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Process Industry
About the Authors
Ji Kleme, H DSC, is one of the key personalities
of the world-leading Centre of Excellence in Process
Integration at the University of Manchester Institute
of Science and Technology in the United Kingdom.
Ji Kleme
Ferenc Friedler
Igor Bulatov
Petar Varbanov
ISBN: 978-0-07-160555-7
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2 Process Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Introduction: The Need for Process
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 What Is Process Integration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 History and Development of Process Integration 12
2.4 Pinch Technology and Targeting Heat
Recovery: The Thermodynamic Roots . . . . . . 14
2.5 Supertargeting: Full-Fledged HEN Targeting 15
2.6 Modifying the Pinch Idea for HEN Retrofit . . 16
2.7 Mass Exchange and Water Networks . . . . . . . 17
2.8 Benefits of Process Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9 The Role of PI in Making Industry Sustainable 20
2.10 Examples of Applied Process Integration . . . . 20
2.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Process Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Model Building and Optimization: General
Framework and Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
v
vi Contents
T
his book describes and analyzes an amalgamation of two
effective ways to considerably improve the efficiency and
sustainability of processing industries: Process Integration
and optimization. It is the result of collaborative efforts by two
groups: researchers at the Centre for Process Integration, the
University of Manchester, UK (a renowned center of excellence in
this field), and the Faculty of Information Technology at the
University of Pannonia, Hungary, as represented by the Centre for
Process Integration and Intensification (CPI2) and the Centre for
Advanced Process Optimization. The University of Pannonia centers
are highly regarded for their achievements in optimization, and the
P-graph and S-graph approaches to process optimization originated
at this university.
The book should provide support for graduate and postgraduate
students worldwide as well as for Continuing Professional
Development (CPD) courses and for practitioners from various fields
of the processing industry. Its chapters analyze a number of problems
of practical significance and also suggest various options for solving
them to the benefit of modern society. The book provides a wealth of
material for postgraduate teaching and further professional training.
It is supported by the expertise stemming from the authors work as
well as by a pool of case studies of varying complexity that have been
collected over the years. This wide-ranging material presented here
has been selected and refined over years of postgraduate teaching,
further CPD courses, and training for the industry. It includes eight
industry-based demonstration case studies and nine testing examples
with the solutions developed. An unbiased evaluation and overview
of the software tools available for learning, teaching, and industrial
applications are also included. Text discussions are complemented
by many figures to clarify details and enhance understanding. The
book contains 14 chapters and a comprehensive bibliography.
Chapter 1 is devoted to introducing and defining the field, and it
also includes a basic assessment of energy efficiency. It starts with
screening and scoping, which include auditing, benchmarking, and
recommendations for good housekeeping. Next it describes an
xv
xvi Preface
Ji Kleme
Ferenc Friedler
Igor Bulatov
Petar Varbanov
Acknowledgments
W
e acknowledge the support from the European
Communityfunded project entitled Integrated Waste to
Energy Management to Prevent Global Warming, or
INEMAGLOW. We would like to thank Prof. Robin Smith and
Mr. Simon Perry from the University of Manchester for numerous
discussions about the finer points of PI and optimization
methodology. We also acknowledge with much gratitude the input
of all collaborators who contributed to this book. Their dedication,
timely responses, and willingness to accept editorial comments and
suggestions are greatly appreciated. We received invaluable help
from the staff of the Faculty of Information Technology at the
University of Pannonia in Hungary: Dr. Rozlia Pigler-Lakner,
Dr. Istvn Heckl, Dr. Boton Bertk, Dr. Zoltn Sle, Mr. Mt
Hegyhti, and Ms. Adrienn Sas. Substantial contributions were also
made by Hon Loong Lam and Zsfia Fodor, Ph.D. students
at CPI2.
Special thanks go to colleagues and close collaborators
worldwide who shared their latest methodologies and case studies.
It would be impossible to list all those involved, but we should like
to mention a few: Prof. L. T. Fan, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA; Dr.
Dominic C. Y. Foo, Department of Chemical and Environmental
Engineering, University of Nottingham, Malaysia Campus; Prof.
Zdravko Kravanja, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,
University of Maribor, Slovenia; Prof. Valentin Plesu, Centre for
Technology Transfer for the Process Industries, Department of
Chemical Engineering, University POLITEHNICA, Bucharest; and
Prof. Petr Stehlk, Brno University of Technology, Institute of
Process and Environmental Engineering, UPEI VUT Brno, the
Czech Republic.
The authors appreciate the editing and production efforts of the
following people: Taisuke Soda, Michael Penn, Stephen Smith,
Richard Ruzycka, and Michael Mulcahy of McGraw-Hill, and
Aloysius Raj and the staff at Newgen.
It has been a great pleasure for us to work with all of you.
xxi
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction and
Definition of
the Field
1.1 Introduction
In recent years there has been increased interest in the development
of renewable, non-carbon-based energy sources in order to combat
the increasing threat of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and subsequent
climatic change. More recently, the fluctuations and often large
increases in the prices of oil and gas have further increased interest
in employing alternative, lower-carbon or non-carbon-based energy
sources. These cost and environmental concerns have led to increases
in the industrial sectors efficiency of energy use, although the use of
renewable energy sources in major industry has been sporadic at
best. In contrast, domestic energy supply has moved more positively
toward the integration of renewable energy sources; this movement
includes solar heating, heat pumps, and wind turbines. However,
there have been only limited and ad hoc attempts to design a
combined energy system that includes both industrial and residential
buildings, and few systematic design techniques have been marshaled
toward the end of producing a symbiotic system.
This book provides an overview of the Process Integration and
optimization methodologies and its application to improving the
energy efficiency of not only industrial but also nonindustrial energy
users. An additional aim is to evaluate how these methodologies can
be adapted to include the integration of waste and renewable energy
sources.
Industrial production requires a considerable and continuous
supply of energy delivered from natural resourcesprincipally in
the form of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. The increase
in our planets human population and its growing nutritional
1
2 Chapter One
The steps listed here have been found by the U.K. Energy Efficiency
Best Practice Programme (EEBPp, 2002) to be central to any resource
and waste management program. Energy screening and scoping
audits fall into three main categories whose use (either individually
or in combination) is based on the required depth of the study, the
process to be analyzed, and the plant size: (1) the walk-through audit,
which provides a quick snapshot of certain opportunities; (2) the
detailed audit, which conducts an in-depth analysis of specific
components; and (3) the Process Integration audit, which analyzes the
plant as a whole and takes a systematic look at all processing steps and
their interconnections.
Audits may be performed by plant personnel, by external experts,
or by teams with members from both groups. Although there are
many possible options and levels of detail, typical activities include
the following (NRCan, 2007):
In terms of the time required for (and other costs of) identifying
opportunities to save energy, one efficient approach is the top-level
analysis (Varbanov et al., 2004). This procedure accounts for investment
limits or allowances and identifies economically justifiable energy-
saving opportunities, listing them in the order of their expected
economic return. Measurements can be performed using portable
instruments (flow rate, temperature, humidity, etc.) to determine the
overall plant production of steam, refrigeration, compressed air, and
hot water. Interviews with key personnel and operators can also
provide valuable information about plant operations.
Introduction and Definition of the Field 7
11
12 Chapter Two
A Whisky Distillery
In a study by Smith and Linnhoff (1988), the authors found that steam
was being used below the Process Pinch; this resulted in unnecessarily
22 Chapter Two
2.11 Summary
This chapter offered an introduction to and an overview of the field
of PI, its HI roots, the expansion of its application areas, and the
evolution of process optimization methods toward combining
PI techniques and insights with the tools of MPR. The chapter
discussed the philosophy of PI as well as its contribution to
sustainable development and the economic efficiency of projects.
There is a wealth of useful information on these topics, and a
number of excellent sources of further information are described in
Chapters 13 and 14.
CHAPTER 3
Process Optimization
T
his chapter deals with process optimization: its definition,
goals, and application areas within sustainable industrial
process design and integration. The aim is to provide
information on how to formulate sustainability tasks as optimization
problems and on what tools to employ for solving them. The chapter
begins with a brief description of the general framework for model
building and optimization; this is followed by basics of optimization
problems and their classes as well as descriptions of the most common
algorithms for solving optimization problems. Finally, the chapter
discusses how to build models efficiently, how to handle complexity,
and how to ensure model adequacy and sufficient precision. The
details of computational implementations of optimization solvers
and other software tools are given in Chapter 9.
3.1 Introduction
Building and operating industrial processes entail costs and
environmental impacts. Emissions and effluents include: gaseous
waste streams, which may harbor CO2, SOx and NOx; wastewater and
various aqueous streams; and flue gases. When attempting to
improve the environmental and economic performance of process
systems, it is important to keep in mind that the processing paths,
which connect the various system inputs and outputs, usually
interact with each other. Therefore, minimizing resource demands
and environmental impacts is greatly facilitated by properly modeling
the process systems and then deciding which designs and operating
policies to pursuein what priority and to what extent.
Maintaining a balance between model accuracy and simplicity is
necessary in order to derive meaningful results with minimal
computational expense. A system model can be created for different
purposes. A lumped steady-state model (i.e., one that neglects
variations in time and space) will contain only algebraic equations.
To simplify the problem, steady-state models assume that the
operating units are black boxes or gray boxes (a black box is a model
that represents an empirical process in terms of its input, output, and
transfer parameters but does not describe any internal physics; a gray
23
24 Chapter Three
factors are linearity and the existence of integer variables. There are
two main reasons for the significance of these factors:
F x * , y * d F x , y , x , y vicinity of x * , y * (3.1)
be used to solve IP and MIP problems. The original large MIP problem
is divided into a number of subproblems, called nodes, which form an
enumeration tree. The algorithm starts from a main node and
progresses toward the so-called leaves, adding nodes to the current
solution or discarding them as necessary. In this process, an important
role is played by the bounding function, which (in the case of objective
minimization) provides a lower bound on the remaining part of the
problem under the current branch. Thus, if the lower bound on the
current subproblem node is higher than the current best solution,
then the algorithm can safely discard (prune) the node and all its
subnodes. More information on IP solving algorithms can be found
in Nemhauser and Wolsey (1999).
BEGIN
YES
Conceptual YES
modeling
Mathematical Need
modeling corrections?
NO
Computational Need
implementation corrections?
NO
END
Other Techniques
There are other approaches and techniques for coping with nonlinear
models. Two of them are of particular interest to practical process
optimization: successive MILP (SMILP), which is used for model
decomposition and solving; and model reformulation.
Successive MILP can be applied to many process engineering
optimization modelsas long as the nonlinearities are not too strong.
One example is the optimization of utility systems, which consist
mainly of a set of steam headers combined with steam turbines, gas
turbines, boilers, and letdowns. Most of the nonlinearities in such
systems are bound to the enthalpy balances of the steam headers, the
steam turbines, and the letdowns. The computational difficulties
imposed by the nonlinearities can be overcome by first fixing the
values of some system properties during optimization (e.g., enthalpies
of steam mains), thereby producing a linear optimization model, and
following this with a rigorous simulation after each optimization
step. The linear optimization steps are repeated, followed again by
simulation, and so on until convergence is achieved; see Figure 3.2.
This procedure converges rapidly when applied to the optimization
of existing utility systems: usually five iterations at most are required
to reach reasonably small error levels.
Model reformulation refers to the symbolic transformation of the
original nonlinear equations into another set of equations that are
equivalent but linear. The resulting set usually contains more
equations than the initial one. One such reformulation technique,
known as the Glover transformation (Floudas 1995), can transform
equations containing the product of a continuous and a binary
variable. The essence of the technique is to replace each term that is a
product of a continuous variable and a binary variable with additional
continuous variables and an additional set of linear inequality
constraints.
Process Optimization 43
BEGIN
Initialization
(+Simulation)
MILP Simulation
Convergence? NO
YES
END
H
eat recovery is widely applied in industrial processes and
has an extensive historical record. However, systematic
methods for performing heat recovery are relatively new
when compared with the age of modern industry.
45
46 Chapter Four
capital cost. In most industries, the bulk of the heat exchange must
occur without mixing the heat-exchanging streams. In order to
exchange only heat while keeping the streams separate, surface heat
exchangers are employed. In these devices, heat is exchanged through
a dividing wall. Because of its high thermal efficiency, the counter-
current stream arrangement is the most common with surface
heat exchangers. To simplify the discussion, counter-current heat
exchangers are assumed unless stated otherwise. In terms of
construction types, the traditional shell-and-tube heat exchanger is
still the most common. However, plate-type and other compact heat
exchangers are gaining increased attention. Their compactness,
together with significant improvements in their resistance to leaking,
have made them preferable in many cases.
Hot part
QHE
Cold part
where QHE [kW] is the heat flow across the whole heat exchanger, U
[kWm2C1] is the overall heat transfer coefficient, A [m2] is the heat
transfer area, and TLM [C] is the logarithmic-mean temperature
difference. More information can be found in Shah and Sekuli
(2003), Tovazshnyansky et al. (2004), and Shilling et al. (2008).
Ambient
Utilities
ng
xcha er Ne
tE t
Separator
arato
wo
ep
He
S r
rk
Feed
Reactor
Reactor
Feed + Product
Product
Steam Turbine
Boiler
Condenser
52C
2080 kW
Column
78C 182C
Reactor 2
1760 kW
H 120C
138C
Reboiler Reactor 1
100C 120C
3240 kW
920 kW 30C
C 34C
FIGURE 4.3 Data extraction: Example process flowsheet (after CPI, 2004 and
2005).
50 Chapter Four
Condenser
52C
2080 kW
Reactor 2
Heating
3840 kW 120C
138C
Reboiler Reactor 1
100C 120C
Cooling
4160 kW Heating
3240 kW
34C
30C
FIGURE 4.4 Data extraction: Heating and cooling demands (after CPI, 2004
and 2005).
150 150
100 100
50 20C 50 10C
CW CW
0 10 20 0 10 20
2 10 4 H [MW] 1 11 3 H [MW]
(a) (b)
T [C] T [C]
182
/C
138
20
138 P2
=
/C
=
+C C
W CP 1 kW/
1
CP
0k 60
=4 78
78 CP
2
34 34
CP1 = 20 kW/C
2080 4160 H [kW] 1760 3600 880 H [kW]
6240 6240
The hot streams plotted separately The composite hot stream
T [C]
200
150
100 Pinch
50
Tmin = 10C
0
H [kW]
Qc,min = 328 Qrec = 5912 Qh,min = 1168
T [C]
200
150
Pinch
50
Tmin = 20C
0
H [kW]
Qc,min = 328 Qrec = 5912 Qh,min = 1168
Qc,min = 728 Qrec = 5512 Qh,min = 1568
COST
Total
Energy
Capital
1 2
Optimum TMIN
T QH,min
PINCH
Qc,min
FIGURE 4.10 Limits for process heat recovery set by the Pinch.
