I.
Mist a very thin fog
Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor.
Sublimation the process of ice (solid particles) to turn directly in vapor without first turning into
the liquid.
Transpiration process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on
the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere. Gluttation
loss of water in liquid form from the uninjured leaf or stem of the plant, principally through water
stomata.
Factors that determine transpiration rates:
1. Temperature transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, esp. during the
growing season
2. Relative humidity as the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the
transpiration rate falls.
3. Wind and air movement increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a
higher transpiration rate
4. Soil-moisture availability when moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce
(premature ageing which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water.
5. Type of plant plants transpire water at different rates.
Evapotranspiration sum of evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation from surface-water
bodies, even the oceans. It is the defined as the water lost to the atmosphere from the ground
surface, evaporation from the capillary fringe of the groundwater table, and the transpiration of
groundwater by plants whose roots tap the capillary fringe of the groundwater table.
Data Management the ultimate goal of data collection in hydrology, be it precipitation
measurements, water-level recordings, discharge gaugings, groundwater monitoring and water
quality sampling, is to provide a set of sufficient good quality data that can be used in decision
making in all aspects of water resources management, in the wide range of operational
applications as well as in research.
II.
Hydrology - is a branch of Earth Science. It is the science, which deals with the occurrence,
distribution and disposal of water on the planet earth; it is the science which deals with the various
phases of the hydrologic cycle. It is the study of water in all its forms and from all its origin to all
its destinations on earth.
The hydrologic cycle, also known as global water cycle or the H2O cycle, is a conceptual model
that describes the storage and movement of water between the biosphere, atmosphere,
lithosphere, and the hydrosphere. It is a continuous process by which water is transported from
the oceans to the atmosphere to the land and back to the sea.
Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all forms of water particles fall from the
atmosphere and reach the ground. There are two sub-processes that cause clouds to release
precipitation, the coalescence process and the ice-crystal process.
Forms of Precipitation
1. Drizzle a light steady rain in fine drops (0.5 mm) and intensity <1mm/hr
2. Rain the condensed water vapor of the atmosphere falling in drops (>0.5mm, max
size6mm) from the clouds
3. Sleet frozen rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing temperature.
4. Fog a thin cloud of varying size formed at the surface of the earth by condensation of
atmospheric vapor (interfering with visibility)
5. Dew moisture condensed from the atmosphere in small drops upon cool surfaces
6.
7. Snow ice crystals resulting from sublimation
8. Snowflakes ice crystals fused together
9. Hail small lump of ice (<5mm in diameter) formed by alternate freezing and melting,
when they are carried up and down in highly turbulent air currents
10. Freezing rain rain that falls as a liquid but freezes into glaze upon contact with the
ground
Mechanism of Precipitation Development
1. Collision-Coalescence Process
The collision-coalescence process is an important mechanism in forming raindrops in warmer
clouds. In this process tiny droplets form as they collide into one another creating larger and
larger droplets.
2.Bergeron-Findeisen Process
Also known as the cold rain or ice crystal process the formation of precipitation in the clouds of
the mid and upper latitudes by ice crystal growth. These small, often microscopic crystals attract
more water vapor, causing them to increase in size. As the ice crystals increase in size, the vapor
pressure drops.
Type of Precipitation
1. Thermal Convection (convectional precipitation) in the form of local whirling thunder
storms and is typical of the tropics. When accompanied by destructive winds, they are
called tornados.
2. Frontal precipitation when two air masses due to contrasting temperatures and densities
clash with each other, condensation and precipitation occur at the surface of contact. This
surface of contact is called a front or frontal surface. Occlusion is when cold fronts move
faster than warm fronts and usually overtake them, the frontal surfaces f cold and warm air
sliding against each other. The resulting frontal surface is called an occluded front.
3. Orographic lifting (orographic precipitation) the mechanical lifting of moist air over
mountain barriers, causes heavy precipitation on the windward side
Measurement of Precipitation
Rain gauge is a type of instrument used by meteorologist and hydrologists to measure rainfall
rate in a certain period of time. Rain gauges are also known as udometer, pluviometer and
ombrometer. Two type of rain gauges is non recording and recording type.
Non recording type rain gauge (Symons Rain Gauge) is most common type gauge used by
meteorological department. It consists of a cylindrical vessel 127mm in diameter with a base
enlarged to 210mm diameter.
Recording type rain gauge (tipping bucket rain gauge) consists of cylindrical receiver 30cm
diameter with a funnel inside.
