastre.50
This scholar exchange on the European level (France and Austrian) in the 18th
century , mirrored in the representation of the map and cadastral plan52, as well in the
51

43
Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps; Kretschmer, Drflinger, Wawrik, Lexikon; Lego, Geschichte des
sterreichischen Grundkatasters etc.
44
http://cassini.ehess.fr/cassini/fr/html/1_navigation.php; very utile for map legende see also
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carte_de_Cassini (2016.11.08).
45
Ernst Hofsttter, Beitrge zur Geschichte der sterreichischen Landesaufnahmen. Ein berblick der
topographischen Aufnahmeverfahren, deren Ursprnge, ihrer Entwicklungen und Organisationsformen der
vier sterreichischen Landesaufnahmen (Wien: Bundesamt fr Eich- u. Vermessungswesen, 1989), 23: after
the dead of Cassini de Thury, the map was ended from his son, the count Jean Dominique Cassini.
46
Hofsttter, Beitrge zur Geschichte der sterreichischen Landesaufnahmen, 23: Csar Franois Cassini de
Thury (17141784) was a French astronomer and cartographer, see also
http://www.catnaps.org/cassini/cass3.html, http://cassini.ehess.fr/cassini/fr/html/1_navigation.php
(20.05.2015)
47
Johannes Drflinger, Die sterreichische Kartographie im 18. und zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts. Unter
besonderer Bercksichtigung der Privatkartographie zwischen 1780 und 1820, 1. Bd.: sterreichische
Karten des 18. Jahrhunderts (Wien: Verlag der sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1984) 61
63: description of the workshop and ist results.
48
Robert Messner (ed.), 75 Jahre Kartographie am Hamerlingplatz. 19051980 (Wien: Bundesamt fr Eich-
und Vermessungswesen 1980), 25: Josepg Liesganig (17191799) was Jesuit priest and professor on the
Viennise University, the leader of the first arc measurement / Gradmessung in Austria.
49
Austrian State Archives, Kriegsarchiv: The First military map or Josephinische (1.) Landesaufnahme,
1760 1780, the Second military map or Franziszeische Landesaufnahme, 1810 1860 and Austrian Federal
Office of Metrology and Surveying (BEV): The Third military map or Franzisco-Josephinische
Landesaufnahme, 1869 bis 1887.
50
Ulbrich, Die Entwicklung, 169: The measurements experience and representation inside the empire are
exercised with maps of the cities (Vienna: 1547 first, 1706 Anguissola Marinoni, the third plan) and with
the plans for the landlords properties. Kretschmer, Drflinger, Wawrik, Lexikon, 465466: Marinoni was,
up from 1710 the landscape geometer of Lower Austriain, mapping the landlords properties. Marinoni
(17181723), plan: In its plan for Asparn an der Zaya (1718), he has used a much simpler representation as
in the Milanese cadastre, without symbols for the mills, without measurements for the building. River,
mountains and motte (from Olgersdorf and Asparn) are noted with their names and differentiated with
colors. For the castle, he used maybe a symbol, maybe the building form. He distinguished between forest
and tree gardens. The farmland is schematically drawn. The mills, the mottes, the different fields or
geographical entities are named, without precise indication of the form. Marinonis evolution and experience
was fully used in the Milanese cadastre.
51
In fact, the relation between taxes and central administration is earlier, see Drflinger, sterreichische
Karten des 18. Jahrhunderts, 33f [zitiert Heinrich Blasek, Franz Rieger, Beitrge zur Geschichte der k.u.k.
Genie-Waffe (Wien, 1898), 221]: Aus einer Verhaltensinstruktion aus dem Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts ist
uns bekannt, dass jeder kais. Ober- oder Staabs-Ingenieur in der Lage sein musste, jedes Lager, wie die
Armee steht, die Marchen so selbe machet, die ordres de bataille, oder einige Landkarten oder Mappas,
besonders in neu aquirirten Districten oder Land, es sei gro oder klein,.... mit allen Stdt, Mrkt und
Drfer, so auch alle Flssen, Bcher, Mhlen, Wlder, Morsten, Teichen, usw. aufzunehmen, meaning a
earlier legal preparation of the great military maps of the 18 th th and 19 th century.

235
technical measurements reflect simultaneously a similar concept of military defense,
related to taxes and administration,53 illustrating simultaneously the concept of the
centrality in the epoch, and the relation between different corpus of the state authority.
This preliminary conclusion permits as central element of the research (focusing
the regression from the concept of the state at the end of the 18th century to the beginning
of the medieval era) the connection between the central authority of the state and the
watermill as element of the territorial exploitation, focused by taxes and military
defensive obligation.
Returning to the water mills on the Zaya and their presence on the maps,54 it is
difficult to find their localization inside the historical boundaries of a village
(Gemarkung)55 using only the historical maps (at large scale, 1:28800). It was necessarily
to work simultaneously with the cadastral plans and their written documents
(Schriftoperate), important resource of information about owners, tenants, growth of the
property, the relationship between the plot and its legal or function attribute, and also for
their description of the buildings. The name of the Hospital Mill (Spitalmhle) in Asparn
was explained on this basis, the Schriftoperate attesting the presence a hospital for the
poor people inside the mill ensemble.56

5. Lower Austria, continuities, discontinuities and the absence of the watermill on

the north site of Danube before the 8th century. Lower Austria present some different
particularities, established to the local history during the structuring process of a border
region and supporting simultaneously the pressure being the protection territory around
the Vienna Basin and the city of Vienna.57 Traditionally divided in four quarters,58

52
Joseph Linden, Die Grundsteuerverfassung in den deutschen und italienischen Provinzen der
sterreichischen Monarchie mit vorzglicher Bercksichtigung des stabilen Katasters, 1. Band. (Wien:
Volk, 1840) 412421: the details of the Imperial patent of 7. September 1718 (415f) specifies the mills as
object of the representation, see https://books.google.at/books?id=MmpWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA412&lpg=P
A412&dq=patent+7.+september+1718&source=bl&ots=4I4u4VJbI4&sig=AAvgqOBCh7ulhgFfQ47kaqFCS
AM&hl=de&sa=X&ei=Gf4TVdvZKoXe7AbmwoFI&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=patent%207.%
20september%201718&f=false. (2016.11.08) or Joseph Linden, Die Grundsteuerverfassung in den
deutschen und italienischen Provinzen der sterreichischen Monarchie mit vorzglicher Bercksichtigung
des stabilen Katasters. 1. Theil, Wien: Friedrich Volkes Buchhandlung, 1840.
53
Drflinger, sterreichische Karten des 18. Jahrhunderts, 1174.
54
Bundesamt fr Eich- und Vermessungswesen, Archiv (18701880), a third military land map of the
Austrian Hungarian Monarchie and the cadastral village maps, containing 3 chronological plans from 19 th
century and their righted documents.
55
Gemarkung / Dorfgrenze: The ancient difference between the boundary of a community and the limit of a
property is disscused by Walter Ashburner, The Farmers Law (Continued) The Journal of Hellenic
Studies 32 (1912): 6895, online by http://www.jstore.org/stable/624133, (20.03.2015) and Dilke, Greek and
Roman Maps. The village administrative limit is established during the cadastral operations 18211822,
based landlords possessions documents: Kretschmer, Drflinger, Wawrik, Lexicon; Lego, Geschichte des
sterreichischen Grundkatasters. The operational and jurisdictional aspects of this border must be much
older, as expression of law and church territorial competence.
56
The ensemble ownership is not exhaustive researched, some parts of the buildings are appearing under the
administration of the local parochial church.
57
The medieval armed hostilities between Hungarian, Bohemian, and German are defining the border
character. The devastation during the Thirty Years' War (destroying all watermills on the Zaya), the
Kuruzzen attacks, the Turkish leaguer, the social and cultural catastrophes during the Nazis or Russian
occupation are examples of the dramatically history of the region, intimately connected with the mills, their
eccentrically position and isolation in the landscape, relationed with the border character of the entire Lower
Austria as protection territory of Vienna, despite the external borders of the Empire.
58
Caroline Bruer, Land an der Grenze. Entwicklung von Grenzen und Grenzregionen in Hochmittelalter am

236
defined by their geographical character,59 the country reflects intimately the battle with
and for the Danube. The two southern quarters are, during the Roman Empire, part of it,
and numerous archaeological documents speak about a flourishing life in the region.
There are no archaeological founds regarding the existence of water mills along the river
or inside the limes, making improbable any connection between the Mediterranean-
Roman technology and the agrarian activities along the Danube until the early medieval
period.

13. Designed detail on the Historical map of Vienna and Lower Austria, 18 th century.
(Chorographische Mappa von der Situation um Wienn auf XII. Meil Wegs, mit Anmerkung
aller Herrschaften Selbiche zugeherich per Ingen: Major Speson. Author: cop. von Geyer) 60

The northern districts, on the right bank from the river, Waldviertel on the
Western part, Weinviertel on the Eastern are occupied during the first centuries AD by
different celto-germanic populations.61 While modern research demonstrates also the
existence of Roman post stations and military encampments along the different routes to
the North, around of Leiser Berge, Oberleis and Michelstetten62 and also along March

Beispiel des Viertels Ober dem Manhartsberg, Diplomarbeit an der Universitt Wien, (Wien, 2001), 14:
The period between 10th and 14th centuries is for the Lower Austrian territory a time of gestation of a new
culture. After 14th century, the subdivision of the land in the late medieval age is a demand of the
corporative/feudal military and taxe entity (stndische Militr- und Steuerwesen).
59
Randolf Rungaldier, Niedersterreichs geographische Eigenart, Jahrbuch fr Landeskunde von
Niedersterreich und Wien, NF 38 (1970): 422: geographical and geological also, not only cultural, Lower
Austria is a Janus between Western and Eastern, Atlantic and Pont-Danube slope.
60
http://mapy.mzk.cz/de/mzk03/001/042/680/2619265926/ (20.05.2015).
61
Eduard Weninger, Die Germanenzeit in Niedersterreich von Marbod bis zu den Babenbergern.
Ergebnisse der Bodenforschung (Wien: Eduard Stepan, 1934); Herbert Mitscha-Mhrheim, Dunkler
Jahrhunderte goldene Spuren. Eine Vlkerwanderungszeit in sterreich (Wien: Wollzeilen, 1963);
http://www.limes-oesterreich.at/html/world_heritage_1.php etc. (22.05.2015).
62
Claudia Theune et alii, Das Land an der March im Mittelalter, Archaeologica Austriaca 93 (2009): 79

237
River, inside the Austrian borders (by the confluence of Zaya River to March: Drsing)
the last station was Bernhardsthal63 and indeed into Moravia,64 there are no
archaeological finds demonstrating the existence of the water mills in Weinviertel before
the fall of the Roman limes.
From Roman limes on right bank of the Danube and the Germanic tribes on the
left bank, through the Migration period and with its different tracks and impulses, the
Carolingian era, the Hungarian expansion and the Bavarian counteroffensive all are
reflected here in a culture of transition and beginning, the basic motive of an Lower
Austrian early medieval history.65
The archaeological research of the early medieval settlements (until 8th century)
after the Roman withdrawal and Carolingian era (which shows a diverse mix of peoples,
Awarian, Slavic, Hungarian, German) demonstrates a low density of the settlements, the
most part having a seasonal character, positioned near the water, in highland as wall on
lower terraces. These founds reveals a wooden culture, semi-buried synclinal
(muldenfrmig) grain cellars and houses. The few hand-mill stones speak as well about
the precariousness of the economical situation of the region.66
This settlements relative continuity is not as a legal or jurisdictional
continuity.67 Some leader settlements are used during the Migration Period
(Michelstetten, Oberleis, Drsing), but are no information about the watermill
technology. The bibliographical research establishes the Carolingian epoch as historical
border for the first possible period of new investment in the agricultural exploitation at
the north of the Danube.
In an unpublished archaeological result, kindly communicated from prof. Erik
Szameit (University of Vienna) refers to the settlement on the Gars a Thunau
(Waldviertel) and the discovery of two millstones of a wooden watermill, dating to the
second part of the 10th century and possible to be related to the Slavonic period. The
doctoral theses of archaeologist Michael Obenaus it will bring more information about it.
The lack of documents and the archaeological funds doesnt allow the relation
between the Hungarian leadership in the Weinviertel and the watermill at the end of the
earlier medieval period.
The presence of wooden watermill from Gars opens the possibility of new
perspectives about the regional development, also for the Zaya River, connecting a
leadership settlement with a relative stable political situation, a social class, its financial
power and the technological competence existing in the Lower Austrian territories at the
end of the 10th century.
The beginning of a new administrative politic at the north-eastern part of the
Danube is related with the successfully military campaigns of Emperors Heinrich III (in

150; Herbert Mitscha-Mhrheim articles about Zaya settlements, most of them published in Unsere Heimat
or in Jahrbuch fr Landeskunde in Niedersterreich und Wien; http://www.oberleiserberg.at/, etc.
63
Theune et alii, Das Land an der March.
64
Balzs Komorczy, Hradisko (Burgstall) at Muov in the light of results of excavations in 19942007 in
Barbarsk sdlit, (Brno, 2008), 437.
65
Karl Brunner, Herzogtmer und Marken. Vom Ungarnsturm bis ins 12. Jahrhundert, ed. Herwig Wolfram
(Wien: Ueberreuter, 1994), 16.
66
Celine Wawrutschka, Frhmittelalterliche Siedlungsstrukturen in Niedersterreich (Wien: sterreichische
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2009).
67
Karl Lechner, Grundzge einer Siedlungsgeschichte Niedersterreichs vom 7. bis zum 12. Jahrhundert,
Archaeologia Austriaca. Beitrge zur Palanthropologie, Ur- und Frhgeschichte sterreichs 50 (1971):
322.

238
the middle of the 11th century) and with its gifts, part of them also in the Zaya region,68
see beneath.

6. Weinviertel and Zaya valley: geographical-hydrographical aspects. The Zaya

valley is geographically integrated in Weinviertel, the north-eastern quarter of Lower
Austria, historical called Viertel Unter dem Manhartsberg (VUMB).
Part of the mosaic of small landscapes of with a Pannonian-Continental climate,
the Wienviertel is designated by its natural limits: the rivers Danube, Thaya and March
(60 km), the last two defining also the Austrian border with Czech Republic (Moravia);
with Slovakia, respectively. The Manhartsberg Mountains are the Western limit, defining
the border with the Waldviertel. The Weinviertel has different small-scale geographic-
geological divisions: the Danube field (Marchfeld), the Western loess hills
(Molassezone), and the Northern border area is a calciferous cliff zone (332491 m), a
geological unity between Lower Austria and South Moravia, including Waschberg, and
Michelberg, Leiser Berge with Buschberg, Staatzer Klippe, the cliff of Falkenstein and
the Schweinbarther Berg, the most of them used from the antiquity as hill-top settlements
and in the medieval era were occupied by churches or castles. On a diagonal axis,
Southwest to Northeast, behind hills parallel with the Danube, the territory becomes
lower in elevation.69 This unprotected character of the Weinviertel has influenced the
defensive character of territorial organization and the architectural typology of the
houses, manors, farms.70
Weinviertel is well irrigated. The March River is 91 km and 3779 km in Austria
has important affluent. The March River in Austria is 91 km long with a surface area of
3779 km. The Zaya is, after Thaya, its most important stream. Zaya lies parallel with the
Danube running from west to east to its confluence with the March in an estuary. Its
course is practically the last protected valley before the Northern border, a small fruitful
valley, 58 km with an area about 671 km.71 The source of the Zaya is under debate.
Zaya, Zayabach, Giesbach, Rhrbach are all named as possible locations of the Zayas
spring. Positioned near to the Oberleiser Berg, up down from the church or outside and
above the village of Klement the beginning of the river has until our days some mythical

68
Herbert Mitscha-Mhrheim, Zur ltesten Besitzgeschichte des nordstlichen Niedersterreich, Jahrbuch
fr Landeskunde von Niedersterreich, Serie NF, 26 (1936): 8091; Herbert Mitscha-Mhrheim, Zur
Geschichte der lteren Liechtensteiner und ihres Besitz in Niedersterreich, Jahrbuch der Heraldisch-
Genealogischen Gesellschaft Adler Serie 3, Bd. 8 (19711973): 1946.
69
Rungaldier, Niedersterreichs geographische Eigenart, 434.
70
The correlated analyze of Klaars typological map of Lower Austrian settlements [Adalbert Klaar, Atlas
von Niedersterreich. Formen der Buerlichen Siedlung in Niedersterreich. 1:500.000 (Wien: Freytag-
Berndt und Artaria, 1952), II/1] shows the Zaya and the March valley having castles in the crucial nodes, the
fortification of the city Laa an der Thaya and the clipper fortress being strong elements of the system. The
meadow villages, self protected, are situated along the natural north border of Weinviertel, formed by Thaya
River. They are showing a regional organization as milites system, a medieval form of defense used also in
Waldviertel, see Walter Pongratz, Das Absinken des buerlichen Kleinadels in den Untertanenstand
whrend des ausgehenden Mittelalters. Gezeigt an Beispielen des oberen Waldviertels, Unsere Heimat 50.
Jahrgang, 3. Heft (Verein fr Landeskunde von Niedersterreich und Wien) (1979): 123 140. His analyse
for Waldviertel focuses the reflection of the regional functions of the small nobility (knights) or armed
peasants in the architectural form of their manors and in the morphology of the settlements. The analyse of
Zayas valley settlements, with the watermills as part of the territorial organization mirrors similarities in the
Weinviertel.
71
BEV-Archiv Wien, AV4_344_1882. bersichts-Karte der Flussgebiete des Erzherzogthumes sterreich
unter der Enns, edition of Nieder sterrerichische Landesaufausschusse (Wien, 1882), scale 1:288000,
copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.

