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Article history: A new method to predict crack growth and fatigue life of concrete slabs is presented based on similar
Received 15 November 2008 models for 2-D specimens. Four large-scale concrete slabs on ground subjected to three different stress
Received in revised form 3 February 2009 ranges have been tested to fatigue failure. Geometric correction factors to calculate the effective crack
Accepted 24 February 2009
length and stress intensity factor from the experimental fatigue compliance are derived based on 3-D
Available online 5 March 2009
nite element modeling. Crack length versus the number of cycles curves are constructed and tted to
a modied logistic function, which enables for the calculation of the crack propagation rates and critical
Keywords:
crack lengths from the rst and second derivative of the logistic function. Fatigue crack growth is sepa-
Concrete fatigue
Crack growth
rated into a decelerating and accelerating crack growth functions based on the initial crack length and the
Fracture mechanics applied stress intensity factor, respectively. The proposed method is able to predict the fatigue life of the
Slabs on ground tested slabs and the fatigue resistance of several independent slabs cast with the same geometry and
Concrete pavement material. The analysis of the tested slabs shows that load pulses with higher minimum loads generated
more fatigue damage as indicated by greater crack growth rates. The principles of this slab fatigue crack
growth procedure can now be extended to estimate the remaining life in uncracked or partially-cracked
concrete slabs on ground.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction ently assume that the fatigue and fracture of the concrete material
is independent of the specimen size and boundary conditions.
The increasing trafc demands on concrete pavements and the Full-scale fatigue tests on concrete slabs [1517] have con-
variation in available concrete material constituents pose unique rmed that concrete slab fatigue cannot be accurately predicted
challenges in the structural design of concrete pavements and pre- from beam fatigue curves. Slab fatigue curves always demonstrate
diction of the slabs performance throughout its service life. Rigid a greater resistance to cracking than that predicted by beam fati-
pavements structurally deteriorate, in the form of fatigue cracks, gue curves due to the change in specimen geometry and boundary
over their service life, which can worsen with the introduction of conditions [18]. The error in beam to slab fatigue prediction is also
higher applied loads or changes in the boundary conditions, such dependent on the specic concrete materials utilized and, in par-
as loss of support or slab curling. Fatigue damage development is ticular linked to the concretes fracture properties. An additional
especially critical in aireld pavements, with the introduction of limitation in fatigue calculations is that Miners Hypothesis as-
heavier aircraft and new generation gear congurations. sumes that the fatigue damage caused in previous cycles does
The traditional empirical method to predict the fatigue life of not affect the stress state in the slab for future fatigue cycles. In
concrete pavements requires calculating the critical tensile stress the reality, cracks initiate in the slab under repeated loading and
in the slab and application of a fatigue equation. Fatigue equations, propagate progressively until failure occurs. In summary, current
also referred to as SN curves [112], relate the applied stress ratio empirical methods for fatigue damage analysis do not account
(tensile bending stress divided by concrete exural strength) to the for the specimen geometry or boundary condition effects, the pro-
allowable repetitions until material failure. Miners Hypothesis has gressive crack growth, and the materials fracture resistance.
been used for decades to linearly sum the fatigue damage of indi- In the present paper, a fracture-based method to predict the fa-
vidual events that occur at different stress levels such that the tigue crack growth of small-scale specimens is extended to predict
damage at failure is less than or equal to 1.0. Beam fatigue the crack propagation in concrete slabs supported by a soil founda-
equations used to predict fatigue life of a slab [2,3,13,14] inher- tion. This new slab fatigue model is then applied to four concrete
slabs tested in cyclic loading at the same load level but different
minimum loads. This methodology allows for the future prediction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 217 265 0218; fax: +1 217 333 1924. of the remaining fatigue life of new and partially-cracked concrete
E-mail address: jroesler@illinois.edu (J. Roesler). slabs for a variety of pavement applications.