Weighing type rain gauge when a certain weight of rainfall is collected in a tank, which rests on
a spring-level balance, it makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum.
Float type rain gauge - In this type, as the rain is collected in a float chamber, the float moves up
which makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum.
Radar- A weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion,
estimate its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position and intensity. Weather
radars are mostly Doppler radars, capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to
intensity of the precipitation. Both types of data can be analyzed to determine the structure of
storms and their potential to cause severe weather.
Streamflow Gravity movement of water in channels, it may be surface and subsurface flow which
is affected by climate, land cover, soil type, etc.
Classification of Streams
1. Influent Streams If the GWT is below the bed of the stream, the seepage from the stream
feeds the ground water resulting in the buildup of water mound
2. Effluent streams - When the GWT is above water surface elevation in the stream, the ground
water feeds the stream.
3. Intermittent streams - If the GWT lies above the bed of the stream during the wet season but
drops below the bed during the dry season, the stream flows during wet season (due to
surface runoff and ground water contribution) but becomes dry during seasons
4. perennial streams - even in the most severe droughts, the GWT never drops below the bed
of the stream and therefore they flow throughout the year. For power development a
perennial stream is the best; power can also be generated from intermittent streams by
providing adequate storage facilities.
Sources of Stream Flow
1. Channel precipitation is the moisture falling directly on the water surface, and in most
streams, it adds very little to discharge. Groundwater, on the other hand, is a major source
of discharge, and in large streams, it accounts for the bulk of the average daily flow.
2. Groundwater enters the streambed where the channel intersects the water table, providing
a steady supply of water, termed base flow, during both dry and rainy periods. Because of
the large supply of groundwater available to the streams and the slowness of the response
of groundwater to precipitation events, base flow changes only gradually over time, and it is
rarely the main cause of flooding. However, it does contribute to flooding by providing a stage
onto which runoff from other sources is superimposed.
3. Interflow is water that infiltrates the soil and then moves laterally to the stream channel in
the zone above the water table. Much of this water is transmitted within the soil itself, some
of it moving within the horizons. Next to base flow, it is the most important source of
discharge for streams in forested lands. Overland flow in heavily forested areas makes
negligible contributions to streamflow.
4. In dry regions, cultivated, and urbanized areas, overland flow is usually a major source of
streamflow. Overland flow is a storm water runoff that begins as thin layer of water that
moves very slowly (typically less than 0.25 feet per second) over the ground. Under intensive
rainfall and in the absence of barriers such as rough ground, vegetation, and absorbing soil,
it can mount up, rapidly reaching stream channels in minutes and causing sudden rises in
discharge.
Methods of forecasting streamflow
1. Unit Hydrograph Method. This method involves building a graph in which the discharge
generated by a rainstorm of a given size is plotted over time, usually hours or days. It is called
the unit hydrograph method because it addresses only the runoff produced by a particular
rainstorm in a specified period of time- the time taken for a river to rise, peak, and fall in
response to a storm.
2. Magnitude and frequency method. For large basins, where unit hydrograph might not be
useful and reliable, the magnitude and frequency method is used to calculate the probability
of recurrence of large flows based on records of past years flows.
III.
River routing. Routing is a technique used to predict the changes in shape of a hydrograph as
water moves through a river channel or a reservoir.
Reservoir Routing - involves the application of the continuity equation to a storage facility in which
the storage volume for a particular geometry is a dependant only on the outflow.
Computer simulation - Also known as Computer model, which is a computer program that
attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system.
Computer programs for hydrologic modeling:
TR-20 ("Technical Release No.20")
Computes direct runoff from a rainstorm, Generates flood hydrographs from surface runoff.
TR-55 ("Technical Release No.55")
Calculate the Storm runoff volume, Peak rate of discharge, hydrographs, storage volumes
IV.
Hydrograph is a graph showing changes in water discharge over a period of time for a given point
on a channel or conduit, is commonly used in many engineering applications.
COMPONENTS OF HYDROGRAPH
1. Rising limb: The rising limb of hydro graph, also known as concentration curve, reflects a
prolonged increase in discharge from a catchment area, typically in response to a rainfall
event.
2. Recession (or falling) limb: The recession limb extends from the peak flow rate onward. The
end of stormflow (aka quick flow or direct runoff) and the return to groundwater-derived
flow (base flow) is often taken as the point of inflection of the recession limb.
3. Peak discharge or Crest: the highest point on the hydro graph when the rate of discharge is
greatest.