239
connotation, as well the mountains settlement of Klement or Oberleiser Berg.
Traditionally, the name of Zaya was given to the river in the territory of Gnadendorf,
where many small regular or springs streams, the most important being Giesbach and
Rhrbach are meeting together, on the Eastern extremity of the village.
The comparative analyse between Merians map (17th century, fig. 8), the
Austrian map of rivers basins (end of 19th century, fig. 9)72 and hydrographical map
(begin of 20th century, fig. 10)73 are illustrating the difficulty of Zayas geographical
designation.

Vienna: v09. Asparn; v14. Mistebach; v17. Wulfndorff / Wilfersdorf; v23. Hauskirch / Hauskirchen;
14. Designed detail from the map Archiducatus Austriae Viertel Unter Manharts Berg (VUMB) and

v27. Absdorf / Niederabsdorf; v29. Dresing / Drsing74

72
Ibid.
73
BEV-Archiv Wien, AV4_3395_March_1912. Hydrographische bersichtskarte des March-Gebietes mit
Isohyeten fr das Jahr 1912.
74
http://imageserver.mzk.cz/mzk03/001/043/344/2619265777/big.jpg (2016.02.06).

240
 15. Section from the bersichts-Karte der Flussgebiete des Erzherzogthumes sterreich
unter der Enns, 1882. The settlements are numbered, see Annexes 1. The main Zaya springs
in the south region of Gnadendorf (Taschlbach) 75

16. Designed detail on the map Hydrographische bersichtskarte des March-Gebietes, 1912
Zaya springs from Eichenbrunn territories 76

Zayas source above Klement is dried; the measurements are showing the water-
table dropping 6 meters in the last decades.
Zaya estuary at its confluence with the March begins between Dobermannsdorf
and Drsing. The last settlement is an ancient place, a station on the Amber Road as

75
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
76
01. copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.

241
Roman military post outside of limes, a traditional place to cross the River March.
Drsing castle from 11th century is detailed analyzed beneath.

17. The active spring of the modern 1819. Zayas historical dried source.
Zaya77 Abundant vegetation remembers the
presence of underground water78

20. Perspective from the fountain of modern Zaya to Oberleisberg, a high settlement
during 6000 years. On the top of the Oberleiserberg was a Carolingian church, rebuild
periodically from 11th to 15th century, in 1787 demolished,79 important element of the German /
Roman parish system of ecclesia propria until the middle of the 12th century (Wormser
Concordat, 1122), see beneath80

In addition to the rivers mentioned above, there are the Taschlbach, Leiserbach,
Mistelbach, Poybach, Kettlasbach, Ausdrnkbach (Maustrenk), Inzersdorfer Bach, all
seasonal streams or small springs. All of these streams have watermills (historical map of
18th and 19th century: description).
The last regulation, in the 1950s determinates the closing / abandonment of most
historical watermills. The technology was improved, after the middle of the 19 th century,
when an important part of them are coming property of the millers. The economy and the
law sustain of the big industrial production, as well the social development after the
Second World War have determinates their abandonment. Only the mill ponds, today
used as fish ponds (Laamhle, Gnadendorf) are, in some cases, remaining. The
abundance of trees on the old places of lakes or along the old canals is the only evidence

77
Author picture.
78
Author picture.
79
http://www.oberleiserberg.at/ (28.01.2016).
80
Author picture.

242
of a nearly thousand years history in the region.

7. Urban morphology, typological research on territorial scale. Dehio,81 describing

the settlements along Zaya valley, follows the analyses of Adalbert Klaar, the most
important Austrian urban morphologist.
Klaar typological map for farmers settlements in Lower Austria proposes a
differentiated description, regarding the position of the farms to the street system, their
regular distribution and the relation with common place.82

21. Section from Adalbert Klaar map 83 define the villages as: a. ditch- and stream bank v.;
b. irregular or early meadow v.; c. meadow v.; d. alley v.; e. group alley v.; f. street v.; g. more
street v.; h. city or market settlement. The new perspective offered by our research (settlement
morphology and watermill) modified drastically Klaar catalogue.

Klaar sort the Zaya villages as follows: 17 have street character; Drsing (no
29) is a marketplace village; Klement (no 1) and Eichenbrunn (no 3) belong to the group
a (stream bank); Zwentendorf (no 7) and Kettlasbrunn (no 15) are described as irregular
(b); Asparn (no 9), Paasdorf (no 11) and Mistelbach (no 13) are meadow villages.
Michelstetten is integrated to group alley villages (e). Wilfersdorf (no 17), Bullendorf
(no 18) and Niederabsdorf (no 27) are integrated to the group g, more street villages.
This character of the villages describes the farms disposition along the street and
the rivers bank, but not the morphology of the village as whole.
The comparative analyze of the Zaya villages demonstrates their development
outside and at some protection distance to the castle / manor / fortification (Klement,
Eichenbrunn, Gnadendorf, Michelstetten, etc), following the main route along the river.
The definition as more street villages, alley village or street village can be subordinated
to the relation between castles farms group, fortification village.

81
Dehio: the heritage topography in the German language lands.
82
Klaar, Atlas von Niedersterreich, II/1.
83
Adalbert Klaar, Die Siedlungsformen Niedersterreichs in Jahrbuch fr Landeskunde von
Niedersterreich, Serie NF, vol. 23 (1930): 3774 and Atlas von Niedersterreich, II/1.

243
 22. Detail from Original map (first cadastral 23. Detail from Original map (first cadastral
plan) of Klement (v01)84 plan) of Eichenbrunn (v03)85

24. Detail from Original Map (first cadastral 25. Detail from the 3. Landesaufnahme,
plan) of Gnadendorf (v04)86 Zwentendorf (v07)87

26. Detail from Original Map (first cadastral 27. Detail from Original Map (first
plan) of Michelstetten (v06)88 cadastral plan) Olgersdorf (v08)89

84
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
85
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
86
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
87
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
88
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.

244
 28. Detail from the 1. Landesaufnahme, 29. Detail from the 1. Landesaufnahme,
Paasdorf (v11)90 Hauskirchen (v23)91

30. Detail from the 3. Landesaufnahme, 31. Detail from the 3. Landesaufnahme,
Asparn an der Zaya (v09)92 Httendorf (v10)93

Drsing has a different character, probably a particular form of a meadow (Anger)

village, build around a larger and imposing central marketplace.

89
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
90
http://mapire.eu/de/map/firstsurvey/?bbox=1827112.5056147105%2C6192373.863209913%2C1857687.3
16928781%2C6204985.972876966 (2016.11.08).
91
http://mapire.eu/de/map/firstsurvey/?bbox=1851113.7324962558%2C6201240.558490993%2C1881688.5
438103264%2C6213852.668158047 (2016.11.08).
92
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
93
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.

245
 32. Second Austrian Military Map, illustrating the settlements morphology by Drsing.
The Anger represents a self-defense program, a later form of settlement, with the exterior
stables as walls, part of the defense. The watermill is near from the settlement and outside.
The scholars are speaking here about a second castle with water canal system, a mottes
(probably) rebuild approx. in the center of the village in the second half of the 13 th century
(church with defense tower, foundation in 1276 of Leutold of Kuenring; 1301 dairy farm)94

33. Detail from the Original Map (first 34. Weinwurm Mill (m46) from Drsing
cadastral plan)95 from Drsing (v29): the old (v29) on Original Map97
mottes, the village, and the watermill.96

94
http://mapire.eu/de/map/secondsurvey/?bbox=1875143.6232634082%2C6193424.872348834%2C189043
1.0289204435%2C6199730.9271823615 (2016_11_08) and http://www.imareal.sbg.ac.at/noe-burgen-
online/result/burgid/103 (2016.02.05).
95
copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
96
The mottes (after 11th century: Pernegger and Kuenringer, important ministerial families during the Middle
Ages and the early 16th century; family members were estate officials and ruled territories in Lower
Austria. Azzo, the founder of the family, came to Austria from Saxony or the Rhineland (Trier) in the 11th
century, see: http://austria-
forum.org/af/AEIOU/Kuenringer%2C_Ministerialengeschlecht/Kuenringer%2C_Ministerialengeschlecht_en
glish. (05.02.2016) The mottes were abandoned, see above. Can be possible to find archaeological rests, to

246
 Following the urban morphologies rules, it is possible to define an eccentrically
character of the Zayas settlements, as the section above, from Austrian Military Maps or
Cadastral Plans (OM, RF, RM, and LD, archive of Bundesamt fr Eich- und
Vermessungswesen and sterreichisches Staatsarchiv) are demonstrating. The most of
them have no historical centers, being constrained to a development outside and far
away to the landlord sites.
This observation sustains the hypothesis of a related development of the entire
Zaya valley, mirroring the report between classes, inheritance policy, and their building
culture. With few exceptions (Zwentendorf, Olgersdorf, Bullendorf, Ebendorf, Drsing),
Zaya settlements morphology illustrate until today this polarity: on one site, the
manor / the castle / the residence of important landlord families (during the 17 th century:
counts Sinzendorf, Polhaim, Volkra, Breuner, prince Liechtenstein) or monasteries
(Schotten, Barnabiten, Camaldulenser, etc.)98 and, at the other site, the village. Later
development, the villages are built in the neighborhood of a castle and represent the
evolution of the agriculture exploitation.
Following this related information, the morphology of Zaya villages indicates a
social polarity, reflecting as well the necessity of the question about the regularity of this
system and its significance.
Etymologically, 86,2% of Zaya communities have the same rule of their
designation: the name of a person (the most of them German, with some exception
Slavonic or Hungarian origin) is composed with -dorf (once -stetten, signifying village or
place). Klement, historical Clement is also the name of a person, sustaining the
possibility of a network of landlords courts, manors.
Drsing is an exception, some scholar proposing it as a real ing name,
expressing a German continuity along the March. The name of rivers, Zaya, Thaya, and
March are debated as German or Slavonic, influenced from the nationality of the
scholars. The debate about a German continuity in the region was closed after de Second
World War. From the beginning of this article was prcised the deliberate distance from
ethnological ideological approaches. The aspects focused here is consequent with the
initially approach, interrogating only the possibility of a social groups to resist in its
original regions, through dangerous historical periods (as the Migration Period it was).
The Marcomanni, Herulier, Langobardian settlements are here attested in archaeological
founds and historical documents. If rests of them, probably mixed populations are
remaining here, working the fertile fields of the valley and providing grains and animals
to different leaders (Awarian, Hungarian or Slavonic), negotiating with them and
supporting their administrative conditions is a question that can bring new aspects in the
social regional perspectives.
If the Zaya valley, attested as inhabited from German populations, in contractual
relationship with the Romans, was a corn chamber for the big military lagers in the
Wiener Becken must be researched. The fertility of this territory, lying discrete and
beautiful as a young mother Gaia, makes possible the question. Practically occupied

connect the watermill with the second castle of Drsing? It is possible to find archaeological rests near from
the first mottes, establishing in consequence the appearance in the region of the mills in the 11th century?
Maybe the future research can bring elements to establish if the actually site of the watermill of Drsing can
be correlated with its first documentary attestation (1586), or much earlier, in the second half of the 13 th
century.
97
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
98
Dehio and http://www.imareal.sbg.ac.at/noe-burgen-online/ (05.02.2016).

247
through the early medieval period from different groups, the presence of their numerous
underground cellars is a testimony of some agricultural works, some landlord residences
(as from Oberleiser Berg, Michelstetten, old Drsing, probably Mistelbach, Asparn an
der Zaya).
It is no possible to connect this population, before middle of the 11th century with
the presence of watermills, without archaeological founds.

8. Hausberge / Mottes system at the beginning of a new era in the Lower Austrian
north Danubians territories. The motte, form of medieval territorial administration,
dwelling and self or regional defense system, characteristic of Lower Austrian territories
is known in different European regions, from scholars accepted as organizational form
beginning in 11th12th century and being in function until late, probably 15th century, see
Felgenhauer-Schmiedt 2007.99 Initiated in the early stages of the 11th century, when the
higher nobility built a motte as a status symbol and territorial focus, and especially from
military considerations, this castle type defines later, in the middle phase, the advanced
high Middle Ages and the beginning of the late Middle Ages, the status symbol of
ministerials and for their tactical reasons, while in the later period, pending the outcome
of the Middle Ages, mottes can be built, in the context of the larger castles and collective
settlements (villages) for special tasks within the framework of the defense or the
administration.100 This scholar debate can not be closer analyzed, being here
unimportant the difference between landlord and ministerial, as well the special tasks of
their buildings activities. It is to accept that not every motte was built in the 11 th century.
The reconstructions101 are illustrating the evolution of the mottes research.

35. Reconstruction from a 36. Motte & Bailey Castles103 37. Turmhgelburg Attendorn
chteau motte, A. de cca 13th C., a residential tower
Caumont, 19th century102 with an adjoining farmyard104

99
Their origin has quite different requirements, both in terms of construction time as well as their role in an
eventual defense concept and in the social and legal structure.
100
Sabine Felgenhauer-Schmiedt, Peter Csendes, Alexandrine Eibner (ed.), Motte Turmhgelburg
Hausberg. Zum europischen Forschungsstand eines mittelalterlichen Burgentypus (Beitrge zur
Mittelalterarchologie in Osterreich 23) (Wien: sterreichische Gesellschaft fr Mittelalterarchologie,
2007), 7.
101
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motte_%28Burg%29 and
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmh%C3%BCgelburg_Attendorn (2016.01.27).
102
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motte_(Burg) (2016.11.19).
103
http://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/types_03_motte.htm (2016.11.19): A motte-and bailey is a form
of castle situated on a raised earthwork and surrounded by a ditch and protective fence. This was the most
common form of castle in Europe in the 11th century, except Scandinavia. Mottes were mounds, some
natural, some man made, surmounted by a tower. Around them was a ditch, sometimes filled with water. For
man-made mottes the earth needed to build it was taken from the surrounding ditch to create another
defensive feature. The closeness of connection between the mound and the ditch is reflected in their names:

248
 38. The vestiges of the keep of 39. Arundel Castle: the 40. Klement (v01)107, Georg
Wiston Castle on its motte105 keep on its motte106 Matthus Vischer engraving
from 1672 with the castle ruin
and castle-like dairy farm

As the pictures are showing, an artificial built hill surrounded by wall and ditch,
sometimes with moat, has on its top a tower. The large protected surface allowed the
presence of workers dwellings, stables, barns and meeting places, as the medieval
familia required. Picture no 35 is drawing the motte as self defense system, and not as
center of the territorial administration, while the latest researchs bring much more
information about the moat as administrative center of a region, determing the
development of important cities or settlements around them.108

41. Mottes along Zaya with circular moats and ramparts (Drsing v29-, Mistelbach v14-);
and with high middle work (Httendorf v10-); mottes or similar construction (Gnadendorf v04-,
Asparn v09-, Palterndorf v25-). Section from mottes map (graphic Peter Pesseg, Lower Austrian
Castle Data Bank, see Felgenhauer-Schmiedt and alii, MotteTurmhgelburgHausberg, 169)

Motte and Moat come from the same medieval root (...) Motte and Bailey castles were built in Britain,
Ireland and France in the 11th and 12th centuries. They were relatively cheap but effective defensive
fortification that could repel small attacks. The Lower Austrian Territory, especially Weinviertel has this
Hausberge as sign of a noble colonisation of the Eastern Mark of the Empire. A bailey is an enclosed
courtyard, typically surrounded by a wooden palisade overlooked by the motte. It was used as a living area
by vassals who served the lord of the castle, generally including a blacksmith, a miller and most of the
necessary craftsmen of the age. The bailey was an outer enclosure, which was also defended by a fence and
sometimes a ditch, providing a first, outer line of defence for the motte. Some ensemble of the watermills,
being near of their Motte (Gnadendorf, Vogl/Fuchsmhle by the lost Aigen near Olgersdorf, Michelstetten,
Asparn an der Zaya, etc.) are illustrating this territorial disposition.
104
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motte_(Burg)#/media/File:Motte_Berlinghausen_Rekonstruktion-1_.jpg.
(2016.11.10). The water protection with the bridge illustrate partially the hypothese of the article, integrating
the water mill in the system, and the miller as part of the medieval familia.
105
http://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/types_03_motte.htm (2016.11.10).
106
http://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/types_03_motte.htm (2016.11.10).
107
http://www.imareal.sbg.ac.at/noe-burgen-online/result/burgid/96 (2016.11.10).
108
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle#Bibliography (2016.11.10).