Process Integration for Improving Energy Efficiency 55
The Pinch point divides the heat recovery problem into a net heat
sink above the Pinch point and a net heat source below it (Figure 4.11).
At the Pinch point, the temperature difference between the hot and
cold streams is exactly equal to Tmin, which means that at this point
the streams are not allowed to exchange heat. As a result, the heat
sink above the Pinch is in balance with the minimum hot utility
(QH,min) and the heat source below the Pinch is in balance with the
minimum cold utility (QC,min), while no heat is transferred across the
Pinch via utilities or via process-to-process heat transfer.
No heat can be transferred from below to above the Pinch,
because this is thermodynamically infeasible. However, it is feasible
to transfer heat from hot streams above the Pinch to cold streams
below the Pinch. All cold streamseven those below the Pinch
could be heated by a hot utility; likewise, the hot streams (even above
the Pinch) could be cooled by a cold utility. Although these
arrangements are thermodynamically feasible, applying them would
cause utility use to exceed the minimum, as identified by the Pinch
Analysis. This is a fundamental relationship in the design of heat
recovery systems.
What happens if heat is transferred across the Pinch? Recall that
it is possible to transfer heat only from above to below the Pinch. If,
say, XP units of heat are transferred across the Pinch (Figure 4.12),
then QH,min and QC,min will each increase by the same amount in order
to maintain the heat balances of the two problem parts. Any extra
heat that is added to the system by the hot utility must then be taken
away by the cold utility, in addition to the minimum requirement
QC,min.
Cross-Pinch process-to-process heat transfer is not the only way
by which a problems thermodynamic Pinch partitioning can be
T QH,min
Zero cross-
pinch transfer
Pinch
Tmin
QC,min
T
QH,min QUC,above XP
QUH,below XP
PINCH
violated. This could also happen if the external utilities are placed
incorrectly. For example, any utility heating below the Pinch will
create a need for additional utility cooling in that part of the system
(Figure 4.12). Conversely, any utility cooling above the Pinch will
create a need for additional utility heating. The implications of the
Pinch for heat recovery problems can be distilled into the following
three conditions, which must hold if the minimum energy targets for
a process are to be achieved.
The algorithm will be illustrated using the sample data in Table 4.2.
Step 1
Because the PTA uses temperature intervals, it is necessary to set up
a unified temperature scale for the calculations. If the real stream
temperatures are used, then some of the heat content would be left
out of the recovery. The problem is avoided by obtaining shifted
stream temperatures (T*) for PTA calculations. The hot streams are
shifted to be colder by Tmin/2 and the cold streams are shifted to be
hotter by Tmin/2. If the shifted temperatures (T*) of a cold and a hot
stream (or their parts) are the same, then their real temperatures are
still actually Tmin apart, which allows for feasible heat transfer. This
operation is equivalent to shifting the Composite Curves toward
each other vertically, as illustrated in Figure 4.13. The last two
columns in Table 4.2 show the shifted process stream temperatures.
Step 2
Temperature intervals are formed by listing all shifted process
stream temperatures in descending order (any duplicate values are
T*
T*
T
Temperature
T
Tmin
Hot
2
Tmin
Cold
+
2
TABLE 4.2 Problem Table Algorithm Example: Process Streams Data (Tmin = 10C)
245 2
10 15 150 Surplus
235
4 40 15 600 Deficit
195 10 10 100 Surplus
CP = 30
185
CP = 15
CP = 25
40 10 400 Deficit
75
40 5 200 Deficit
35
10 20 200 Deficit
25
1
TABLE 4.3 Problem Table Algorithm for the Streams in Table 4.2
Step 3
The heat balance is calculated for each temperature interval. First,
the stream population of the process segments falling within each
temperature interval (the first two columns of Table 4.3) is identified.
Process Integration for Improving Energy Efficiency 59
Next, the sums of the segment CPs (heat capacity flow rates) in each
interval are calculated; then that sum is multiplied by the interval
temperature difference (i.e., the difference between the TBs that
define each interval). This calculation is also illustrated in Table 4.3.
Step 4
The Problem Heat Cascade shown in Figure 4.14 has a box allocated
to each temperature interval; each box contains the corresponding
interval enthalpy balances. The boxes are connected with heat flow
arrows in order of descending temperature. The top heat flow
represents the total hot utility provided to the cascade, and the
bottom heat flow represents the total cold utility. The hot utility flow
is initially assumed to be zero and this value is combined (summed)
with the enthalpy balance of the top cascade interval to produce the
value for the next lower cascade heat flow. This operation is repeated
for the lower temperature intervals and connecting heat flows until
the bottom heat flow is calculated, resulting in the cascade shown in
Figure 4.14(a).
Step 5
The resulting heat flow values in the cascade are examined, and a
feasible heat cascade is obtained; see Figure 4.14(b). From the
cascading heat flows, the smallest value is identified; if it is
nonnegative (i.e., positive or zero), then the heat cascade is
thermodynamically feasible. If a negative value is obtained then a
positive utility flow of the same absolute value has to be provided at
25 C 250 kW 25 C 1000 kW
HOT UTILITY HOT UTILITY
(a) Initial cascade (b) Feasible cascade
FIGURE 4.14 Heat Cascade for the process data in Table 4.2.
60 Chapter Four
the topmost heat flow, after which the cascading described in Step 4
is repeated. The resulting heat cascade is guaranteed to be feasible
and provides numerical heat recovery targets for the problem. The
topmost heat flow represents the minimum hot utility, the bottommost
heat flow represents the minimum cold utility, and the TB with zero
heat flow represents the location of the (heat recovery) Pinch. It is
often possible to obtain more than one zero-flow temperature
boundary, each representing a separate Pinch point.
(a) T (b) T
Steam
Tmin = 14C
Tmin = 20C
CW CW
H H
Heat recovery, hot and More heat recovery, no hot utility
cold utilities
(c) T (d) T
CW CW
CW
H H
No increase in heat recovery Utility substitution
(a) T ST
Utilities
[MW]
CW
ST
Tmin = 10C
10C Tmin CW
H [MW]
Low Threshold Tmin
(b) T
ST
Utilities
[MW]
ST
CW Tmin = 10C
FIGURE 4.17 Choices of hot and cold utilities (amended after CPI 2004 and
2005).
Process Integration for Improving Energy Efficiency 63
750 kW
245 C
H= 150 kW
900 kW
235 C
H= 600 kW
300 kW
195 C
H= 100 kW
400 kW
185 C
H= 400 kW PINCH
0 kW
145 C
H= 1400 kW
1400 C
75 C
H= 200 kW
1200 kW
H= 200 kW 35 C
1000 kW
25 C
Cold Utility
500 1000 1500
Q (kW)
FIGURE 4.18 Constructing the GCC for the streams in Table 4.2.
64 Chapter Four
T* [C] T* [C]
300 300
750 750
900 900
300
200 200 300
400 400
100 100
1400 1400
1200 1200
1000 1000
0 500 1000 1500 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Q [kW] H [kW]
FIGURE 4.19 Relation between the GCC (left) and the SCC (right) for the
streams in Table 4.2.
200 200 MP
steam
PINCH PINCH
100 100
FIGURE 4.20 Using the GCC to target for single and multiple steam levels.
FIGURE 4.21 T*
Properties of
nonisothermal hot *
Tsupply
utilities.
CP1
CP2
T*ambient
H
Hloss,2
Hloss,1
H H
Process Pinch limitation Heat recovery pocket limitation
T* Pinch
160
140
Point of closest
approach. Not
120 necessarily at the
boiling point
100
Preheat
Superheat Evaporation
80
60
40 Cooling Water
QC,min
20
0 H
T* T*
HP Steam HP Steam
Generation Generation
LP Steam use
CW CW
H H
T*
TCW
5C
40C
70C
the GCC. In this case, the Balanced Composite Curves (BCCs) are
used. Figure 4.26 shows how the data about the placed utilities can be
transferred from the GCC to the BCCs, enabling the correct location
of the Utility Pinch associated with LP steam.
The BCCs create a combined view in which all heat sources and
sinks (including utilities) are in balance and all Pinches are shown.
Process Integration for Improving Energy Efficiency 69
(a) T* (b) T
HP steam HP steam
LP steam LP steam
LP steam Pinch
CW
CW
H H
Grand Composite Curve Balanced Composite Curve
Enthalpy interval
1 qstream
Amin =
TLM streams hstream
1. Above the Pinch (Figure 4.29a): This increases the hot utility
for the main process by W, but this extra heat is converted
into shaftwork.
2. Below the Pinch (Figure 4.29b): This offers a double benefit. It
saves on a cold utility, and the process heat below the Pinch
supplies Q to the heat engine (instead of rejecting it to a
cooling utility).
T*
Source
T*source
Q
QW
T*sink
Sink
A+W
T* T* A
A(Q W) Q
100% conversion
PINCH HeatWork
Q W HE W Q
PINCH HE W
100% conversion QW
B HeatWork BQ
HP Steam
T* T* QHP
QFUEL
QHP W
QLP
QLP LP Steam Boiler
Condensate
PINCH
CW
QC,min H
Heat Pumps
Heat pumps present another opportunity for improving the energy
performance of an industrial process. Their operation is the reverse
of heat engines. That is, heat pumps take heat from a lower-
temperature source, upgrade it by applying mechanical power, and
then deliver the combined flow to a higher-temperature heat sink
(Figure 4.31).
An important characteristic of heat pumps is their coefficient of
performance (COP). This metric for device efficiency is defined as the
Process Integration for Improving Energy Efficiency 73
Q + W = 125 kW
T*sink
W = 25 kW
Q = 100 kW
T*source
Source
ratio between the heat delivered to the heat sink and the consumed
shaftwork (mechanical power):
Q sink Q source W
COP = (4.7)
W W
QHP + W
PINCH QHP +W
QHP HEAT W
PUMP W
QHP
CW
Qcmin QHP
H
Appropriate placement Load and temperature lift on the GCC
T*
QHP + W COP
5
W
6
MAX
2
QHP + W T*SINK
3
W
Tmin TPUMP
T*SOURCE 4 4
QHP
1
MAX
3
H TPUMP
TMIN = 20C
H[MW] T*[C]
80
QSOURCE
60
40
20
0 5 10 15 20 25
H [MW]
and source heat loads, the smaller one is chosen as a basis. Here the
sink bound is smaller, so the sink is sized to its upper
bound: Qsink = Qsink,max = 2.634 MW. From this, the required pump
power consumption is computed to be 0.588 MW. As a result, the
actual source load for the heat pump is 2.046 MW. Comparing this
value with the upper bound of 6.9 MW, it is evident that the source
heat availability is considerably underutilized.
A different selection of source and sink temperatures is needed if
the source availability is to be better utilized. As a second attempt,
the sink temperature is increased from 100C to 110C. The maximum
source heat remains 6.9 MW, but the maximum sink capacity
increases from 2.634 to 7.024 MW. This results in the desired
76 Chapter Four
140
QSINK
120
100
The sink is oversized
T* [C]
80
QSOURCE
60
40
20
0 5 10 15 20 25
H [MW]
140
QSINK
120
100
T* [C]
80
QSOURCE
60
40
20
0 5 10 15 20 25
H [MW]
T*
HP
MP
IP
LP
CW
T*
Rcond CW
HEAT 0
W
PUMP
R1
R2
T*
A Reboiler
A, B
Condenser
B
H
(a) (b) A
T* A + QDIST T* QDIST
QDIST QDIST
PINCH PINCH Q
DIST
QDIST
QDIST
B + QDIST B
Across the pinch Below or above the pinch
T T
H H
Hot streams Cold streams
(a) (b)
FIGURE 4.44 (a) Keep hot streams hot; (b) keep cold streams cold.
HEN Representation
The representation of HENs by a general process flowsheet, as in
Figure 4.45, is not always convenient. The reason is that this
representation makes it difficult to answer a number of important
questions: Where is the Pinch? What is the degree of heat recovery?
How much cooling and heating from utilities is needed?
The so-called conventional HEN flowsheet (Figure 4.46) offers a
small improvement. It shows only heat transfer operations and is
based on a simple convention: cold streams run horizontally and hot
82 Chapter Four
Feed 2 140C 4
3
230C
Reactor 2
250C
Product 2
180C
Reactor 1 80C
Off-Gas
Feed 1 40C
1
20C
2 40C
Product 1, 40C
205C 230C
H
7.0 MW 7.5 MW
203.3C
150C
8.0 MW 180C
150C
140C
6.5 MW
52.5C
1
17.5 MW
20C 106.7C
C Above the
10.0 MW
Pinch
40C 80C
(a) HOT 1
HOT 2
COLD 1
COLD 2 H
Simplified view
(b) MP Steam
HOT 1
C HOT 2
COLD 1
COLD 2 H
CW
The first two steps were discussed in previous sections. The synthesis
step begins by dividing the problem at the Pinch and then positioning
the process streams as shown in Figure 4.49.
The engineering practice suggests starting the network design
from the Pinch (the most restricted part of the design owing to
temperature differences approaching Tmin) and then to place
heat exchanger matches while moving away from the Pinch
(Figure 4.50). When placing matches, several rules have to be followed
in order to obtain a network that minimizes utility use: (1) no
exchanger may have a temperature difference smaller than Tmin;
CP
[kW/C]
PINCH
40C 150C 250C
2 15
80C 150C 200C
4 25
FIGURE 4.49 Dividing at the Pinch for the streams in Table 4.2.
Process Integration for Improving Energy Efficiency 85
PINCH
CP
PINCH [kW/C] T
CPHOT > CPCOLD
150C 250C
2 15
PINCH 4
150C 200C
4 25
HEAT
Tmin
EXCHANGER
MATCH 1
140C 180C
1 20 H
Temperature difference smaller
140C 230C than Tmin
3 30
INFEASIBLE!
PINCH CP
[kW/C]
T
150C 250C
2 15
PINCH
150C 200C 4
4 25
HEAT
EXCHANGER 3
MATCH
Tmin H
140C 180C
1 20 The match is feasible
140C 230C
3 30
temperature profiles in the direction away from the Pinch. Thus, the
rule above the Pinch may be expressed as follows:
The logic below the Pinch is symmetric. This part of the design is
a net heat source, which means that the heating requirements of the
cold streams have to be satisfied by matching up with hot streams.
