Vol. 28, No.
2 /2009
POSIBILITY TO USING SOIL ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITY FOR THE AREA LOCALIZATION
WITH LOW YIELD
/
POSIBILITI DE UTILIZARE A ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITII SOLULUI PENTRU
LOCALIZAREA ZONELOR CU PRODUCTIVITATE SCZUT
ing. Voicea Iulian, dr. ing. Vldu Valentin, ing. Matache Mihai,
- INMA Bucharest, Romania -
Abstract. Electro-conductivity of soil has an important
role in improving the culture techniques of precision
agriculture, in order to achieve maximum production
from any surface. In the last 20 years were sought and
identified new techniques and methods to increase
productivity, obtain higher yields and on any surface, in
the context of population growth and demand for food
from year to year, while reducing agricultural areas
many of them based on the use of electro-conductivity.
Keywords: soil, electro-conductivity, precision agriculture
1. THE SOIL PROPERTIES INFLUENCE ON ELECTRO-
CONDUCTIVITY (EC)
Electrical conductibility (EC) in soil occurs in the
layer of water that fills the space between soil particles [1,
2, 7].
Conductibilitatea Electrical (EC) is influenced by soil
properties dominated namely:
Mechanical properties of soil:
- Texture;
- Structure;
- Characterization and classification of grain
factions;
- Consistency and plasticity;
- Compressibility.
Physical properties of soil:
- Density and porosity;
- Compaction;
- Humidity;
- Soil temperature.
Chemical properties of soil:
- Chemical composition of soil solution;
- Coloizii soil;
- Adsorption capacity (cationic exchange
capacity);
- Reaction (pH) soil: current and potential acidity;
- The ability of soil plugging.
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
The soil as a physical
Physically, soil can be defined as a heterogeneous,
polyphase, dispersed, and porous structure.
- is a heterogeneous system because some of the
features in the mass range of soil and even in the
one of its components.
- is a polyphase system, the composition of being
represented three main phases: solid, liquid and
gas.
Variability characteristics mentioned in profile, in
agreement with the factors and processes pedogenetice
with layers and horizons of the profile is very pronounced
in some soils, for example luvisoluri (podzolice soil) or in
some soils aluviale as can be seen from Figure 1 where
we are the main types of land in Romania, it often has a
decisive influence on the physical progress of schemes in
the ground on its productive capacity and ultimately the
influence of soil physical factors in crop plant growth [5].
LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)
Rezumat. Electro-conductivitatea solului are un rol important n
perfecionarea tehnicilor de cultur n agricultura de precizie, n
vederea obinerii unor producii maxime de pe orice suprafa. n
ultimii 20 de ani s-au cutat i identificat noi tehnici i metode
pentru creterea productivitii, obinerea unor producii ct mai
ridicate de pe orice suprafa, n contextul creterii populaiei i a
cererii de hran de la an la an, concomitent cu reducerea
suprafeelor agricole, multe dintre acestea bazndu-se pe
utilizarea electro-conductivitii.
Cuvinte cheie: sol, electro-conductivitate, agricultur de precizie
1. INFLUENA PROPRIETILOR SOLULUI ASUPRA
ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITII (EC)
Conductibilitatea electric (CE) n sol se produce n
stratul de ap care umple spaiul dintre particulele de sol
[1, 2, 7].
Conductibilitatea electric (CE) este influenat de
urmtoarele proprieti dominate ale solului si anume:
Proprietile mecanice ale solului:
- textura;
- structura;
- caracterizarea i clasificarea fraciunilor
granulometrice;
- consistena i plasticitatea;
- compresibilitatea.
Proprietile fizice ale solului:
- densitatea i porozitatea;
- gradul de tasare;
- umiditatea;
- temperatura solului.
Proprietile chimice ale solului:
- compoziia chimic a soluiei solului;
- coloizii solului;
- capacitatea de adsorbie (capacitatea de schimb
cationic);
- reacia (pH-ul) solului: aciditatea actual i potenial;
- capacitatea de tamponare a solului.
2. PROPRIETILE MECANICE ALE SOLULUI
Solul ca sistem fizic
Din punct de vedere fizic, solul se poate defini ca fiind un
sistem heterogen, polifazic, dispers, structurat i poros.
- este un sistem heterogen deoarece unele dintre
caracteristici variaz n masa solului i chiar n
cuprinsul uneia dintre componentele lui.
- este un sistem polifazic, n alctuirea lui fiind reprezentate
cele trei faze principale: solid, lichid i gazoas.
Variabilitatea caracteristicilor amintite pe profil, n
acord cu factorii i procesele pedogenetice, cu orizonturile
i straturile componente ale profilului, este foarte
accentuat n unele soluri, ca de exemplu n luvisoluri
(soluri podzolice) sau n unele soluri aluviale aa cum se
poate observa din figura 1 unde ne sunt prezentate
principalele tipuri de sol din Romnia, acestea avnd o
influen adesea hotrtoare asupra modului de
desfurare a regimurilor fizice n sol, asupra capacitii
lui productive i n final asupra influenei factorilor fizici din
sol din creterea plantelor de cultur [5].
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Vol. 28, No.2 /2009 LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)

Fig. 1 - Soil map (conf / FAO UNESCO) / Harta solurilor (conf. FAO/UNESCO)

Fig. 2 - Soil Map of Romania / Harta solurilor din Romnia scara 1:1.000.000

Textura and lair Textura i structura solului

Composition of soil solid phase is quite complex in
terms of physical, chemical and mineralogical. Aspects
particularly interested in physical size of elementary
particles of soil. By elementary particle (primary particle)
is a solid mineral particle silicatic can not be divided, in
other smaller particles by physical or chemical
treatments simple, but the crunch and dispersion.
Classification of soil texture shown in Figure 3 is
essential to know the characteristics of their physical,
agronomic, ameliorative, etc.
Alctuirea fazei solide a solului este destul de
complex din punct de vedere fizic, chimic i mineralogic.
Sub aspect fizic intereseaz ndeosebi mrimea particulelor
elementare ale solului. Prin particul elementar (particul
primar) se nelege o particul solid mineral silicatic care
nu poate fi divizat, n alte particule mai mici prin tratamente
fizice sau chimice simple, ci numai prin sfrmare i dispersie.
Clasificarea textural a solurilor prezentata n figura
3 este esenial pentru cunoaterea nsuirilor lor fizice,
agronomice, ameliorative, etc.