249
 Comparing with the historical plans of Zaya communities, expressed as a
composition between the center of the local power and the street village, the
hypotheses of the pre-existence of the motte on their territory became consistency; the
villages are later developed form, expressing new administrative and social necessities,
as in Britain, Ireland or France.
Zaya valley hasnt a research regarding its network of mottes; a part of them
have unknown position or are destroyed (as the reduce number reflects on the map,
pictures 37); a part are transformed in fundaments of the later fortification. By
Gnadendorf, the perspective from the North to the village illustrates the superposition of
different historical levels and the preservation of landmarks: mottes hill as fundament
for the church, the new grain tower on the place of the watermill. Beneath, Vischers
drawings are illustrating the contraposition between the landscape, fortification and
village. The continuity of administration, defense and representation are defining the
Zaya villages.

42. Gnadendorf (v04). The arrows are indicating the position of the north watermills. The
village had three other watermills on the south part of the church (author picture)

43. Mistelbach an der Zaya (v14)109 44. Asparn an der Zaya 09- (Geog Matthus
Vischer, 17th century)110

During the 17th and 18th century, Merians and Vischers representations are
showing the watermill outside the fortification. This technical geographical disposition,
repeated everywhere in Europe, can have many signification: the functional necessity of
water for an watermill, related to the ditch and water moats; the need of servicing of an
lager territory as the fortification (city, castle, fortified church); the tumult around the

109
https://www.google.at/search?q=alte+bilder+von+mistelbach&client=firefox-b-
ab&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNj8rSuKDQAhVLPhQKHRiYAVUQsAQIHA
&biw=1600&bih=736#imgrc=mpOkhx4bLPAN_M%3A (2016.11.11).
110
http://www.imareal.sbg.ac.at/noe-burgen-online/result/burgid/44 (2016.11.11): Asparn II. Vischer-Stich
des Asparner Stttls mit Wassergraben und Erdbastionen (1672) Georg Matthus Vischer.

250
mill (people and animals, water, etc.) and the noise; a preliminary disposition, related
with the water regulation (artificial pound and canals, fishing pounds, etc.) and with the
technical knowledge for construction (bridge and footbridge).

45. Niederabsdorfv27- (Vischer, 17th century)111 46. Ebersdorfv19- (Vischer, 17th century)112

47. Paasdorfv11- (Vischer, 17th century)113 48. Wilfersdorf17- (Vischer, 17th

century)114

49. Waidhofen an der Ybbs (Matthus 50. Waidhofen an der Ybbs (Holsteiner, end
Merian der ltere, 17th century)115 of the 19th century)116

111
http://www.burgen-austria.com/archive.php?id=1030 (2016.11.11).
112
https://www.google.at/search?q=georg+matth%C3%A4us+vischer+alte+bilder&client=firefox-b-
ab&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9yOiJt6DQAhVGbxQKHWK6DlIQsAQIIw&b
iw=1600&bih=736#imgrc=-nopdr7oZ-ELBM%3A (2016.11.11).
113
https://www.google.at/search?q=paasdorf+n%C3%B6&client=firefox-b-
ab&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFi6b-
v6DQAhUD1RQKHXThAL8Q_AUICSgC&biw=1600&bih=736#tbm=isch&q=paasdorf+n%C3%B6+alte+
stiche (2016.11.11).
114
http://www.imareal.sbg.ac.at/noe-burgen-online/result/burgid/1348 (2016.03.05): Wilfersdorf II. Vischer-
Stich der Anlage von 1672. Georg Matthus Vischer.
115
https://www.google.at/search?q=waidhofen+bei+merian+stich&client=firefox-b-
ab&tbm=isch&imgil=4ecbjw5sFG3haM%253A%253BMn9S5i4vTjYBgM%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%
25252Fwww.ebay.at%25252Fsch%25252Fi.html%25253F_sop%2525253D19%25252526_nkw%2525253D

251
 51. Castle Raabs (Vischer, 17th century)117 52. Mediasch, Siebenbrgen (17th century).118 A
similar disposition is documented in other European
regions, embracing a similar culture and rules

53. Krainburg / Kranj, Slowenia (Merian, 17th century)119

Different other medieval manufactures can be situated along the river. For some
of these drawings, the authors are nominating the watermills (Krainburg: F. Castle mill),
confirming their presence along the river and outside the fortification. as well their
owners (castle mill), establishing probably a property before the development of the
settlement and the built of the city walls.
The hypothesis regarding the relation between the watermill and the bridge
focuses not the cities, more differentiated in their offer of technical support as a village
existing around a landlord residence.

merian%2525252Bstich%2525252Boriginal%25252526_frs%2525253D1&source=iu&pf=m&fir=4ecbjw5s
FG3haM%253A%252CMn9S5i4vTjYBgM%252C_&usg=__zeso4n1kzMMfpmHYh4lY3oXEWWw%3D&
biw=1600&bih=736&ved=0ahUKEwiOqLy0wqDQAhXKwBQKHbnyDlsQyjcILg&ei=pqAlWI69CMqBU7
nlu9gF#imgrc=4ecbjw5sFG3haM%3A (2016.11.11).
116
See http://vemog.at/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Bilder-erz%C3%A4hlen-Geschichten-Gudrun-
Huemer.pdf (2016.11.11): (Kolorierter Druck/Stich, Holsteiner, die Schleifmhlen, 187172).
117
http://www.imareal.sbg.ac.at/noe-burgen-online/result/burgid/2188 (2016.11.11): Raabs. Stich von G. M.
Vischer (1672) Digitalisierung: Thomas Khtreiber.
118
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%C8%99 (2016.11.11).
119
http://picclick.at/Kranj-Krainburg-Crainburg-Slowenien-Slovenia-331987348508.html (2016.11.11).

252
 54. The maps section (using the support of the 3. Landesaufnahme) design the region of
Upper Zaya (from Klement v01- to Michelstetten v06- and Aigen, a destroyed one-mansion
settlement, illustrated later by the ensemble of the watermill Feld/Volgmhle, m11) and
partially the Middle Zaya (from Olgersdorf v08- to Httendorf v10-)120

2 3 1 4 5 6 7 Aigen 8 9 10

55. The same section, without the support of the historical map show the relation between the
position of the mottes/mansion (the number represents the village mottes settlement); the medieval
routes (I/7 Klippenzugstrasse: prehistorical route Leiser Berge Staatzer Felsen Pollauer Berge; I/8
North height route: prehistorical route Danube area on Kamptal Waldviertel Bhmen; and I/9
Laaer Strasse: Danube area city of Laa); Zaya River; and the watermills, see also fig. 56, the legend

120
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.

253
 Watermill

Motte

Known, now ruined site of a motte

Unknown place of the motte

56. Legend on the proposed map, picture 54 and 55

57. Territorial distribution of mottes and their watermills, bridges and

justice place/mountain in Gnadendorf (v04) and its subordinated village,
Wenzersdorf (v05).121 Detail from the 3. Landesaufnahme122

The Zaya villages are, with insignificant exception (later villages, as

Rhrabrunn), villages having a motte / medieval landlord mansion (local dialect:
Hausberg), in a regular distance of 3,8 km, representing a hour or even less riding
from one motte to another, positioned in the near of the routes intersection, a part of
them situated on the right bank of the Zaya, without affecting or being affected from the
water works (canal, lake, etc.) This very tight texture at the regional level imposes the
idea of a defense system policy connected with a territorial administration program.
Attested with morphological comparative analyze of the built area, these pre-existing
mottes are possible result if the colonization in the 11th century of the Lower Austrian
territory, after the victory against Hungarian leadership in the region.
The scholar connected the Emperors Heinrich III gift at 21. April 1048 to the
margrave Adalbert ant its wife 30 king hooves between two rivers named Zaya (Zaya
and Thaya) with the Paasdorfs territory, near from Httendorf. Simultaneously, is
mentioned with different arguments (etymological, church patronage and heraldic) the

121
The central function of mottes is reflected in its landscape typology (higher, orientated distribution of the
village, but also through the ground property, in the hands of landlord. The investment in watermill, their
ownership is maintained until the middle of the 19th century, when the burgeoise revolution imposed
important social changes. The justice court responsibility is a part of the characteristic of the ground floor
property and landlord privilege. The picture has also represented the watermill from Zwentendorf, without its
motte, documented historical, but devasted. A very detailed discussion about the landlord system
archaeology and its different aspects, see Claus Kropp, Thomas Meier, Entwurf eine Archologie der
Grundherrschaft im lteren Mittelalter, Beitrge zur Mittelalterachologie in sterreich 26 (2010): 97124.
122
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.

254
important and unusual one piece property of Liechtenstein in Alt- and Neulichtenwarth,
approx. 5050 ha, very similar to a 3040 kings hooves gift in the colonization time
(10451055). Hugo von Liechtenstein was not the beneficiary of this gift. The scholars
have accepted its Liechtenstein ancestors inheritance from the first colonists, free noble
families of landlords, beneficiary of the gift.123
Above are mentioned the settlements / courts / manors in the Upper Zaya region
(Klement, Oberleis, Michelstetten) in the same period, and in their vicinity the earliest
documentary attested watermills.124
Austrian scholar affirms the overall comparatively high proportion of the count
and free noble families during the colonization of the northern border of Lower Austria
(territory between Leiser Berg / Oberleis;125 Zaya, Thaya and March River) until to the
first decades of the 12th century.126 If their dwelling ensemble settlements are
typological as villa rustica or mottes, if they are simultaneously it is impossible to
precise at this stage of the research. The regression as method permits only to establish,
along the Zaya valley, a system of sites having similar administrative function,
approximate in the same period or chronological near. The position of the watermills in
the vicinity of the castle or at the village border can illustrate, in some cases, the
beginning of the administration during the colonization epoch.
If these colonists are free noble or ministerials is a question necessary for the
typological analyzes of their dwelling court settlements and its territorial
significance, but at this stage of the research is impossible to be answered.
It is a later phenomenon, known also in the Weinviertel, the genesis of a new
nobility group from the ministerials, families working and living the territories in the
name of the grand lords.127 The scholar debate about the ancestors of the Liechtenstein
family as ministerials or free noble family is not important here; significant is their
attested (Hugo von Liechtenstein) in Hauskirchen on the Zaya and Altlichtenwart in the
vicinity, not far away (Lower Zaya region).128 Mitscha-Mhrheim has archaeologically
attested the building works during the 12th century by their mottes in Altlichtenwald.129

123
Herbert Mitscha-Mrheim, Zur ltesten Besitzgeschichte der Zayagegend, Jahrbuch fr Landeskunde
von Niedersterreich, Ser. NF 28 (19391943), 122; Mitscha-Mhrheim, Zur Geschichte der lteren
Liechtensteiner, 3637.
124
The older watermills in Zwentendorf, Fuchsmhle (no 10) is documentary attested in 1286, property of
Jutta v. Hagenberg. Similar, the both watermills in Olgersdorf (no 12 and no 13), cca 1300. See Bodenstein-
Hohebhel, Mhlen in Weinviertel, 129.
125
http://www.oberleiserberg.at/ describe: German king castle with Roman mansions pattern, 5 th century;
active settlement during the Migration Period; wooden church in 10th and early, middle and late medieval
period. In the 11th century; cca 1050: romanic church (The scholar debated about the existence of
fundaments from the Caroligian era); autumn 1135: document between Markgraf Leopold III of Austria and
Bishof Redinmar von Passau attesting the existence of 13 parishes (Klosterneuburg, Niederhollabrunn, Gars,
Neuplla, Eggendorf im Thale, Grogrubach, Mistelbach, Falkenstein, Oberleis, Meisling, Weitersfeld,
Pulkau, Alland. From the, on the Zaya valley are Mistelbach and Oberleis) as ecclesia propria. Geographical
connected, Michelstetten has similar history (early medieval settlement, 1128 documentary attested small
leadership castle) (06.02.2016).
126
Roman Zehetmayer, Zur Struktur des Adels im nrdlichen Wald- und Weinviertel bis um 1150, in
Klaus Birngruber, Christina Schmid (editor), Adel, Burg und Herrschaft an der Grenze: sterreich und
Bhmen. Beitrge der interdisziplinren und grenzberschreitenden Tagung in Freistadt, Obersterreich,
vom 26. bis 28. Mai 2011 (Linz, 2012), 96.
127
http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.h/h661855.htm. (2016.11.08).
128
Mitscha-Mhrheim, Zur ltesten Besitzgeschichte; Mitscha-Mrheim, Zur ltesten Besitzgeschichte
der Zayagegend; Mitscha-Mhrheim, Zur Geschichte der lteren Liechtensteiner.
129
Mitscha-Mhrheim, Zur Geschichte der lteren Liechtensteiner, 26, Altlichtenwarth: nach dem

255
 This relation between mottes and territorial administration is related also with
church foundation, border defense as well with a justice system (Galgenberge and justice
territorial districts) in the north-eastern region of Weinviertel, see above pictures 57.
The focus of the motte is related to the watermill and its appearance in the Zaya
valley. Are the mottes contemporary with the first colonization, as expression of the new
territorial organization? It is possible to correlate them with the watermills as practically
simultaneously investments?
This perspective relives the importance of the Zaya region in the time of First
German Colonization generating the hypotheses of this article, indirect argued: it is
possible to suppose the existence of the watermill in the Zaya region before the first
documentary information (end of the 13th century, Zwentendorf), connecting the
administration interest for the new occupied territories, related to the agricultural
exploitation and to the privilege system, the cultural and technical development in the
epoch, to the legal rules and to the class networking system. Documentary named before
1141, as gift of Duke Leopold to the monastery Kosterneuburg,130 the watermill by
Krems attested their existence on the north site of the Danube and not far away from
Zaya, and illustrate the investment as regional policy of their owners.
Another important presence of watermill around Wiener Becken is assumed
around 1100 related with the monastery of Gttweig and the dynasty of Formbach.131
At the scale of regional morphology, the watermills and their subordination to
the castle networking system are designing a form for manor farm federation, as
economical investment of the nobility.
The diversity of the function inside of a watermills ensemble (watermill,
dwelling, stables, cellar, barn, pound) illustrate probably their complex territorial
function, strengthening the hypothesis of a networking system.
Is possible to see in this system the territorial reflection of the military
organization in militia, mottes watermill bridge one-family settlement? Relating the
tight network of elements, and considering a limited number of population, it seems
necessary to accept their competence, having a significant responsibilities number of
different tasks.
The postulation of a very early system of villication system, transported during
the history until the modern times, in form of fortified eater castles (Asparn, Wilfersdorf,
etc.) or churches (Michelstetten, Niederabsdorf, etc.) can bring new elements for the
future research in the region.
The end of the First World War has disintegrated the Austrian class of nobility,
but not their property. The dramatically changes after the Second World War in the
European history, engaging the loss of properties in the socialist lands are generated a
process of destruction affecting different elements of the heritage on a regional scale, an

Bauwerk auf dem Hutsaul benannt, einer mit einem Wall umgebenen Warte der Art, wie sie in hlicher
Form und Gre auch auf dem 2. Gipfel des Buschberges (Schwedenschanze genannt) in den Leiserbergen
errichtet wurde und die dort nach keramischen funden heute eindeutig ins 12. Jh. datiert werden kann. Schon
Schadn hat im Hutsaul den Erdunterbau eines Wachtturmes (und nicht einer ausgedehnten Burganlage)
richtig erkannt. Die Liechtensteinsche Hauptburg Lichtenwarth lag zweifellos auf dem groen Hausberg
von Neulichtenwarth (heute St Ulrich), ihre Spuren (Wlle, Grber und Aufbauten) waren vor dem 2.
Weltkireg noch gut erkennbar (Anlage von FLAK zerstrt).
130
Mitscha-Mhrheim, Zur Geschichte der lteren Liechtensteiner, 19
131
Klaus Lohrmann, Die alten Mhlen an der Wien (Wien-Mnschen: Jugend und Volk, 1980), 36: in the
region of Traistal, Kamptal and Pitter, with ist centre in Neunkirchen. 1080 is documented a water mill south
from the Gttweig monastery, in Paudorf.

256
old cultural heritage and a function orientated continuity. The identity of the valley is for
the first time analyzed here, as ensemble and as a cultural reflection of an integrated state
system.
It can be acceptable to see the class of nobility in along Zaya as part of its special
heritage, builder of continuity and regional character.