The same type of reasoning as before yields the following requirement:
the CP value of a cold stream must not be greater than the CP value
Process Integration for Improving Energy Efficiency 87
of a hot stream if a feasible essential match is to result. Generalizing
Eq. (4.9) shows that the CP of the stream entering the Pinch must be
less than or equal to the CP of the stream leaving the Pinch:
CP QSTREAM
[kW/C] [kW]
150C
203.3C 250C
2 15 1500
150C 200C
4 25 1250
140C 180C
1 20 800
800 kW
CP QSTREAM
[kW/C] [kW]
150C
203.3C 250C
2 15 1500
150C 200C
4 25 1250
140C 180C
1 20 800
800 kW
CP QSTREAM
[kW/C] [kW]
650 kW 1750 kW
to the required duty of 650 kW, this match does not violate the Tmin
constraint, which is the relevant one. The completed HEN topology
is shown in Figure 4.56.
It is not always possible to follow the basic design rules described
previously, so in some cases it is necessary to split the streams so that
heat exchange matches can be appropriately placed. Splitting may be
required in the following situations:
PINCH CP
[kW/C]
40C 106.7C 150C 203.3C 250C
C 2 15
1000 kW 150C
80C 200C 4 25
(a)
CP
PINCH
[kW/C]
100C
1 12
100C
2 20
100C
3 7
I?
90C T > 90
4 15
90C T > 90
5 30
(b)
CP
PINCH
[kW/C]
100C
1 12
100C
2 20
100C
3 7
90C
4 15
90C
5 30
CP PINCH
[kW/C]
T<100 100C
35 1
T<100 100C
60 2
?
90C
24 3
90C
30 4
90C
20 5
CP PINCH
[kW/C]
100C 1
35
100C
60 2
90C
24 3
90C
30 4
90C
20 5
40C 100C 4
2
? ?
15C 90C
3 7
(b)
Rules: CPH CPC ; NH NC PINCH CP
[kW/C]
30C 100C
1 5
40C 100C
2 4
15C 90C
3 4
PINCH CP
[kW/C]
30C 100C
C1 1 1 5
T1 = 100 300/5 = 40C
T2 = 100 225/4
15C 90C
3 4
3
Network Evolution
Any HEN obtained using the design guidelines described previously
is optimal with respect to its energy requirements, but it is usually
away from the total cost optimum. Observing the Pinch division
PINCH CP
T1 = 100 285/5 [kW/C]
40C 1 100C
2 2 4
Step 3: Q1 = 3.8 (90 15) = 285 kW
15C 90C
3 Q1 3.8
2
Q2 3.2
Step 2: CPC2 = 240(90 15) = 3.2
Stream Data
at Pinch
Yes Yes
CPH CPC NH CPC
? ?
Place No
No
Matches
Split Cold
Stream
Split Hot
Stream
+W +U UTILITY PATH U W
40 250
C 1 4 5 2
80 200
2 3 4
20 180
1
+U LOOP U
140 230
3 H
W +W
Enthalpy Interval
Hot
Streams
Cold
Streams
2 This should not be confused with the parameter entities from Mathematical
Programming.
Process Integration for Improving Energy Efficiency 95
on what assumptions are adopted, it is possible to obtain both MILP
and MINLP formulations. Linear formulations are usually derived
by assuming isothermal mixing of the split branches and then using
piecewise linearization on the heat exchanger capital cost functions.
With the superstructure approach it is possible to include other
heat exchange optionsfor example, direct heat transfer units (i.e.,
mixing) and different heat exchanger types (e.g., double-pipe, plate-
fin, and shell-and-tube). Sorak and Kravanja (2004) presented a
method incorporating different heat exchanger types into a
superstructure block for each potential heat exchange match. Some
other interesting works in this area are by Daichendt and Grossmann
(1997), Zamora and Grossman (1998), Bjrk and Westerlund (2002),
and Frausto-Hernndez et al. (2003).
Emissions
Emissions
Power
Fuel 1
Fuel 2 Condensing HP Steam
Emissions MP Steam
LP Steam
Shifed T**
T**
Temperature
T*
T*
PINCH
Shifed T**
1.1. Remove the pockets
1.2. Shift
H H
1. Extract segments 2. Rotate source segments
T** T**
0 H
0 H
3. Combine segments
4. Align profiles
FIGURE 4.66 Construction of the Total Site Profiles when the heat recovery
pockets are excluded from site integration.
From boilers
4
250 VHP
3
200 HP
1
Temperature [C]
2
2 MP
150
3 1
LP
100
CW
50 4
25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Enthalpy [MW]
250 VHP
200 HP
Temperature [C]
MP
150
LP
100
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Steam Savings, t/h
Figure 4.69 is shown in Figure 4.70. The plot indicates that the most
potential for improvements is in the HP steam using processes,
followed by MP users; the potential for LP steam savings is evidently
quite modest.
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CHAPTER 5
Mass Integration
T
he two main branches of Process Integration are energy
integration and mass integration. Mass integration is a
systematic methodology that provides a fundamental
understanding of the global flow of mass within the process and
then employs this understanding to identify performance targets
and to optimize the allocation, separation, and generation of streams
and species. In the context of wastewater minimization, a mass
integration problem involves transferring mass (contaminant load)
from rich process streams to lean process streams in order to achieve
their target outlet concentration and simultaneously minimizing
waste generation and the consumption of utilitiesincluding
freshwater and external mass separating agents (Rakovi, 2006).
105
106 Chapter Five
Most of these items directly (or indirectly) concern the water used
and wastewater discharged by processing industries.
Wastewater Treatment
Methodologies for wastewater handling can be subdivided into
different stages of treatment, as follows:
800
MINIMUM
WATER SUPPLY
FLOWRATE 90 t/h
400
MINIMIZE
PINCH FLOWRATE
100
0
1 9 21 41 m [kg/h]
20 t/h
20 t/h 40 t/h
Operation 1 Operation 3
Feedwater Wastewater
90 t/h 90 t/h
50 t/h 5.7 t/h
Operation 2 Operation 4
44.3 t/h
FIGURE 5.2 Water treatment system designed using Water Pinch methodology.
the cascade analysis technique (Manan, Foo, and Tan, 2004), and the
source CC (Bandyopadhyay, Ghanekar, and Pillai, 2006). Once the
flow-rate targets have been identified, numerous techniques can be
used to design a water network that achieves those targets. The works
just cited were developed for continuous processes, but there have
been several reported efforts to apply Water Pinch Analysis to batch
processes; these include the works of Wang and Smith (1995), Liu,
Yuan, and Luo (2007), Foo et al. (2006), and Majozi, Brouckaert, and
Buckley (2006).
The overlap area of the sink and source CCs represents the
maximum recovery among all sink and source streams within the
network. The point where the two composites touch is called
the Material Recovery Pinch, which is the bottleneck for maximum
recovery. The segment where the sink CC extends to the left of the
Mass Integration 117
Load Load
Sink composite
Sink composite
Source
composite
Source
composite
Impure fresh
locus
Flowrate Flowrate
Minimum Maximum Minimum waste Minimum Maximum Minimum waste
fresh source recovery discharge fresh source recovery discharge
(a) (b)
FIGURE 5.3 MRPD for (a) pure fresh resource and (b) impure fresh resource.
Fww=23m3
(a) [kg]
1200
SR4
1000
800
SR3
600
SK3
400
SK5 SR2
200
SK2 SR5
SK1 SK4 SR1
0
20 40 60 80 100 120
FFW =35m3 [m3]
MRPD
(b)
20 16
SK1 SR1 ST1
4 10
SK14
20
6 SR4
SK1 SR1 ST2
5.7 8
14.3 5
FFw 0.7 15 Fww
SK1 SR1
35m3 23m3
6
ST3
8.3
SK5 SR5 16
0 5 10 15 20 t [h]
All water amounts are in m3
Network design
FIGURE 5.4 Fruit juice production: (a) MRPD; (b) network design.
and case studies have recently been published by authors from South
Africa (Gouws and Majozi, 2008a; Gouws and Majozi, 2008b), Asia
(Chen, Chang, and Lee, 2008; Ng et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2009), and
Europe (Tokos and Novak Pintari, 2009).
120 Chapter Five
Purified water
Freshwater
Purified water Freshwater
Wastewater
Storage n
Operation n Storage ww
Filtration TR
Fresh water
for batch processes
Water for pouring Wort boiling
Wastewater
Cellar Brewhouse
addition of any storage tanks. The net present value of the proposed
water network reconstruction is positive (at a 15 percent discount
rate), and the payback period is 0.29 years (about 15 weeks).
In the brewhouse and the cellar, the continuous water treatment
unit (nanofiltration) was selected for wastewater purification in the
optimum water network. Purification allows the water from batch
material pouring to be reused in the clean-in-place (CIP) system, and
wastewater from filtration could be reused directly for pouring the
batch material. All told, freshwater consumption could be reduced
122 Chapter Five
5.7 Summary
Water is used in most process industries for a wide range of
applications. Today, industrial processes and systems that use water
are subject to increasingly stringent environmental regulations
concerning the discharge of effluents. Moreover, the demand for
fresh water continues to increase.
The pace of these trends has increased the need for improved
water management and wastewater minimization. Adopting water
minimization techniques can effectively reduce overall freshwater
demand in water-using processes and also reduce the amount of
effluent generated. These reductions bring reductions also in costs
incurred to acquire freshwater and treat effluents.
The field has been developing rapidly, and every year brings a
number of new and more efficient approaches. This chapter has
reviewed and demonstrated, through selected case studies, current
methodologies that have been applied to minimize water use and
wastewater in the processing industry.
CHAPTER 6
Further Applications of
Process Integration
P
rocess Integration, also called Pinch Technology, was initially
developed for energy and specifically for Heat Integration.
Details of the origin and development of Heat Integration were
given in Chapters 2 and 4. Its further development resulted in a
methodology for integrating mass transfer and water integration in
particular; this technology was described in Chapter 5. This chapter
(chapter 6) focuses on the additional applications and especially
recent developments that have expanded the generic Process
Integration ideas in various other directions. Given the rapid
development of this methodology, it is not possible to cover all recent
achievements. Nonetheless, this chapter explores several interesting
directions that have considerable potential for future development.
123
124 Chapter Six
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 Sink Composite Curve 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 0.5 1
Gas flowrate [106 standard m3/d] Hydrogen surplus [106 standard m3/d]
FIGURE 6.1 Composite Curves and hydrogen surplus diagram (after Alves, 1999).
Further Applications of Process Integration 125
thereby forming the Hydrogen Pinch. Separating the hydrogen
source and sink parts then determines the target value for the
hydrogen utility minimum flow rate.
The procedure for calculating the supply target requires varying
the flow rate of gas supplied to the system until a Hydrogen Pinch
is found. The sources from hydrogen-consuming processes or
from processes generating hydrogen as a secondary product
(dehydrogenation plants) have flow rates that are determined by
normal process operation; these rates are assumed to be fixed for the
purposes of designing a hydrogen network. However, process
hydrogen sources with variable flow rates can be regarded as
imports from external suppliers and from processes (i.e., steam
reformers or partial oxidation units) that generate hydrogen as a
main product. Those sources are hydrogen utilities.
One approach to minimizing hydrogen utility consumption is to
increase the purity of one or more sources. A hydrogen purification
system introduces an additional sink (feedstock for purification) and
two sources (purified stream and residue stream), resulting in new
targets. By employing Hydrogen Pinch Analysis, an engineer can
make the best use of hydrogen resources in order to meet new
demands and improve profitability.
I/COD
COD
COD
Substrate
supply line
Dissolved Process Slope = m/S
O2 stream stream Intercept = I/S
D I/D I/D
m-Specific growth Slope ~ growth rate, O2 solubility,
S-Saturation residence time, oxidation energy load
D-Diluation
Operation 1
Freshwater Wastewater
Operation 2
(b)
Freshwater Operation 1
Heat recovery
Water reuse Wastewater
Operation 2
for water and energy. Both the Water Pinch and the Energy Pinch
concepts have been accommodated in separate design frameworks.
However, the methodological procedure is changed when the
interactions between water reuse and energy recovery must be
considered; see Savulescu, Kim, and Smith (2005a, 2005b). Further
interesting applications have been published (Leewongtanawit and
Kim, 2009; Manan, Tea, and Alwi, 2009).
The energy-water methodology of Savulescu and Kim (2008)
follows a two-step approach: targeting and design. During the
targeting phase, theoretical minimum requirements for freshwater
and thermal utilities (hot and cold) are obtained via graphical
manipulation of streams data (i.e., water flow rate, contaminant
levels, and temperature). The purpose of the design phase is to create
a water and heat recovery network that can achieve the established
target. A useful design tool is the two-dimensional grid diagram
(Figure 6.4), which exploits the network arrangement of water
streams subject to energy recovery constraints (Savulescu, 1999;
Leewontanawit, 2005). An industrial case study conducted recently
(Leewongtanawit and Kim, 2008) showed an 18 percent reduction in
annualized cost resulting from the integrated approach (when
128 Chapter Six
Process Process
water users water users
Overflow
Water quality
- Water source
- Water demand/sink
Concentration
[mg COD/I]
[mg COD/I]
8000
5000
4000
0 0
0 4000 8000 0 5000 10000 15000
Mass Flowrate [kg COD/d] Mass Flowrate [kg COD/d]
5000
0
0 4000 8000
Mass Flowrate [kg COD/d]
Composite
[mg COD/I]
Site 3 Curve
8000
Site 1
4000 Minimum
Site 2 O2 Supply
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Mass Flowrate [kg COD/d]
FIGURE 6.5 Construction of the oxygen limiting supply line (after Zhelev and
Bhaw, 2000).
130 Chapter Six
In the case of Heat Pinch Analysis, the hot and cold streams will have
different signs for this component of final emergy investment. The
sign on the required emergy investment to heat the cold streams will
be the opposite of the one for available emergy. Hence, at this level of
Further Applications of Process Integration 131
FIGURE 6.6
Composite Curve in
emergy-transformity
coordinates (after
Zhelev and Ridolfi, Pinch
ST [seJ/J or $]
2006).
Composite Curve
Total Energy
supply line
SE [seJ]
Income [$]
Budget [$]
Budget [$]
FIGURE 6.7 Project budget and income versus time (after Zhelev, 2007).
FIGURE 6.8
Composite Curves for
project budget and
income (after Zhelev,
Budget [$/ 5 y]
2007).
Time [y]
Further Applications of Process Integration 133
capital supply line up to the maximum allows one to target both the
investment level and the expected annual benefit (Figure 6.9).