Nomenclature
a crack length Pimax ; P imin maximum and minimum vertical actuator load
a0 initial notch length, a0 = 0 for unnotched specimens Ci compliance for cycle i
ac critical crack length C nor
i normalized compliance for cycle i
c1, n1 calibration parameters for fatigue deceleration stage Nc critical number of cycles
c2, n2 calibration parameters for fatigue acceleration stage Ndecc number of cycles on deceleration stage
DKI cycle variation of mode I stress intensity factor Nacc number of cycles on acceleration stage
dimax ; dimin maximum and minimum vertical actuator displacement Nfailure number of cycles to slab failure
2. Background on fracture-based fatigue specimens based on experimental cyclic compliance (Fig. 1a),
which is dened as the ratio between displacement and applied
Application of fracture mechanics offers a promising approach load per fatigue cycle. As is expected, the effective crack length in-
to overcome several limitations associated with SN curves and creases during the fatigue life of a specimen as is schematically
Miners Hypothesis. Initial attempts to use linear elastic fracture shown in Fig. 1b. The instantaneous crack propagation rate (Da/
mechanics [1922] and Paris Law [23,24] had limited success DN) can be calculated as:
due to their dependence on a signicant level of calibration of Da ai aj
the Paris Law with experimental data. Signicant calibration was 1
DN i j
required since use of LEFM ignored the large fracture process zone
present in the concrete during the progressive failure and the where ai and aj are the crack length for cycles i and j, respectively.
dependence of failure on the specimen size. Most researchers agree Fig. 1c shows that the crack propagation rate decreases until the
that concrete shows a quasi-brittle failure response [2529], and crack length reaches a minimum (ac) and then increases up to the
fracture is not dependent on only one parameter (i.e. the critical specimen failure. The crack propagation can be divided into the
stress intensity factor). two stages: deceleration stage and acceleration stage. Subramaniam
The efforts to model the quasi-brittle nature of concrete in fati- et al. [41] concluded that the deceleration stage could be described
gue have been focused on developing equations that consider the by the following equation:
fracture process zone or into combining nonlinear fracture Da
mechanics and Paris Law. Sain and Kishen [30,31] modied C 1 a a0 n1 for a < ac 2
DN
Slowick et al. [32] LEFM-based fatigue equation to account for con-
cretes tensile softening behavior on the fracture process zone. where a is the crack length, a0 is the initial notch, C1 and n1 are cal-
Zhang et al. [33] proposed a semi-analytical model based on a cyc- ibration constants for a given structural geometry, boundary condi-
lic crack bridging law [34] to predict the fatigue cracking behavior tions, and material. The critical crack length (ac), which is dened by
of plain and ber reinforced (FRC) beams. Bazant and Xu [35] em- the inection point on the crack length versus number of fatigue cy-
ployed nonlinear elastic fracture mechanics (NLFM), i.e., the size cles curve (Fig. 1b), was also found to be equal to about the crack
effect model [26], along with the Paris Law to take into account length at the peak monotonic load level [41]. The crack growth
the specimen size effect on the fatigue of concrete. Other research- characteristics in the acceleration stage are governed by the change
ers [36,37] have combined ParisErdogan Law and fractals to pre- in stress intensity factor (DKI) during each load cycle, which is
dict the fatigue life of plain and brous concrete beams. All of these quantitatively dened by Paris Law [23,24]:
advanced approaches for concrete fatigue prediction employ mul- Da
tiple material parameters to better capture the effects of loading C 2 DK I n 2 for a ac 3
DN
and material variation on the specimens fatigue life.
Among the advanced methods which extend Paris Law into where DKI is the stress intensity factor range for each fatigue cycle;
NLFM, is Subramaniam et al. [3841] 2-D fracture-based fatigue C2 and n2 are calibration constants related to the structural geome-
method. This effective crack method, based on the two-parameter try, boundary conditions, and material type. The main advantage of
fracture model [42], calculates the crack propagation in concrete this method over the LEFM and empirical fatigue approach is that it
Log(a/N)
Ci a
a
afailure =C 1( a a0 ) n1
N
Deceleration
Deceleration
Crack
ac propagation
rate a
=C 2( KI ) n 2
Acceleration N
a0 Acceleration
N N a0 a\c afailure a
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1. Schematic of (a) compliance (Ci) measured from fatigue tests; (b) fatigue crack length (a) versus number of cycles (N); (c) crack growth rate versus crack length.
C. Gaedicke et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 31 (2009) 13091317 1311
P min
60 The applied load and displacement history for each fatigue cycle
is collected during the fatigue tests, as is schematically depicted in
40
Fig. 4. The individual slabs compliance is calculated for every fati-
gue cycle, in order to determine the effective crack length and
crack length change per loading cycle. As is shown in Fig. 4 and
20 Eq. (5) below, the compliance is calculated for each loading cycle
P unloaded (C1, . . ., Ci, . . ., Cfailure) as the ratio between the difference of the max-
imum (dimax) and minimum (dimin ) vertical displacement and the
0
0 125 250 375 500 625 750 875 1000 difference between the maximum (P imax ) and minimum (Pimin ) ap-
Time (ms) plied load:
Fig. 2. Shape of the load pulse for T-01: R-value = 0.1, T-04: R-value = 0.4, and T-07/ C i dimax dimin =Pimax Pimin 5
T-07R: R-value = 0.7.