Fig. 3 - Map classes of soil texture in Romania /

Harta claselor de textura a solului din Romnia (scara 1:1.000.000)

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In classification morfogenetic formalized in the vast
majority of Romania genetic soil types can have any, or
almost any texture depending on the litologice were
formed (the rock solification). Exceptions are by definition
particular vertisoils (clay) and psamosolurile (sandy or
sandy-clayey). Criterion texture occurs in the family and
species of soil, after class, type, subtype and variety, but
believes that his place is somewhat underestimated.
Characterization and classification of grain factions
Until now there is a definition of factions grain, ie a
scale of elementary particle size of the ground, supported
unanimously. This is explained by historical reasons and
partly due to the specific soil in those areas. Different
grain size scales are based on arguments related to the
amendment to certain steps of size of ownership of land
and some methodological considerations of order.
Clay fraction is practically the only grain that - in
addition to the organic soil - shows such as acquiring
water absorption (water retention property and
inaccessible plant) and cationic change, adhesion,
plasticity, and gonflarea contraction, the heat of wetting.
At the same time it presents, in a position much higher
than other grain size fractions, some ownership, such as
water retention, more or less mobile, cohesion, the ability
of structural elements of training, by aggregating the
elementary particles of soil. Clay also confers reduced
permeability and aeration.
Consistency and plasticity
At different moisture conditions and the strength of
the relationship between solid particles differ, and
therefore differ in overall behavior of the soil. These
features define the consistency of soil. Through the range
of moisture possible, from the smallest to the largest, can
separate multiple forms of consistency: hard, friable,
plastic neadeziv, plastic adhesive, flow. Forms of
consistency are separated by some characteristic values
of moisture, called consistency limits: the limit of
contraction, the limit of kneading (or lower limit of
plasticity), the limit of adhesion, flow limit (or upper limit of
plasticity).
Between states and the limits of consistency,
attention to the consistency of plastic and the two limits
(for kneading and flow) which delimit. The difference
between these two limits, so the size range of moisture
along the soil texture is plastic, is called plasticity index.
Determining the limits of consistency is, by definition,
on samples of soil amended with the settlement, to
understand behavior in field soil at different forms of
consistency is useful to compare the limits of consistency
with some indices hydro. Particularly interested in the limit
of unrest in which the ground in general presenting
optimal consistency. It is most often near the ceiling of
minimum humidity, except soil nisipo-luto-lutoase and
sandy tasate, which lies just above the field capacity.
Compresibilitatea
In geotechnics is widely used notion of
compresibilitate or relationship task - porosity. In order to
determine this relationship, the sample of soil is subject to
special devices progressive tasks, recorded in the same
change (decrease) sample height as a result of tasrii, the
task of determining which test to give ground, it breaks as
well and internal friction and other mechanical
parameters. There are several types of such
determinations: compresibilitate test on samples
unprotected test compresibilitate endometrium in the
LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)
n clasificarea morfogenetic oficializat n prezent n
Romnia marea majoritate a tipurilor genetice de sol pot avea
orice, sau aproape orice textur n funcie de condiiile litologice
n care s-au format (roca de solificare). Excepie fac prin definiie
ndeosebi vertisolurile (argiloase) i psamosolurile (nisipoase sau
nisipo-lutoase). Criteriul textur intervine la nivelul familiei i
speciei de sol, dup clas, tip, subtip i varietate, dar se
apreciaz c locul lui este n oarecare msur subestimat.
Caracterizarea i clasificarea fraciunilor granulometrice
Pn n prezent nu exist un sistem de definire a fraciunilor
granulometrice, adic o scar de dimensiuni ale particulelor
elementare de sol, unanim acceptat. Aceasta se explic prin
motive istorice i n parte determinate de specificul solurilor din zonele
respective. Diferitele scri granulometrice au la baz argumente
legate de modificarea la anumite trepte de dimensiuni a unor
nsuiri ale solului, precum i unele considerente de ordin metodologic.
Argila este practic singura fraciune granulometric
care - pe lng partea organic a solului - prezint astfel
de nsuiri cum este absorbia apei (reinerea apei imobile
i inaccesibil plantelor) i a cationilor schimbabili, adeziunea,
plasticitatea, contracia i gonflarea, cldura de umezire.
n acelai timp, ea prezint, n msur mult mai mare
dect celelalte fraciuni granulometrice, unele nsuiri,
precum reinerea apei, mai mult sau mai puin mobile,
coeziunea, capacitatea de formare a elementelor structurale,
prin agregarea particulelor elementare ale solului.
Totodat argila confer permeabilitate i aerare redus.
Consistena i plasticitatea
La diferite stri de umiditate modul i tria de
legtur dintre particulele solide difer, i n consecin
difer comportarea n ansamblu a solului. Aceste
caracteristici definesc consistena solului. Parcurgnd
gama de umiditi posibile, de la cele mai mici la cele mai
mari, se pot separa mai multe forme de consisten: tare,
friabil, plastic neadeziv, plastic adeziv, de curgere.
Formele de consisten sunt separate de anumite valori
caracteristice ale umiditii, numite limite de consisten:
limita de contracie, limita de frmntare (sau limita
inferioar de plasticitate), limita de adeziune, limita de
curgere (sau limita superioar de plasticitate).
Dintre strile i limitele de consisten, atenie deosebit s-
a acordat consistenei plastice i celor dou limite (de frmntare
si de curgere) care o delimiteaz. Diferena dintre aceste dou
limite, deci mrimea intervalului de umiditate de-a lungul cruia
solul are consisten plastic, se numete indice de plasticitate.
Limitele de consisten determinndu-se, prin definiie,
pe probe de sol cu aezare modificat, pentru a nelege comportarea
n cmp a solului, la diferite forme de consisten este util
compararea limitelor de consisten cu unii indici hidrofizici.
Intereseaz n mod deosebit limita de frmntare la care
solul prezint n genere consisten optim. Ea se situeaz,
cel mai adesea, aproape de plafonul minim al umiditii,
cu excepia solurilor nisipo-lutoase i luto-nisipoase tasate, n
care se situeaz chiar deasupra capacitii din cmp.
Compresibilitatea
n geotehnic se utilizeaz pe scar larg noiunea de
compresibilitate, sau relaia sarcin - porozitate. n vederea
determinrii acestei relaii, proba de sol este supus n
aparate speciale unor sarcini progresive, nregistrndu-se n
paralel modificarea (descreterea) nlimii probei, ca urmare
a tasrii, determinndu-se sarcina la care proba de sol
cedeaz, se rupe, precum i frecarea intern i ali parametri
mecanici. Exist mai multe tipuri de astfel de determinri: testul de
compresibilitate pe probe neprotejate, testul de compresibilitate
n endometru pe probe protejate i testul triaxial, n care
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Vol. 28, No.2 /2009 LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)

