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Deformation(engineering)
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Inmaterialsscience,deformationreferstoanychangesintheshapeorsizeofanobjectdue
to

anappliedforce(thedeformationenergyinthiscaseistransferredthroughwork)or
achangeintemperature(thedeformationenergyinthiscaseistransferredthrough
heat).

Thefirstcasecanbearesultoftensile(pulling)forces,compressive(pushing)forces,shear,
bendingortorsion(twisting).

Inthesecondcase,themostsignificantfactor,whichisdeterminedbythetemperature,isthe Compressive
mobilityofthestructuraldefectssuchasgrainboundaries,pointvacancies,lineandscrew stressresultsin
dislocations,stackingfaultsandtwinsinbothcrystallineandnoncrystallinesolids.The deformation
movementordisplacementofsuchmobiledefectsisthermallyactivated,andthuslimitedby whichshortens
theobjectbut
therateofatomicdiffusion.[1][2]
alsoexpandsit
Deformationisoftendescribedasstrain. outwards.

Asdeformationoccurs,internalintermolecularforcesarisethatopposetheappliedforce.Iftheappliedforceis
nottoogreattheseforcesmaybesufficienttocompletelyresisttheappliedforceandallowtheobjecttoassumea
newequilibriumstateandtoreturntoitsoriginalstatewhentheloadisremoved.Alargerappliedforcemaylead
toapermanentdeformationoftheobjectoreventoitsstructuralfailure.

Inthefigureitcanbeseenthatthecompressiveloading(indicatedbythearrow)hascauseddeformationinthe
cylindersothattheoriginalshape(dashedlines)haschanged(deformed)intoonewithbulgingsides.Thesides
bulgebecausethematerial,althoughstrongenoughtonotcrackorotherwisefail,isnotstrongenoughtosupport
theloadwithoutchange,thusthematerialisforcedoutlaterally.Internalforces(inthiscaseatrightanglestothe
deformation)resisttheappliedload.

Theconceptofarigidbodycanbeappliedifthedeformationisnegligible.

Contents
1 Typesofdeformation
1.1 Elasticdeformation
1.2 Plasticdeformation
1.2.1 Metalfatigue
1.2.2 Compressivefailure
1.3 Fracture
2 Misconceptions
3 Seealso
4 References
5 Externallinks

Typesofdeformation
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Dependingonthetypeofmaterial,sizeandgeometryoftheobject,andtheforcesapplied,varioustypesof
deformationmayresult.Theimagetotherightshowstheengineeringstressvs.straindiagramforatypicalductile
materialsuchassteel.Differentdeformationmodesmayoccurunderdifferentconditions,ascanbedepictedusing
adeformationmechanismmap.

Elasticdeformation

Thistypeofdeformationisreversible.
Oncetheforcesarenolongerapplied,
theobjectreturnstoitsoriginalshape.
Elastomersandshapememorymetals
suchasNitinolexhibitlargeelastic
deformationranges,asdoesrubber.
Howeverelasticityisnonlinearinthese
materials.Normalmetals,ceramicsand
mostcrystalsshowlinearelasticityand
asmallerelasticrange.

Linearelasticdeformationisgoverned
byHooke'slaw,whichstates:

Typicalstressvs.straindiagramindicatingthevariousstagesofdeformation.
Where istheappliedstress, isa
materialconstantcalledYoung'smodulusorelasticmodulus,andistheresultingstrain.Thisrelationshiponly
appliesintheelasticrangeandindicatesthattheslopeofthestressvs.straincurvecanbeusedtofindYoung's
modulus( ).Engineersoftenusethiscalculationintensiletests.Theelasticrangeendswhenthematerialreaches
itsyieldstrength.Atthispointplasticdeformationbegins.

Notethatnotallelasticmaterialsundergolinearelasticdeformationsome,suchasconcrete,graycastiron,and
manypolymers,respondinanonlinearfashion.ForthesematerialsHooke'slawisinapplicable.[3]

Plasticdeformation

Thistypeofdeformationisirreversible.However,anobjectintheplasticdeformationrangewillfirsthave
undergoneelasticdeformation,whichisreversible,sotheobjectwillreturnpartwaytoitsoriginalshape.Soft
thermoplasticshavearatherlargeplasticdeformationrangeasdoductilemetalssuchascopper,silver,andgold.
Steeldoes,too,butnotcastiron.Hardthermosettingplastics,rubber,crystals,andceramicshaveminimalplastic
deformationranges.Anexampleofamaterialwithalargeplasticdeformationrangeiswetchewinggum,which
canbestretcheddozensoftimesitsoriginallength.