20
Investment [$]
15
10
20 40 60 80
Savings [$]
Separate stage of design
Composite Curve
Capital (investment) Supply Line
1
2
Grid
3
4
p min
j d p in
j d pj
max
for j 1, 2,! , N SK (6.3)
min max
where pj and pj are the specified lower and upper bounds on
admissible properties of streams to unit j. Likewise, each source i has
a given flow rate Fi and a given property pi. Also available for service
is a fresh (external) resource, with property pF, that can be purchased
to supplement the use of process sources in sinks. Each process
source may be intercepted via design and/or operating changes in
order to modify the flow rate and property of what each sink accepts
and discharges.
The Pinch diagram shown in Figure 6.11 is a convenient tool,
developed by Kazantzi and El-Halwagi (2005), that avoids the
drawbacks of traditional iterative procedures (Alves and Towler,
2002; Hallale, 2002): low visualization insight for targeting and
Processed
sources
(back to process)
Sources Segregated
sources Sinks
j=1 i=1
i=2
j=2
Property
Interception
Network
j=NSR
i=NSK
U1 + U2 + U3
Source 2
U1 + U2
Load [kg/s]
U1
Source 1
Flowrate [kg/s]
Minimum
Fresh Usage
Pinch
Purity
Purity
Deficit Composite
Resource Surplus Curve
FIGURE 6.12 Construction of (a) interval flow rate diagram and (b) the MSCC
(after Saw et al., 2009).
It 1 St 1 Pt Ct Dt It St (6.4)
or
These equations are reflected in the Supply Chain CCs used for Pinch
analysis, as shown in Figure 6.14.
Singhvi, Madhavan, and Shenoy (2004) extended the initial
methodology to the case of planning for multiple product scenarios.
Singhvi (2002) proposed the following algorithm for minimizing
inventory cost:
ACCUMULATOR
Current Net Inventory
It St
Previous Net Inventory
Ir1
Demand Dt
IN St1 Time Period t OUT
In-house Pt Subcontract Ct
PRODUCTION
FIGURE 6.13 Material balance in aggregate planning (after Singhvi and Shenoy,
2002).
138 Chapter Six
Ending inventory
6
5
Demand
Time [months]
4 Composite Curve
Pinch point
3 Ik
dkt
Production
2 Composite Curve
1 It1
Pkt + ck
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
I0
Material quantity [units]
FIGURE 6.14 Supply chain Composite Curves (after Singhvi, Madhavan, and
Shenoy, 2004).
End
Further Applications of Process Integration 141
Step 3. Display the optimal biomass exchange flows. A visual mapping
of interzone biomass exchanges provides critical feedback for
the decision maker. The zone centroids are plotted in two-
dimensional Cartesian coordinates.
Step 4. Form the clusters. Mixed integer linear programming (MILP)
has proven to be a convenient tool for this task.
10 Total
Imbalance
Cumulative Energy [PJ/y]
8 3
er
ust
Cl
6
Cumulative supply curve
ter 2
4 Clus
0 20 40 60 80
Cumulative Area [km2]
FIGURE 6.16 Regional Energy Supply-Deficit Curves (after Lam et al., 2009).
142 Chapter Six
Zone 5 H A
B
Zone 1
Zone 4 C
G
F Zone 2
Zone 3 E
D
Zone 3
Zone 2 D
Zone 4 E
F G
Zone 1 C
B Zone 5
A H
Cumulative energy balance [PJ/y] Cumulative energy balance [PJ/y]
EM-1 PP-1
MP
ST DR/EG
EM-N PP-N LP
ST DR/EG
ExE CON
Updated power
demands
Driver selection
Integrated design
Further Applications of Process Integration 145
Start
Yes
FIGURE 6.20 New process design methodology with integrated RAM stage.
A x
Real throughput
SSA i i (6.6)
Ideal throughput j i
146 Chapter Six
6.6.2 Optimization
Within the optimization framework for integrating RAM into process
synthesis, the mathematical model aims to minimize the life-cycle
cost. In its general form (Yin and Smith, 2008), the optimization
problem can be summarized as follows:
P KAh m (6.8)
targeting stage and a selection stage. The approach uses the Network
Pinch Analysis to determine whether and where enhancements
should be applied in the conceptual design. One limitation of this
technique is that heat transfer enhancement is used only for taking
the place of additional area.
Electricity Grid
Fossil fuels
Bio-fuels Electricity
(including Steam
waste) Hot water
Cooling utility
FIGURE 6.21 Locally integrated energy sector with heat and power.
Further Applications of Process Integration 149
that is unable to meet its demands locally. The grid system can
distribute power (electricity) and heating in the form of hot water or
steam. In geographic locations where air conditioning is required, a
cooling distribution main could also be provided. If local sources
are unable to provide for the demands of all units in the system,
then district renewable sources can be provided. These would
include larger-scale wind turbines, solar-cell systems, heat pumps,
and combustors fed by waste from the units or by biofuels or fossil
fuels. The sources at this level would include power-generating
equipment such as turbines driven by steam or gas.
Varbanov and Kleme (2010) presented a further extension of the
Total Sites methodology that covers industrial, residential, service,
business, and agricultural customers; incorporates renewable energy
sources; and accounts for variability on both the supply and demand
sides. The challenge of increasing the share of renewables in the
energy mix can be met by integrating solar, wind, biomass, and
geothermal energy as well as by integrating some types of waste
with the fossil fuels. The availability of renewables and the energy
demands of the considered sites all vary significantly with the time
of day, period of the year, and location. Some of these factors are
unpredictable and can change quickly. Total Site Combined Heat and
Power energy systems are optimized by minimizing heat waste and
carbon footprint while maximizing economic viability. This
methodology incorporates state-of-the-art techniques of Total Site
Integration (Kleme et al., 1997), batch Heat Integration (Kemp and
Deakin, 1989), HEN sensitivity analysis (Kotjabasakis and Linnhoff,
1986), and time Pinch Analysis (Wang and Smith, 1995); it also applies
the concept of Time Slices (see Figure 6.22) to account for the
variabilities just described.
6.9 Summary
Every attempt has been made to include in this chapter the most
recent research results, but the field is developing so rapidly that
FIGURE 6.22 Time Slice and Site targets for solar heat capture and storage
(CW = cooling water, HW = hot water, SCC = Site Composite Curve).
150 Chapter Six
151
152 Chapter Seven
FIGURE 7.1 Major steps of Cost data and constraints for the
process synthesis. operating units.
Prices and constraints for the
products and raw materials.
Solution of the
Mathematical Programming model
Optimal network
(flowsheet)
By-product
Operating unit
B C D B C
O1
O1
A A
Potential networks
(search space)
CF F
Optimal network
B C D C B
O1 O1
A A
Algorithm MSG
Maximal Structure
FIGURE 7.5 Inputs to and outputs from the three P-graph algorithms.
Process Optimization Frameworks 159
FIGURE 7.6 Increase in value of the objective function after initial convergence
for a maximum throughput problem.
U1 B A C
U2 B C D
U3 C D B A
U4 D B A
Storage C D A
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
U1 B A C
U2 B C D
U3 D B C A
U4 D B A
Storage D
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
1 2
{E1} {E2,E3} 8 A
6 9
3 4
{E1} {E2,E3} 9 A
6 9
5 6 7
{E1,E3} {E1} {E1,E2} 10 B
14 16 8
FIGURE 7.9 S-graph representing the recipe for two batches of product A and
one batch of product B.
4 5 6 11
{E2} 9 {E3} 15 {E1} 17
7 8 9
{E1} 14 {E2} 16 {E3} 8 12
Schedule #1
4 5 6
11
{E2} {E3} {E1}
7 8 9
12
{E1} {E2} {E3}
Schedule #1
Process Optimization Frameworks 163
The algorithm generating the optimal schedule depends on the
storage policy to be considered: nonintermediate storage (NIS), finite
intermediate storage (FIS), or unlimited intermediate storage (UIS).
In this chapter we assume a NIS policy, so an equipment unit
becomes available only after finishing a task and transferring its
intermediate product to the subsequent task in the recipe. On an
S-graph representing a schedule under NIS policy, an arc leads from
the node subsequent in the recipe to the node of the task to be
performed next by the same equipment unit. For example, equipment
E1 first performs task 6, then moves to task 1 and finally to task 7,
which is represented by arcs drawn from node 11 (subsequent to
task 6) to node 1 and from node 2 (subsequent to node 1) to node 7 in
Figure 7.11.
The advantage of the S-graph framework over conventional
Mathematical Programming lies in its ability to exploit the problems
structure to effect a drastic reduction on computational intensity
without requiring unknown information, such as the number of time
points. (Visit www.s-graph.com for further information.)
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CHAPTER 8
Combined
Process Integration
and Optimization
165
166 Chapter Eight
Nonlinear
Linear Programming Integer Programming
Programming
(LPR) (IP)
(NLP)
Incorporation of Incorporation of
Probability Functions Time Domain
Note that C2H3Cl is the final target and that C2H4, Cl2, and O2 are the
starting reactants. From the perspective of materials (M), we have:
Starting reactants Final products
Intermediates
M { C 2H 4 , Cl 2 , O 2 , C 2H 3 Cl , H N O , C 2 4 Cl 2 , HCl }
H
2
One or more of the feasible paths and valid vertices in the input
structure may disappear if some of the invalid vertices are eliminated.
Thus, the final maximal structure is composed (or reconstructed)
from the remaining skeleton of the input structure after the
elimination. This is accomplished step by step, linking alternately
the vertices of the M-type (for materials) to the vertices of the O-type
(for operating units) and vice versa. At each step, the vertices linked
are assessed in view of the appropriate axioms (see Section 7.2.2):
vertices of the M-type must satisfy axioms (S1), (S2), and (S5); and
vertices of the O-type must satisfy axioms (S3) and (S4). The execution
is initiated from the structures shallowest layerthat is, the final,
desired product end. The stepwise procedure for the composition is
illustrated in Figure 8.2.
Combined Process Integration and Optimization 169
Cl2 C2H4 O2
R1 R2
R3
C2H3Cl HCl
R1 R2 R1 R2
R3 R3
Step 3 Step 4
C2H4Cl2
R3 R3
Step 1 Step 2
FIGURE 8.2 Steps for the composition of the maximal structure representing
the maximal reaction network for the manufacture of vinyl chloride.
Example 8.1: Workflow Synthesis (after Tick, Kovcs, and Friedler, 2006)
As an example, a set of activities is given by its inputs and outputs in Table 8.1
and represented by P-graph in Figure 8.3.
The P-graph contains the interconnections among the activities. Each feasible
activity network corresponds to a subgraph of the P-graph in Figure 8.3.
A product document represented by A and B can be generated by an appropriate
network of the activitiesprovided that the problem has at least one feasible
solution. It is important to note that a product can usually be generated by
different types and numbers of activities. When determining the optimal
network for a workflow, all possible networks of each product must be taken
into account.
7 8 9 10
E F G H
3 4 5 6
C D
1 2
A B
FIGURE 8.3 P-graph, where A, . . . , L are the materials and 1, . . . , 10 are the
activities.
J K L
7 9 10
F G
H
4 5
C D
1 2
A B
of silage on farms. By starting from silage, two crucial steps are combined:
storage (thus enabling the downstream processes to operate continuously) and
conversion of the carbohydrates in green biomass to lactic acid. In addition,
silage production transforms many proteins into amino acids or peptides
(Povoden, 2002; Koschuh et al., 2004).
Double Pressing
5289 t/y Water added
for second pressing
Silage Presscake
Feed Matter 35511 t/y Feed Matter 13825 t/y
Dry Matter 10000 t/y Dry Matter 6636 t/y
Dry Matter 28.16 % Dry Matter 48 %
Lactic Acid 1000 t/y Lactic Acid 215 t/y
Raw Fibre 2825.7 t/y Raw Fibre 2824 t/y
Org. Dry Matter 8992 t/y Org. Dry Matter 6483 t/y
Flux-out 1.9 t FM/h
Silage Juice
Feed Matter 26976 t/y
Dry Matter 3364 t/y
Dry Matter 13 %
Lactic Acid 785 t/y
Org. Dry Matter 2509 t/y
Flux-out 3.6 t FM/h
TABLE 8.2 List of Process Steps Incorporated into the Synthesis of the Base
Case
MP CTrS
J C SC
CTrC CP
LTrS LTrJ LTrC CTrJ
CL
LF CC
JC
RFL GBR
SL JL
F1 CTrRF CF
RJC
RFC LA AA
LCJ LCC LCRF F2
LCS CCRF CCC CCJ CCRJ CCS
GODML GODMC
CBG
LBG
E1 E2
A1
L10
L13
L12 A2 L2
A6
A5 L6
F H
L8
L5
L9 A4 A3 L3
W L7 L4 T
176 Chapter Eight
L6
Separator
W L13
L7
Mixer
L1
Separator
E L11
Decantor
Annual cost
Operating units and subunits Cost [103 $]
[103 $/y]
No. of No. of Equipment Type Capital Annualized Operating Total
units sub- desig- capital
units nation
23 C1 Centrifuge 9,240 3,080 1,168 4,248
24 241 B1 Adsorption 25,107 8,369 871 9,248
column
24 242 B2 Adsorption
column
25 251 B3 Adsorption 3,806 1,269 132 1,401
column
25 252 B4 Adsorption
column
C1 E1 G1
S05
S52 S51 S11 S16 S03
B1 B2 S1 B3 B4 D2 D1
S01
S09
S19
S20
S09 S20
[A 7] [E 2]
S08 S39 S00
D21 D22
A7
E2 3(G1)
W 26 S40 S19
[B 26] S05 S01
A 11
E3 B3 B4
W 35 25-1(B3) 25-2(B4)
B 26
S08 S54
S05
S54 20-1(D21)
S00 G1
A4
S01 E1 S09 S40
W 35 S39
A 11 Legend:
E4 20-2(D22)
W 1773 E1 Acetone: A kg/h
B 27 W 1738 S20 S19
Butanol: B kg/h
B1 Ethanol: E kg/h
Water: W kg/h
TABLE 8.4 Scheduling Data for the Case Study of Example 8.3
Combined Process Integration and Optimization 181
FIGURE 8.12 1 2
11 Cream 1
S-graph U1 5 U2 1
representing the
recipe for the case 3 4
study of U3 7 U2 1
12 Cream 2
Example 8.3.
5 6
13 Conditioner
U4 1 U2 1
7 8
14 Shampoo
U5 8 U2 1
9 10
15 Lotion
U6 6 U2 1
P3 Task 8 (Batch 1)
P2 Task 4 (Batch 2)
Equipment Units
P1 Task 4 (Batch 1)
V4
V3 Task 3 (Batch 1)
V2 Task 7 (Batch 1)
V1 Task 3 (Batch 2)
7 8 12 19
Time [h]
FIGURE 8.13 Globally optimal schedule for the case study of Example 8.3.