probe and protected triaxial test, the sample is subjected proba este supus n acelai timp unei sarcini verticale i
while a vertical loads and loads of side around them. unei sarcini laterale, de jur mprejurul ei.
The degree of compact: Gradul de compactitate:
DA DA
GC = x 100 GC = x 100
DA max DA max
GC - the compaction degree [%]; GC - este gradul de compactitate [%]
3
YES - the apparent density of soil at a time [g/cm3]; DA - densitatea aparent a solului la un moment dat [g/cm ];
DA max - the maximum apparent density of soil, DA max - densitatea aparent maxim a solului respectiv
3 3
respectively [g/cm ]. [g/cm ]
This index provides good opportunities to compare Acest indice ofer bune posibiliti de comparare a
the apparent densities of different soils. valorilor densitii aparente a diferitelor soluri.

3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL 3. PROPRIETI FIZICE ALE SOLULUI

The density and porosity Densitatea i porozitatea
By density means the ratio of the mass and volume of a Prin densitate, se nelege raportul dintre masa i
body, ie the mass of a unit volume: volumul unui corp, adic masa unei uniti de volum:
M M
D= D=
Vs Vs
3
where: D - density [g/cm3]; unde: D - densitatea [g/cm ];
M - mass of dry soil [g]; M - masa solului uscat [g];
3
Vs - volume of soil solid particles [cm3]. Vs - volumul particulelor solide ale solului [cm ].
In practice may be accepted for upper horizons of n practic se pot accepta pentru orizonturile superioare ale
3 3
most values of density 2.652.68 g/cm , and for the lower majoritii solurilor, valori ale densitii de 2,652,68 g/cm , iar
3 3
horizons, valuessoils, of 2.702.72 g/cm . pentru orizonturile inferioare, valori de 2,702,72 g/cm .
It follows that the upper horizons of soils of meadows Rezult c n orizonturile superioare ale unor soluri de
in wetlands, soil emissions of strong organic fertilized or of pajiti din zonele umede, ale solurilor de ser puternic
3
lcoviti, the density values 2.502.60 g/cm , while peat fertilizate organic, sau ale unor lcoviti, valorile densitii pot
3
soils they fall below these limits, may be up to 1.802.00 fi de 2,502,60 g/cm , n timp ce n solurile turboase ele scad
3
g/cm3.in extreme cases. sub aceste limite, n cazuri extreme pn la 1,802,00 g/cm .
Density values occur in the calculation of total Valorile densitii intervin n calculul porozitii totale i al
porosity and other indicators of status of settlement land. altor indicatori ai strii de aezare a solului.
Status of settlement of solid particles of soil can be Starea de aezare a particulelor solide ale solului se
expressed not only by the apparent density or specific poate exprima nu numai prin densitatea aparent sau
volume, defined above, but also by the total porosity is the volumul specific, definite anterior, ci i prin porozitatea
total volume of pores expressed as a percentage of the total care este volumul total al porilor exprimat n
volume of soil: procente din unitatea de volum al solului:
Vp Vp Vp Vp
PT = x 100 = PT = x 100 =
Vt Vs + V p Vt Vs + V p
where: PT - Total porosity [% v / v]; unde: PT - porozitatea total [% v/v];
3 3
Vt - total volume of soil [cm ]; Vt - volumul total al solului [cm ];
3 3
Vs - volume of the solid soil [cm ]; Vs - volumul prii solide a solului [cm ];
3 3
Vp - pore volume [cm ]. Vp - volumul porilor [cm ]
Total porosity values depend on the same factors Valorile porozitii totale depind de aceeai factori care
that determine the values of density and apparent density. determin i valorile densitii i ale densitii aparente. n
In most soil minerals spread, where the density is very solurile minerale cele mai rspndite, unde densitatea este
little variable, total porosity will depend only on the foarte puin variabil, porozitatea total va depinde numai
apparent density. de densitatea aparent.

Degree of settling Gradul de tasare

The degree of tasare is: Gradul de tasare este:
PMN PT PMN PT
GT = x 100 GT = x 100
PMN PMN
where: GT - is the tasare [% v / v]; unde: GT - este gradul de tasare [% v/v];
PMN - required minimum porosity [% v / v]; PMN - porozitatea minim necesar [% v/v];
PMN = 45 + 0.163 A PMN = 45 + 0,163 A
PT - Total porosity [% v / v] PT - porozitatea total [% v/v]
A - clay content under 0.002 mm [% g / g]. A - coninutul de argil sub 0,002 mm [% g/g].