9. Watermills territorial disposition related to the castle and to the settlement. The
existence of the watermill on Zaya appears here to be connected with the castles, outside
of it, integrated in rare cases into the village, often at the end of the village or at its
administrative borders. Sometimes pushing the street to avoid their architectural
ensemble, the watermills position never cut the hill of the existing fortification, leading
to the conclusion of a pre-existence of the castle or the manor, court-dwelling of a local
authority and being in function as the time of the watermill building.
I propose here the supposition that he regularity of the watermills geographical
position represents a form of a supra-structured illustrating the states or the lands
legislation. The watermill was an expensive investment, imposing technological
knowledge (water regulation, technology, building materials) and an institutional
framework of negotiation.132
Expressing the landscape potential, as well the medieval law system, the
watermill placement permit the inverted question: what reflects, what are their position
mirroring? It is possible a scientifically regression to obtain the first possible watermill
investment on the Zaya valley?
Under different names, along their secular history, most often the name of the
miller, but property of a landlord, having inside its properties more mills, the watermills
are historical related to a manor, castle and not to the river or the villages borders. The
miller profession was protected in the late Middle Ages through the guild regulation,
sometime the same family conducting different mills in various places during more
generation. Making the discovery of their notice in the cadastral plans and military maps,
I fixed their presence inside the borders of the village, and, simultaneously, their owners
affiliation. In every case along Zaya, until the Bourgeois Revolution 1848, the
watermills are properties of a landlord family, affiliated to their site, castle, palace,
manor inside the border of the village. An exception was the flour watermill (m46) from
Drsing, for the first time documentary attested in 1586, when the citizen acquired the
mill from Hannus Kaider (and used it in own administration).133
The special case of the Weinwurm Mill (m46) from Drsing (v29) appears as a
special case, mirrored in the settlements different morphology; a later village, build
around a second castle, a foundation of a dry terrain, after the first mottes of Drsing was
abandoned. Without archaeological research is possible to see the mill as part of the second
castle, ruined but documentary attested (13th century), in the middle of the village.134

132
New Institutional Economics and Historical New Institutional Economics, see Kehoe, Law and Rural
Economy, 127: The Roman Empire agriculture exploitation is interpreted as interrelation between agrarian
laws and administrative structures. Here similarly, the Lower Austrias agrarian history is seen as a legal
arrangements and court decision focused on preservation of the local tradition of exploitation, providing
the stability through the continuous negotiation between actors involved in the complex agricultural
network and connecting the flourishing of the landlords courts with the consistence of the concept of
law. The medieval privileges system is an interrelation of actors balancing the territorial responsibilities
and social rights.
133
Ferdinand Dietzl, Die Geschichte der Marktgemeinde Drsing, 2. Aufl. (Drsing: Gemeinde V., 1994)
134
http://www.imareal.sbg.ac.at/noe-burgen-online/result/burgid/179 (2016.11.11).

257
 58. and 59. The castle of Asparn and the four watermills (no 14, 15, 16 and 17) inside the
border of the settlement on the First Austrian Military Map and on the actually
Niedersterreichisches Atlas (arch. students Stefania Popovici, Lorand Ferencz, Ana Tincu,
Tiberiu Trifan). See above the image in the 17th century by Vischer

10. Emperor Charlemagne and Emperor Heinrich III; military campaigns in Lower
Austrian territories and territorial gifts (kings hooven / Knigshufen). The Austrian
Atlas of the Alpin Countries regarding the historical evolution of the division of the
courts, justice and parishes districts attest the existence of ecclesia propria
(Eigenkirche)135 in Oberleis and Mistelbach, and offers the method of dating the
settlements earlier as the written documents, attesting also the existence of regional
organization before the middle of the 11th century in the North-Eastern region of Lower
Austria. The complex medieval administration can be illustrated along Zaya, see the map
of Gnadendorf. The scholar debate about the different phases of the mottes construction
(see below) doesnt exclude the existence or pre-existence of this architectural form of
dwelling-site in some villages along Zaya in the 11th century;136 the most important of
them, situated by the crossing of medieval routes137 and using them as opportunity are
rebuilt in the next centuries as castles or churches (Eichenbrunn, Gnadendorf, Asparn,
Mistelbach, etc. until Drsing, see above).
Differentiating the Carolingian from the Ottonian Marches (military districts) in
Lower Austria, Lechner attributes to the second era distinct features such as: a set of
defensive elements with a military significance forming a distinct border, at least in the

135
http://universal_lexikon.deacademic.com/74528/Eigenkirche (06.02.2016): The main church as private
property of landlord (system of private church / Eigenkirche / ecclesia propria propriae hereditatis
cellulae iuris nostri) connects them with an earlier church foundation. The ecclesia propria was a form of
public legal authority of the landlord to dispose and use rights of assets and income of their private church,
and also having the power of appointment and removal of ministers, and at its own monasteries the abbot or
provost. Expression of Roman and German legal rules, the ecclesia propria was regulated in the Carolingian
era. 1122, the Wormser Concordat establish a new parish system (patronage and incorporation) for the entire
Catholic church.
136
Adalbert Klaar, Herbert Mitscha-Mrheim, Die Kirche zum Hl. Veit in Michelstetten. Zum
bevorstehenden 850 jhrigen Jubilum ihrer Erstnennung, Unsere Heimat, Niedersterreich, Serie NF 47
(1976): 165169.
137
Peter Csendes, Die Straen Niedersterreichs im Frh- und Hochmittelalter (Wien: Notring, 1969),
unpublished doctoral thesis of University of Vienna.

258
east and north, which used the opportunities for small expansions, juxtaposition of closed
states associations within the limit of the March as a conquered land; a strong
colonization of the territory inside the borders; the organization of the mark as a part of a
framed military system; in which the March border as a Imperial border; the margrave as
deputy of the king and leader of the military district; and a margrave who has at least one
county in his command.138 This definition is reflects through the settlement morphology
on the Zaya valley (see beneath, the mottes distribution).
The landlord properties along the Zaya valley are attested documentary in the
first half of the 12th century. The archeology proved the importance of the high
settlements in the Upper Zaya (Oberleiser Berg, Michelstetten) until the beginning of the
middle medieval era; as well the interdisciplinary research from Mitscha-Mhrheim
attested the presence of Hugo Liechtenstein in Hauskirchen, Hausbrunn and in
Altlichtenwart at the beginning of the 12th century.
The scholars agree the earlier settlements foundation in the region, after the
Emperors military campaigns after 1040, demonstrating interdisciplinary the existence
of manors, castle, residences, and churches after the middle of 11th century (genealogy,
church patronage, territorial properties, heraldic).
The Austrian scholars debate has not decisive elements to establish forms of
territorial administration in Weinviertel between 9th and 11th century. The presence of
watermill can be related to the beginning of the new territorial administration after the
middle of the 11th century, but it is not indices allowing an earlier existence.
The old parish territory of Mistelbach, extension in the Middle Zaya from
Paasdorf to Prinzendorf was part of the Imperial gift to the German colonists (1042 and
1044), after Emperor Heinrichs III conquered its military champagnes against Hungarian
leaders.139 The Oberleis as private church (Eigenpfarre) of family Babenberg is related to
the same period (1050), as well the Michelstetten church.140
Connected with the medieval ensemble of the church in Michelstetten, the
watermill Taxl Mill (no 9) is positioneted outside the church fortification and near from
the noble medieval dwelling, designing a medieval system of administration. Today the
mill is demolished, but its ensemble (miller house) can be researched. Some indication
about an underground stone channel for water provision, with a basin indicates a
horizontal wheel. Declared historical monument, the watermill is described as a building
with two flats with architectural elements from 18th century, having an older nucleous.141
Bodenstein Hohenbhel found the mill in the Liechtenstein Urbar from 1661. At this
stage of the research is impossible to distinguish elements for an earlier dating.
Comparing the settlement from Michelstetten, Zwentendorf and Olgersdorf
under various historical perspectives, Michelstetten geographical position and its earlier
dating allows the supposition of its complexes organization. The existence of the
watermill in Zwentendorf and Olgersdorf, documentary attested at the end of the 13th
century permitting the hypotheses of an earlier watermill also in Michelstetten.

138
Karl Lechner, Die territoriale Entwicklung von Mark und Herzogtum sterreich, Unsere Heimat.
Monatsblatt des Vereins fr Landeskunde von Niedersterreich und Wien 24, 34 (1953): 34.
139
Herbert Mitscha-Mrheim, Hochadelsgeschlechter und ihr Besitz im nrdlichen Niedersterreich des 11.
Jahrhunderts, Jahrbuch fr Landeskunde von Niedersterreich Serie NF, 29 (1944/48): 416439; Mitscha-
Mrheim, Zur ltesten Besitzgeschichte der Zayagegend; Hans Wolf, Erluterungen zum Historischen
Atlas der sterreichischen Alpenlnder, 2. Abteilung: Die Kirchen- und Grafschaftskarte, Teil 6:
Niedersterreich (Wien, 1955).
140
Wolf, Erluterungen zum Historischen Atlas.
141
Dehio, 737.

259
 The bibliographical research of lost Castle Mill (Schlossmhle, no 1) in Klement
permits the conclusion of an overshot wheel for the mill, detected in this region in 14th
century, often in 15th century. Documentary attested in 1150, Conrad von Clement has
his residence up on the hill, above the platform of the mill.
The question if these mills are investments during the 14th or 15th century, or can
they be dating earlier stays remains without answer. This research relates the settlements
and the mills in their later forms with the beginning of the new administration, trying to
organize the bibliographical information and indirect indices for a future interdisciplinary
research, using the watermills as working instrument.
If some of them are, at the very beginning, investments of the Slavonic /
Hungarian landlords during the Moravian kingdom or they are expression of the German
colonization142 of these territories, in the Carolingian or Ottonian era is not an ethnic
problem, but one connected with a social, economical-financial standard of this historical
period, and the question is only a question of chronology (after the Caroligian battles;
before or during the First German Colonization).
This research makes the assumption of the watermills on the Zaya as investment
of the new administrative and political class in the North-Eastern Quarter of the Lower
Austria, most probably after the Emperor Heinrich conquered its champagne in the
region (middle of the 11th century).
The lack of written documents as well the lack of information, make impossible
to determine when the first watermill appear in Weinviertel. It is known that, before
1141, an watermill by Krems was donated from Prince Leopold to the monastery
Klosterneuburg. Partial owner of the mill, Otto von Lengbach was the feudal leader of
the family of Liechtenstein.143
This information connects the new landlords (after 1045), presence related to the
First German/Bavarian Colonization with the technology of the milling and demonstrate
their possibility of investment, as well their knowledge.
The watermills on the Zaya valley are, according to the present state of research,
investments at the end of 13th century (1286, in Zwentendorf m10, the Fuchsmhle,
followed in 1300 from others, the most important being in Olgersdorf, m12. and m13.),
followed and represent part of the historical heritage of the German culture here,
illustrating if not the Ottonian, most probably the Salian territorial politic (11 th or 12th
century, in the Babenberger era). They reflect the complex territorial system looking to
protect, to administrate and to develop the new integrated regions beginning with the
period of the Second German Colonization.
The battle for a functional continuity144 is in Weinviertel the result of a long
effort through and despite geographical, social and political roughness, in a context

142
Johannes Hoops, Heinrich Beck et alii, Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde, 2. vllig neu
bearb. und stark erw. Aufl., 38. Bnde (Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter, 1973/2008), vol. 18: Landschaftsrecht
Loxstedt, 2001 and vol. 19: LuchsMetrum, 2001: Landnahme, 602611: the terminus is not an unitary
concept and, also, doesnt include a polyethnical aspect corroborate with development from new cultural
forms, see also Horst Klusch, Zur Ansiedlung der Siebenbrger Sachsen (Hermannstadt: Eigenverlag,
1997) and the poly-ethnical construct of the later Romanian Saxon.
143
Herbert Mitscha-Mhrheim, Zur Geschichte der lteren Liechtensteiner und ihres Besitz in
Niedersterreich, Jahrbuch der Heraldisch-Genealogischen Gesellschaft Adler 73 (1971), Der ganze
Reihe dritte Folge, Band 8 (Wien: Selbstverlag der Heraldisch-Genealogischen Gesellschaft Adler, 1973),
1946.
144
I transfer here the concept of a functional identity taking the concept of function from the architectural
theory, as a structural concept defining a form and its stability.

260
defined by the intersection of East and West, between cultures and perspectives and is
generally accepted having its roots in the 11th century.145

11. Medieval streets, Zaya-Communities and their fortification system, morphology

and history. The character of the valley is not a continuous, but divided in small cultural
rooms (Kleinkulturrume):146 Upper Zaya (Klement Michelstetten), Middle Zaya
(Zwentendorf Ebendorf) and Lower Zaya (Hobersdorf Drsing), without a legal,
administrative or scientifically border. These sections are part of the local vernacular
language reflecting the feeling of the living space,147 based on every day activities, on
personal and familial connections, and defining an appropriation of a territory.
The medieval use of Roman streets system as an institutional network is a
common place, also the continuous use of the ancient routes. Csendes work focuses the
development of the routes system in Lower Austrian region from the post-Carolingian
era until the 13th century and this article absorbs its results.148 As subtle indicator of the
daily life, its necessities and concerns, the old route system and its local names reflect
functional and geographical aspect.149 Hay, grass, mill way are preserved in the tradition
of fields name, as well the king or forest / high route. The use of direction or of historical
events is reflected in names as Ungarn-, Bhmerstrasse, or Nikolsburger Strasse in
Weinviertel.150
These internal differences reflecting simultaneously hierarchical legal instances
(the streets network as an institutional system) and are related to the place and also to the
gradual signification from the crime.151 The scholar analyze from the territorial
distribution of the justice courts152 propose a contextual chronology of the settlements
and is included in this partial synthesis of the research (see the maps). Every village has
its judgment place, usually on the fields (in the lower part of the Zaya valley) or on the
mountains (Galgenberg, in the Upper Zaya valley, between Gnadendorf and
Wenzelsdorf, see above), characterizing the value of the property as ancient form of
landlords or church benefit, express architectural in their local manor or residences.153
The aspects of the street jurisdictional character is connected with the position of the
watermills, the comparative analyze of their territorial location make possible the
hypothesis of their directly vicinity with the bridges, along the regional or meta-regional

145
Wolfram, Grenzen und Rume, 1214.
146
It is not a postulate or a thesis, it was not the issue of this article, it is only the result of the technical
analyze of the maps, cadastral plans and their symbols.
147
Otto Friedrich Bollnow, Mensch und Raum, 11. Auflage, (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010), 1624.
148
Csendes, Die Straen Niedersterreichs, 12.
149
Ibid., 25.
150
Ibid.
151
Kais. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien. Historischer Atlas der sterreichischen Alpenlnder. Editor: von der 1899
eingesetzten Kommission zur Herausgabe eines historischen Atlas der Alpenlnder sterreichs der
Akademie der Wissenschaften, besteht aus 2 Abteilungen: 1) Landgerichtskarte; 2) Kirchen- und
Grafschaftskarten. Weiters erschienen Erluterungsbnde und Abhandlungen zum Historischen Atlas der
sterreichischen Alpenlnder (Wien: Akademie der Wissenschften, 1906/1959).
152
ius gladii (Blutgerichtsbarkeit), judgement prerogative of the landlord as low or kingdom right.
153
The Historical Atlas of the Austrian Alpin Lands has studied the connection between the legal system in
the modern centuries, its connection with the territorial distribution of the justice courts and the local history.
Following the results, the legal system before the burgeois revolution (1848) has reproduce an old medieval
system, also in its geographical disposition and had permitted to observe probably the first territorial
administrative system, encouraging the efforts of understanding the connection in times without or with only
very few writed documents. The results of these studies are used to verify the hypothesis of this study.