Undertensilestress,plasticdeformationischaracterizedbyastrainhardeningregionandaneckingregionand
finally,fracture(alsocalledrupture).Duringstrainhardeningthematerialbecomesstrongerthroughthemovement
ofatomicdislocations.Theneckingphaseisindicatedbyareductionincrosssectionalareaofthespecimen.
Neckingbeginsaftertheultimatestrengthisreached.Duringnecking,thematerialcannolongerwithstandthe
maximumstressandthestraininthespecimenrapidlyincreases.Plasticdeformationendswiththefractureofthe
material.

Metalfatigue

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Anotherdeformationmechanismismetalfatigue,whichoccursprimarilyinductilemetals.Itwasoriginally
thoughtthatamaterialdeformedonlywithintheelasticrangereturnedcompletelytoitsoriginalstateoncethe
forceswereremoved.However,faultsareintroducedatthemolecularlevelwitheachdeformation.Aftermany
deformations,crackswillbegintoappear,followedsoonafterbyafracture,withnoapparentplasticdeformation
inbetween.Dependingonthematerial,shape,andhowclosetotheelasticlimititisdeformed,failuremayrequire
thousands,millions,billions,ortrillionsofdeformations.

Metalfatiguehasbeenamajorcauseofaircraftfailure,especiallybeforetheprocesswaswellunderstood(see,for
example,theDeHavillandCometaccidents).Therearetwowaystodeterminewhenapartisindangerofmetal
fatigueeitherpredictwhenfailurewilloccurduetothematerial/force/shape/iterationcombination,andreplacethe
vulnerablematerialsbeforethisoccurs,orperforminspectionstodetectthemicroscopiccracksandperform
replacementoncetheyoccur.Selectionofmaterialsnotlikelytosufferfrommetalfatigueduringthelifeofthe
productisthebestsolution,butnotalwayspossible.Avoidingshapeswithsharpcornerslimitsmetalfatigueby
reducingstressconcentrations,butdoesnoteliminateit.

Compressivefailure

Usually,compressivestressappliedtobars,columns,etc.leads
toshortening.

Loadingastructuralelementorspecimenwillincreasethe
compressivestressuntilitreachesitscompressivestrength.
Accordingtothepropertiesofthematerial,failuremodesare
yieldingformaterialswithductilebehavior(mostmetals,some
soilsandplastics)orrupturingforbrittlebehavior
(geomaterials,castiron,glass,etc.).
Diagramofastressstraincurve,showingthe
Inlong,slenderstructuralelementssuchascolumnsortruss relationshipbetweenstress(forceapplied)and
barsanincreaseofcompressiveforceFleadstostructural strain(deformation)ofaductilemetal.
failureduetobucklingatlowerstressthanthecompressive
strength.

Fracture

Thistypeofdeformationisalsoirreversible.Abreakoccursafterthematerialhasreachedtheendoftheelastic,
andthenplastic,deformationranges.Atthispointforcesaccumulateuntiltheyaresufficienttocauseafracture.
Allmaterialswilleventuallyfracture,ifsufficientforcesareapplied.

Misconceptions
Apopularmisconceptionisthatallmaterialsthatbendare"weak"andthosethatdon'tare"strong".Inreality,
manymaterialsthatundergolargeelasticandplasticdeformations,suchassteel,areabletoabsorbstressesthat
wouldcausebrittlematerials,suchasglass,withminimalplasticdeformationranges,tobreak.[4]

Seealso
Artificialcranialdeformation Deformablebody
Buffstrength Deformation(mechanics)
Creep(deformation) Deformationmechanismmaps
Deflection(engineering) DeformationMonitoring
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Deformationretract Plasticity(physics)
Deformationtheory Poisson'sratio
DiscontinuousDeformationAnalysis Straintensor
Elastic Strengthofmaterials
Finitedeformationtensors Woodwarping
Malleability
Planardeformationfeatures

References
1.Davidge,R.W.,MechanicalBehaviorofCeramics,CambridgeSolidStateScienceSeries,Eds.Clarke,D.R.,etal.
(1979)
2.Zarzycki,J.,GlassesandtheVitreousState,CambridgeSolidStateScienceSeries,Eds.Clarke,D.R.,etal.(1991)
3.FundamentalsofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,WilliamD.Callister,JohnWileyandSons,2ndInternational
edition(September3,2004),ISBN0471660817,ISBN9780471660811,p.184
4.PeterRice,HughDutton(1995).Structuralglass(https://books.google.com/books?id=7t9wgJEUWHYC&pg=PA33).
Taylor&Francis.p.33.ISBN0419199403.

Externallinks
Tableofdeformationmechanismsandprocesses(http://virtualexplorer.com.au/special/meansvolume/contrib
s/jessell/glossary/defmech.html)

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