1 2 3
31 A
U1 5 U2 4 U3 4
4 5 6
32 A
U4 5 U5 4 U6 4
7 8 9
33 A
U7 5 U8 4 U9 4
10 11 12
34 A
U10 5 U11 4 U12 4
13 14 15 16 35
B
U13 5 U14 4 U15 4 U16 5 U2
17 18 19 20 36
B
U17 5 U18 4 U19 4 U20 5 U2
21 22 23 24 37
B
U21 5 U22 4 U23 4 U24 5 U2
25 26 27
38 C
U25 6 U26 3 U27 4
28 29 30
39 C
U28 6 U29 3 U30 4
FIGURE 8.14 S-graph of the recipe for the products in Example 8.4.
Combined Process Integration and Optimization 183
TABLE 8.6 Parameter Values for the Heating and Cooling Requirements in
Example 8.4
E1 1 4 13 21 10 20
E2 25 28 17 7 16 24
Equipment Units
E3 2 5 8
E4 11
E5 3 14 6 9
E6 26 29 18 22 12
E7 19
E8 27 30 15 23
10 20 30 36
Time [h]
Product A Product B Product C
FIGURE 8.15 Gantt chart of the optimal solution for Example 8.4.
If the heating and cooling duties are satisfied by utilities, then the minimal
makespan is 33.1 h with 3100 MJ utility. Extending the upper bound for the
makespan to 36 h reduces the required utility to 1100 MJ. Figure 8.15 displays
the Gantt chart of the optimal solution.
Fossil fuels
F
F
CO2
FCCC FCCC
W Q W Q CO2
Block-style flowsheet P-graph
Legend
F: Fuel; FCCC: Fuel Cell Combined Cycle unit; Q: Heat; W: Power
and economic data specifications, which provide the basis for appropriate
economic evaluation of the designs, are given in Varbanov and Friedler (2008).
The P-graph tools can be used to generate different solutions based on the
objectives of interest (operating cost, CO2 emissions) and market conditions.
The results show that systems of this type that employ renewable fuels are
economically viable for a wide range of economic conditions; this finding is due
mainly to the high energy efficiency of the FC-based systems. Figure 8.18 shows
the P-graph for the base case in which operating cost is minimized.
BM
55.2 MW
BGD
4.2 t/h
1.4 t/h
32.0
CO2 BG MW FRT
FCCC_36 BLR_BG
(MCFC+ST) 12.8 MW
2.2 MW
Q40
15.0 MW
LD_40_5
W 10.0 MW Q5 15.0 MW
FIGURE 8.18 P-graph solution for the energy system of Example 8.5.
Combined Process Integration and Optimization 187
of appliances to function without unexpected problems or major
breakdowns. If these equipment units fail, the consequences can be
catastrophic: contamination, smog, acid rain, injury, loss of life,
production cutbacks, amassed garbage heaps, energy losses, and so
on. Catastrophic failures would also entail substantial added costs.
For these reasons, solid waste management is a matter of serious
concern, which in some cases (waste collection in Naples, Italy) has
even led to a change in government. The models that have been
developed to manage waste-producing processes are of two types:
optimization models deal with specific aspects of waste-related
problems; in contrast, integrated waste management models focus on
sustainability. The latter type can be subdivided into three main
subcategories: models based on costbenefit analysis, models based
on life-cycle inventory, and multicriteria models (Morrissey and
Browne, 2004).
However, there is an element of uncertainty or risk associated
with most environmental decisions. Multicriteria techniques can
be extended to consider reliability issues along the entire waste
management chain and need not be limited to comparing the environ-
mental impacts of different waste treatment methods. As the
complexity of unit arrangements increases, risk assessment becomes
more complicated. Risk is a measure of the plants ability to carry
out its specific operating mission reliably. The expected return on
related investments is a function of the plant equipments capacity,
which is defined in terms of reliability, availability, durability, and
performance.
Reliability engineering in waste management addresses all
aspects of the waste life cycle, from its collection and treatment
processes and through the energy generation lifetime, including
maintenance support and availability. The concepts of reliability,
maintainability, and availability can be quantified with the aid of
reliability engineering principles and life data analysis (Kececioglu,
2002). A significant fraction of any systems operating cost is due to
unplanned system stoppages for unscheduled repair of components
or the entire system. One method of mitigating the cost (and impact)
of such failures is to improve the systems reliability and availability.
Of course, improvements in reliability that are made by the supplier
early in the equipments life cycle may well result in additional
development cost being passed on to the customer in the form of
higher equipment acquisition cost. However, this cost increase can be
more than offset by the operational cost reduction associated with
improved reliability and increased uptime, which also improve
productivity. Note that, in the context of waste management,
reliability, availability, and maintenance have specialized meanings.
Reliability is the probability that a system will perform satisfactorily
for at least a given period of time t when used under stated conditions
(Kuo and Zuo, 2003).
188 Chapter Eight
where MTBF is the Mean Time Between Failure (the inverse of the
failure rate) and MTTR is the Mean Time To Repair (the inverse of the
repair rate).
In addition, there are three frequently used terms defined
by Ireson, Coombs, and Moss (1996) and elsewhere: inherent,
achieved, and operational availability. The expression for inherent
availability is
MTBF
Ai (8.2)
MTBF MTTR
There are even more specific definitions. For example, the availability
of a redundant system represented by a series of parallel systems is
formulated by de Castro and Cavalca (2006) as
n
As [1 (1 A )
i 1
i
yi
] (8.5)
Combined Process Integration and Optimization 189
where Ai is the availability of the components of subsystem i and yi is
the number of redundant components in subsystem i. Comparing
downtimes is another, intuitive way to express availability.
Maintenance covers those activities undertaken after a system is
in the field in order to keep it operational or restore it to operational
condition after a failure has occurred (Ireson, Coombs, and Moss,
1996). There are several classifications of maintenance, the most
important of which are listed as follows:
8.6 Summary
This chapter presented several examples of combined PI and
optimization. The main focus was on exploiting the advantages of
graph-theoretic (P-graph and/or S-graph) frameworks. These
methods are well tested and have demonstrated their efficiency
across many applications.
CHAPTER 9
Software Tools
191
192 Chapter Nine
FIGURE 9.2 The Gantt chart and schedule graph of a solution (S-Graph Studio).
Sof tware Tools 195
9.3.2 HEAT-int
HEAT-int (2009) is a product of Process Integration Ltd. This program
is used to improve the energy performance of individual processes
on a site. It is the next-generation development of SPRINT software
(by a related team of developers) to a commercial standard, and it
offers more user-friendly interface features. The areas in which
HEAT-int is applied are similar to those listed previously for
SPRINT.
9.3.3 STAR
STAR is a software package for the design of site utility and
cogeneration systems (STAR, 2009); see Figure 9.4 for an example
user interface. This program analyzes all the interactions between
site processes and the steam system, steam turbines, gas turbines
(with auxiliary firing options), the boiler house, local fired heaters,
and cooling systems. The analysis is used to reduce energy cost and
196 Chapter Nine
9.3.4 SITE-int
Like HEAT-int (see Section 9.3.2), SITE-int (2009) is a product of
Process Integration Ltd. SITE-int is a state-of-the-art software package
for the design, optimization, and integration of site utility systems in
process industries. Its main features include methods to: (1) model
and optimize site utility systems; (2) minimize operating costs for
existing systems without modification; (3) target cogeneration
potential; (4) optimize site steam pressures and loads; (5) minimize
site energy costs through system modifications; (6) determine the
true benefit from saving energy in the individual processes; (7) reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from the site; and (8) create partial-load
models of utility system components from plant operating data using
regression functions and data reconciliation functions.
9.3.5 WORK
WORK is the software package used for the design of low-temperature
(subambient) processes (WORK, 2009). Low-temperature processes
require heat rejection to refrigeration systems. As a result, the
operating costs for such processes are usually dominated by the cost
of power to run the refrigeration system. Complex refrigeration
systemsincluding cascade and mixed refrigerant systemscan be
analyzed using WORK. For mixed refrigerants, WORK can be used
to optimize refrigerant composition. The software enables the user
to: (1) understand complex refrigeration systems; (2) target minimum
shaft work for low-temperature cooling duties; (3) optimize the
number and temperatures of refrigeration levels; (4) target minimum
shaft work for cascade refrigeration systems; (5) target minimum
shaft work for mixed refrigerant systems; and (6) determine the
optimum composition for mixed refrigeration systems. Three of
these features are discussed in more detail next.
Targeting low-temperature systems: WORK can target minimum
shaft work for simple and complex refrigeration cycles. Targets are
based on rigorous thermodynamic calculations that are highly
accurate even when compared with the results of rigorous simulation.
When multiple refrigeration levels are used, trade-offs arise between
temperature levels and shaft loads. Adjustments to each temperature
level affects not only its own shaftwork requirement but also that of
the other levels. Therefore, all levels of refrigeration must be
optimized simultaneously. This task is facilitated by WORKs
extremely accurate shaftwork predictions.
Simulating refrigeration systems: WORK enables the simulation of
simple and complex refrigeration systems (see Figure 9.5), which may
involve multiple heat levels and multiple compressors. The refrigerant
Sof tware Tools 199
9.3.6 HEXTRAN
HEXTRAN is a steady-state simulator that provides a view of heat
transfer systems (IPS, 2009a). It is used to design new systems,
monitor current systems, optimize existing operations, and solve (or
prevent) heat transfer problems. The program simulates integrated
processes and allows engineers to monitor the performance of
individual exchangers or an entire heat transfer network. It also
offers superior postprocessing displays, plotting Grand Composite
Curves as well as the results from network targeting and zone
analysis. HEXTRAN provides new efficiencies in all types of design
and operational analysis work, such as individual exchanger and
network designs, Pinch Analysis, exchanger zone analysis, split
flows, area payout, and optimal cleaning cycles.
HEXTRAN analyzes factors that can make the difference between
profits and losses. These factors include: (1) improved process heat
transfer, product yield, and quality; (2) increased energy efficiency
and significantly reduced operating costs; (3) increased plant flexibility
and throughput; (4) optimized cleaning schedule for exchangers;
(5) optimal antifouling selection and usage; and (6) improved process
designs and revamps. The HEXTRAN simulator for process heat
transfer offers features that facilitate straightforward evaluations of
complex design, operational, and retrofit situations; in particular, it:
(1) enables the design of both simple and complex heat transfer
systems that result in cost-effective, flexible processes; (2) allows the
200 Chapter Nine
9.3.7 SuperTarget
SuperTarget is mainly used to improve Heat Integration in new
design and retrofit projects by reducing operating costs and optimally
targeting capital investment (Linnhoff March, 2009). SuperTarget is
also a tool for day-to-day application by novice or occasional users,
and it makes Pinch Analysis a routine part of process design. The
software features an intuitive user interface that makes the technology
accessible to users at all levels of expertise, and advanced tools are
available for expert applications. Many of the most time-consuming
tasks traditionally associated with Pinch Analysis have been partially
or fully automated.
SuperTarget takes data directly from most popular process
simulation programs through interfaces to Aspen Plus, HYSYS, and
PRO/II. Its automatic data extraction system converts raw process
data into Pinch data, although the user has the option of overriding
the extraction defaults. SuperTarget consists of three program
modules: (1) Process is the core program, which is used to optimize
energy use within a single process unit; (2) Column performs a
thermal analysis of the heat distribution in distillation columns; and
(3) Site is used to establish heat and power targets across a Total Site.
FIGURE 9.6 Spreadsheet user interface for Pinch Analysis (Kemp Pinch
Spreadsheet, 2006).
9.5.3 gPROMS
An advanced modeling environment for process industries is offered
by gPROMS (PSE, 2009), which provides advanced custom modeling
capabilities within a flowsheeting environment combined with an
object-oriented modeling language. The process modeling, process
simulation, and optimization capabilities of gPROMS are used to
generate accurate process behavior predictions and information for
decision support in product and process innovation, design, and
operation. Because gPROMS is a flowsheeting environment, the user
can optimize complex units within the context of an entire process.
The software employs synchronized graphical and text views, which
makes it easy to develop, maintain, and assure the quality of the
models, and archive them. It is capable of assessing all phases of the
process life cycle, from laboratory experimentation to process design
and detailed engineering to online operations.
For modeling problems and deriving solutions, the environment
provided by gPROMS ModelBuilder is employed. ModelBuilder is a
flexible environment in which engineering experts can perform custom
modeling, process engineers can generate graphical flowsheets, and
process operators can run execution-only routines. Figure 9.7 shows
an example user interface. In summary, gPROMS is an equation-
oriented modeling system used for building, validating, and executing
first-principles models within a flowsheeting framework.
9.5.4 CHEMCAD
The CHEMCAD software tool for simulating chemical processes
includes libraries of chemical components, thermodynamic methods,
and unit operations (Chemstations, 2009). Its purpose is to facilitate
the simulation of steady-state continuous chemical processes from
laboratory-scale experiments to full-scale operations; see Figure 9.8
for the user interface. This software package has recently been
upgraded to allow for the dynamic analysis of flowsheets. It offers
operability assessment, proportional integral derivative (PID) loop
tuning, and operator training as well as online process control and
soft-sensor functionality. Models for nonstandard unit operations
can simulate the behavior of a process under varying feed rates,
product rates, temperatures, pressures, and compositions.
The program contains the 1500-component Design Institute for
Physical Property (DIPPR) database as well as a separate, user-
defined database. Components are selected by ID number, formula,
synonym, or class. The program also includes routines for predicting
the properties of components not included in the database. Crude oil
feeds may be characterized by American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) or true boiling point (TBP) curves and then
represented in the simulation by a series of pseudocomponents (cuts)
with different boiling points.
The flowsheet representing the plant layout is input graphically,
and data describing each feed stream and unit operation is entered
via pull-down menu options. Automatic error checking is used to
preclude overspecification or missing data entries. The interactive
interface also permits individual unit operations to be run separately
9.5.5 PRO/II
The PRO/II computer simulation system is used by process engineers
in the chemical, petroleum, natural gas, solids processing, and
polymer industries (IPS, 2009b). It includes a large chemical component
library and multiple thermodynamic property prediction methods as
well as advanced and flexible techniques for evaluating unit
operations. The software tool can perform mass and energy balance
calculations for modeling steady-state processes. Expert systems,
extensive input processing, and error checking are included to help
inexperienced users. Typically, PRO/II simulation is applied to the
following tasks: (1) process design; (2) evaluating alternative plant
configurations; (3) modernizing and revamping existing plants;
(4) assessing, documenting, and complying with environmental
regulations; (5) troubleshooting and de-bottlenecking plant processes;
and (6) monitoring and improving plant yields and profitability.