1312 C. Gaedicke et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 31 (2009) 13091317
max
i
min
i
5.1. Crack length and stress intensity factor analysis
i Ci =
P min i
Pmax Pmin
i
T-07 that relates the normalized compliance to the crack length can
1.2
then be developed so that the effective crack length of the experi-
mental slabs can be calculated. The least squared approximation
1.15 between crack length and normalized compliance for this slab con-
guration is the following:
1.1 4 3 2
a 52; 262 C nor 282; 952 C nor 561; 486 C nor
T-04 nor
480; 420 C 14; 9661 7
1.05
Fig. 6. (a) Example of nite element model a slab with a crack length of a = 600 mm and (b) mesh around crack tip.
-3
x 10
(a) 2000 (b) 6
Normalized Stress Intensity Factor, K/P (mm-3/2)
1800 5.5
1600 5
4.5
1400
Crack Length (mm)
4
1200
3.5
1000
3
800
2.5
600
2
400
1.5
200 1
0 0.5
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Normalized Compliance Crack Length (mm)
Fig. 7. Finite element analysis relation between (a) normalized slab compliance and crack length and (b) crack length and normalized stress intensity factor (KI).
of cycles is calculated with Eq. (7) using the normalized slab com- supported beam. A loading pulse that keeps higher minimum
pliances shown in Fig. 5. stresses on the slab-soil system for a longer period of time, such
The diagram of crack length against number of cycles is pre- as in T-07 and T-07R, generates more plastic deformation in the
sented in Fig. 8 for the four slabs. Slabs T-07 and T-07R, which have soil which subsequently increases the stress state in the concrete
signicantly lower fatigue lives, are unloaded the least (i.e., to slabs. Fig. 8 also shows that the effective crack length at which
70 kN) with respect to the other two slabs. In contrast, slab T-04 unstable crack propagation occurs is different for each specimen,
is subjected to a minimum load equal to 40 kN and slab T-01 to i.e. 1450, 620, 920, and 1420 mm, for T-01, T-04, T-07, and
a minimum load equal to 9 kN. Slabs T-01 and T-04 have a signif- T-07R, respectively.
icant plateau section (with a small crack growth rate) compared to
slabs T-07 and T-07R. 5.1.2. Stress intensity factor (DKI)
The crack propagation rate for T-07 and T-07R specimens is The acceleration stage of fatigue crack growth depends on the
much higher, suggesting that the stress range affects the fatigue variation of the stress intensity factor (DKI). A relationship be-
life of the soil-supported concrete slabs differently from a simply tween KI for different crack lengths (a) and applied loads (P) is
1314 C. Gaedicke et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 31 (2009) 13091317
2000 is linear elastic and does not soften or yield under higher stress
states. The application of this equation is valid since Eq. (8) is only
1800
used in the fatigue acceleration stage which starts for crack lengths
T-07R greater than 550 mm.
1600
Eq. (8) is then modied to calculate the change in stress inten-
1400 sity factor, DKI, from the change in the applied load during each fa-
Crack Length (mm)
T-01
1200 tigue cycle and the effective crack length (a) (mm):
T-07 " #
4:98771 102
1000 DK I wPmax P min 1:27894 103 9
2000 a0:788467
800
where Pmax Pmin is the difference between the maximum and
600
minimum load p (N)
during each fatigue cycle, and w is a conversion
400 factor, i.e. w 10=100 to express DKI in MPa m1/2.
T-04
200
5.2. Fatigue data ltering
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 A signicant challenge in the application of the fracture-based
Number of Cycles fatigue model for slabs is to explain the inherent variability of
the experimental slab fatigue results. As can be observed in
Fig. 8. Crack length versus loading cycles on slab specimens.