Classification of Hydrographs:
1. Annual Hydrograph Shows the long term water balance in a watershed with a relation
between discharge and time over the year.
Annual hydrographs may be:
a. Perennials have continuous flow over the year which is typical of a humid climate, and most
of the basin yield comes from the subsurface flow indicating that a large proportion of rainfall
is infiltrated into the basin and reaches the channel as groundwater.
b. Ephemerals are typically found in arid climates with long periods when the channel is dry
indicating that the groundwater table is considerably below the channel bed. Basin yield from
this watershed is the result of runoff from large storms.
c. Snow-fed has a basin yield occurring mainly in spring and early summer from snowmelt. The
large volume of water stored as snow and its steady release develop smoother flow variations
over the year than for the perennial or ephemeral.
2. Storm Hydrograph Shows the effects of a particular rainfall event on the discharge of a
channel.
Baseflow indicates the groundwater contribution, and direct runoff indicates the runoff caused
by excess rainfall.
The simplest method for the separation of baseflow and direct runoff is by drawing a straight line
from B to D. (Straight-Line Method)
Discharge: the rate of flow (volume per unit time) passing a specific location in a river or other
channel.
Lag time: the time interval from the center of mass of rainfall excess to the peak of the resulting
hydrograph.
Time to peak: time interval from the start of the resulting hydro graph.
Time base of the hydrograph is defined as the time duration within which the storm hydrograph
occurs. The time of concentration is defined here as the flow time from the most remote point in
the drainage area to the outlet.
Time base = time duration of rainfall event producing storm hydrograph + time of concentration
for the drainage area
A unit hydrograph is the hydrograph of direct water surface runoff that results from a total depth
of one unit of excess rainfall (e.g., 1 in, 1 mm, etc.) uniformly distributed over the basin and
occurring within a specified duration of time.
Runoff is that balance of rain water, which flows or runs over the natural ground surface after
losses by evaporation, interception and infiltration.
Runoff is quantity of water discharged in surface streams.
The yield of a catchment (usually means annual yield) - is the net quantity of water available for
storage, after all losses, for the purposes of water resources utilization and planning, like irrigation,
water supply, etc.
Maximum flood discharge - It is the discharge in times of flooding of the catchment area, i.e.,
when the intensity of rainfall is greatest and the condition of the catchment regarding humidity is
also favorable for an appreciable runoff.
The runoff from rainfall may be estimated by the following methods:
1. Empirical formulae, curves and tables Several empirical formulae, curves and tables relating
to the rainfall and runoff have been developed as follows:
R=aP+b
R=aPn
R = 0.85P + 30.5
2. Infiltration method By deducting the infiltration loss, i.e., the area under the infiltration
curve, from the total precipitation or by the use of infiltration indices, which are already
discussed. These methods are largely empirical and the derived values are applicable only
when the rainfall characteristics and the initial soil moisture conditions are identical to those
for which these are derived.
Runoff = Total Precipitation Infiltration loss
3. Rational method A rational approach is to obtain the yield of a catchment by assuming a
suitable runoff coefficient.
Yield = CAP
4. Overland flow hydrograph Overland flow occurs as a thin sheet of water over the ground
surface (soon after a storm starts), joins a stream channel, and then flows in the channel to
the concentration point. Overland flow is relatively slow and is the dominant type of flow in
the case of very small areas such as air ports, municipal block areas and flow from broad
surfaces into storm drains and gutters.
Overland flow is essentially a uniform flow over the surface as developed by C.F. Izzard
(1948). The Reynolds number
5. Unit hydrograph method The hydrograph of direct surface discharge measured at the outlet of
drainage area, which produces a unit depth of direct runoff resulting from a unit storm of specified
duration (called unit period) is called a unit hydrograph of that duration. The unit hydrograph
method was first proposed by L.K. Sherman in 1932. The area under the hydrograph represents a
direct runoff of 1 cm.
6. Coaxial Graphical Correlation and API
Factors Affecting Snowmelt
1. Solar Radiation - Depends on Reflectivity or Albedo
2. Heat from warm Air Turbulence resulting to speedy wind bringing large quantities of warm air
3. Rainfall
Degree-day factors - Defined as a departure of 1 degree in mean daily temperature above 32F.
Depth of water melted from the snow in inches or millimeter per degree-day May be determined
by dividing the volume of stream flow produced by melting snow within a given time period by the
total degree days for the period. Usually ranging from 0.05-0.15in/Degree-F with an average value
of 0.08in/Degree-F. Ranges from 2-7mm/Degree-C day
V.