9.6.2 MIPSYN
The MIPSYN (short for Mixed Integer Process SYNthesizer) is a
user-friendly computer package for the integrated synthesis of new
plants and for the innovative reconstruction of existing plants at
different levels of complexity. The tasks to which it can be applied
range from simple nonlinear programming (NLP) solutions for
plant optimization problems to the mixed integer nonlinear
programming (MINLP) optimization of heat-integrated, flexible
plants. MIPSYN is the successor to the PROSYN synthesizer
(Kravanja and Grossmann, 1990; Kravanja and Grossmann, 1994).
As such, it is based on the most advanced modeling and optimization
techniques: those rooted in disjunctive MINLP. The MIPSYN
software can simultaneously address both discrete optimization
(e.g., selection of process units, their operating status, their
connectivity, and ranges of operation) and continuous optimization
(of temperatures, flows, pressures, etc.). The package integrates the
following methods and related components: (1) GAMS with a variety
of different NLP and MILP solvers; (2) different versions of the outer
approximation (OA) algorithmincluding the modified OA/ER
algorithm (ER denotes equality relaxation) and a new logic-
based OA/ER algorithmwhich are supervised by MIPSYN
command files; (3) a simple simulator that serves as an initializer to
provide NLP subproblems with feasible (or nearly feasible) starting
points; (4) a library of models pertaining to process units,
interconnected nodes, and the simultaneous integration of heat and
mass; (5) a database of the physical properties of the most common
chemical components; and (6) a hybrid modeling environment, with
a link to external FORTRAN routines, for solving the implicit part of
synthesis models.
Execution of the NLP and MILP steps in OA algorithms is
performed through the use of GAMS saving and restart capabilities,
which enable the user to execute MIPSYN in automated or interactive
modes of operation. The synthesizer features many important
208 Chapter Nine
9.6.3 LINDO
LINDO is a tool for solving linear, integer, and quadratic program-
ming problems (Lindo Systems, 2009). It provides an interactive
modeling environment that facilitates the simulation and solution of
optimization problems. LINDO has the speed and capacity to solve
large-scale linear and integer models. The dynamic link library
(DLL) version of LINDO allows users to seamlessly integrate the
LINDO solver into Microsoft Windows applications that are written
in Visual Basic, C/C++, or any language that supports DLL calls.
Workstation users can exploit the linkable object libraries to hook
the solver engine to applications written in FORTRAN or C. The
latest LINDO version (ODC, 2009) offers a number of enhancements,
including: (1) significantly expanded nonlinear capabilities; (2) global
optimization tools; (3) improved performance on linear and integer
Sof tware Tools 209
problems; and (4) enhanced interfaces to other systems, such as
MATLAB and Java.
LINDO API was the first full-featured solver with a callable
library to offer general nonlinear and integer nonlinear capabilities.
This feature allows developers to incorporate a single, general-
purpose solver into their custom applications. The softwares linear
and integer capabilities provide the user with a comprehensive set
of routines for formulating, solving, and modifying nonlinear
models (although a separate, nonlinear license must be purchased to
access these nonlinear capabilities). The global solver combines
techniques for range bounding (e.g., interval analysis, convex
analysis) and range reduction (e.g., linear programming, constraint
propagation) within a branch-and-bound framework to find proven
global solutions to nonconvex nonlinear programs or mixed-integer
nonlinear programs.
FIGURE 9.9 User interface for an ILOG ODM-based application (ILOG, 2006).
b3={0,0,0}
Inertial
y
3D mechanics
x
b1={0,0,0} b4={0,0.73,0}
load
r2={1,0,0}
r3={1,0,0}
r1={0,1,0}
r5={1,0,0}
r4={0,1,0}
b0 r6={0,1,0}
state machines
b2={0,0.5,0} b5={0,0,0}
time>3
T2
R=50
control systems
Rp2
control
motor gear load
R=250
VolP
Ra
1 hydraulics
P4
C Rp1
J=1 q
time>5
C=C R=200
T4
Rel
L=L
La
power trains
power systems
T1 Line1
p1 p2 p3 k=k 3rd
Order
electrical systems Line2
emf
G2
Solar Coal
Hydro Gas/Oil
Hydrogen
Wind
Ground
Biomass Heat
Intermediate products
Biomass/waste
Pre-
Coal treat- Electricity
ment- Transpor- Conver-
Oil sys- tation and sion
tems storage processes
Natural gas Distribu- Heat
tion and
EST storage
Hydro
Transportation
Wind to be fuel
evaluated
Solar energy
Geothermal
Most of the ESTs analyzed were not yet able to achieve the cost
levels of existing technologies. Some of the ESTsfor instance,
molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs)could become competitive
with relatively small efforts aimed at cost reduction. Various
promising future trends located with the help of EMINENT have
been supported by policy makers. Some near-term prospects are:
(1) diverse energy systems that encompass supplies, management,
and control of demand; (2) market-based grids with large power
stations, including wind farms of different types; (3) local distributed
generation, including biomass, waste, and wind; (4) micro generation,
Sof tware Tools 215
including Combined Heat and Power (CHP), fuel cells, and
photovoltaic technology; new homes built with nearly zero carbon
emissions; (6) natural gas; (7) coal-fired generation combined with
carbon capture and storage; and (8) mixed fuels (e.g., coal mixed
with biomass, natural gas mixed with hydrogen). Longer-term
prospects include nuclear power stations, fuel cells, hydrogen
obtained from nonelectricity sources (e.g., biomass, low-carbon
biofuels), and nuclear fusion.
TABLE 9.1 Software Tools for Analyzing the Integration of Renewable Energy into
Other Energy Systems (after Connolly et al., 2010)
Sof tware Tools 217
TABLE 9.1 Software Tools for Analyzing the Integration of Renewable Energy into
Other Energy Systems (Continued)
218 Chapter Nine
TABLE 9.1 Software Tools for Analyzing the Integration of Renewable Energy into
Other Energy Systems (Continued)
CHAPTER 10
Examples and
Case Studies
T
his chapter provides a selection of problems that have been
collected by the authors over twenty years of teaching and
consulting. The problems include step-by-step solutions,
which provide guidance for mastering the methodology. Space
limitations make it impossible to cover all aspects or to provide fully
comprehensive solutions, for which an entire book would be required.
The representative problems selected for presentation here are
divided into five groups: Heat Pinch Technology, Total Sites,
integrated placement of processing units, utility placement, and
Water Pinch Technology.
219
220 Chapter Ten
H H
CP [kW/C]
337C 190C 40C
100 H1 C
160C
160 H2 220C
220C 60C
50 H3 C
160C 45C
190 H4 C
Problem 1: Solutions
Answer to (a)(1) and (a)(2). The HEN is represented as a grid diagram in
Figure 10.3, which also shows the missing HEN parameters (i.e., temperatures
and loads).
Answer to (b)(1). A path between a cold and a hot utility is called a utility path.
Heat duty can be shifted along a utility path, which provides a degree of freedom
in the HEN retrofit. Figure 10.4 shows a utility path connecting a heater and a
Examples and Case Studies 221
Tmin = 10C
350
300
250
200
T* [C]
150
100
50
0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
H [MW]
CP [kW/C]
40.0 99.7 190.0 337.0
C3 E2 E1 H1 100
5970 kW
160.0 220.0
E4 H2 160
60.0 88.0 220.0
C6 E5 H3 50
100.0 300.0
247.0
C1 H8 100
35.0 14700 kW 5300 kW 164.0
C2 70
Load-shift path
CP [kW/C]
140.0 6600 kW
188.0 300.0
C5 H9 200
9600 kW 22400 kW
X 2600 kW (10.11)
For this value of load shift, the exchanger E2 will be pinched at its hot end as
follows: TH11 = 174.0C and TC2,out = 164.0C. The temperatures at the cold end
will be TH12 = 83.7C and TC2, in = 35.0C.
Answer to (c)(1). Total heating requirement for the existing network:
Q H = Q H8 + Q H9 = 27,700 kW. Total cooling requirement for the network:
Q C = Q C3 + Q C6 + Q C10 = 21,345 kW. There is no inappropriate use of utilities.
Compared with the targets, both total utility heating and total utility cooling
are higher by 9920 kW, which is due to cross-Pinch heat transfer.
Answer to (c)(2). The Process Pinch is at 150C for hot streams and at 140C for
cold streams. Comparing the network temperatures with the Pinch location
yields a list of exchangers that violate the Pinch; see Table 10.2.
224 Chapter Ten
Problem 2: Solutions
Answer to (a). The Composite Curves for the process stream data are shown in
Figure 10.5.
Answer to (b). The position of the CCs in Figure 10.5 indicates that, for
Tmin = 24C, this is a threshold problem at the cold end: Q H,min = 0 kW. On the
cold end there is excess of hot streams, which means that some cold utility is
required: Q C,min = 482 kW.
Examples and Case Studies 225
100
482 kW
0
0 2000 4000 H [kW]
Utility
Cost [$/y]
12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
51 52 53 54 Tmin [C]
Tmin [C]
51 52 53 54
QH [kW] 0 0 27 57
Cost of heating [$/y] 0 0 1,020 2,153
QC [kW] 482 482 509 539
Cost of cooling [$/y] 8,739 8,739 9,228 9,772
Total utility cost [$/y] 8,739 8,739 10,248 11,926
TABLE 10.4 Utility Requirements and Cost for Various Tmin Values
Answer to (c). The utility cost plot, which is given in Figure 10.6, is based on the
data in Table 10.4.
Answer to (d). A network that features the minimum number of units and
maximum energy recovery is shown in Figure 10.7.
226 Chapter Ten
(a) CP [kW/C]
121C 163.4C 249C
E4 E1 4 17
CP=9.1 kW/C
E2
66C 103.1C 305C
C E3 5 13
CP=3.9 kW/C
482 kW
38C 205C 11
1 E2
1837 kW
66C 121.43C 182C 13
2 E4 E3
720 kW 788 kW
93C 205C
3 E1 13
1456 kW
(b) CP [kW/C]
CP=5.22 kW/C
E3
E1 17
121C 249C
E2 4
CP=11.78 kW/C
Tmin = 10C
(330;145)
150
Sink A1
Sink A2
T* [C]
100 (59;105)
(0;95)
Source A1
50
(40;55) Source A2
(220;25)
20
0 100 200 300
H [kW]
Problem 3: Solutions
Answer to (a). For process A, Tmin = 10C, the minimum hot utility is 330 kW,
and the minimum cold utility is 220 kW (see Table 10.7).
For process B, Tmin = 10oC, the minimum hot utility is 240 kW, and the minimum
cold utility is 140 kW (see Table 10.8).
Answer to (b). Given the data in Table 10.8, the GCC for process B is drawn as
shown in Figure 10.9.
Answer to (c). Using the GCC plots from Figures 10.8 and 10.9, the heat source
and heat sink segments have been extracted. These segments are listed in
Tables 10.9 and 10.10 for process A and process B, respectively.
The data reported in Tables 10.9 and 10.10 have been combined into
composite heat source and sink profiles. Figures 10.10 and 10.11 illustrate the
composition procedure, which is analogous to the one for constructing the
process CCs. Figure 10.12 shows the resulting TSPs.
Sink B1
(0;185)
200
Source B1
T* [C]
(100;135)
(140;115)
(100;105)
100 Source B2
(100;75)
(140;55)
40
0 50 100 150 200 250
H [kW]
Segment T *start [C] T *end [C] H [kW] T **start [C] T **end [C]
Sink A1 105 145 280 110 150
Sink A2 95 105 50 100 110
Source A1 95 55 40 90 50
Source A2 55 25 180 50 20
TABLE 10.9 Heat Source and Sink Segments from the GCC for Process A
[Problem 3(c)]
Segment T *start [C] T *end [C] H [kW] T **start [C] T **end [C]
Sink B1 185 245 240 190 250
Source B1 185 135 100 180 130
Source B2 75 55 40 70 50
TABLE 10.10 Heat Source and Sink Segments from the GCC for Process B
[Problem 3(c)]
Answers to (d) and( e). By analyzing the TSPs (Figure 10.12), one can see that
there is an opportunity to match heat source and heat sink requirements
in the steam temperature interval between 100C and 180C. The proposed
steam saturation temperature is in the interval from 117.1C to 130C. Within
this interval, the maximum heat recovery through the steam system (equal to
100 kW) is achieved. This results from matching the values for steam generation
and steam use (here both are equal to 100 kW).
230 Chapter Ten
Temperature
250
150
T = 130C
T = 117.1C
50
Problem 4: Solutions
Answer to (a). Pinch Analysis has been applied to the two processes just
described, and the targets thus identified are given in Table 10.13.
The GCCs for process A and process B are shown in Figures 10.13 and 10.14,
respectively.
T [C]
(2.9; 165.0)
160
140 (0.3; 148.0)
(0.3; 121.0)
120
(8.9; 85.0)
100 (0; 119.0) (10.3; 79.0)
80
(9.9; 80.0)
60
40
20 (15.0; 32.5)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 H [MW]
T* [C]
180 (1.8; 175.0)
(0.5; 163.3)
160 (2.6; 164.9)
140
120 (1.4; 130.6)
100
(3.1; 100.0)
80
60 (1.8; 75.0)
40
20
(0; 15.0)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 H [MW]
Answer to (b). The TSPs for the combination of the two processes are plotted in
Figure 10.15. The apparent temperature overlap of the profiles indicates a good
opportunity for heat recovery.
Answer to (c). The heat recovery on the site can only take place via the steam
system. Any steam raised from process cooling has to be utilized to the greatest
Examples and Case Studies 233
extent possible in order to maximize the recovery. Usage may exceed generation;
in this case, the difference would be made up by MP steam. The profiles in
Figure 10.15 were used to balance steam generation and use by the processes
by varying the LP level saturation temperature. This has been achieved for LP
generation and use steam loads of 6.9 MW at 109C saturation temperature,
which corresponds to 1.39 bar(a) steam pressure. The Total Site composites are
shown in Figure 10.16
T** [C]
200
100
50
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
H [MW]
T** [C]
200
6.9 MW
100
50
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
H [MW]
purge
120C
FR m=0.4
H
C 900
m=1 1300 505 180C CA
50C 130C
F1 H 180C
R1 A
50C 180C T=180C Column A
F2
m=0.8 HM
220C
H m=1.4 220C
RA
1050 H
CB 200C
1000
980 C
200C
70C C Heat exchanged
P2
with cold utility
m=1.3 H Heat exchanged
B
with hot utility
Column B Q
RB Heat exchanged [kW]
1928 m=[kg/s]
m=0.5 270C
70C 150C 270C
P1 C H
FIGURE 10.17 Process flowsheet for the base-case design (Problem 5).