261
routes. Future research will bring probably more information and arguments. The
distinction between the Imperial or land chancellery in the literature154 make possible
here the observation that most probably the Zaya valley was under the control of the land
administration.
The valley has a topographical/geographical protection and was practicable
thank to a local route, to humid to be used constantly in different seasons or to unsure for
the defense purposes. Situated inside the regional or meta-regional routes, having on
the Eastern side, along the March valley, the ancient amber street, and at the Western the
Clipper route (unifying the clippers, on whose tops are stood the most important
fortification of the entire region). The routes parallel with the Danube, providing
different variants to transport between Western and Eastern are situated on the both
Zayas bank, on the top of the hills, but not in its directly neighborhood. Southern from
Zaya valley, the protected kingdom route unifies the old and important settlements as
Oberleiser Berge or Michelstetten with the March valley, protected from the visual
contact with the Danube. The Northern one was inside the actually state border, along the
valley, securing the natural limits build from Thaya River and not directly on its right
bank. Along these both routes, the topography was used to build on the top of the hills
castle or fortified churches.
The scholars remark the existence of an unusual big number of mottes in
Weinviertel, as a very special characteristic of this precisely Lower Austrian district, part
of its old defensive system.155 The above-mentioned routes network (the South-North
direction) are similarly protected, the mottes156 and later, on their places, the castles
reflecting the conscious defense program of the region.
This very close interdependence from the problems of the land, connecting the
army (defense), the law, the administration and the taxes (in form of working days,
naturals or taxes) was analyzed regarding the Roman Empire administration.157 The
entire structure on the Zaya is impossible to postulate as an institutional continuity from
the (late) Roman Empire tradition until the medieval period. Its important to remark the
precision and the legal will from the ensemble of the regional organizational structure,
expressed in the deep connection between an institutional system of property-, street-,
justice or parochial158 network. This constitutive character of the entire Zaya room, 159

154
For all territories under the Emperial control.
155
Hans P. Schadn, Die Hausberge und verwandten Wehranlagen in Niedersterreich. Ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte des mittelalterlichen Befestigungswesens und seiner Entwicklung vom Ringwall bis zur
Mauerburg und Stadtumwehrung (Prhistorische Forschungen 3) (Wien: Berger, 1953); Felgenhauer
Schmiedt, Motte Turmhgelburg Hausberg 78, 163180; Rudolf Bttner, Renate Madritsch, Burgen
und Schlsser in Niedersterreich. Vom Bisamberg bis Laa / Thaya (Weinviertel, 1987);
http://www.imareal.sbg.ac.at/noe-burgen-online/ (20. 05. 2015), etc.
156
Some particular aspects of their function, organisation, etc. see Sandra San, Archologie Thayaland.
Urgeschichte erleben. Archologie einer Landschaft Fhrer zu den Ausgrabungen Burg Sand und Hard,
Christian Janetschek, Niedersterreichisches Museum fr Urgeschichte Asparn / Zaya (2009).
157
Lemerle, The Agrarian History of Byzantium, 6.
158
The analyze of the difference between first church (Mutterpfarre) in an old privilege form, as own-
church-system (Eigenkirche) and the later evolution of the legal system of the catholic church (see the
volume from Historischer Atlas der sterreichischen Alpenlnder dedicated to the parish system in Lower
Austrian territories: Wolf, Erluterungen zum Historischen Atlas) permits to order chronological the
territorial development of the settlements. Occupied by medieval families of ministerials or great landlords
(Klement region), the focused valley dont know a big development of the monasteries, the oldiest mother
churches being relative small churches (see Michelstetten). The energically intervention of the catholic
church against the Eigenkirche system has involved a very slow evolution of the parrochies, but not the
building of the big cathedrals as in other European regions.

262
reflects a very particularly, and amazing continuity and presents similarities regarding
the upper named problems of the land, during more than 1000 years history. These
similarities with the Roman laws system, expressed in other architectural or social form,
but regarding in a very appropriate perspective the nature of the state is surprising and
must be research in its connection with German and Roman laws system in the effort to
understand the beginning of the medieval history of the land.

12. Zayas watermills. This chapter used the genealogical-historical results from the
unpublished document160 beginning from the contemporary information and oral history
and going inside the history, until the first (possible) writhed document.
The inventory of water mills fixed the multiple names used during the last
centuries with the information from Urbars (historical name for the property inventory)
and their location. The difficulties are coming through the used names, sometimes very
similar at a regional scale and connected with their location (Feld-, Berg-, Untere-,
Oberemhle), with their owners (Haeringmhle, very oft Hofmhle, fixing the relation
with a landlord manor or fortified dairy farm) or with their millers (Seltenhammer-,
Bodensteiner-, Drechsler-, Weinwurm). Some dynasties of millers, their familys
branches working in different places along Zaya, during centuries are making also
difficult the appropriation of a name with the location of the mill, and their lists are used
the contemporary notations usance, the local custom.
The oral history induces also some disturbing elements, the most part of them
concerning the affiliation. Far away from court which they belong and from the village
middle, often near from the administrative boundaries of the next village, the watermills
must be focused carefully their landscape and position.
The comparative analyze on the scale of the valley reveals different categories of
the morphologic-typological aspects and contents of the watermill, following different
scales and perspectives:
Geographical scale, focusing their position in the landscape and their position in
spatial relation with the landlords manor; village nucleus, and with the major
medieval routes system. The mills are inducing a profound transformation of the
biotope, part of their heritage.
Functional scale of environment (mill stream, mill pond, river, fish rearing pond,
orchard and vegetable garden, route system). Part of the legal technical obligation,
these aspects are structuring the territory. The analyze of the milites defensive
program it will probably bring new aspects of the functional relation medieval
obligations, explaining the important presence of the stable in the most well preserved
mills ensemble.
Urban scale, looking the watermills as an architectural ensemble (mill, house,
stade, stables, warehouse storage, cellar basement, court, fountain, sometimes wine
cellar and wine press). Sometimes closed ensemble, with the aspect of an old fortified
manor or court, they dont have the aspect of a planned ensemble, more as agglutinant
process during the centuries. The difficult history doesnt permit also the supposition
of a primarily form of any of them. Some medieval rests in the building substance are
expressed in many ensembles expression, it is to presume more information after a
159
As a reflection of human decision and networking activities, see Bollnow, Mensch und Raum.
160
Stadler, Andrescov-Weber and alii, Dokumentation der Mhlen im Zayatal Eine Inventarisation
historischer Mhlenstandorte (Wien: Technische Universitt, Institut fr Kunstgeschichte Bauforschung und
Denkmalpflege im Auftrag der sterreichischen Gesellschaft der Mhlenfreunde e.V., 2014)

263
 precisely analyze of the basements, cellars on the whole ensemble scale.
Technical aspects of milling technology, also the building technique.
In the middle of the village or city (Rosswassermhle m05- from Gnadendorf,
named after the horses using the mill regulation lake), near the existing court (Alten Hof
Mhle m06- in Gnadendorf; Obere Hofmhle m30- in Wilfersdorf), at the end of the
village (Schulzmhle m07- from Gnadendorf, Untere Hofmhle m29- in Wilfersdorf),
near to the village boundary (Laa/Bodensteinermhle m04- from Gnadendorf;
Hagermhle m31- from Bullendorf; etc.), the watermills location is near from a bridge,
along the medieval local or interregional routes, protecting the court/village from the
inundation.
Their names indicate often the existence of a court or manor, today disappeared
(Hofmhle in Klement, Gnadendorf, Michelstetten, etc. see the map.)
Inside of a settlement or between settlements the mills are increasing the
potential centrality of their place (mill routes, changing place). Insofar, their placement
demonstrates a well-balanced placement system along the valley, ruled from medieval
regulations (water, street, justice regulation).
From the 46 watermills, 29 of their ensembles have preserved important
buildings part, in the rule the millers dwelling; 3 are ruins; 6 have some elements of the
old buildings (normally insignificant), and 8 are completed destroyed.
Important cellars were certified documentary (pictures, paintings, eyewitnesses),
an important part of them being lost (Feld/Voglmhle m11- in Aigen/Michelstetten;
Obere Hofmhle m29- in Wilfersdorf, etc.) In other both cases, there are underground
connections with the manor (Feldmhle -m) or the castle (Obere Hofmhle m30- from
Wilfersdorf).
The majority of the watermills saved ensemble is transformed in dwellings. The
most famous example is the Krausmhle (m22) in Lanzendorf (v12), whose restoration
(office: arch. Christa Prantl and arch. Alexander Runser) was rewarded twice.161 The
ensembles of the Krennmhle (m45) in Ringelsdorf (v28) and from Weinwurmmhle
(m42) in Dobermannsdorf (v26) are used as industrial areas, preserving an important part
of their historical buildings. One old watermills environment is used today as mill,
having a regional importance, mill of family Zucker (m28) from Hobersdorf (v16).
Some ensembles are divided between different owners (as Rosswassermhle
m05-, Gnadendorf or Pieswanger/Hager Mill m31-, Bullendorf, etc.) or have diverse
functions (as the Heroldmhle m41- from Paltendorf using the whole area of the
ensemble, but not the buildings, as training center for the dogs).
Many mills are complete destroyed, or are suffering massive transformations
(Weinwurmmhle m02- and Weihermhle m03- in Eichenbrunn; Rosswassermhle
m05- and Bodensteiner Mill m04- in Gnadendorf, etc.). But their ensemble can testify
the progress and the profit of their investors.
Their build substance is, mostly, not very old. It was not possible to analyze the
effect from the wars devastations, but numerous documents are attesting the effects from
the Hussite Wars, from the Thirty Years War, from the kuruz revolution, and the Second
World War. The Nazis and, later, the problems with the Russian soldiers are influenced
negatively numerous lives. Because of their isolation, the mills are used as excentric

161
https://www.runser-prantl.at/preise/:.(2016.11.08): Kulturpreis des Landes Obersterreich
Talentfrderungspreis fr Architektur (Christa Prantl) Revitalisierung Lanzendorfer Mhle, etc. And
Mention spciale, Fifal 4me dition du festival international du film d`architecture libre, Bucarest
Revitalisierung Lanzendorfer Mhle.

264
places. Thereby the most part of the mills building are destroyed and rebuild more times.
The most important part of them is closed after 1960, when more than 90% are
abandoned. Not only the modern technology, also has the border character of the
Weinviertel as border between to political regions (Western Europe and Iron Curtain) has
deeply influenced the economical development of the region.
Regarding their technology and machine inheritance, it must be wrote another
article. The topic here focuses the importance of a territorial research and the
connections, defining the watermills as possible witness, as useful instrument to a better
understanding a society, its traditions and evolution.
The large seigniorial properties along the Zaya valley and their ownership of the
water mills are confirmed by archival sources from the period between the 13th and 20th
centuries.162 Since earlier documents referring to the origin of the mills lack, the attempt
to trace their existence is based on the history of the land-owning nobility.
Some developed watermills ensembles are fortified court, enclosing an
internal court with buildings (Reisskopf m12- and Koppitz Mhle m13- from
Olgersdorf; Schnmhle m17- from Asparn). This development can be explained as
historical evolution, as building concept (defensive ensemble), or can be the illustration
of an old pattern.
The ownership of the watermills make possible the connection between the
medieval privileges and their legislative stability as relational development into a
centralized form of the state, preserving also, on the Zaya, simultaneously the territorial
stability of possession and encouraging the regional development. This relation is a
reflection of a very stable legislative system, protecting in the same time the property, the
social system and the local tradition.
These conclusions make possible the hypotheses of vertebrate continuity from
the time of colonization, maybe the post Carolingian era until now. As the ancient
Roman Empire and the Byzantine one, the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation
represent an effort along 1000 years of history for law, stability and territorial defence. In
spite the nuances, the development, the different names or attributes, the institutions of
the central power assumed their ancient heritage in stability, protection and continuity.

Heimhle (m08) from Wenzersdorf (v05)

60. Detail from Original Mappe (cadastral 61. Detail from Reambulierte Mappe
plan, begin of the 19th century)163 (cadastral plan, 2nd half of the 19th century)164
attesting the development of the ensemble

162
Bodenstein, Hhenbhel, Mhlen in Weinviertel, 129: Zwentendorf, Fuchsmhle, 1286; Olgersdorf,
Reiskopfmhle, ca 1300 and Koppitzmhle, ca 1300.
163
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
164
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.

265
 62. Google map165 63. Perspective of the ensemble, today
dwelling and veterinary office (foto: S.
Popovici)

Schnmhle (Beautiful Mill, m17), Asparn an der Zaya

64. Detail from Original Map (cadastral 65. Detail from Reambulierte Mappe
plan)166 (cadastral plan, 2nd half of the 19th century167

66. Perspective of the entrance in the courtyard (foto: A. Tincu)

165
http://atlas.noe.gv.at/webgisatlas/(S(hwwowia2fodyx1aewne1jrns))/init.aspx?karte=atlas_gst
(2016.02.25).
166
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.
167
Copyright BEV 2013 T2013/100080.

266
 67. The mill, from the Zaya (foto A. 68. The mill, from the street (foto S.
Tincu) Mallikarmal)

13. Conclusion. This article focuses on some particularly aspects of the Zaya Rivers
region, relating the watermill from a networking administration and defense system.
Indirect argument is used to verify the hypotheses of their appearance along the Zaya,
after the middle of the 11th century. If they are later investment (at the end of the 13th
century), as the Austrian scholar have accepted, the article brings the new aspect of the
integrative territorial exploitation. If they are earlier, as here is supposed, their dating will
bring new aspects on the regional level.
The issue of their protection along Zaya as system has, in both cases, more
arguments and imposes relational activities between local administrations, regarding the
landscape from the perspective of the regional morphology as instrument of
understanding and as cultural heritage.
The research opens numerous questions, and simultaneously draws the attention
to a practically unknown heritage. In an unexpected way, the centrality, reflected in the
use of the manor and the agricultural exploitation as a form of territorial, jurisdictional,
legal and parish order is here combined with a stable and geographical related system of
administration and with a flexible, negotiation oriented character, reflected in its during
centuries preservation. Protecting their gods, developing their settlements, the landlord
are a attesting their loyalty and their social competence assuming their responsibilities
and probably is not to late to protect them now, as part of the historical heritage of the
country.
This series of watermills in a region of Lower Austria were researched from the
perspective of their medieval socio-economic and political context. The mills are here
interpreted not just as buildings representing private agricultural enterprises, but rather as
a cohesive part of a territorial system which considered the needs of the state entity as
well as its inhabitants and their respective roles within this society.
This perspective provides new instrument for a sustainable and soft development
of Zaya valley, giving the taste of the continuity, authenticity and historical
responsibility.

267
 Watermill (last
Political Political Village Year No miller name + Year
district community mhle (mill)
(14th
Korneu- Ernstbrunn v01 Klement 1150 m01 Schloss- 15th c.)
burg 1661
Mistel-
bach Gnadendorf v02 Rhrabrunn 1367 - - -

v03 Eichenbrunn 1240 m02 Weinwurm- 1661

m03 Weiher- 1661
1120/30
v04 Gnadendorf m04 Bodensteiner- 1661
m05 Rosswasser- 1661
m06 Schuster- 1661
m07 Schulz- 1661
v05 Wenzersdorf 1257/79
m08 Hei- 1414
Asparn v06 Michelstetten 1136 m09 Taxl-
m11 Vogl-
1138/47
- Aigen - Feld-/Vogl- 1286
/Fuchs -
v07 Zwentendorf 1256 m10 Fuchs- 1286
1133/66 ca 1300
v08 Olgersdorf m12 Reisskopf-
m13 Koppitz- ca 1300
Obere
v09 Asparn a.d.Z. 1108 m14 Frnkranz- 1579
m15 Zifferer- 1661
Untere
m16 Frnkranz- 1661
m17 Schn- 1661
Mistelbach v10 Httendorf 1136 m18 Pleil- 1355
m19 Heusinger- 1414
m20 Kautz- 1459
ca 1120
v11 Paasdorf m21 Schiffer- 1349
1141/74
v12 Lanzendorf m22 Kraus- 1509
m23 Strobl-
m24 Grubenhof 1395
ca 1150
v13 Ebendorf m25 Schloss- 1414
ca 1300
m26 Rohr-
ca
v14 Mistelbach 1125/30 m27 Dechant- 1395
v15 Kettlasbrunn 1280 - Zucker-
Wilfersdorf v16 Hobersdorf 1315 m28 Zucker- 1397
v17 Wilfersdorf 1136 m29 Hof- 1661
m30 Grll- 1358
cca
v18 Bullendorf 1170/80 m31 Pieswanger-/ 1661
Hager-
v19 Ebersdorf 1320 - - -
Gnsern-
dorf Hauskirchen v20 Rannersdorf 1210 m32 Wenk- 1661
cca 1120
v21 Prinzendorf m33 Esel-
m34 Kloster-
m36 Lengauer-
1143/64
v23 Hauskirchen m37 Marth- 1414

268
Grokrut v22 Ginzersdorf 1378 m35 Ameis-
1142/67
Neusiedl v24 Neusiedl a.d.Z. m38 Hackl- 1661
m39 Nutz-
m40 Weislein- 1661
Paltendorf-
Dobermann- v25 Palterndorf 1290 m41 Herold- 1397
dorf
m43 Untere 1397
Weinwum-
Dobermanns-dorf
v26 1221 m42 Weinwurm- 1397
Ringelsdorf-
Niederabsdorf v27 Niederabsdorf 1148 m44 Wagner- 1661
cca 1200
v28 Ringelsdorf m45 Krenn- 1414
Drsing v29 Drsing 1187 m46 Weinwurm- 1586

269
 Analysis of ecclesiastical-related place names in Sibiu
region using GIS applications

ANDREI NACU1

Abstract: In addition to the information provided by archaeology and historical research, new data on the
location of ecclesiastical monuments can be obtained by analyzing historical cartographic documents. For
the present investigation, we have focused on the maps of the Austrian First Topographic Survey (carried
out between 17691773 in Transylvania) and the Second Topographic Survey (18531858 and 18691870).
The information obtained from the cartographic materials is processed using computer programs belonging
to the GIS (Geographic Information System) environment. We will present the distribution of identified place
names and will signal the information that may supplement the existing archaeological repertoire.
Keywords: historical geography, toponyms, ecclesiastical monuments, Transylvania, Sibiu County,
Austrian First Topographic Survey, Austrian Second Topographic Survey