Soil Moisture Umiditatea solului

The simplest information on ground water is Cea mai simpl informaie asupra apei solului se
obtained knowing the amount of water it. The water or obine cunoscnd cantitatea de ap a acestuia. Coninutul
moisture mass, gravimetric or, expressed as a de ap sau umiditatea masic, sau gravimetric, se
percentage of soil dry mass: exprim sub form de procente din masa solului uscat:
a a
wg = x 100 wg = x 100
s s
where: WG - mass humidity [% g / g]; unde: wg - umiditatea masic [% g/g];
a - the quantity of water in soil sample analyzed [g]; a - cantitatea de ap din proba de sol analizat [g];

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Vol. 28, No.2 /2009
s - the amount of dry soil sample analyzed [g].
Soil temperature
Temperature plays an important role in the
solificare and ensure normal living conditions for plants
and soil microorganisms. It influences biochemical
processes, altering the intensity of mineral and organic
matter, seed germination, plant growth and
development. Characterize the temperature of heating
or cooling of the soil, resulting in the amount of calories
from different sources and losses on different paths.
Soil temperature depends on a number of external
factors, and thermal properties of soil: the ability to
absorb solar radiation, specific heat and thermal
conductivity of the soil.
4. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Chemical composition of soil solution
Composition of soil solution depends on the quantity
and quality of atmospheric precipitation, the composition of
the soil solid phase, the quantitative and qualitative
composition of the material layer of vegetable biocenozelor
of vital activity of microorganisms and mezofaunei.
Soil solution composition undergoes changes due to
ongoing activity higher plants, the "removal" by the roots
of these compounds, and vice versa, the penetration of
substances through the secretion of plant roots, etc.
Mineral substances, organic and organo-mineral
composition in which the liquid phase of soil can be in the
form of combinations soluble (dissolved) or colloidal
combinations.
Soil colloids
Found in soil mineral colloids, organic and organo-
mineral, whose composition depends on the rock
formation and the type of solificare. On the composition
colloids, colloidal micelele stay.
A colloidal micel consists of core, represented by
complex combinations, amorphous or crystalline, with
different chemical composition (Figure 4).
Fig. 4 - Composition micelles colloidal / Alctuirea micelei coloidale
At the core is a layer of ions held stable layer called
a determinant of potential, still follows a double layer of
ions compensator - a layer property, with strongly held
ions by ions of the layer determining the potential and is
still a layer of ions more dispersed, called the diffuse layer
[5].
Adsorption capacity
Given the state of dispersion of its components and
in particular those of colloidal nature, the land is owned to
adsorb various substances in the state of molecular
dispersion (molecular adsorption) and ionic (cationic or
anionic, called adsorption Caton and anionic).
Reaction (pH) soil
The soil contains the state of dispersion ions,
molecules, colloidal substances which are in very different
proportions depending on various factors acting on the
formation and evolution of soils.
Soil reaction is determined by the ratio of
LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)
s cantitatea de sol uscat din proba analizat [g].
Temperatura solului
Temperatura are un rol important n procesul de
solificare i asigurarea condiiilor normale de via pentru
plante i microorganismele din sol. Ea influeneaz
procesele biochimice, intensitatea de alterare a materiei
minerale i organice, germinaia seminelor, creterea i
dezvoltarea plantelor. Temperatura caracterizeaz starea
de nclzire sau rcire a solului, rezultant a cuantumului
de calorii primite din diferite surse i pierdute pe diferite ci.
Temperatura solului depinde de o serie de factori
externi, dar i de proprietile termice ale solului:
capacitatea de absorbie a radiaiilor solare, cldura
specific i conductivitatea termic a solului.
4. PROPRIETI CHIMICE ALE SOLULUI
Compoziia chimic a soluiei solului
Compoziia soluiei solului depinde de cantitatea i
calitatea precipitaiilor atmosferice, de compoziia fazei
solide a solului, de alctuirea cantitativ i calitativ a
materialului stratului vegetal al biocenozelor, de activitatea
vital a mezofaunei i a microorganismelor.
Compoziia soluiei solului sufer permanent modificri
datorit activitii plantelor superioare, prin, scoaterea" de ctre
rdcinile acestora a unor compui, i invers, prin ptrunderea unor
substane, prin secreii ale rdcinilor plantelor etc.
Substanele minerale, organice i organo-minerale
care intr n compoziia fazei lichide a solului se pot
prezenta sub form de combinaii solubile (dizolvate) sau
combinaii coloidale.
Coloizii solului
n sol se gsesc coloizi minerali, organici i organo-
minerali, a cror compoziie depinde de caracterul rocilor
de formare i de tipul de solificare. La baza alctuirii
coloizilor, stau micelele coloidale.
O micel coloidal este alctuit din nucleu,
reprezentat prin combinaii complexe, amorfe sau
cristaline, cu compoziie chimic diferit (figura 4).
La suprafaa nucleului se gsete un strat de ioni
reinui stabil, denumit strat determinant de potenial; n
continuare, urmeaz un dublu strat de ioni compensatori -
un strat imobil", cu ioni reinui puternic de ctre ionii din
stratul determinant de potenial, iar n continuare urmeaz
un strat de ioni mai dispersai, numit strat difuz [5].
Capacitatea de adsorbie
Datorit strii de dispersie a componenilor lui i n
special a celor de natur coloidal, solul are proprietatea
de a adsorbi diferite substane aflate n stare de dispersie
molecular (adsorbie molecular) i ionic(cationic sau
anionic, numite adsorbie catonic i respectiv anionic).
Reacia (pH-ul) solului
Soluia solului conine n stare de dispersie ioni,
molecule, substane coloidale, care se gsesc n proporii
foarte diferite n funcie de diferii factori care acioneaz
n formarea i evoluia solurilor.
Reacia solului este determinat de raportul dintre
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Vol. 28, No.2 /2009
+ -
concentration of H ions and OH , when the proportion of
+ -
H ions is higher reaction is acid, and when prevailing OH
ions, the reaction is alkaline.
+ -
If H ions and OH ions are in equal proportions, the