250
Pinch
200
Th = 240 C
Tc = 220 C
150
100
50
1958.6 10316.6
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 H [kW]
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Q (kW)
Problem 5: Solutions
Answer to (a). Stream data needed to perform a Pinch Analysis is reported in
Table 10.14.
Answer to (b). For the base case, Q H = 4828 kW, Q C = 3366.4 kW, and process heat
recovery = 3530 kW. The targets are Q H = 2642.6 kW and Q C = 1958.6 kW, and
process heat recovery = 5715.8 kW. The base-case design requires much more
utility consumption. This is because some heat is transferred across the Pinch
and also because there is some unnecessary utility use. For example, some
amount of heat is needed in the column B reboiler for heating up P1, and this
amount must be taken out again when P1 needs cooling.
Answer to (c).
The cold streams below the Pinch are F1, F2, and FR. These streams can
be heated up by P1 (parts below the Pinch), P2, and by the condensers of
columns A and B. In the base case, stream P1 is used to supply heat to
stream F2, resulting in heat transfer across the Pinch. Instead, to heat up
stream F2 at its higher temperature range, heat exchange with stream P2
can be employed; for the lower-temperature part of F2, the heat from the
condenser of column A can be recovered.
Above the Pinch, P1 can be used to heat up parts of the column A
reboiler or of the heating media of reactor R1.
Examples and Case Studies 237
Answer to (d)(1). Using the GCC in Figure 10.19, from the viewpoint of a heat
pump, two good candidates for its integration are as follows:
Across the Process Pinch. Heat rejection from the heat pump to the
process T* = 230C (real temperature T = 240C) and heat absorption
from the process at T* = 190C (T = 180C), would result in temperature
lift Tlift = 60C. The main challenge is that the heat available for
absorption by the heat pump is relatively smaller than what can be
delivered by the heat pump above the Process Pinch.
Across a potential Utility Pinch. Heat rejection level T* = 130C and
absorbtion heat level T* = 110C. The corresponding real heat pump
temperatures are: heat rejection level T = 140C and heat absorption
level, T = 100C. This results in temperature lift Tlift = 40C. At this
level, a large amount of heat is available to be absorbed from the process
and an even larger amount can be rejected to the process.
Answer to (d)(2).
From the GCC, the heat pump integration can be placed at the levels of
140C and 100C with only a small amount of shaft work required. This
could save a large part of the cold utility required.
Above the Pinch, a large and quite flat pocket is present in the CCC,
providing an opportunity to generate steam at the maximum level
of 180C.
Above the Pinch, steam is preferred over flue gas for a hot utility because
the process stream temperatures are not too high.
238 Chapter Ten
Answer to (e).
Reactors. The reaction is endothermic and, to save utility, its heating
medium heat demand should be placed below the Pinch. It is now placed
above the Pinch. If the pressure and temperature of reactor R1 are
reduced, then an alternative heating media with lower temperature levels
could be used. As a result of decreased R1 pressure, the boiling points of
feeds F1 and F2 would also decrease. This would result in different
targets. For instance the GCC could be shifted more to the left and the
Pinch point could be changed, resulting in more process heat recovery.
Distillation columns. The reboilers of columns A and B currently
evaporate the entire flow from the column bases. The appropriate
arrangement would be to move the reboilers to evaporate only the
branches of these flows that are intended for the columns.
Feed vaporization. In the base case, the vaporization of F1 and F2 are both
placed below the Pinch. However, as mentioned, the current vaporization
of F2 results in cross-Pinch heat transfer. Also, the vaporization of F1
employs utility heating below the Pinch, which should be eliminated
and substituted for process-to-process heat recovery.
Soft data. The P1 and P2 target temperatures are soft data that can be
changed. The temperatures could be increased to reduce cold utility
required, but this would not change the CC much.
HP steam = 654.2 kW
320.0C 320.1C
MP steam = 874.4 kW
300 305.0C
260.1C
260.0C
250.1C
224.0C
200
T* [C]
204.0C
176.0C
132.0C 146.0C
100.0C 122.0C
100
C
5 .0
41.0C 4 60.0C
40.0C
30.0C 20.0C Cooling water = 2657 kW
FIGURE 10.20 Balanced Composite Curves and heat recovery targets for
Problem 6.
240 Chapter Ten
Problem 6: Solutions
Answer to (a). Table 10.17 shows the missing parameters of process streams
described in Table 10.15.
Answer to (b). There are two Pinches: the Process Pinch (located at 132C/122C)
and the Utility Pinch (located at 260.1C/250.1C; see Figure 10.21. The Utility
Pinch is caused by the placement of the MP steam. More significant is the
Process Pinch, which divides the design area into two different parts: a net
heat sink above the Pinch temperatures and a net heat source below the Pinch
temperatures.
The Utility Pinch further subdivides the area above the Process Pinch. In
the interval between the Process Pinch and the Utility Pinch, the only utility
allowed is the MP steam. Above the Utility Pinch, the only utility available
remains the HP steam.
Answer to (c). See Figure 10.22.
TABLE 10.17 Process Streams for Problem 6(a) with Missing Data Filled In
HP steam = 654.2 kW
320.0C 320.1C
MP steam = 874.4 kW 305.0C
300
260.1C
260.0C
Utility Pinch
224.0C 250.1C
200 204.0C
T [C]
176.0C
132.0C
146.0C
100.0C 122.0C
100
Process Pinch
C
5 .0
41.0C 4 60.0C
30.0C 20.0C Cooling water = 2657 kW
122.0 250.1
Tmin = 10C; All temperatures are in [C], H are in [kW], CP are in [kW/C]
1623.17 kW 132.0
41.0 100.0
C1 1
57.71 kW
60.0 62.51 132.0
C3 2 2
696.88 kW
65.0 127.3 132.0
C5 4 3
155.62 kW
30.0 132.0
C6 4
122.91 kW
45.0 132.0
C7 5
30.0 122.0
6 2
1611.21 kW
117.0 122.0
7 4
56.2 kW
20.0
9 C1 C7 C6 C5 C3
122.0
FIGURE 10.23 HEN design below the Process Pinch [Problem 6(d)].
242 Chapter Ten
132.0 260.1
260.0 260.1
12 13 11 MP steam
214.0
224.0
CP = 11.24 8 9 3
CP = 1.53 10 4
CP = 1.41 11 5
144.32
CP = 8.755 10
142.67 195.44 kW 143.49 146.04
CP = 17.51 6 11 13
180.98 kW 43.90 kW
204.0
CP = 11.24 7 8
921.68 kW
176.0 185.32
CP = 12.72 8 9 12
112.4 kW 830.48 kW
122.0 250.1
FIGURE 10.24 HEN design above the Process Pinch [Problem 6(e)].
260.1
320.0 320.1
16 10
CP = 6541.86
12.05 kW
268.0
15 4
CP = 1.53
283.0
14 5
CP = 1.41
CP = 3.36 251.99
15
250.1
FIGURE 10.25 HEN design above the Utility Pinch [Problem 6(f)].
Examples and Case Studies 243
Problem 7: Solutions
Answer to (a). The heat recovery targets and the Pinch location can be obtained
with the help of the PTA. The heat cascade intervals and the corresponding
stream population are shown in Table 10.20, and the computed problem table
is given in Table 10.21.
TABLE 10.20 Heat Cascade Intervals and Stream Population for Problem 7(a)
Examples and Case Studies 245
Alternatively, the heat recovery targets can be obtained by plotting the CCs,
as shown in Figure 10.26.
Answer to (b). See Figure 10.27.
Answer to (c)(1) and (c)(2). See Figure 10.28.
Answer to (c)(3).
Total utility cost = 37.5 [MW MP steam] 50,000 [$/MWy]
+ 62.5 [MW cooling water] 7,000 [$/MWy]
+ 24 [MW chilled water] 30,000 [$/MWy]
= 3,032,500 [$/y]
150
50
QCmin=86.5 MW
0
0 200 400 600 800 H [MW]
246 Chapter Ten
100
50
QCmin=86.5 MW
0
0 50 100 H [MW]
Cooling Water
50 62.5 MW Chilled Water 24 MW
0
0 50 100 H [MW]
Answer to (d)(1). The flue gas heating option will probably be more expensive
than heating with steam. The temperature levels in the problem do not suggest
exploitation of furnace heat.
Answer to (d)(2). The appropriate placement of a heat pump is across the Process
Pinch, so the pump will transfer heat from below to above the Pinch. In this
problem it is technically impractical to install a heat pump with water or steam
as a working fluid, since this would require operation at a slight vacuum (the
Pinch is at 170C/140C). The relatively small duties that could be achieved
with this technique indicate that investment in a heat pump here is likely to be
economically unattractive.
Answer to (d)(3). Introducing a new steam level at a steam temperature of 165C
is a good option that can be exploited by passing the steam (taken at 200C)
through a steam turbine. This has the potential of generating additional power
on the site. The steam would be returned to the process at the level of 165C
(the process heating requirement is at 150C, which makes this arrangement
feasible). If the site could use additional power, then this option may reduce the
overall utility cost by providing on-site power generation.
Examples and Case Studies 247
Problem 8: Solutions
Answer to (a). The individual limiting water profiles are graphed in Figure 10.29.
Figure 10.30 shows the result when these water profiles are combined.
800
4
C [ppm]
400
3
100 2
1
50
0 2 7 37 41 40
m [kg/h]
800
C [ppm]
400
0
1 9 21 41
m [kg/h]
800
C [ppm]
400
100
0
1 9 21 41
m [kg/h]
800
C [ppm]
45.7 t/h
400
100
50
90 t/h
m [kg/h]
FIGURE 10.33 Water Pinch diagram used to target the minimum water flow
rate in Problem 9.
400
100
45.7 t/h 100 ppm
50 44.3 t/h100 ppm
90 t/h
90 t/h
m [kg/h]
100 t/h 2
Limiting 50 ppm
Flowrates
40 t/h 3 3
50 ppm
10 t/h 4
400 ppm
Wastewater (90-90) (90-45.7) (45.7-0)
0 t/h 44.3 t/h 45.7 t/h
100 ppm 800 ppm
Water mains
20 t/h 20 t/h
1
50 t/h
100 t/h 2
20 t/h 40 t/h
40 t/h 3
20 t/h
5.7 t/h
10 t/h 4
FIGURE 10.36 Streams are connected with the water mains (Problem 9).
252 Chapter Ten
20 t/h 20 t/h
1
20 t/h 40 t/h
40 t/h 3
20 t/h
5.7 t/h
10 t/h 4
90 t/h
F.W.
20 t/h 20 t/h
1
50 t/h
100 t/h 2
20 t/h
40 t/h 3
20 t/h
5.7 t/h
10 t/h 4
20 t/h
20 t/h 40 t/h
Operation 1 Operation 3
F.W. Wastewater
90 t/h 90 t/h
50 t/h 5.7 t/h
Operation 2 Operation 4
44.3 t/h
T
his chapter provides an overview of selected implementations
of the Process Integration methodology for various industrial
case studies. The presentation is somewhat condensed because
of space limitations; more information is available in the works
cited.
253
254 Chapter Eleven
400
Tmin = 11.50C
Temperature [C]
300
200
100
0
1 2
Enthalpy [MW]
FIGURE 11.1 Composite Curves of FCC process with optimum Tmin (after
Al Riyami, Kleme, and Perry, 2001).
FIGURE 11.2 Grid diagram of the chosen retrofit option (after Al Riyami,
Kleme, and Perry, 2001). Exchanger number 1 from the original network is
removed and now used repiped as new added area (exchanger number 42);
exchanger number 10 is only repiped.
required. All the modifications carried out in the diagnosis stage had
the effect of moving heat from below to above the Network Pinch. The
final retrofit design produced energy savings of 8.955 MW, about
74 percent of the potential of the design. The annual utility cost savings
amounted to $2,388,600, a 27 percent decrease in the utility bill. Since
the modified HEN required an investment of $3,758,420, the payback
period was less than 19 months.
The study demonstrated that a combination of targeting and
Pinch Technology (process Pinch and Network Pinch) can yield
substantial improvements in an existing HEN and thereby reduce the
total network cost. The employed method can recognize bottlenecks
in an existing system, and then generate a series of potential
improvements by searching for modifications capable of shifting heat
from below to above the Network Pinch. It was found that targeting
for maximum energy savings at each potential modification usually
produces a good trade-off between area and energy cost.
Gases
Water
Light Distillate Steam
Steam
Crude Oil
Steam
Atmospheric residue
Diesel Oil
Lower pumparound
Heavy Distillate
TABLE 11.1 Pinch Analysis Results for Operating Points of the Three
Preheating Phases
Industrial Applications and Case Studies 259
CP [kW/C] CPH11 CPH12
CPH11 = 17.68 28 65.5 94.2
C2 C1 H1
CPH12 = 17.68 101.9 kW 507.5 kW
40.0 70.0 111.3
0.38 C3 1 H2
11.3 kW
60.0 75.3 186.0
1.66 2 H3
25.4 kW C4
40.0 129.8 197.0
0.84 C5 3 H4
75.8 kW
100.0 140.3 296.3
0.98 C6 4 H5
39.7 kW
CPC11 = 2.92 20.0 60.0 65.3 119.8 130.3 158.7 310.0
CPC12 = 5.40 C1 H1 1 2 3 4 H2
CPC13 = 4.23 CPC11 CPC1 CPC1
1 2
101.7 kW 11.9 kW 183.6 kW 56.7 kW 153.5 kW 677.3 kW 3
(a) Initial HEN Feed 1
39.8 436.72 kW
40.0 111.2
C3 1 H2
0 kW 99.4 186.0
60.0
EC4 2 H3
90.0 t/h
240.318 t/h 3.385 t/h 3.385 t/h 246.054 t/h
Vacuum Pump (5)
Waste Water
Fresh Water to
1.62 t/h from plant
Plant 1.62 t/h
Screen Taca-Taca (6)
Total Raw Water 240.318 t/h Total Gain from Process 37.391 t/h
Total Waste Water 246.054 t/h Total Losses to Process 31.655 t/h
Difference 5.736 t/h Difference 5.736 t/h
Error % 0.00
in Figure 11.8. The freshwater target was compared with the current
freshwater consumption in order to assess the plants overall potential
for minimizing water and wastewater. The redesigned network
yielded a freshwater demand of 169.3 t/h and a wastewater flow rate
of 175.1 t/h. Although this amounts to a substantial reduction in both
water and wastewater, the design includes reuse of certain streams
that will require treatment. As already described, the analysis was
based on COD as the pseudocontaminant in reuse streams. However,
these streams may well contain other contaminants (e.g., solid waste,
Industrial Applications and Case Studies 265
0.5 t/h 0.5 t/h
Operation 1
8.96 t/h
Loss to Process, 6.265 t/h
Recycle, 23.7 t/h
Loss to Process
8.64 t/h
15.84 t/h 7.20 t/h
Operation 10
25.0
Concentration [ppb]
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
FRESHWATER SAVINGS
Number of
New Pipes % Feed Water
Theoretical Freshwater Reduction Limit, 31% Reduction
Required
30
30 30
25
22 22 20
10 9
5 7 7
5
A B C D
Design Options
500
Shifted temperature [C]
st
400
au
xh
ee
bin
tur
300
s
Ga
200 Waste
Site steam heat
Driver steam boiler
ex rbi s
ha ne
tu Ga
Heat Cooling
pump water
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Net heat flow [MW]
0.05 EGCC
Utility curve
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
c [1]
FIGURE 11.11 Exergy Grand Composite Curve for meat-processing plant (after
Fritzson and Berntsson, 2006).