Sources2
The First Topographic Survey was a cartographic registration operation carried out in the
Habsburg Empire between 17691786. The project is also known as the Josephine
Survey because of the contribution of Joseph II to its execution while he was co-emperor
and emperor. The initiative for the whole project belonged to field marshal Daun. In
1764, Daun recommended the uniform mapping of the Habsburg crown lands in order to
ease the planning of military campaigns.3 The survey operations covered Austria,
Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Bukovina, Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia,
Slavonia, the Austrian Low Countries (roughly modern Belgium) and all the border
areas. The result was a series of 4685 map sheets with a scale of 1:28 800.4 The map of
the Grand Principality of Transylvania, made between 17691773, included 280 map
sheets, each spanning an area of 18x12 kilometers.5
The Second Topographic Survey was ordered by emperor Francis I in 1806, in
the context of the Napoleonic Wars. The cartographic series was completed more than
half a century later. Besides the more detailed and accurate landscape representation, the
maps of the Second Survey were created using a geodetic base and a cartographic
projection.6 In total, 3333 map sheets were produced, covering Austria, Bohemia,

1
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, Bd. Victoriei 57, 550024
Sibiu, Romnia; email: andreinacu1@yahoo.com.
2
Information largely taken from own MA Dissertation: Andrei Nacu, The patrimony of Habsburg road
infrastructure in south-central Transylvania (16991867), University Lucian Blaga of Sibiu (Sibiu, 2015),
22, 37.
3
Mdlina-Valeria Veres, Putting Transylvania on the Map: Cartography and Enlightened Absolutism in
the Habsburg Monarchy, Austrian History Yearbook 43 (2012): 145146.
4
According to information from the digital catalog of the map collection of the Austrian State
Archives/sterreichisches Staatsarchiv (http://www.archivinformationssystem.at/Detail.aspx?ID=6715)
(accessed on 19.05.2015).
5
Vere, Putting Transylvania on the Map, 145.
6
Gbor Timr, Gbor Molnr, Balzs Szkely, Sndor Biszak, Jzsef Varga, Annamria Jank, Digitized
maps of the Habsburg Empire The map sheets of the second military survey and their georeferenced
version (Budapest: Arcanum, 2006), 4; article published alongside the DVD containing the maps of the

271
Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Bukovina, Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia,
Dalmatia, Lombardy-Venice and other neighboring regions, such as Tuscany and the
Papal States.7 The map scale is 1:28 800, identical to the scale used for the maps of the
First Survey.8 The topographic surveys in Transylvania were carried out in 2 campaigns,
in 18531858 and 18691870.9 As a result, the situation depicted on the maps differs
from one region to another, depending on which surveying campaign was used as a
source. On the map sheets covering the Trnava Mare region, the Teiu-Sighioara
railroad, under construction in 1870, can be observed. On the other hand, in the area of
Sebe, the Simeria-Alba Iulia railroad, finished in 1868, is not depicted.

Methodology10
The maps of the First and Second Topographic Surveys were taken from the DVD
released by the Hungarian Arcanum company.11 From the built-in map visualization
application, GEOView, the map sections encompassing south-central Transylvania were
exported in jp2 spatially-referenced image format. The sections were opened in the GIS
application Global Mapper 1512 and assembled in 2 mosaics, one for each topographic
survey. The mosaics were clipped using a vector mask that defines more precisely the
region of interest and were converted into ECW image file format.
In the case of the Josephine maps, the geo-referencing error of the material made
available by Arcanum was quite substantial, sometimes even as great as a few
kilometers. Because of this situation, an additional geo-rectification was performed in
Global Mapper 15. The 1:25 000 scale topographic map of Romania, printed in 1980
1983, was used as reference. After evaluating useful common points between the old
Austrian map and the modern topographic map, several churches (chiefly Saxon Church-
fortresses), hilltops and less oftenroad and river junctions were selected. After geo-
rectification, the resulting error was generally below 200 meters, with the exception of
several areas north of the Trnava Mare river where the original 18 th century mapping
was very imprecise.
The place names were digitized as points in 2 vector layers, one for each
cartographic source. The names relevant to the present study were transcribed in the data
attribute table. After digitalization, the points of interest were copied to a new vector
layer. The final data processing and analysis was made in a different GIS application,
more suitable for vector operations: Open JUMP GIS.13

Data analysis
A number of 632 place names were identified on the maps of the First Topographic
Survey (17631773) and 1048 on the maps of the Second Survey (18531858 and 1869
1870). The figures do not include common names, such as mill (Muhle), spring (Brun),

Second Survey.
7
According to information from the digital catalog of the map collection of the Austrian State Archives /
sterreichisches Staatsarchiv (http://www.archivinformationssystem.at/Detail.aspx?ID=6715) (accessed on
19.05.2015).
8
Gbor Timr et alii, Digitized maps of the Habsburg Empire, 5.
9
Ibid., 6.
10
Method described in Nacu, The patrimony of Habsburg road infrastructure, 1314.
11
First & second military survey of Transylvania DVD (http://www.arcanum.hu/english/kiadvanyaink/Geo/?
id=EAEAMHKFT) (accessed on 06.06.2015).
12
www.globalmapper.org (accessed on 18.09.2016).
13
www.openjump.org (accessed on 18.09.2016).

272
inn (Wirtshaus) and names of settlements. The real number of place names may include
up to 100 additional points, as the conservation state and the color scheme of the scanned
sheets partially impeded the analysis of some regions (especially in the case of
mountains and forested hills). 106 place names were selected as indicating the possible
presence of an ecclesiastical monument. However, 18 points are common to both the
First and Second Surveys and are either identical or semantically very similar. Without
duplicates, the total number of selected places is 88.
The place names that include terms such as Stein (rock), zidul (wall), turn
(tower), cetate, cetuie, vr, Schloss or Burg (fortress or castle in Romanian,
Hungarian and German) cannot be verified as denoting churches, but may indicate the
presence of fortified structures with a possible ecclesiastical function, apart from the
military one (church-fortresses). A second category of analyzed points is formed by the
place names that belong to the funerary range, for example Mausoleum, mormant
(grave) and gorgan (tumulus). The place name MAUSOLEUM,14 just north of Almor,
marks the tomb of the Hungarian noble Lszl Szkely,15 deceased in 1772. Place names
such as comoara (treasure), Kronen (crowns) or Gold (gold) were also taken into
consideration, as they may indicate possible archaeological treasures, although these will
most likely not be accompanied by ecclesiastical edifices.
A number of 36 place names belonging to a strict ecclesiastical range have been
identified. Three of them denote hermitages or monasteries located in the western part of
the former Fgra district, on the territory of the modern communes of Arpau de Jos,
Crioara and Porumbacu de Jos. Five place names include the term chapel
(Cappelle/Kappelle) and are located within the limits of the communes of Porumbacu
de Jos and Alma, the town of Dumbrveni and at the limit between the communes of
Bljel and Bazna. Five place names contain the word cross (cruce or Kreutz) and
have been identified on the territory of the communes of Biertan, Drlos, the town of
Ocna Sibiului, at the limit between the communes of Boia and Turnu Rou and at the
limit between the commune of Brdeni and Braov county. A different category is made
up by the ten place names related to the worship minister: popa or Pfaffen (priest in
Romanian and German). The ten points are situated within the administrative boundaries
of the communes of Jina, Bljel, ura Mic, Puca, Bazna, Biertan, Hoghilag, the town
of Miercurea Sibiului, at the limit between the commune of Sadu and the town of
Tlmaciu and at the limit between the town of Dumbrveni and the communes of Biertan
and Hoghilag.
Only twelve place names directly refer to the main site of worship, the church:
biserica (in Romanian) and Kirch/Kirche (in German). These are located on the
territory of the communes of Sadu, Loamne, Vurpr, Chirpr, Brghi, Axente Sever,
Micsasa, Bazna, Drlos, the towns of Miercurea Sibiului and Agnita and at the limit
between the municipality of Media and the commune of Brateiu. Ultimately, near the
town of Dumbrveni, the place name GRAL BERG (Grail Hill) has been acknowledged.
Of the 88 place names, only 26 feature certain archaeological findings or
designate different objectives depicted on the analyzed maps usually chapels,
hermitages, monasteries or roadside crucifixes, most of them gone by the early 21st
century. An obstacle in associating a larger number of place names with archaeological
findings is the often vague location of sites given in the archaeological repertoire of
14
Place names found on the First and Second Survey maps will be given in capital letters and italics.
15
Benk Jzsef, Transsilvania specialis. Erdly fldje s npe, translated, introductory study, annotated and
published by Szab Gyrgy, vol. I (Bukarest, Cluj-Napoca: Kriterion Knyvkiad, [1999]), 224.

273
Sibiu county16 or in different research reports.17 In many cases, the place names do not
correspond to those found on modern topographic maps and the landmarks and
directions towards nearby settlements are given incorrectly.

Results
The most interesting place names still unassociated with archaeological discoveries are
concentrated mainly in the northern part of the county, in the valleys of the rivers
Trnava Mare and Hrtibaciu.
SCHLOFSBERG (Castle Hill), west of Moti, commune of Valea Viilor, may
correspond to the so-called Cetatea Popilor (Fortress of Priests), referred around this
approximate area by the archaeological repertoire of Sibiu county18. The forest south of
this point bears the name of Pdurea Bisericilor (Forest of the Churches) on 20th century
topographic maps.19 South of Agnita, KRONEN BERG (Crowns Hill) is the name of a
hill located close to a place where a mediaeval sword, dated to the 13 th or 14th century,
was found (near Kroten Podel lake).20 North of Cove and Agnita, four place names
signaling the possible presence of fortified structures can be found on an area of just 11
square kilometers: BURGGRUND (Fortress Ground), BURGBERG (Fortress Hill),
NEUE BURG (New Fortress) and LICHTENSTEIN (Lightning Rock). Additionally,
Pdurea Cetii (Forest of the Fortress)21 and a stream called Valea Ceteaua (Valley of
the Fortress)22 are to be found in the northern part of this area on 20th century maps.
Quite intriguing is the lack of discovered defensive structures in places such as
BURGBERG (Fortress Hill), near the village of Trnava, AUF DER BURG (On the
Fortress) near Valea Viilor or AUF DER BURG south of elimbr.
Amongst place names that include the term chapel, KAPPELLENBURG, east of
Bazna, is the only one not featuring a cult edifice on the analyzed maps. The existence of
an ecclesiastical objective in this place before the second half of the 18 th century can be
speculated. The most interesting place name from the cross-related category is probably
LA CRUCE (At Cross) hilltop, near the village of Valea Lung, commune of Drlos. On
the Second Survey maps, at the eastern end of the hill, a stream called VALEA BISERICII
(Valley of the Church) is illustrated.
An unusual area is the one adjacent to PFAFFENBERG (Hill of Priests) near the
village of Prod, commune of Hoghilag. Here we can also find PFAFFENTHAL (Valley
of Priests) and, on early 20th century topographic maps, Pdurea Clugrilor (Forest of
Hermits).23
The hills and forests that feature the term church designate in many cases,
especially when a church is situated on the village outskirts, the geographical proximity
of the respective hill or forest to the place of worship. Two such cases are evident for the

16
Sabin Adrian Luca, Zeno Karl Pinter, Adrian Georgescu, Repertoriul arheologic al judeului Sibiu (Sibiu:
Economic, 2003).
17
Several reports related to Sibiu county archaeological sites were consulted on http://ran.cimec.ro/sel.asp
(National archaeological repertoire) (accessed on 10.08.2016).
18
Luca, Pinter, Georgescu, Repertoriul arheologic, 239
19
Place name illustrated on the 1:25 000 scale inter-war army shooting plans (Planurile directoare de
tragere).
20
Ibid., 31
21
Place name illustrated on the 1:25 000 scale topographic map of Romania, 19801983 edition.
22
Place name illustrated on the 1:25 000 scale inter-war army shooting plans (Planurile directoare de
tragere)
23
Ibid.

274
place names illustrated near the villages of Mndra, commune of Loamne, and
Agrbiciu, commune of Axente Sever. The place name WEISSKORCHNER BERG
(White Church Hill) must be related to the lost mediaeval settlement of Alba Ecclesia.24
The location of the place name south of Bile Miercurea Sibiului and the modern
national road (DN1) as well as the depiction of the former village in the same area on a
mid18th century map of Transylvania made by Stefan Lutsch von Luchsenstein25
supports this assumption.
Amongst the other analyzed sites, KIRCH BERG (Church Hill) stands out. This
point is situated near the village of Pelior, 3 kilometers north of a hill named
MORMANT (Grave). Two more hills are depicted a few kilometers to the south: LA
MORMUNT (At Grave) and MARMUNTUL MARE (Large Grave). The latter, which has
preserved its name to the present-day, is located close to Pdurea Bisericii (Forest of the
Church)26 and Pdurea Mormntul Mare (Forest of the Large Grave).27 In the case of
other place names from a similar range, for example the points La Trei Morminte (At
Three Graves) or La Morminte (At Graves), both of them south of Caol, Roia
commune, important archaeological discoveries were made.28 South of KIRCHEN WALD
(Forest of the Church), near Sadu, the ruins of a 13th to 15th century mediaeval fortress
were identified.29 The forest is located quite far from the village and its name cannot be
explained by an eventual proximity to a church from Sadu. KIRCHEN WALD (Forest of
the Church) near Vurpr, KIRCHENBERGER STRUCHE (Church Hill Shrubs) near
Chirpr, KIRCHEN WALD (Forest of the Church) near the village of apu, commune of
Micsasa or KIRCHENBERG (Hill of Churches) on the limit of the municipality of
Media are also relatively far from any settlements and may indicate the former presence
of ecclesiastical monuments. However, the possible ownership by a local parish of all
these places thus explaining the etymology must be taken into consideration.

Conclusion
The research of ecclesiastical-related place names using GIS applications can be
enhanced by the analysis of more recent cartographic documents, for example the inter-
war army shooting plans (Planurile directoare de tragere) or the Soviet topographic maps
from the 1970s. Additionally, besides place names, new results will be obtained if the
much more numerous river names are also taken into consideration. Furthermore, the
inclusion of accurate (GPS-determined) locations for archaeological sites will constitute
a very useful addition to the next archaeological repertoire of Sibiu county.

24
Located near the town of Miercurea Sibiului. See Maria Crngaci iplic, Oaspeii germani n sudul
Transilvaniei. Istorie, arheologie i arhitectur (secolele XIIXIII), (Bucureti: Academia Romn, 2011),
340.
25
S.(tefan) L.(utsch von) Luchsenstein, Magni principatus Transylvaniae tabula ex archetypo 1751
concinnata recentioribus aucta observationibus denuo delineata per S. L. Luchsenstein 1762.
26
Place name featured on the 1:25 000 scale topographic map of Romania, 19801983 edition.
27
Ibid.
28
Luca, Pinter, Georgescu, Repertoriul arheologic, 75.
29
Ibid., 185 and Ioan Marian iplic, Die Grenzverteidigung Siebenbrgens im Mittelalter (10.14.
Jahrhundert) (Heidelberg, 2007), 302.

275
276
Fig.1: Place names that may indicate the presence of an ecclesiastical monument categories highlighted.
277
Fig. 2: Place names that may indicate the presence of an ecclesiastical monument categories are highlighted.
The place names with archeological findings or other objectives have been removed.
 Fig. 3: Place name La Cruce Valea Lung
(background map: Second Austrian Military Survey)

4. Place name Dialu Beseritze Mndra

(background map: First Austrian Military Survey)

278
5. Place name Pfaffenberg Prod (background map: Second Austrian Military Survey)

6. Place names Kirch Berg Pelior, La Mormunt Vrd/Brghi, Mormant

Ighiu Vechi, Marmuntul Mare Ghijasa de Sus/alcu
(background map: Second Austrian Military Survey)

279
 The Relation of the Romanian Archaeologist / Historian with the Social Media.
Case Study: Medieval Churches Fortified Churches in Transylvania

MARIA CRNGACI IPLIC1

IOAN-COSMIN IGNAT2

Abstract: One of the aims of this article is to signal out the manner in which history, archaeology
and the heritage of the medieval monuments from Transylvania, with a special emphasis on the
Transylvanian fortified churches, are perceived in the media, as well as the necessity of the
specialist, namely the archaeologist, coming in direct contact with the public in the media.
The acts of photographing, recording, publishing some studies accessible online or of moving
some artefacts of a church in a museum in order to save them are laudable solutions, but they are,
however, incomplete since we have not sensed any echo or reaction in the manner of perceiving /
approaching the protection or research of the cultural and archaeological heritage of these
churches. There is, however, a deficiency in the feedback obtained from the public or in
identifying a communication network for specialists or between specialists and non-specialists
online. The number of blogs dedicated to archaeology or cultural heritage in Romania is a very
small one. A platform of blogs created by a community of Romanian archaeologists or historians,
which could build a communication bridge between specialists and the public, is at this point a
feasible project, depending only on the involvement of those specialists.
Keywords: Transylvania, fortified churches, archaeology, architecture, specialized websites

In the past, up until a decade ago, in many of the Saxon fortified churches in southern
Transylvania there could still be found in situ the archive of the parish, valuable
medieval liturgical objects, altars or other objects and equipment specific to a church
inventory. Due to the massive emigration of the Germans, especially after 1990, and of
the danger of these valuable pieces rapidly degrading and disappearing from the churches
or parish houses, the Lutheran Church C.A. in Romania, opened the Friedrich
Teutsch Dialogue and Culture Centre in Sibiu in 2003 (Begegnungs- und Kulturzentrum
Friedrich Teutsch der Evangelischen Kirche A. B. in Rumnien). Its aim is to collect,
centralize and preserve the archives and movable heritage goods of the Transylvanian
parishes that were either abandoned by the German communities or did not meet the
appropriate preservation and protection conditions.3 It is an enormous amount of work,
the number of employees being too small compared to the heritage and its value. For this
reason, the institution is willing to collaborate with other entities. We must emphasize
the fact that fortified churches, together with their goods, are the most valuable cultural
heritage of the Lutheran Church of Romania, an immense touristic potential and an
import research resource.