Groundwater is water that exists in the pore spaces and fractures in rocks and sediments beneath
the Earths surface. It originates as rainfall or snow, and then moves through the soil and rock into
the groundwater system, where it eventually makes its way back to the surface streams, lakes, or
oceans.
Sources Of Groundwater:
1. Connate water refers to the liquids trapped within sedimentary rocks. This happens as the
rocks go through the process of sedimentation.
2. Meteoric water is the water derived from precipitation (snow and rain). This includes water
from lakes, rivers, and ice melts, which all originate from precipitation indirectly.
3. Juvenile water also called magmatic water is water that exists within, and in equilibrium
with, a magma or water-rich volatile fluids that are derived from a magma. This magmatic
water is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption.
4. Condensational water This water is mainly the source of replenishment of ground waters
particularly in desert and semi deserts, where the precipitation is scanty and there is rapid
evaporation.
Occurrence of Groundwater
Soil moisture zone The shallowest layer of the unsaturated zone, it contains the moisture utilized
by plants
Zone of aeration Area above water table unsaturated with water and openings filled primarily
with air.
A perched water table Is an accumulation of groundwater located above a water table in an
unsaturated zone.
Water table Top surface of the saturated zone.
Capillary zone/fringe The zone immediately above the saturated zone where combination of the
size of the pores between soil and rock grains and the attraction of the soil to water causes water
to move upward from the saturated zone.
Saturated zone The zone where all the pore spaces and fractures between soil and rock particles
are saturated with water.
Aquifer is a body of saturated rock through which water can easily move.
1. Unconfined aquifer aquifer with a lower barrier to movement caused by the presence
of an aquiclude below, but not an upper barrier allowing water to fluctuate over
distances upwards
2. Confined aquifer aquifer with a lower and upper barrier for movement.Tthere is an
aquiclude located immediately above and below the aquifer
Porosity is the percent of volume that is void space. Somewhat related to void ratio . It the ratio
of volume of voids over the total volume.
Permeability is the ease in which water will flow through a porous material.
Water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. Describe the boundary between
water-saturated ground and unsaturated ground. The water table separates the groundwater
zone that lies below it from the zone of aeration that lies above it.
Groundwater recharge - Water that seeps into an aquifer is known as recharge. Recharge comes
from a variety of sources, including seepage from rain and snow melt, streams and groundwater
flow from other areas. Recharge occurs where permeable soil allows water to seep into the
ground. Stream that recharge groundwater are called losing streams because they lose water to
the surrounding soil or rock.
Groundwater discharge Groundwater can leave the ground at discharge point. Discharge points
include springs, stream and lake beds, wells, ocean shorelines and wetlands. Streams that receive
groundwater are called gaining streams because they gain water from the surrounding soil or rock.
In times of drought, most of the surface water flow can come from groundwater. Plants can also
contribute to groundwater discharge.
Yield is a measure of how much and how quickly groundwater can be extracted from an aquifer.
Yield is generally higher in large aquifers that have greater storage capacity, well-connected spaces
within the aquifer material (i.e sand or gravel) and where the pressure is high. For those reasons
yield tend to be lower and more inconsistent in the shallow upper aquifers, and better in the
deeper middle and lower aquifers.
Aquifer material and yield The materials of an aquifer is the primary driver of yield. The list below
shows the type of aquifer material in order from most permeable to least permeable or higher
yielding to lower yielding. Gravels, Sands, Fractured basalt and limestone, Silts and clays, Shale
and granites
Basically, a well is a hole drilled into the ground to access water contained in an aquifer. A pipe
and a pump are used to pull water out of the ground, and a screen filters out unwanted particles
that could clog the pipe. Wells come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the type of
material the well is drilled into and how much water is being pumped out.
THREE BASIC TYPES OF WELLS
1. Dug wells were excavated by hand shovel to below the water table until incoming water
exceeded the diggers bailing rate. The well was lined with stones, bricks, tile, or other
material to prevent collapse, and was covered with a cap of wood, stone, or concrete tile.
Because of the type of construction, bored wells can go deeper beneath the water table than
can hand-dug wells. Dug and bored wells have a larger diameter and expose a large area to
the aquifer. These wells are able to obtain water from less permeable materials such as very
fine sand, silt, or clay. Disadvantage of this type of well are that they are shallow and lack
continuous casing and grouting, making them subject to contamination from nearby surface
sources, and they go dry during periods of drought if the water table drops below the well
bottom.