Fig. 8, the crack length plots show cyclic variation, which is typical
in fatigue tests. The calculation of the crack propagation rates (Da/
therefore needed. The applied stress intensity factor (KI) is calcu- DN) using Eq. (1) would require choosing certain crack lengths and
lated from the nite element model using contour integrals around loading cycle numbers (i.e. ai, aj, i, j). As a result, the calculated
the crack tip to determine the J-Integral. Collapsed C3D20R brick propagation rate would depend on how cycles i and j are chosen,
elements with quarter point nodes are used around the crack tip which means that Da/DN calculated using small cycle increments
to ensure the contour integral convergence. The stress intensity would be different to Da/DN computed from larger cycle intervals.
factor is calculated for each crack length as the average of the Hence, the method would not be consistent which would limit the
stress intensity factors for the 3rd, 4th and 5th contour. The varia- applicability of the fracture-based fatigue method to concrete
tion between these three contours is on average less than 0.1 slabs. In order to overcome this limitation, an intermediate step
percent. is added to t the calculated crack lengths with a smooth continu-
The relationship between the stress intensity factor and crack ous function. The following logistic function [43] relating the crack
length derived from the FEM models is shown in Fig. 7b. The equa- length and loading cycles is chosen to improve the stability of the
tion that relates the normalized (KI/P) Mode I stress intensity factor crack growth rate calculations:
(mm3/2) to a given crack length (a, in mm) is the following:
bN
2 a s ln 10
4:98771 10 Nm2 bm1
K I =P 1:27894 103 0:788467
8
2000 a
where a is the crack length, N is the loading cycle number, b, m1, m2
This equation was specically derived based on the FEM model re- and s are experimental calibration constants. As is demonstrated in
sults in the range of 400 < a < 2000 mm, as it is meant to be used for Fig. 9a for slab T-01, the effective crack length versus number of
the acceleration stage which starts for crack lengths greater than loading cycles can be accurately represented using the above func-
550 mm. The stress intensity factor decreases slightly with an in- tion. The diagrams of crack length versus number of loading cycles
crease in crack length for initial crack lengths less than 400 mm for all slabs are shown in Fig. 9b based on the predictive equation.
due to the geometry of the slab and the assumption that the soil The continuous Eq. (10) for crack length versus fatigue cycles
2000 2000
(a) (b) T-01
1800 1800 T-04
T- 07R T-07
1600 1600
T-07R
1400 1400
Crack Length (mm)
T- 01
Crack Length (mm)
T- 07
1200 1200
a
c
1000 1000
800 800
600
T- 04
Deceleration Acceleration 600
400 400
Experimental - T-01
200 Predicted by S-Curve 200
Nc
0 0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
Number of Cycles Number of Cycles
Fig. 9. (a) Raw and ltered crack length versus number of cycles curves for slab T-01; (b) idealized crack length versus loading cycles for all slab specimens.
C. Gaedicke et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 31 (2009) 13091317 1315
enables the calculation of the crack propagation rate as the rst Table 1
derivative of Eq. (10): Slab fatigue data, calibrated parameters, and fracture-based fatigue model
predictions.
da bm2 m1 s
11 T-01 T-04 T-07 T-07R
dN b Nbm1 Nm2
Measured fatigue values
The use of Eq. (11) instead of Eq. (1) standardizes the process and ac (mm) 1084 557 790 1225
eliminates user subjectivity in choosing discrete crack lengths and Nc = Ndecc 31,682 13,191 2341 2795
Nacc 30,158 13,049 2043 2645
cycle numbers. Nfailure 61,840 26,240 4384 5440
Fig. 10 shows the relationship between the crack growth rate Nc/Nfailure 0.512 0.503 0.534 0.514
(logarithmic scale) and the crack length. In this gure, the mini- Fatigue parametersa
mum crack growth rate (shown as a negative value) represents c1 1.28E+18 3.37E+14 2.29E+12 5.61E+14
the critical crack length (ac), which is the transition between decel- n1 6.740 6.110 4.688 5.150
erating and accelerating crack growth. As shown in Fig. 10, speci- c2 1.68E27 1.57E101 1.71E49 3.29E12
n2 40.605 173.147 81.487 17.122
mens T-01 and T-04 have lower crack propagation rates (given
by lower negative values) compared to T-07 and T-07R, which is Predicted fatigue values
Nc = Ndecc 31,229 13,914 2325 2851
consistent with their longer fatigue life. The critical crack length
Nacc 30,053 15,800 2277 3081
(ac) and critical number of loading cycles (Nc) are obtained by set- Nfailure 61,283 29,714 4601 5931
ting the second derivative of Eq. (10) to zero. The equation for the Nc/Nfailure 0.510 0.468 0.505 0.481
critical crack length is: Prediction error (%) 0.9 13.2 5.0 9.0
ac s ln1=m2 12 a
Fatigue parameters are presented in for a in mm and DKI in MPa m0.5.