This work was supported by CNCSIS UEFISCDI research project number PN-II-IDE-PCE-2011-03-0744:
South Transylvanian Medieval Monuments: Past, Present, Future. Between Archaeology, History and 3D
Modeling.
1
Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities in Sibiu, Bd. Victoriei Boulevard 40, 550024 Sibiu, Romania,
mariatiplic@icsusib.ro, www.arhin.ro, www.icsusib.ro.
2
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, Bd. Victoriei 57, 550024
Sibiu, Romnia; email: cosmingnt@gmail.com www.arhin.ro.
3
http://www.teutsch.ro [13.09.2016].

281
 Tourism in Romania developed after 1989, with some major destinations: the
Danube Delta, the Prahova Valley, the monasteries of Bucovina and the wooden
churches of Maramure (not necessarily in this order). For the last decade, Transylvania
has been benefiting from an increasingly intense promotion as well, an important
landmark being, especially among foreign tourists, the fortified churches of the Saxon
communities and the medieval castles. Making them more popular was possible4 mostly
by means of the internet, an important source of documentation nowadays, used on a
large scale by youngsters and not only.
Perhaps to this upsurge in the phenomenon of promoting the churches
personalities such as His Royal Highness Prince Charles Philip Arthur George
Mountbatten-Windsor, Prince of Wales and heir to the British throne5 contributed, to
name only the most visible person, with high merits in promoting the culture and
traditions of Transylvania. To be precise, the internet had the greatest contribution to the
publicity the Saxon Transylvanian churches received. We have to ask ourselves however,
how much of the information on the internet actually reflect the field realities and
necessities, the historical value or the results of a recent scientifically research.
One of the aims of this article is to signal out the manner in which history,
archaeology and the heritage of the medieval monuments in Transylvania, with a special
emphasis on the Transylvanian fortified churches, are perceived in the social media, as
well as the necessity of the specialist, namely the archaeologist, coming in direct contact
with the public in the media.6 Furthermore, due to the new challenges raised by the

4
A great number of the Saxon fortified churches benefited, due to the input of the researches from Sibiu,
from promotion albums in various languages (see Ioan Marian iplic, Biserici fortificate ale sailor din
Transilvania / Fortifie Churches of Transylvanian Saxons / Kirchenburgen der Siebenbrger Sachsen / Les
eglises fortifiees par les Saxons en Transylvanie (Bucureti: Editura Noi Media Print, 2006), from touristic
maps (see Panorama: Sd-Siebenbrgen. Land der Kirchenburgen = Southern-Transylvania. Land of the
fortified churches, text written by the Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities Sibiu, Paul Helmut
Niedermaier, Maria Crngaci iplic, S. C. Schubert & Franzke S. R. L., Cluj-Napoca, 2012), from brochures,
spots etc. For a historical promotion of these monuments in Sibiu county, the researchers of the Institute of
Socio-Human Research in Sibiu (Paul Niedermaier, Maria Crngaci iplic, Gudrun-Liane Ittu, Anda-Lucia
Spnu) contributed to the realisation of some projects initiated and financed at auction by the County
Council of Sibiu, such as the 2010 contract named Services for writing and translating explanatory texts for
the historical monument of the Sibiu county. The texts documented and drafted by the researchers of the
Institute, were destined for 45 historical monuments, each having an informative board for visitors; the
boards were meant to help the monument become known and understood, to emphasize its attractiveness and
determine the tourist to visit it.
5
Known in Romania as Prinul Charles (Prince Charles). He helped Viscri, a village in Braov county, gain
an important position on the worlds touristic map. In this respect, see: http://www.rfi.ro/galerie-foto/viscri-
adevarata-fata-satului-ce-l-fermecat-printul-charles [13.09.2016], http://www.mediafax.ro/social/printul-
charles-a-inaugurat-centrul-mestesugaresc-de-la-viscri-15411738 [13.09.2016],
http://www.gandul.info/reportaj/drumul-printului-charles-de-la-buckingham-la-viscri-cum-a-ajuns-un-mic-
sat-din-romania-sa-conteze-pe-harta-europei-14695351 [13.09.2016] etc.
6
For the last three years, Tudor Slgean, director of the Transylvanian Museum of Ethnography in Cluj, has
been the most active Romanian medievalist in the media, succeeding in gathering around him a passionate
public, consumer of Transylvanian history, culture and ethnology, in educating and offering it a large variety
of information and interaction means: by using the website of the institution, having an interactive interface
(http://www.muzeul-etnografic.ro[13.09.2016]), by means of a blog on a famous online blogging platform in
Romania (http://adevarul.ro/blogs/index.htm [13.09.2016]), (blog Tudor Slgean istoric.
http://adevarul.ro/blogs/tudor.salagean), through Facebook (https://www.facebook.com/tudor.salagean.77
[13.09.2016]) or interviews and reports at the Romanian Television (see the report Secretele Transilvaniei
medievale, ntr-un nou reportaj la TVR 2 [The Secrets of the Medieval Transylvania, in a new TVR 2
Report]: http://www.tvr.ro/secretele-transilvaniei-medievale-intr-un-nou-reportaj-la-tvr-
2_15427.html#view; http://www.tvrplus.ro//editie-locuri-oameni-si-comori-414025) [13.09.2016] etc.).

282
protection of the cultural heritage (including the rehabilitation of the fortified churches
without archaeological supervision) and to passively assisting to the archaeological
heritage being destroyed for lack of funds, because of workers, treasure hunters, the
demands in the antiquities market etc., we wish to make the Romanian archaeologists
and historians more aware of how necessary it is to adapt the approach and
communication methods of the research to the new demands and instigations.7 They
should leave their ivory tower, avoid sealing their research results and disseminating the
information to a small group of specialists only and create a bridge between the specialist
and the non-specialist in a manner that is as accessible and as attractive as possible. This
observation comes from two directions:
- from observing the activity of Rainer Schreg, a renowned archaeologist and
researcher at the Rmisch-Germanisches Zentral Museum in Mainz and his personal
experience in running a blog, Archaeologik, after reaching the conclusion that the
interaction between archaeology and the public is of real necessity: In principle,
there is a lot of public interest in archaeology, but often this is not a scientific one.
However, the perception of archaeologists is rather bad, as their public relation does
not communicate basic scientific principles and theories, but rather finds and fancy
field methods. Archaeology has to reflect more closely on what messages and
narratives it has to communicate to the public. It needs to make clear how modern
society can benefit from researching the past. Social media and open access
publications play a crucial role.8
- from the long experience in field research and monitoring some medieval
churches around Sibiu, heritage of The the Lutheran Church C.A. in Romania,9 during
which we passively witnessed either their decline together with their heritages (in the
case of the Romanesque churches in Roia,10 Nou,11 Chirpr), or to their revival after
some minimal restoration intervention (in the case of the lutheran Church of St Mary
in Cisndioara12). Our initial role when facing the medieval monument was to record
the impact the dissipation of the German community had on the monument and its
heritage throughout a decade. Our findings were not at all gratifying: we first
witnessed a degradation of the inside movable heritage, of the artefacts furnishing the
inside of the church, then their disappearance (the altar, lecterns, fonts, wooden
painted chests, chandeliers, flags etc.: see the case of the church from Nou), followed
by a degradation of both the monument and the interior furnishing concept of the

7
See the research study of Marius Ciut, Detectorismul, ntre amatorism i nevoia de mbogire. O
ncercare de schi a profilului detectoristului n Romnia (19932016) [Detectorism, between
Amateurishness and the Need to Get Rich. An attempt at sketching the profile of the Romanian Detectorist
(19932016)], Anuarul Institutului de Cercetri Socio-Umane Sibiu 23 (2016).
8
Rainer Schreg, Archaeologik Erfahrungen mit einem Wissenschaftsblog. Archologische Informationen
2016, Early View, online publiziert 4. Mrz 2016 (work cited from https://rgzm.academia.edu/RainerSchreg)
[12.09.2016].
9
The Lutheran Church C.A. in Romania has hundreds of historical monuments, among which 180 fortified
churches, in different stages of deterioration.
10
The illegal repairing interventions of the Romanesque church in Roia was the case of a criminal case file
in 2015.
11
Ioan-Cosmin Ignat, Biserica fortificat din Nou / Neudorf (jud. Sibiu). Declinul unui monument [The
Fortified Church in Nou / Neudorf (Sibiu County). The Decay of a Monument, Revista Transilvania 4
(2014): 4253.
12
Maria Crngaci iplic, Patrimoniul bisericii evanghelice Sf. Maria din Cisndioara. Jurnalul unui
monument [The Heritage of protestant church St Mary from Cisndioara. Diary of a Monument], in
Revista Transilvania 4 (2014): 6482.

283
 space as a consequence of an illegal rehabilitation intervention (see the case of the
medieval churches in the county of Sibiu: Iacobeni, Roia, Vurpr, Cristian, Bradu
etc.). The only measure we could take at that moment was to record and take pictures
of both the monument and its heritage in great detail and to publish some scientific
studies in revues and on the www.arhin.ro website.13 After the sad experience we had
to witness in the case of the medieval monuments of Nou and Roia (Sibiu county), of
the Lutheran church from Chirpr, with its heritage fast degrading14although our
initial aim was to write a journal of the monuments and their heritagewe started,
through the ASTRA National Museum Complex, the process of transferring part of
the heritage objects of the Lutheran church in Chirpr to the museum (vestments,
clothes worn by men and women on different feast days, cabinets, painted chests,
poor box etc.).
The acts of photographing, recording, publishing some studies accesible online
or of moving the artefacts of one of the churches in a museum in order to save them are
laudable solutions, but they are, however, incomplete since we have not sensed any echo
or reaction in the manner of perceiving / approaching the protection or research of the
cultural and archaeological heritage of these churches.15 In order for the process to be as
diffused as possible, a communication link must be created with the public. In this sense,
as part of the project entitled South Transylvanian Medieval Monuments: Past, Present,
Future. Between Archaeology, History and 3D Modelling, we wanted to create a
website, http://www.arhin.ro,16 for the ecclesiastical medieval monuments and their
heritage in southern Transylvania. One of the scopes of this website was to create an
interface that, based on the research initiated, could rely on a database with free access
and accessible content for the general public. As a first stage, 100 monuments were
introduced, each having a short description, main bibliographic references, pictures, the
address, the listing code, references to the most useful and interesting websites,17 offering
good quality photographs and historical landmarks in the evolution of the monument
throughout time. We consider, however, that the impact on the public, a hard one to
monitor, is not sufficiently resonant, for which reason another solution should be
identified in the interaction between a specialist and a non-specialist, regarding the
present-day problems of the monuments or the types of information wanted by the
public, be they specialists or not. In order to obtain as powerful a feedback as possible, a
solution could be creating a blog on Romanian medieval churches and their cultural and
archaeological heritage.18 This is made more necessary by the fact that at present there

13
http://www.arhin.ro/index.php/publications [13.09.2016].
14
Mr. Reinhard Boltres, a priest in Agnita, has in his care the members of the communities and the fortified
churches from seven localities (Agnita, Apo, Brghi, Chirpr, Ruja, Vrd, Veseud). In the case of the
church from Chirpr, the issue of the maintenance of the monument and its heritage is a serious one, the state
of the monument being critical.
15
In a recent study, we outlined the main coordinates used in researching the movable and immovable
heritage of a Transylvanian medieval church [see Maria Crngaci iplic, Ioan-Marian iplic, Ioan-Cosmin
Ignat, Memorie i patrimoniu. Inventarul bisericii evanghelice din Cisndie (judeul Sibiu) [Memory and
Haritage. The Inventory of the Lutheran Church in Cisndie (Sibiu County)], in Avere, prestigiu i cultur
material n surse patrimoniale. Inventare de averi din secolele XVIXIX, editor Dan Dumitru Iacob (Iai:
editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2015), p. 605606].
16
The website was created by a team of specialists in the domains of archaeology, history and informatics
from the Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu: Ioan-Marian iplic, Maria-Emilia iplic, Silviu Istrate Purece,
Radu Creulescu, Ioan-Cosmin Ignat, Mihai Bdil, Sebastian erban, Daniela Stanciu and Ovidiu Chicea.
17
Although the project ends in October 2016, the database of the website will continue to be updated.
18
For the new tendencies in the communication between specialists and non-specialists on blogs and their

284
are few archaeology or / and heritage blogs,19 and they are created either only for a group
of specialists (this being the most interactive case), for English speaking specialists,20 or
as lampoon blogs.21 We must mention the fact that only two blogs,22 committed to
promoting history, monuments and museums are inscribed on a platform of the
Romanian community of bloggers,23 of each only one has a continuous activity. The
necessity of creating such a blog or more blogs by elite specialists, with a vast
experience, having a constructive psychological profile and coming from a profile
institution, is acute for making the research results more visible among colleagues and
for protecting and promoting the cultural and archaeological heritage, there being a lack
of a scientifically debates field, of a bloggers platform for debating current issues
regarding legislation andbeing in compliance with it. We sensed this need starting from
2011, when a lack of reaction of the expert archaeologists and historians to the projects
initiated for the restauration of the medieval monuments in Transylvania was perceived.
Starting from 2011, a European funds programme was launched24 for the
restauration of 18 fortified Saxon churches, its beneficiary being the Superior Consistory
of the Lutheran Church in Romania. The rehabilitation of the 18 fortified churches did
not pass unnoticed in the international and national media.25 The lack of specialist
reaction, that of the archaeologist and of the arts historian, was lamentable, as many of

usefulness, see Dougs Archaeology (5.11.2013): Blogging Archaeology

http://dougsarchaeology.wordpress.com/2013/11/05/blogging-archaeology/ [13.09.2016]; see also Rainer
Schreg, Where are we going with blogging? / Wissenschaftsblogs wohin? [4.04.2012]. Blog Archaeologik:
http://archaeologik.blogspot.ro/2014/04/where-are-we-going-with-blogging.html [13.09.2016]; Rainer
Schreg, Why blogging Archaeology? A blogging carnival - Warum Archologie Blogs? Eine Blog-Parade
[25.11.2013]. Blog Archaeologik: http://archaeologik.blogspot.ro/2013/11/why-blogging-archaeology-
blogging.html [13.09.2016].
19
Blog: Vizitai cetatea Noviodunum [Visit the Citadel of Noviodunum] [no name]:
http://blog.noviodunum.ro/ [09.09.2016].
20
Blog: Apulum Archaeologys Blog a site about roman archaeology in Alba Iulia (Romania) [no name]:
https://apulumarchaeology.wordpress.com/ [9.09.2016].
21
Blog: MNIR-SAMIZDAT. Fratele foarte vitreg si prea libertin al site-ului Muzeului National de Istorie a
Romniei [The very step and too libertine brother of the Romanian National History Museums site] (Eugen
S. Teodor): http://mnir-samizdat.blogspot.ro/ [12.09.2016].
22
These are the Vizitai cetatea Noviodunum blog: http://blog.noviodunum.ro/. and the Art Historia blog
(Radu Olteanu): http://art-historia.blogspot.ro/ [13.09.2016]; the latter is the most active and interactive one,
its author being well anchored both in effective communicating with the audience and in the latest research
in the history of arts, history and archaeology domains.
23
www.toateblogurile.ro [13.09.2016].
24
The monuments rehabilitated in the project Rediscovered Fortified Treasures Sustainable Development
of the Central Region through valorising the touristic potential of the network of fortified Saxon churches in
Transylvania are: Grbova (Alba county), Sebe (Alba county), Buneti (Braov county), Cincor (Braov
county), Cri (Braov county), Meendorf (Braov county), Apold (Mure county), Archita (Mure county),
Cloaterf (Mure county), Ael (Sibiu county), Cra (Sibiu county), Curciu (Sibiu county), Dealul Frumos
(Sibiu county), Ighiu Nou (Sibiu county), Mlncrav (Sibiu county), Netu (Sibiu county), Stejri (Sibiu
county), Valchid (Sibiu county)(http://www.adrcentru.ro/Document_Files/comevenimente/00000960/s79ny_
Lista%20obiectivelor%20reabilitate%20in%20cadrul%20proiectului%20Consistoriului%20Evanghelic%20S
B.pdf [13.09.2016]).
25
Regarding the problems arising following the manner in which the work was undertaken, see the
investigation made by Luke Dale-Harris for Deutsche Welle: Luke Dale-Harris, EU funds spent on brutal
revamp of Romanias Saxon churches, in http://www.dw.com/en/eu-funds-spent-on-brutal-revamp-of-
romanias-saxon-churches/a-18668690 [13.09.2016], see also Iulia Rou, Anchet: Cum distrug banii
europeni bisericile fortificate din Transilvania Inquiry[How European Funds destroy the Fortified
Churches in Transylvania], in http://adevarul.ro/news/eveniment/anchetA-distrug-banii-europeni-bisericile-
fortificate-transilvania-1_5587d7d8cfbe376e3589c2d0/index.html [13.09.2016].