2. Driven wells are constructed by driving a small-diameter pipe into shallow water-bearing
sand or gravel. Usually a screened well point is attached to the bottom of the casing before
driving. These wells are relatively simple and economical to construct, but they can tap only
shallow water and are easily contaminated from nearby surface sources because they are not
sealed with grouting material. Hand-driven wells usually are only around 30 feet deep;
machine driven wells can be 50 feet deep or more.
3. Drilled wells are constructed by either cable tool (percussion) or rotary-drilling machine.
Drilled wells that penetrate unconsolidated materials require installation of casing and a
screen to prevent inflow of sediment and collapse. They can be drilled more than 1000 feet
deep. The space around the casing must be sealed with grouting material of either neat
cement or bentonite clay to prevent contamination by water draining from the surface
downward around the outside of the casing.
Artesian wells -is simply a well that doesnt require a pump to bring water to the surface; this
occur when there is enough pressure in the aquifer. A well in which water rises under pressure
from a permeable stratum overlaid by impermeable rock.
Artesian wells are well from which water flows under natural pressure without pumping. It is dug
or drilled wherever a gently dipping, permeable rock layer (such as sandstone) receive water along
its outcrop at a level higher that the level of surface of the ground at well sites. At the outcrop the
water moves down into the aquifer (water-bearing layer) but prevented from leaving it, by
impermeable rock layer (such as shale) above and below it. Pressure from waters weight
(hydrostatic pressure) forces water to the surface of a well drilled down into the aquifer; the
pressure for the steady up flow is maintained by the continuing penetration of water into the
aquifer at the intake area.
Cone of depression occurs in an aquifer when groundwater is pumped from a well. Pumping from
a well in water table aquifer lower the water table near the well. This area is known as a cone of
depression. The land area above a cone of depression is called the area of influence. Groundwater
floes towards the well into the cone of depression which can change the natural direction of
groundwater flow within the area of influence around the well.
Induced recharge the cone of depression from a well might extend to a nearby stream or lake.
This lower the water table below the stream or lake level. As a result, the stream or lake begin lose
water to the groundwater aquifer near the well. This is known as induced recharge.
Rate of water percolate in the well or yield of a well in m3/hr under ahead of one meter is called
the specific yield of well.
VI.
Frequency Is the number of time that a given magnitude flood may occur in a given period. Flood
frequency analysis uses historical records of peak flows to produce guidance about the expected
behavior of future flooding determination of the design flood.
Two methods of collecting flood peak data:
1. Annual-flood series Is defined as the highest momentary peak discharge in a water year. The
use of only one flood in each year is the most frequent objection to the use of annual floods.
2. Partial duration series
A flood frequency curve can be constructed by plotting a graph of discharge versus probabilities.
This can easily be accomplished provided you have a data set of annual peak discharge measured
over a number of years.
We need to calculate the chronological order of each of the flood. Start by ordering our data
according to the magnitude of the flood, from largest to smallest.
Number each of the floods in order, starting with the largest flood as number 1.
The order of the flood is denoted by the letter m. If you have one hundred years of records, you
will calculate flood orders for m=1, m=2, m=3..m=10.
We find the probabilities of flood by this equation,
P = m / ( n + 1 ) Where: P = probability, m = the number we calculated, n = number of years in the
record
Probabilities will go on the x-axis; and the discharge will go on the y-axis. Title the graph Flood
Frequency Curve.
Draw a best fit line between the data set. The resulting line is the flood frequency curve.
The likelihood of a particular event is calculated from its flood frequency as follows:
F = P x 100
F = [m/ (n+1)] x 100
We also draw graph between Flood Recurrence Interval and Discharge.
The objective of the frequency analysis is to determine the magnitude of the flood which will be
equaled or exceeded once in a specific period of years; this specified period of years is known as
Recurrence Interval.
Recurrence Intervals or Return Period is the time period over which it is likely that a particular
magnitude flood will occur.
The formula for Recurrence Interval is:
F = 1/P
F = (n+1) / m
Construct graph on the semi logarithmic paper.
Recurrence interval will go on the x-axis; and discharge will go on the y-axis.
Methods of estimating maximum flood
(a)Past Flood Marks Method The maximum flood occurred in the past can be estimated from the
flood marks left by flood. These marks are generally in the form of floating debris sticking to the
banks or to walls of the structures at the river bank.