reaction is neutral. Soil reaction is influenced by several
factors: the chemical and mineralogical composition of the
mineral soil, the presence of soluble salts, the nature and
content of organic substances that are found in soil, soil
moisture, the activity of soil organisms, etc.
A role, particularly important is the reaction of soil
salts have, which moved from the soil solid phase in
solution exert a significant influence on the soil reaction,
and ultimately, its fertility. In soil, the most widespread
mineral acid is carbonic acid, which can cause the soil pH
values between 3.94.7, depending on thermal conditions,
biological activity of soil, etc.
If the soils and rocks are present training sulphides
by oxidation thereof can form sulfuric acid, which can lead
to a strong acidification of soils.
Strong acidification of soils and produce unsaturated
fatty humici the cation, respectively, fulvici acids can
cause a pH value of 3-3,5 (extremely acid) by the
decomposition of organic remains from the forest. Soil
reaction is influenced by the activity of fungi and bacteria,
the degree of decomposition of organic remains,
secretions of plant roots or by soil insects, acids may
appear free, organic (oxalic, citric and others). In a
different soil acidity and a current potential.
a) Actual acidity (pH soil)
+ +
Is given by the concentration of H ions which are at
a moment in the soil solution. Distilled water, in relation to
which determines the acidity of soil has a neutral reaction,
+ -
the activity of H ions and OH are equal and expressed
by the reaction [9]:
+ - -7 -7 -14
(H ) (OH ) = k.H2O = 10 10 = 10
Therefore the pH (defined as the logarithm of
+ +
concentration changed the sign of H ions in soil solution)
could, in theory, between 1 and 14. When pH value is
equal to 7 the reaction is neutral, it is <7 is acid reaction, if
pH > 7 is alkaline reaction.
If the soil contains a basic compounds, the reaction
is alkaline, such as soil containing alkaline salts which
hidrolizeaz: CaCO3, MgCO3 and Na2CO3.
b) Potential soil acidity
Is determined by hydrogen ions absorbed on
colloidal complex through interaction with salts in solution,
soil manifestndu is a weak acid. Depending on the
solution that deals with the sample for the determination of
soil acidity are two different forms of acidity potential:
exchange hidrolitic.
Exchange acidity is obtained in the treatment of soil
sample with a jump neutral solution (eg, KCI 1N) and the
resulting acidity hidrolitic when soil sample is treated with
3
a solution that jumps hidrolizeaz alkaline (eg CH COONa
+ +
1N). Acidity is expressed in m.eq. H per 100 g dry soil at
105C.
Acidity is the exchange of H ions in the solution
passing through treating the soil with a solution of a
normal jump neutral (KCI, NaCl, CaCI2):
Complex colloidal H+KCl Complex colloidal K+HCl
Acidity hidrolitic outlined by treating the soil with a
solution of a normal jump that hidrolizeaz alkaline:
+ +
Complex colloidal H +2NaCH3COOComplex colloidal
+ +
H +2CH3COOH
Soils with pH <8.3 were hidrolitic acidity and the pH
<6 presents and exchange acidity. Soil pH between 6 and
8.3 have only hidrolitic acidity. If a soil acidity presents
hidrolitic and exchange acidity (pH <6), value premium is
always higher.
LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)
+ -
concentraia ionilor de H i OH , i anume, cnd proporia
+
ionilor de H este mai mare reacia este acid, iar cnd
-
predomin ionii de OH , reacia este alcalin.
+ -
Dac ionii de H i ionii de OH sunt n proporii egale,
reacia este neutr. Reacia solului este influenat de o serie
de factori: compoziia chimic i mineralogic a prii
minerale a solului; prezena srurilor solubile; coninutul i
natura substanelor organice care se gsesc n sol;
umiditatea solului; activitatea organismelor din sol etc.
Un rol, deosebit de important asupra reaciei solului l
au srurile, care trecnd din faza solid a solului n soluie
exercit o influen important asupra caracterului reaciei
solului, i, n ultim instan, asupra fertilitii acestuia. n sol, cel
mai rspndit acid mineral este acidul carbonic, care poate
determina un pH al solului cu valori ntre 3,94,7, n funcie de
condiiile termice, de activitatea biologic din sol etc.
Dac n soluri i n rocile de formare sunt prezente
sulfuri, prin oxidarea acestora se poate forma acid sulfuric, ceea
ce poate duce la o puternic acidifiere a solurilor.
Acidifierea puternic a solurilor produc i acizii humici
nesaturai cu cationi, respectiv cu, acizii fulvici pot determina
un pH cu valori de 3-3,5 (extrem acid), prin descompunerea
resturilor organice din zona de pdure. Reacia solului este
influenat i de activitatea ciupercilor i bacteriilor, de gradul
de descompunere a resturilor organice, de secreiile
rdcinilor plantelor sau de ctre insectele din sol, putnd
aprea acizi liberi, organici (oxalic, citric i alii). n sol se
deosebete o aciditate actual i una potenial.
a) Aciditatea actual (pH-ul solului)
Este dat de concentraia ionilor de H ce se afl la un
moment dat n soluia solului. Apa distilat, n raport cu care se
stabilete aciditatea solului, are o reacie neutr, raportul
+ -
activitii ionilor H i OH fiind egal i exprimat prin reacia
[9]:
+ - -7 -7 -14
(H ) (OH ) = k.H2O = 10 10 = 10
Prin urmare pH-ul, (definit ca fiind logaritmul cu semn
schimbat al concentraiei ionilor de H din soluia solului), poate
avea, teoretic, valori cuprinse ntre 1 i 14. Cnd valoarea pH
este egal cu 7 reacia este neutr, cnd este < 7 reacia este
acid, dac pH > 7 reacia este alcalin.
Dac solul conine compui cu caracter basic,
reacia sa este alcalin, exemplu fiind solurile care conin
sruri ce hidrolizeaz alcalin: CaCO3, MgCO3 i Na2CO3.
b) Aciditatea potenial a solului
Este determinat de ionii de hidrogen absorbii la
complexul coloidal, prin interaciunea cu srurile din
soluie, solul manifestndu-se ca un acid slab. n funcie
de soluia cu care se trateaz proba de sol pentru dozarea
aciditii, se deosebesc dou forme de aciditate
potenial: de schimb i hidrolitic.
Aciditatea de schimb se obine la tratarea probei de
sol cu soluia unei sri neutre (de exemplu, KCI 1N), iar
aciditatea hidrolitic rezult cnd proba de sol se trateaz
cu soluia unei sri ce hidrolizeaz alcalin (de exemplu,
CH3COONa 1N). Aciditatea se exprim n m.eq. de H la
100 g sol uscat la 105C.
Aciditatea de schimb este dat de ionii de H care
trec n soluie prin tratarea solului cu o soluie normal a
unei sri neutre (KCI, NaCI, CaCI2):