(a) 1 (b) 1
T-01 T-01
T-04 T-04
0.5 0.5
T-07 T-07
T-07R T-07R
0 0
T- 07
T- 07R
T- 07
-0.5 -0.5
T- 07R
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
T- 01 T- 04 T- 01
T- 04
-2 -2
-2.5 -2.5
2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 0.55 0.575 0.6 0.625 0.65 0.675
Log Crack Length, (log(mm)) Log (KI), (log(MPa m )) 0.5
Fig. 11. (a) Calibration of the Fatigue deceleration coefcients by linear regression; (b) calibration of the fatigue acceleration coefcients by linear regression.
Z ac
1 traditional SN curve approaches for slab fatigue predictions such
N Ndecc Nacc da
C 1 a a0 n1a0 as calculation of the progressive cracking in the slab, use of fracture
Z a mechanics to explain crack growth, and the ability to analyze the
1
n h ion2 da effects of partial depth cracks. The new method is able to predict
4:98771102
ac C 2 wPmax Pmin 1:27894 103 2000a 0:788467 the fatigue life of large-scale concrete slabs on ground subjected
16 to different fatigue load pulses. The validity of the slab fatigue
model has been assessed by examining two independent slab fati-
These integrals can be evaluated numerically using Mathemat- gue tests with the same geometry, concrete material, and load
ica, and the predicted fatigue cycles for slabs T-01, T-04, T-07 and pulse shape.
T-07R, are compared to the actual fatigue life of the specimens. The Several unique features of the proposed slab fatigue model are
predicted fatigue obtained using calibrated parameters for each the calculation of the effective elastic crack length against the
specimen (c1, n1, c2, n2, ac) is very similar to the actual fatigue life number of fatigue cycles from the measured slab compliance data
for each specimen. The low prediction errors shown in Table 1 con- and the application of a calibrated logistic function to calculate the
rm the validity of the proposed method along with the accuracy crack propagation rate and critical crack length resulting in a more
of the experimental calibration. accurate determination of the deceleration and acceleration phases
The proposed model is also used to explain the slab fatigue test of fatigue crack growth. The analysis shows that load pulses that
results (similar to T-01) conducted by Roesler et al. [16,17] by keep a higher minimum load between peak loads tend to generate
employing specimens with similar geometry and concrete materi- larger crack growth rates in slabs. Higher sustained loads for a
als that never failed during cyclic loading. The rst slab, identied longer period of time increase the stress state in the soil (stress
as T5 in Ref. [17], was subjected to the same pulse shape as T-01, softening behavior), prevent recovery of the soil, and nally induce
but with maximum and minimum applied loads equal to 78.73 higher stresses in the concrete slab. This new model has the poten-
and 6.67 kN, respectively. This slab specimen did not fail in fatigue tial to be applied to determine the remaining life of uncracked or
even after 594.7 103 cycles, which is consistent with the model partially-cracked concrete pavement slabs.
that predicted 1.39 107 to failure under those load conditions.
For a second slab subjected to maximum and minimum applied
Acknowledgements
loads equal to 44.9 and 4.4 kN (see Ref. [16]), the model predicted
3.07 1010 loading cycles up to failure. This prediction was consis-
This paper was prepared from a study conducted in the Center
tent with the fatigue test on this slab, which resisted 610.6 103
of Excellence for Airport Technology (CEAT), funded in part by the
loading cycles without fatigue failure. These independent conr-
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The CEAT is maintained at
mations show that the model can predict the conditions under
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign with partners at
which concrete slabs show high fatigue endurance limit. Fatigue
Northwestern University. The contents of this paper reect the
tests with different slab geometries, soil properties, initial notch
views of the authors who are responsible for the facts and accuracy
lengths, or applied load location would require different geometric
of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily re-
factors to calculate the crack length versus compliance and stress
ect the ofcial views and policies of the FAA. This paper does
intensity factor given a similar calibration process was employed.
not constitute a standard, specication, or regulation.
Extrapolation of this particular slab fatigue model to other slab
geometries and material properties can result in predictive errors.
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