The Inglis Formula: This formula is used only in Maharashtra.
The Meyers formula was developed for the catchment in USA
Envelope Curve Method: It is another method of estimation of peak flow. It is based on the
assumption that highest known peak flow per unit area registered in the past in one basin in a
region may occur in future in another basin in the same region or a region possessing similar
hydrologic characteristics.
Rational Method:
This method is also based on the principle of the relationship between rainfall and runoff and
hence can be considered to be similar to empirical method. It is, however, called rational method
because the units of the quantities used are approximately numerically consis-tent. This method
has become popular because of its simplicity.
Time of concentration: It is the time taken by the rain water falling at the remotest point of the
drainage basin to reach the discharge measurement point.
Rainfall frequency The number of times, during a specified period of years, that precipitation of a
certain magnitude or greater occurs or will occur at a station; numerically, the reciprocal of the
frequency is usually given.
The Precipitation Frequency Data Server (PFDS) is a point-and-click interface developed to deliver
NOAA Atlas 14 precipitation frequency estimates and associated information. Upon clicking a state
on the map or selecting a state name from the drop-down menu, an interactive map of that state
will be displayed. From there, a user can identify a location for which precipitation frequency
estimates are needed.
Estimating Rainfall Quantity for Design
The design of water management systems is based more on extreme values than on average
values. If the mean value is used in the design of an irrigation system then on average, in one out
of every two years there will not be enough water to meet the demands of the crop and yield will
be reduced. If the mean is used in drainage design, then one out of every two years the crops will
be flooded. It is better to use design values with lower associated risk.
Estimating 80% Dependable Rainfall and 80% Maximum Rainfall from mean and standard
If only the mean and standard deviation of monthly rainfall are known, then
80% Dependable Rainfall = Mean - 0.84 x Standard Deviation
80% Maximum Rainfall = Mean + 0.84 x Standard Deviation.
80% Dependable Rainfall The value of period rainfall (monthly, seasonal, etc.) that will be
exceeded 80% of the time. This value ensures that on average, there will be enough water to meet
the crop's need four out of every five years.
80% Maximum Rainfall The value of period rainfall that on average, will not be exceeded 80% of
the time. This value ensures that on average, a drainage system or a sedimentation pond will have
adequate capacity four out of every five years.
Return Period (Recurrence Interval) The frequency with which, on average, a given precipitation
event is equaled or exceeded.
Stochastic hydrology is the statistical branch of hydrology that deals probabilistic modeling of
those hydrological processes which have random components associated with them.
Stochastic hydrologist will suggest appropriate models and means of estimating the parameters
of those model, and will go on to suggest techniques for simulating process and perhaps
performing forecasts using this model.
Stochastics model are used to describe the physical processes that are observed, and about which,
data are recorded.
Mean is sum of the data divided by the number of data
Variance is the average of the squares of the difference of the data from their sample mean
Median is an example of an order statistic, computed by a ranking of data in size from small to
large or vice versa; the median is the middle of the ranked data.
A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged
shortages in its water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought is
when there is a lack of precipitation over an extended period of time, usually a season or more,
resulting in a water shortage for some activity, group, or environmental sector. Drought is caused
by not only lack of precipitation and high temperatures but by overuse and overpopulation," said
David Miskus.
Types of Drought
Common to all droughts is that they originate from a deficiency of precipitation that results in
water shortage for some activity or for some group.
1. Meteorological Drought Measured in terms of the degree of dryness (intensity) and the
duration of the dry period. Region Specific
2. Agricultural Drought Meteorological drought that impacts agriculture. Usually the first
economic sector to be hit. Precipitation shortages, ET, soil moisture, etc Plant water demand
versus available soil moisture
3. Hydrologic Drought Impacts of rainfall shortages on the hydrologic system (groundwater,
rivers, lakes, reservoirs). Communities vary in degree of vulnerability depending on their
water source. Connections between basins, regions affect other regions. Out of phase or lag
meteorological drought
4. Socio-economic drought Demand exceeds supply of some economic product as a result of
weather-related low precipitation event(s) Precipitation or water represents SUPPLY, which
varies by sector, DEMAND can be for products or for the water itself. Occurs more frequently:
change in how often or long a drought occurs, in the vulnerability within society or both
Monitoring Drought
Determine the current status of specific resources
Detect changes and long-term trends
Obtain knowledge of fundamental linkages and processes at work
Enable development and implementation of early warning indicators