Complex coloidal H+KCl Complex coloidal K+HCl
Aciditatea hidrolitic se evideniaz prin tratarea solului
cu o soluie normal a unei sri ce hidrolizeaz alcalin:
Complex coloidal H +2NaCH3COOComplex coloidal
H +2CH3COOH
Solurile cu pH <8,3 au aciditate hidrolitic iar cele cu pH
< 6 prezint i aciditate de schimb. Solurile cu pH ntre 6 i 8,3
au numai aciditate hidrolitic. Dac un sol prezint i aciditate
hidrolitic i aciditate de schimb (pH < 6), valoric, prima este
ntotdeauna mai mare.
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Vol. 28, No.2 /2009
The soil reaction
Soil reaction is a very important index for
characterizing them. After reaction the size of the soil pH
value is defined as in Table 1.
Average reaction after the soil pH / Aprecierea reaciei solurilor dup valorile pH
pH
3,50
3,6 4,30
4,31 5,00
5,01 5,40
5,41 5,80
5,81 6,40
6,41 6,80
6,81 7,20
7,21 7,80
7,81 8,40
8,41 9,00
9,01 9,40
9,41 10,00
10,10
Cultivated plants prefer in their great majority, a
neutral reaction, weak acid or weak alkaline. Some bear
species, or even prefer acidic soil (rye, oats, potatoes,
clover). Strong alkaline reaction is not supported by most
species of plants. Knowing the soil reaction is necessary
for growing assortment choice for differential application of
fertilizers and amendments.
The capacity of soil plugging
By plugging capability means acquiring land to
+
oppose the trend of change in concentration of ions (H ,
+ +
OH, K , Ca ) from soil solution by the mutual phase
between solid and liquid phase.
Plugging capacity of soil is determined by the
characteristics of solid phase, particularly from soil colloids.
The interaction of soil with an acid (HCI O, 1N) is the
exchange reaction between CATIONS change in complex
and hydrogen ions that give acidity of acid respectively,
while hydrogen ions pass into the soil solid phase
(complex absorption, even when saturated with hydrogen
ions, acts as a weak acid), and chlorides in solution are
concerned.
Plugging capacity of the soil depends on a number of
factors which include: the amount of soil colloids, the
assortment of soil colloids, cationic nature of change.
Capacity regulator plugging the soil reaction. That
the pH of soil and the same can not be changed too much
during the year, are of importance in connection with
microorganisms and plant growth, although they can
adapt to certain changes in response, but no sudden
change of reaction. Knowing plugging capabilities help to
establish methods for the amendment and fertilization of
soils [4, 5].
5. EQUIPMENTS AND METHODS FOR DETERMINATION /
ELECTRO-MEASUREMENT CONDUCTIVITY (EC) SOIL
For measuring soil properties are needed accurate
and inexpensive methods, which helps to interpret the
maps and productivity improvement strategies underlying
concept of precision agriculture. Conventional methods
require the selection period, and laboratory tests
profound. Starting from this, the virtual mapping of the soil
profile by means of electrical conductivity (EC) was
developed to identify areas with contrasting soil
properties. Such values are measurements of EC
replacement of soil properties.
LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)
Importana reaciei solului
Reacia solurilor reprezint un indice foarte important
pentru caracterizarea acestora. Dup mrimea valorii pH
reacia solurilor se definete ca n tabelul 1.
Table 1 / Tabelul 1
Average reaction / Aprecierea reaciei
Extremely acid / Extrem de acid
Very strong acid / Foarte puternic acid
Strong acid / Puternic acid
Moderate acid / Moderat acid
Weak acid / Slab acid
Neutral / Neutr
Weak Alkaline / Slab alcalin
Moderated alkaline / Moderat alcalin
Strong alkaline / Puternic alcalin
Very strongly alkaline / Foarte puternic alcalin
Extremely Alkaline / Extrem de alcalin
Plantele cultivate prefer, n mare lor majoritate, o
reacie neutr, slab acid sau slab alcalin. Unele specii
suport sau chiar prefer solurile acide (secar, ovz, cartof,
trifoi). Reacia puternic alcalin nu este suportat de
majoritatea speciilor de plante. Cunoaterea reaciei solului
este necesar pentru alegerea sortimentului de cultur, pentru
aplicarea diferenial a ngrmintelor i a amendamentelor.
Capacitatea de tamponare a solului
Prin capacitatea de tamponare se nelege nsuirea
solului de a se opune tendinei de modificare a concentraiei
+ + +
unor ioni (H , OH, K , Ca ) din soluia solului, prin
aciunea reciproc dintre faza solid i faza lichid.
Capacitatea de tamponare a solului este determinat
de nsuirile fazei solide, mai ales ale coloizilor din sol.
Prin interaciunea solului cu un acid (HCI O,1N) se
produce reacia de schimb ntre cationii schimbabili din
complex i ionii de hidrogen care dau aciditatea din acidul
respectiv, iar ionii de hidrogen trec n faza solid a solului
(complexul absorbtiv, chiar cnd este saturat cu ioni de
hidrogen, se comport ca un acid slab), iar n soluie apar
clorurile respective.
Capacitatea de tamponare a solului depinde de o
serie de factori printre care amintim: cantitatea coloizilor din
sol, sortimentul coloizilor din sol, natura cationilor schimbabili.
Capacitatea de tamponare constituie regulatorul
reaciei solului. Faptul c pH-ul unuia i aceluiai sol nu se
poate modifica prea mult n timpul anului, prezint
importan n legtur cu activitatea microorganismelor i
cu creterea plantelor, dei acestea se pot adapta la
anumite modificri de reacie, dar nu suport variaiile brute
de reacie. Cunoaterea capacitilor de tamponare ajut la
stabilirea metodelor de amendare i fertilizare a solurilor [4, 5].
5. ECHIPAMNETE I METODE PENTRU DETERMINAREA /
MSURAREA ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITII (EC) SOLULUI
Pentru msurarea proprietilor solului sunt necesare
metode precise i necostisitoare, care ajut la interpretarea
hrilor de productivitate i mbuntirea strategiilor ce stau
la baza conceptului de agricultur de precizie. Metodele
convenionale de selecie necesit perioade de timp mari i
analize de laborator profunde. Pornind de la aceasta,
maparea profilului virtual al solului cu ajutorul conductivitii
electrice (EC) a fost dezvoltat pentru a identifica suprafeele
cu proprieti contrastante ale solului. Asemenea valori ale
EC sunt msurtori nlocuitoare ale proprietilor solului.
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Vol. 28, No.2 /2009
Precision agriculture involves managing each crop
production input (fertilizer, water, calcium, herbicides,
insecticides and seed) on the specific location of
