Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Chapter 11
Hardening mechanics in metals

Dr.-Ing.
 Introduction to Alloy Strengthening

Hardening by solute atoms

-Solid solution strengthening
(interaction between solute atoms and dislocations)

Hardening by second phases

-Precipitation-Hardening
(interaction between precipitation phases and dislocations)
-Dispersion-Hardening
(interaction between dispersion phases and dislocations)
Strengthening mechanism:
0 dimension defects
Point defect interaction with dislocations- Cottrell Pinning

One of the simplest to understand is the interaction between the

elastic stress fields of a dislocation and a point defect. Cottrell
was the first to calculate the energy involved in such an
interplay fields.
The only stresses acting on edge dislocation are
y
xy xx
ij
Fdef dis = ( def bdis ) ldis
defect
x
r
xy b

Fdef dis = xx b
(-x,-y)
0

Solid Solution Strengthening: Elastic Interactions

Misfit volume: V 4 3 3 4 3
Distortion induced by point defects Ve = r0 (1 + ) r0
V
3 3
4
r0(1+) [
= r03 (1 + )3 1
3
]
r0
4 3
r0(1+)
r0 [1 + 3 1]
3
Hole radius: r0
Defect initial radius: r0(1+)
Ve 4r03
Defect final radius: r0(1+)
y Vmis = Vs Ve = 4r03

3(1 )
defect V = Vmis
r
x 1 +

Total volume change

Solid Solution Strengthening: Elastic Interactions

1 + Gb sin
Emisfit = V p p =
1 3 r

1 + Gb sin 3 4 A sin
Emisfit = 4r0 =
1 3 r 3 r

1 +
A= Gbr03
1

Emisfit sin
F= =A 2
r r
Solid Solution Strengthening: Elastic Interactions

sin 1 +
F=A 2 A= Gbr03
r 1

Fmax = c blF
average free dislocation length
Fmax A sin
c = = 2
bl F r bl F
dislocation density = L / V
Fmax A sin
lF = c = = 2 C
C bL r b
Solute concentration = N / V

Concentration of solute atoms

From M.A. Meyers and K.K. Chawla, mechanical behavior of materials, Cambridge University press, 2009.
Solid solution strengthening

c C

c C

= -0.1 to 0 for vacancies

-0.15 to +0.15 for substitutional solute
0.1 to 1.0 for interstitute atoms
Solid solution strengthening

In addition to elastic misfit interaction, there are other sources of

dislocation-solute interactions:
1. Parelastic interaction (lattice parameter effect)
2. Dielastic interaction (shear modulus effect)
3. Chemical interaction (Suzuki effect)
However, their contributions are less important than the size
effect.
Why is the difference of Solid Solution Strengthening between
substitutional and interstitial solution?
Phenomenon of Solid Solution Strengthening

Al2O3

When the dislocation mobility in a solid is restricted by the solute atoms, the resultant
strengthening is called solid-solution-hardening.

(a) Increase in strength, , of steel as a function of content of solute. The solid lines represent substitutional solute additions, while the
dashed line represents interstitial solute additions. (After F. B. Pickering and T. Gladman, ISI Special Report 81,
Iron and Steel Inst., (London: 1963), p. 10). (b) Increase in strength of sapphire (monocrystalline alumina) with small additions of chromium
at 1400 C (Adapted from K. P. D. Lagerlof, B. J. Pletka, T. E. Mitchell, and A. H. Heuer, Radiation Effects,
(.87 (1983) 74
Solid solution strengthening: substitutional solutions
Solid solution strengthening: substitutional solutes
Where are positions of Interstitial Atoms in the Cubic Lattice?

(a) Positions of
interstitial atoms in the cube. (b)
Carbon atom shown as a producer
of a tetragonal distortion.
Question?

aC = 1.54 A
aFe = 2.52 A

RC/RFe = 0.61

Octahedral Tetrahedral

r/Rfcc = 0.41 r/Rfcc = 0.22

r/Rbcc = 0.16 r/Rbcc = 0.29

 RC/RFe = 0.61
Bcc

r/R = 0.155 r/R = 0.291

 DC = 1.54 A
Fcc
DFe = 2.52 A

r/R = 0.41 r/R = 0.22

RC/RFe = 0.61
Strengthening mechanism:
3 dimension defects
Second Phases: Precipitation and Dispersion

Two alloy systems using this strengthening

technique are aluminum alloys and nickel-
based superalloys.
Precipitation: precipitation of precipitates out from
a homogenous, supersaturated solid solution.
Dispersion: incorporated hard, insoluble second
phases in a soft metallic matrix with a
Al-Cu alloy maximum volume fraction of 3-4%.

Al-Li alloy superalloy

(a) precipitates (at grain boundaries) and
precipitates (in grain interior) in AlCu alloy. (Courtesy of K. S.Vecchio.) (b) Al3Li precipitates in AlLi alloy (TEM, dark field). (Courtesy of
K. S.Vecchio.) (c)
precipitates and aged carbides in a
Yield Strength Superalloys and TD Nickel

Comparison of yield
strength of dispersion-
hardened
thoria-dispersed (TD) nickel
Precipitation with
two nickel-based superalloys
strengthened by precipitates
(IN-792) and directionally
solidified (DS) MAR M 200.

Dispersion
Dislocation-Precipitate/Dispersion Interaction

Two of the important models can be explained the strengthening due to precipitates:
a. Dislocations cutting through the particles in the slip plane
b. Dislocations circumnavigating around the particles in the slip plane
Bowing (passing through) mechanism

Gb Gb
=
d 2r d
d
r 2
Vf = 2
d
1/ 2
Vf
d = r
r: the particle radius
d: the average particle spacing between
V f1 / 2
two particles = Gb
Vf: the particle volume fraction r
Cutting mechanism
Dislocation cut through

The presence of grain boundaries has an additional effect on the deformation

behaviour of a material by serving as an effective barrier to the movement of glide
dislocations.

Fmax = r c blF = Fmax

r
Effective interface energy
c b =
lF
3/ 2 3/ 2 C
cb = r 6 Ed
1/ 3
1 Vf
6 Ed lF = C= 2 = 2
c C b lF r
3/ 2
= f r
6 Ed
c f r
Dislocation cut through and bow out
Precipitation treatment
Precipitation treatment

From K. Bowman, mechanical behavior of materials, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2004.
Precipitation treatment

From K. Bowman, mechanical behavior of materials, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2004.
Al-Cu Precipitation
Summary of Strengthening mechanisms
Zero dimensional defect: Solid Solution strengthening
sol c
solute atoms dislocations interaction

1 dimensional defect: Cold working strengthening

dislocations dislocations interaction dis = Gb

2 dimensional defect: Grain boundary strengthening 12

grain boundary dislocations interaction
gb = kd

3 dimensional defect: Second phase strengthening c f r

Precipitation/ Dispersion dislocations interaction
f
OR =
r