285
the restoration interventions were done without minimal safeguarding archaeological
research, as provided by the law,26 or without a preliminary documentation on the
original interior furnishing concept of the space, which, likewise to the archaeological
research, could have brought useful and attractive information for the tourist, both
concerning the movable and imovable heritage of the church and the human perception
of memory and responsibility of preserving churches and their values throughout time.27
That passiveness of the specialist allows for the repetition of illegal acts and for the
unfortunate management of the restoration works that, although claiming to integrate the
monuments in a touristic circuit, besides giving them a pleasant to look at image, leave
us wondering about the information, be it historical, archaeological or of perception, that
is offered to the tourist and to the avid public, apart from the historical dates that
repeatedly come across the internet.
In 2015, a new project using European funds started for the rehabilitation of
another group of fortified churches (this time, most of them from Braov county: Cincu,
Codlea, Cristian, Prejmer, Hrman, Homorod, Roade, Rotbav, Rupea, Snpetru, Selitat
i Vulcan). Once again, the restoration and consolidation interventions were done
without the assistance of an expert archaeologist (we made this discovery during a recent
documenting visit at the church from Cincu, where geological prospecting was done
without archaeological supervision). It seems that we can already speak of a clich, a
dramatic phenomenon actually,28 since we no longer speak of one or two monuments, but
of tens of fortified churches: if the decision-makers will not act according to the law and
will not take coercive measures, we will witness the destruction of the past and memory
of the fortified churches, the disappearance of the archaeological heritage and of the
stratigraphy of the archaeological sites. The archaeologist, the historian and the art
historians all have the duty to react using the media, especially social media, in order to
create a current, a vicinage together with which to initiate measures, and a public
reacting to such interventions done in an illegal manner.29
Compared to other European countries, where the presence of the specialists
online is a very active one,30 in the case of Romania there seems to be a lack of interest
of the specialists in web blogs that could coagulate a public around them and form an
opinion reaction, generating a better valorization of the monuments in order to increase
their touristic attractiveness. This deficiency of web blogs partially explains the lack of
reaction of the archaeologists and historians and of the responsible institutions, the
shortcomings of the communication with the public in general31 and, implicitly, the

26
For the normative documents regarding cultural heritage, see http://www.cimec.ro/Legislatie/Legislatie-
culturala.html [13.09.2016].
27
Crngaci iplic, iplic, Ignat, Memorie i patrimoniu, 605606.
28
We mention here the lack of reaction of the Romanian archaeological world regarding the detectors and
the phenomenon they generated, as well as the role of mass-media in the generalization of the detectorism
phenomenon, which led to a concerning increase in the damages produced to the archaeological sites (see the
remarkable study of our colleague, Marius Ciut, Detectorismul, ntre amatorism i nevoia de mbogire.
29
Following these interventions, only the local press reacted in the online media, the articles being written
by journalists, see Ana Maria Neacu, Bisericile fortificate din judeul Sibiu sunt n pericol. Lipsa
investiiilor le va distruge [The Fortified Churches in Sibiu are in Danger. The Lack of Investments will
destroy Them], in Ora de Sibiu, 29th of February 2016: http://www.oradesibiu.ro/2016/02/29/bisericile-
fortificate-din-judetul-sibiu-sunt-in-pericol-lipsa-investitiilor-le-va-distruge/ [13.09.2016].
30
See Rainer Schreg, Archologische blogs eine Liste (3.04.2014). Blog Archaeologik:
http://archaeologik.blogspot.ro/2014/04/archaologische-blogs-eine-liste.html [12.09.2016].
31
See the lack of reaction after the article published by Ciprian Pliau, Apocalipsa bisericilor fortificate
sseti este de neoprit [The Apocalypse of the Saxon Fortified Churches in Unstoppable] (07.02.2012), at

286
scarcity of dialogues in scientific debates.
Nevertheless, the absence of web blogs has been partially compensated in recent
years by numerous websites promoting the fortified churches in Transylvania and a
series of initiatives coming from non-governmental organizations or from simple people
passionate about knowing the Saxon ecclesiastical monuments. It is reassuring to know
that the number of websites treating this subject is increasing, but few are managed by
specialists in the field. Unfortunately, most of them take the information from online
sources, without verifying or citing them or without being interested in offering the latest
results in the field. Thus, an inventory of the most popular websites presenting the
fortified churches of Transylvania is for now quite attainable, since we deal with few
informational online sources that respect the rules characterizing a scientific endeavor.
The most popular search engine in Romania and worldwide is, without a doubt,
google.com, with its specific domains for every country.32 Considering this aspect, the
dates being updated in September 2015, we find it opportune to focus our attention only
on this searching engine. Oher two engines used to a smaller extent are bing.com and
search.yahoo.com. We will not consider Asian engines, such as baidu.com (the second
important after Google, only in the Asian part of the world) or yandex.com (a popular
engine in Russia) either.
A simple Google search (searching for: biserici fortificate fortified churches)
provides recommendations in this order:

Position November 2013 August 2016

1 Biserici fortificate Transilvania Biserici fortificate
2 Biserici fortificate Sibiu Biserici fortificate Sibiu
3 Biserici fortificate Braov Biserici fortificate Sighioara
4 Biserici fortificate UNESCO Biserici fortificate Romnia
5 Biserici fortificate harta Biserici fortificate Fgra
6 Biserici fortificate judeul Sibiu Biserici fortificate Braov
7 Biserici fortificate ara Brsei Biserici fortificate judeul Alba
8 Biserici fortificate judeul Braov Biserici fortificate judeul Sibiu
9 Biserici fortificate din Romnia Biserici fortificate Bistria

These recommendations made by Google in the above order indicate the interest
of those looking for fortified churches in 2013, using the most often employed key
words: Transylvania, Sibiu, Braov, UNESCO, ara Brsei, the map of the churches. If
we compare the 2013 results with the 2016 ones, our conclusion is not surprising: for the
last three years, those interested in fortified churches have refined their tastes and,
therefore, we are witnessing an increasing interest of the public. They know exactly the
areas where fortified churches can be found, a fact indicated by the disappearance of the
word Transylvania from the recommendations. The word Sibiu was the second
recommendation both in 2013 and in 2016, a sign that the majority of searches were
focused on this area, known as the richest one in Saxon monuments in Romania.

Popular websites (searching for: biserici fortificate fortified churches):

www.historia.ro/ (http://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/general/articol/apocalipsa-bisericilor-fortificate-
sasesti-este-neoprit) [13.09.2016].
32
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_search_engine#Market_share [24.08.2016].

287
 Posi
November 2013
tion
http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserici_for
1
tificate_din_Transilvania
2 http://www.biserici-fortificate.com/
http://www.sibiu-turism.ro/Ce-vizitam-
3 Cultura-si-patrimoniu-Patrimoniu-
religios-Biserici-fortificate.aspx
4 http://www.turism.sibiu.ro/ro/cetati.htm
http://amfostacolo.ro/hotel.php?d=biseri
5 ci-si-cetati-fortificate-din-jud-sibiu--
sibiu&id=9644
6 http://biserici-fortificate.org/ro/
http://bisericifortificatesasesti.blogspot.r
7 http://biserici-fortificate.org/
o/
8 http://www.medievale.ro/
http://www.brasov.ro/istorie-
9 cetatile-si-bisericile-fortificate-din-
cultura/biserici-fortificate
http://www.turculturalbrasov.ro/atractii/
10
zona-rupea/biserici-fortificate/
August 2016
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserici_fortific
ate_din_Transilvania
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_localit%C
4%83%C8%9Bilor_cu_biserici_fortificate_di
n_Transilvania
http://www.sibiu-turism.ro/Ce-vizitam-
Cultura-si-patrimoniu-Patrimoniu-religios-
Biserici-fortificate.aspx
http://www.biserici-fortificate.com/
http://bisericifortificatesasesti.blogspot.ro/
http://patrimoniu.gov.ro/ro/monumente-
istorice/lista-patrimoniului-mondial-
unesco/17-monumente-istorice/unesco/91-
sate-cu-biserici-fortificate-din-transilvania
http://www.medievale.ro/
http://bialog.ro/2013/07/cum-sa-vedem-
transilvania/
http://www.traseeromania.ro/bisericile-
fortificate-din-zona-brasov/

Regarding the popular websites offering pertinent information on Saxon

monuments, the ranking ones are no surprise. Here, wikipedia.org is the most accessible
documenting instrument, being, as it is known, an encyclopedia aiming at being as
credible, complete and objective as possible. Then, there are the websites of the Sibiu
County Tourism Association33 and of the National Heritage Institute, institution that,
according to the state, manages the funds for research, expert examinations and works
of consolidation-restoration and valorising the historical monuments, thorough the
National Programme for the Restoration of Historical Monuments, financed by the
public budget, realizes and puts to use public national databases of the archaeological
heritage, the movable cultural heritage, the intangible cultural heritage and associated
informational resources, maintains and develops the website of the Romanian cultural
heritage, E-patrimoniu.ro, and the national portal Culturalia.ro.34 Among the first search
results on google.com, there are some blogs started and run by private persons, interested
only in promoting the Saxon fortified churches,35 which proves once more the desire of
the public to have access to some blogs with specified destinations.
An important part of the public interested in Transylvanian fortified churches use
English and German keywords to find out information on them. In this case, the situation
is the following:

33
http://www.sibiu-turism.ro/ [13.09.2016].
34
http://patrimoniu.gov.ro/ro/inp/atributii [13.09.2016].
35
http://bisericifortificatesasesti.blogspot.ro/ [13.09.2016], blog administered by Ioan-Cosmin Ignat.

288
 Posi
Search: fortified churches Transylvania Search: Siebenbrgens Kirchenburgen
tion
http://www.turistintransilvania.com/de/servi
1 http://www.fortified-churches.com/ cii/streifzug-durch-siebenburgens-
kirchenburgen/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villages_wi http://www.kirchenburgen.eu/?n=home&la
2
th_fortified_churches_in_Transylvania ng=de
http://www.adz.ro/artikel/artikel/entdecke-
3 http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/596
die-seele-siebenbuergens/
http://www.rumaenien-
http://www.cimec.ro/monumente/unesco
4 info.at/de/sehenswuerdigkeiten/kirchenburg
/UNESCOen/indexTrans.htm
envonsiebenbuergen
http://www.romaniatourism.com/castles- http://www.siebenbuerger.de/shop/fabini.ht
5
fortresses.html ml
http://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchenburgen
Review-g317135-d321326-Reviews-
6 _in_Siebenb%C3%BCrgen_%28Welterbe
Villages_with_Fortified_Churches-
%29
Transylvania.html
http://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_
http://suite101.de/article/siebenbrgens-
Review-g317135-d321326-Reviews-
7 kirchenburgen-a42850
Villages_with_Fortified_Churches-
Transylvania.html
http://www.exploringromania.com/fortifi http://www.kirchenburgen.ro/photo_gallery
8
ed-churches.html /locations/mosna___meschen/58/
http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/tr http://kirchenburgen.org/neu-app-
9
ansylvania.html kirchenburgenlandschaft-siebenburgen/
http://www.wmf.org/project/fortified- http://www.turism.sibiu.ro/de/cetati.htm
10
churches-southern-transylvania

Most of the information found on these websites consists of translations from

Romanian into a target language or vice versa. They seem to be of great help for those
who want to learn more about the Saxon ecclesiastical edifices from Transylvania.
Although these websites primarily address tourists, we can also find some
essential information related to the fortified monuments that we otherwise only find in
printed specialized works. We notice the great number of illustrations and their quality.
All blogs include only updated pictures, without any old ones. Another remark to be
made is that many of these sources focus on the same monuments (usually, those on
UNESCOs heritage list), the most popular fortified churches online being the ones in
Viscri, Clnic, Saschiz, Biertan, Prejmer, Hrman, Valea Viilor, Mlncrav, Dealu
Frumos, Mona. In fact, a greater number of monuments should be remarked.
Apart from these most popular websites, there are some administered by the
officials, which, although not being very well known, offer some qualitative information,
based on preliminary research of the medieval monuments in Transylvania. With
reference to those having relevant historical and architectonic information, as well as
their critical interpretation, qualitative pictures, citations of the bibliographical
references, localization, contact details, databases etc. we mention the following online
portals: http://arhin.ro/ (Archeology, Architecture and Informatics); http://jupiter.elte.hu/
(Castles of historical Hungary); http://www.evang.ro/gemeinden/ (Evangelische Kirche
A. B. in Rumnien); http://archive.is/www.patzinakia.com (The Romanian Group for an

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Alternative History), website that is no longer active, its last post being published on the
24th of February 2014; http://www.cetati.medievistica.ro/, which functioned between
20052012; http://www.biserici.medievistica.ro/, its last post being one from 2012.
We can conclude that these websites contribute to drawing a general, as well as a
particular image regarding the important Saxon monuments in Transylvania, the
Romanian public getting their information from those sources. There is, however, a
deficiency in the feedback obtained from the public or in identifying a communication
network for specialists or between specialists and non-specialists online. The number of
blogs dedicated to archaeology or cultural heritage in Romania is a very small one. A
platform of blogs created by a community of Romanian archaeologists or historians,
which could build a communication bridge between specialists and the public, is at this
point a feasible project, depending only on the involvement of those specialists.

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 LIST OF ABRAVIATION

ActaMN Acta Musei Napocensis, Cluj-Napoca

AMV Acta Musei Varnaensis, Varna
Apulum Acta Musei Apulensis, Alba Iulia
Arheologija Sofia Arheologija. Organ na Arheologieskija Institut i Muzej, Sofia
Arhitectura religioas Arhitectura religioas medieval din Transilvania, Satu Mare
Banatica Banatica, Reia
BMI Buletinul Monumentelor Istorice, Bucureti
BSNIR Buletinul Societii Numismatice Romne
CAMNI Cercetri Arheologice, Muzeul de Istorie al R.S. Romnia/Muzeul Naional
de Istorie, Bucharest
CA , Moskow
CCA Cronica Cercetrilor Arheologice
Cumania Cumania, Bcs-Kiskun Megyei Mzeumok Kzlemnyei, Kecskemt
DIR. C, veacul XI, XII i Documente privind istoria Romniei. C. Transilvania, veacul XI, XII i XIII,
XIII vol. I, Bucureti, 1951.
DIR. C, veacul XIII Documente privind istoria Romniei. C. Transilvania, veacul XIII, vol. II,
Bucureti, 1952.
DIR. C, veacul XIV Documente privind istoria Romniei. C. Transilvania, veacul XIV, vol. I-IV,
Bucureti, 1953-1955.
DRH. C Transilvania Documenta Romaniae Historica. C. Transilvania, vol. X-XV, Bucureti,
1977-2006.
DRH. D Documenta Romaniae Historica. D. Relaii ntre rile Romne, vol. I,
Bucureti, 1977.
Drobeta Drobeta, Drobeta-Turnu Severin
EO I Erdlyi Okmnytr. Oklevelek, levelek s ms rsos emlkek Erdly
trtnethez. I. (1023-1300), ed. Zs. Jak, Budapest, 1997.
EO II Erdlyi Okmnytr. Oklevelek, levelek s ms rsos emlkek Erdly
trtnethez. II. (1301-1339), ed. Zs. Jak, Budapest, 2004.
Forschungen Forschungen zur Volks- und Landeskunde, Sibiu
GSAD Glasnik Srpskog Arheolokog Drutva, Belgrade
. a
MCA Materiale i Cercetri Arheologice, Bucureti
Pontica Anuar al Muzeului de Istorie Naional i Arheologie Constana
SCIV(A) Studii i Cercetri de Istorie Veche (i Arheologie), Bucureti
SMIM Studii i materiale de istorie medie, Bucureti
Starinar Starinar, Arheoloki Institut, Belgrade
Ub. I-VII Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte der Deutschen in Siebenbrgen,
Hermannstadt-Bukarest, Bd. I-VII, 1892-1991 (hrsg. von Fr.
Zimmermann, C. Werner, G. Mller, G. Gndisch, H. Gndisch, K. G.
Gndisch, G. Nussbcher).
VMMK A Vesprm Megyei Mzeumok Kzlemnyei, Veszprm
Ziridava (StudArch) Ziridava. Studia Archaeologica, Arad

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