principles to reduce waste, increase profits and
environmental quality. Without leaving the technologies
that enable support, individual treatment of each plant is
impossible and the concept of precision agriculture would
not be possible. A sensor on the ground, such as sensor
VerisEC is a useful tool for mapping soil electro-
conductivity (EC), to identify areas with contrasting soil
properties. In non-salted soils, EC values are
measurements of soil texture - the relative amount of sand,
silt and clay. Precision agriculture is based on geo-spatial
information to facilitate the treatment of small portions of
land as individual administrative units. Although farmers
long known that land is heterogeneous, only recently
became available technologies that allow production
practices to take into account this variability effectively.
The apparent electrical conductivity measurement (ECa)
To measure soil salinitii default and electro-
conductivity of soil electro-conductivity measurement of
apparent soil (ECa) rezistivitii by measuring the electrical
and electromagnetic behavior is regarded as the most
appropriate way of determining the spatial distribution of
salinitii at the land surface or deeply. Measurement of
apparent electro-conductivity of soil (ECa) rezistivitii by
measuring the electrical behavior and electromagnetic
(EM) maximum interest for precision agriculture because it
is a safe and accurate method, which allows relatively
easy to obtain a large volume of data measured.
Electric conductors apparent soil is achieved, firstly
by salts contained in water present in large pores,
therefore, measuring the electrical conductivity in the soil
mass is closely related to its salinity. There is also a
contribution from the solid phase of the wet soil apparent
electrical conductivity, through the cation exchange
groups of clay minerals. A third way conductivity consists
of soil particles in contact with one another. These three
paths crossed current contributes to the apparent
electrical conductivity of soil.
Equipment to measure apparent electrical conductivity
(ECa)
Most methods for determining the electro-
conductivity of soil use (measured) electric rezistivitatea
("Wenner system").
Another method for determining the electro-conductivity
using electromagnetic induction EM (using the time
reflectometriei - TDR). Although the TDR method has
been demonstrated to be comparable with other accepted
methods for measuring the electro-conductivity
(Heimovaara and others, 1995; Mallants and others. 1996,
Spaans and Baker, 1993, Reece, 1998), it is not yet
sufficiently simple robust and rapid to measure in the field
of electro-conductivity of soil (Rhoades and others, 1999a) [6].
The most widely used for determining electro-
conductivity of soil is the type Veris realized in three
variants: Veris 3100; Veri 3150 (and may cause the pH)
and Veris 2000XA (used mainly in vineyards and
orchards).
Veri Technologies has developed this type of
equipment for determining electro-conductivity of soil
(ECa) based on the principles Wenner. The equipment
Veris using six electrodes-knife (depending on the
arrangement of various equipment on the knives, the
distance between them and the weight machine). This
sensor uses type discs share the electrodes to achieve a
more uniform contact with the ground and thus measured
Electro-conductivity (EC). In this approach two to three
LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)
Agricultura de precizie presupune administrarea fiecrei
intrri a produciei recoltei (fertilizator, ap, calciu, erbicide,
insecticide i smn) pe principii specifice locaiei pentru
reducerea deeurilor, creterea profitului i meninerea calitii
mediului nconjurtor. Fr tehnologii ieite din comun, care s
permit asistarea, tratamentul individual a fiecrei plante este
imposibil i conceptul de agricultur precis nu ar fi posibil.
Un senzor pentru sol, precum senzorul VerisEC este o unealt
folositoare pentru maparea electro-conductivitii solului (EC),
n vederea identificrii ariilor cu proprieti contrastante ale
solului. n soluri ne-srate, valorile EC sunt msurtori ale
texturii solului cantitatea relativ de nisip, nmol i argil.
Agricultura de precizie se bazeaz pe informaii geo-spaiale
pentru a uura tratamentul unor mici poriuni din teren ca uniti
administrative individuale. Dei agricultorii cunosc de mult
vreme c terenurile sunt eterogene, numai recent au devenit
disponibile tehnologii care s permit practicilor produciei s ia
n considerare n mod eficient aceast variabilitate.
Principiile msurrii conductivitii electrice aparente (ECa)
Pentru msurarea salinitii solului i implicit a electro-
conductiviti solului, msurarea electro-conductivitii
aparente a solului (ECa) prin msurarea rezistivitii electrice
i a comportrii electromagnetice este privit ca cea mai
potrivit cale de stabilire a distribuiei spaiale a salinitii la
nivelul suprafeei terenului sau mai profund. Msurarea
electro-conductivitii aparente a solului (ECa) prin msurarea
rezistivitii electrice i a comportrii electromagnetice (EM)
prezint interes maxim pentru agricultura de precizie,
deoarece este o metod sigur i precis, care permite
obinerea relativ simpl a unui volum mare de date msurate.
Conductana electric aparent a solului se realizeaz,
n primul rnd, prin srurile coninute n apa prezent n porii
mai largi; n consecin, msurarea conductivitii electrice n
masa solului este strns legat de salinitatea acestuia. De asemenea,
exist i o contribuie a fazei solide din solurile umede la conductivitatea
electric aparent, pe calea schimbului de cationi asociai
mineralelor din argil. O a treia cale de conductivitate este
constituit din particulele solului aflate n contact permanent
una cu alta. Aceste trei ci de strbatere a curentului
contribuie la conductivitatea electric aparent a solului.
Echipamente pentru msurarea conductivitii electrice
aparente (ECa)
Marea majoritate a metodelor de determinare a
electro-conductivitii solului utilizeaz (msoar)
rezistivitatea electric (sistemul Wenner).
O alt metod de determinare a electro-conductivitii
utilizeaz inducia electromagnetic EM (cu ajutorul
reflectometriei n domeniul timpului - TDR). Dei metoda
TDR a fost demonstrat ca fiind comparabil cu alte
metode acceptate pentru msurarea electro-conductivitii
(Heimovaara i alii, 1995; Mallants si alii. 1996, Spaans
i Baker, 1993, Reece, 1998), ea nu este nc suficient de
simpl, robust i rapid pentru msurarea n cmp a
electro-conductivitii solului (Rhoades i alii, 1999a) [6].
Echipamentul cel mai rspndit, utilizat pentru
determinarea electro-conductivitii solului este cel tip
Veris, realizat n trei variante: Veris 3100; Veris 3150
(poate determina i pH-ul) i Veris 2000XA (utilizat cu
preponderen n vii i livezi).
Veris Technologies a dezvoltat acest tip de
echipament pentru determinarea electro-conductivitii solului
(ECa) pe baza principiilor sistemului Wenner.
Echipamentul Veris utilizeaz ase electrozi-cuit (funcie
de tipul de echipament diferind aezarea cuitelor pe cadru,
distana ntre ele i greutatea mainii). Acest tip de senzori
folosete brzdare tip discuri ca electrozi pentru a se realiza un
contact cat mai uniform cu solul i astfel se msoar Electro-
Conductivitatea (EC). n aceast abordare dou pan la trei
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Vol. 28, No.2 /2009
pairs of discs are mounted on a chassis, a pair power
supply in the soil (electrodes transmission) while the other
electrodes (electrodes Reception) measured voltage fall of
them (in soil), so as can be seen in Figure 5 [8].
Fig. 5 - Systems Technologies for Mapping Veris electro-conductivity of soil, at work /
Sistemele Veris Technologies pentru maparea electro-conductivitii solului, n timpul lucrului
CONCLUSIONS
Electro-conductivity of soil has a very important role
in improving the culture techniques of precision agriculture,
in order to achieve maximum production from any surface.
In the last 20 years were sought and identified new
techniques and methods to increase productivity, obtain
higher yields and on any surface, in the context of
population growth and demand for food from year to year,
while reducing agricultural areas.
Productivity growth has been linked with reducing
energy consumption required to perform the work,
environmental pollution and soil as a result of work
processes aiming to achieve maximum efficiency on any
surface.
Precision Agriculture came to meet these
requirements by making available to farmers of new
technologies for management, using equipment and
technology from leading IT, software, navigation, etc., by
which it was obtained from the maximum yield any surface
with minimal energy consumption and reduce
environmental pollution and soil within reasonable limits.
Using electro-conductivity is closely related to the use
of GPS and GIS systems for measuring and creating maps
of electrical conductivity of soil and use this information in
order to improve management of crops in the precision
agriculture.
Research carried out until now in Romania are rather
scarce and not taking into account the influence of soil
conductivity on the production capacity and a default return
agricultural land and cultivating it with a specific culture
based on data obtained by conductivity, pH, the capacity of
cationic exchange, humidity and soil texture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY / BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] Arya, L.M., D.A. Farrel and G.R. Blake. - A Field Study
of Soil Water Depletion in Presence of Growing Soybeans
Roots: I. Determination of Hydraulic Properties of the Soil,
In: Soil Science Society ofAmerica Prooceedings. Vol 39,
LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)
perechi de discuri sunt montai pe un asiu, o pereche furnizeaz
curent electric n sol (electrozi de transmisie) n timp ce ceilali
electrozi (electrozi de recepie) msoar cderea de tensiune
dintre ei (n sol), aa cum se poate observa i n figura 5 [8].
CONCLUZII
Electro-conductivitatea solului are un rol foarte important n
perfecionarea tehnicilor de cultur n agricultura de precizie, n
vederea obinerii unor producii maxime de pe orice suprafa.
n ultimii 20 de ani s-au cutat i identificat noi tehnici
i metode pentru creterea productivitii, obinerea unor
producii ct mai ridicate de pe orice suprafa, n contextul
creterii populaiei i a cererii de hran de la an la an,
concomitent cu reducerea suprafeelor agricole.
Creterea productivitii a fost coroborat cu
reducerea consumului de energie necesar pentru
efectuarea lucrrilor, a polurii mediului i solului, ca
urmare a proceselor de lucru ce au ca scop obinerea unor
randamente maxime de pe orice suprafa.
Agricultura de precizie a venit n ntmpinarea acestor
cerine prin punerea la dispoziia fermierilor de tehnologii noi
de management, ce utilizeaz echipamente i tehnice de
vrf din domeniul IT, software, navigaie, etc., cu ajutorul
crora s-a ajuns la obinerea unor randamente maxime de
pe orice suprafa, cu consumuri energetice minime i
reducerea polurii mediului i solului n limite rezonabile.
Utilizarea electro-conductivitii este strns legat de
utilizarea sistemelor GPS i GIS, pentru msurarea i
crearea hrilor de conductibilitate electric a solului i utilizarea
acestor informaii n scopul perfecionrii managementului
culturilor agricole n cadrul agriculturii de precizie.
Cercetrile efectuate pn prezent n Romnia sunt
destul de puine i nu au luat n calcul faptul influenei
conductivitii solului asupra capacitii de producie i implicit a
rentabilitii unui teren agricol, precum i cultivarea acestuia cu
un anumit tip cultur n funcie de datele de conductivitate obinute,
pH-ul, capacitatea de schimb cationic, umiditatea i textura solului.
[4] Filipov F., Lupacu Gh. - Pedologie editura, Terra
nostra, Iai 2003
[5] Lupacu Gh., Jigu Gh., Vrlan M. - Pedologie
general, Editura Junimea Iai 1998;
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1975, p 424-430;
[2] Barraclough, P.B., and A.H. Weir. - Effects of a
compacted subsoil layer on root and shoot growth, water
use and nutrient uptake of winter wheat, 1988, J.
Agric.Sci., Cambridge 110:207-216;
[3] Eric D. Lund,Colin D. Christy,Paul E. Drummond -
Using yield and soil Electrical Conductivity (EC) maps to
derive crop production performance information, Presented at
the 5th International Conference on Precision Agriculture 2000;
LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)
[6] Rhoades, J.D., Corwin, D.L. - Determining Soil Electrical
Conductivity-depth Relations Using an Inductive
Electromagnetic Conductivity Meter, (1992), Soil
ScienceSociety of America Journal, 45, 255-260;
[7] Robert Bobby Grisso, Mark Alley, W.G. Wysor, David
Holshouser, Wade Thomason, Virginia Tech - Precision
Farming Tools: Soil Electrical Conductivity, Virginia
cooperative extension, 2007, publication 442-508;
[8] Veris Technologies, http://www.veristech.com/research.htm
87