0.05 EGCC
Utility curve
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
c [1]
FIGURE 11.12 Area between the EGCC and the utility curve is further
decreased by changing the temperature of the first refrigeration level from
10C to 3C (after Fritzson and Berntsson, 2006).
272 Chapter Eleven
Winter Summer
T [C] T [C]
300 HP level candidates 300 HP level candidates
40 20 0 20 40 60 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
H [MW] H [MW]
FIGURE 11.13 Total Site Profiles and candidate steam pressure levels for three
steam mains of an industrial chemical site (the Heat Source Profile for summer
provides more heat than that for winter).
Winter Summer
Fraction of year 0.55 0.45
Price of cooling water [$/t] 0.0185 0.0212
Site power demand [MW] 25 31
Maximum export allowed [MW] 10 10
Price of power (import and export) [$/MWh] 20 30
Gas turbines
gt01 gt01
Process heating
Process cooling demands
demands HRSG HRSG b01 b02 Winter Summer
Winter Summer
VHP: 90 bara, 503.35 C 3.550 3.175
12.000 16.885 MW MW
MW MW Canditate
hdr01: st01 hdr01: st02 9.038 5.956
pressure levels
7.700 13.383 MW MW
hdr01 tb01
MW MW
tb02 1.635 1.501
tb03 MW MW
1.300 2.877
MW MW
hdr02: st01 hdr02: st02 50.591 43.777
15.500 18.136 MW MW
MW MW hdr02 : tb01
14.660 10.632
8.210 10.632 MW MW
CT: st01 CT: st02
MW MW
COND: 0.1235 bara
Condensate return
To cooling water
DA Make-up water
7.700 MW 13.383 MW Capacity: 52.409 t/h hdr : st POWER 18.907 t/h 13.210 t/h
01 01
Winter: 52.409 t/h Winter: 4.767 MW
Summer: 1.941 MW 9.038 MW 5.956 MW
Summer: 26.213 t/h
Winter: 15.717 t/h
1.300 MW 2.877 MW
Summer: 0.001 t/h
TSAT=198.89 C; P=15.19 bara 1.635 MW 1.501 MW
33.139 t/h 52.304 t/h
(tb03)
Winter: 16.645 t/h 84.620 t/h 77.960 t/h
25.240 t/h 29.533 t/h
Summer: 0.558 t/h
50.591 MW 43.777 MW
15.500 MW 18.136 MW TSAT=130.51 C (tb01); P=2.74 bara
Winter: 18.769 t/h 23.116 t/h 17.597 t/h
Summer: 12.493 t/h
8.210 MW 10.632 MW 14.660 MW 10.632 MW
Winter: 114.025 t/h
COND: 0.1235 bara Summer: 101.182 t/h
To cooling water
Condensate return
DA
Winter: 136.671 t/h Winter: 22.646 t/h from processes
Summer: 116.369 t/h Summer: 15.187 t/h
To the stream Make-up
generators Winter: 154.502 t/h water Power import [MW]: 21.1 (Winter); 30.0 (Summer)
Summer: 128.237 t/h Total annualized cost: 13.124 106 $/y
TABLE 11.6 Process Stream Data of Hospital Complex (Herrera, Islas, and
Arriola, 2003)
T [C]
120 Hot CC
Cold CC
100
80
60
40
PINCH
20
FIGURE 11.17 Process Composite Curves for hospital complex (Tmin = 20C).
minimize the cleaning cost. This change in criterion has only a minor
effect on the solution procedure, so an effective solver for the original
problem is also useful for the reformulated problem.
Twenty-three equipment units, E1 through E23, are available to
generate six products, A through F. The changeover time is 70 minutes
for equipment units E6, E7, E8, and E9 but 100 minutes for equipment
units E1 through E5 and E10 through E20. All other changeover times
are presumed to be zero. The number of batches to be produced is
given in Table 11.10.
Cleaning the equipment units is a costly operation that involves
many pollutants. The minimal makespan schedule contains 11
cleaning operations, which are denoted by the dotted changeover
arcs on its S-graph; see Figure 11.18.
The cleaning cost of the solution with minimal makespan is
$14,000. In contrast, the solution based on minimizing the cost
involves four (rather than 11) cleaning operations and only $3,500 in
cleaning cost; its makespan is 6,910 minutes. If the cleaning cost is
limited to reach $5,500, then the corresponding makespan is reduced
to 6,700 minutes.
Product A B C D E F
Number of batches 3 5 1 3 9 3
FIGURE 11.18 Schedule graph of the solution that minimizes makespan (after
Adonyi et al., 2008).
CHAPTER 12
Typical Pitfalls and
How to Avoid Them
P
rocess Integration (PI) has proven to be a powerful optimization
tool for designing processes that are energy-efficient,
environmentally friendly, and sustainable. The methodology
provides clear insight into the design process, but this direct
simplicity is sometimes misunderstood by potential users. Once
proper data are made available, the procedure generates an excellent
lead for the design process. But just as with all optimization tools,
potential pitfalls when using PI include improper formulation of the
problem and incorrect data extraction.
Even when the most efficient and well-developed methodology
is used to solve an optimization problem with high precision, the
results may be suspicious unless we have been solving the right
problem. In other words, has the problem been formulated in a way
that closely reflects the real process under consideration and
(especially) has the correct data been extracted? Negative answers to
these questions explain such published statements as: Pinch
technology [or process integration] did not work for this problem.
When these problems are revisited it usually becomes obvious that
the PI methodology is not at fault; rather, an inexperienced or
overconfident user is typically the cause.
Therefore, this chapter is devoted to various mistakes that a
designer might unwittingly make. The most basic issue concerns
how one starts a PI-based project and how it is run. Kemp (2007)
summarized the key steps listed below, which have been further
developed based on the authors experience. These steps are
specifically related to Heat Integration; however, they apply with
only small adjustments to mass, water, and other integration as
well.
281
282 Chapter Twelve
150
160
H3
190
120 40
Reactor 80 10
45 45
H2 H1
Feed
140 Unit 140
heated further by two heat exchangers and then enters a reactor. The
reactor requires the feed stream to be at 165C. The question is: How
many streams should be extracted?
1. Three streams: 1045C, 4580C, and 80165C
2. Two streams: 1045C and 45165C
3. One stream: 10165C
T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4
? ? ? ?
H H H H
70 40 75 35
110 160
40 70
35 75
(b) 160
110
70 40 75 35
35 160
35 70
288 Chapter Twelve
where three streams are extracted. The correct data extraction for this
case involves two streams, as shown in Figure 12.3(b).
General guidelines for data extraction may be summarized as
follows:
Specified Steam
Conditions
BFW Conditions
T
160
80
45
150 10
160
H
H3 H1 H2 H3
190
120 40
Reactor
80 45 45 10
H2 H1
Feed
140 Unit 140
FIGURE 12.5 Obtaining rough data from flowsheet heat loads and
temperatures.
Cooler Cooler
T T Increase (+)
Hot Stream
Decrease ()
Hot Stream
H H
T T Decrease ()
Increase (+) Cold Stream
Cold Stream
H H
many publications and projects where this rule was not followed.) It
is better to use the anticipated average energy price for the life span
of the plant or, in the case of a retrofit, for the payback period. The
problem then becomes one of estimating this future energy price for
periods that may be as long as five or ten years. It has been shown
(see, e.g., Kleme and Bulatov, 2001; Donnelly, Kleme, and Perry,
2005) that even the forecasts of highly qualified experts are frequently
inaccurate. One of the obvious potential approaches is to use the
scenarios and target the most flexible design that would provide a
balanced optimum for various situations.
T
here are various sources of information on optimization and
integration in the process industry. The aim of this chapter is
to summarize many of these sources, although their number is
growing rapidly. No such list could be fully comprehensive, but
every attempt has been made to include the most important sources
of information.
The chapter is divided into five sections as follows: (1) general
sources of information, (2) Heat Integration, (3) Mass Integration,
(4) combined analysis, and (5) optimization for sustainable industry.
Within each section, listings are further divided into four groups:
conferences, journals, service providers, and projects. A listing is
repeated when the information is relevant to more than one category;
this makes searching more efficient for users.
295
296 Chapter Thirteen
13.1.2 Journals
There are many journals that cover topics related to energy, water,
and resource minimization from the Process Integration standpoint;
just a few of them are listed (alphabetically) here.
13.1.4 Projects
There have been hundreds of projects related to these general
concerns. Several typical projects that are publicly available are listed
in subsequent sections dealing with specific applications (13.2.4,
13.3.4, 13.4.4, 13.5.4).
13.2.2 Journals
Applied Thermal Engineering, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/
journaldescription.cws_home/630/description#description>
Energy, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.
cws_home/483/description#description>
Heat Transfer Engineering, <www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/
01457632.asp>
Renewable Energy, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journal
description.cws_home/969/description#description>
13.2.4 Projects
TOTAL SITE, European Community Non-Nuclear Energy
Programme Research & Technology Development Project
JOULE II PL920520, Targeting and Planning for Reduction
of Fuel, Power and CO2 on Total Sites
EMINENT 2, Early Market Introduction of New Energy
Technologies in Liaison with Science and Industry, <www.
eminentproject.com>
304 Chapter Thirteen
13.3.2 Journals
Journal of Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, <www.
springer.com/environment/sustainable+development/
journal/10098>
Information Sources and Further Reading 305
Journal of Cleaner Production, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/
journaldescription.cws_home/30440/description#description>
Resources, Conservation & Recycling, <www.elsevier.com/wps/
find/journaldescription.cws_home/503358/description
#description>
Transactions of the IChemE, UK
13.3.4 Projects
Assessing Collaborative and Integrated Water Management
in the Maitland River Watershed, University of Guelph,
Ontario, Canada, <sustsci.aaas.org/content.html?listed=
1&contentid=2061>
European Community Programme JOULE III PL950749,
Water Pinch: Simultaneous Energy and Water Use
Minimisation
AWARNET (Agro-food Wastes Minimisation and Reduction
Network), project involving various aspects of waste
minimization and energy, EC GROWTH, GRD1-CT2000-28033
(de las Fuentes, Sanders, and Kleme, 2002), <www.cordis.lu/
data/PROJ_FP5/ACTIONeqDndSESSIONeq112242005919nd
DOCeq154ndTBLeqEN_PROJ.htm>, accessed 10 December
2005
EU INCO Project ERB IC18-CT98-0271, Intelligent
Management System for Water and Energy Minimisation in
Latin American Food Industries WATERMAN
Waste Minimisation for the Process Industry: New
Researchers Fund, University of Nottingham Malaysia,
May 2006April 2009
13.4.2 Journals
Applied Thermal Engineering, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/
journaldescription.cws_home/630/description#description>
Chemical Engineering and Processing, <www.elsevier.com/
wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/504081/description#
description>
Chemical Engineering Science, <www.elsevier.com/wps/
find/journaldescription.cws_home/215/description#description>
Chemical Engineering Transactions, <www.aidic.it/cet/>
Computer Aided Chemical Engineering, <www.elsevier.com/
wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/BS_CCE/description
#description>
Ecological Modelling, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journal
description.cws_home/503306/description#description>
Energy, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.
cws_home/483/description#description>
Journal of Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, <www.
springer.com/environment/sustainable+development/journal/
10098>
Journal of Cleaner Production, <www.elsevier.com/wps/
find/journaldescription.cws_home/30440/description#
description>
Renewable Energy, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journal
description.cws_home/969/description#description>
Resources, Conservation & Recycling, <www.elsevier.com/
wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/503358/description
#description>
Waste Management, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journal
description.cws_home/404/description#description>
13.4.4 Projects
AVICENNE, Integrated Concept for the Fermentation of
Sewage Sludge and Organic Waste as a Source of Renewable
Energy and for Use of the Fermented Products as a Hygienic
Fertiliser and Soil Improver, AVI*94005, Universitt Stuttgart,
Germany, 1997
ANDI-POWER-CIFRU, An Anaerobic Digestion Power Plant
for Citrus Fruit Residues, FP5 EESD NNE5/364/
2000, Envisec S.A., Greece, 2004, <www.cordis.lu/data/
PROJ_EESD/ACTIONeqDndSESSIONeq7826200595nd
DOCeq1ndTBLeqEN_PROJ.htm>, accessed 14 March 2006
Biogas by Bioaugment, Optimized Biogas Production and
Resource Recovery through Bio-Augmentation in a Joint
Plant Treating Poultry and Pig Waste, NNE5/46/1999, Centro
para a Conservaao de Energia, Praceta 1, 2720-537 Amadora,
Portugal, <www.cordis.lu/data/PROJ_EESD/ACTIONeq
DndSESSIONeq7826200595ndDOCeq4ndTBLeqEN_PROJ.
htm>, accessed 14 March 2006
DEP-PROJECT, Power Plant Based on Fluidized Bed Fired
with Poultry Litter, FP5 NNE5/75/1999, 2003, Energy
Systems BV, De Vest 51, Postbus 218, 5555 XP Valkenswaard,
Information Sources and Further Reading 309
Netherlands, <www.cordis.lu/data/PROJ_EESD/ACTIONeq
DndSESSIONeq7826200595ndDOCeq13ndTBLeqEN_PROJ.
htm>, accessed 14 March 2006
Development of a CHP Process Using Grease and Oil Waste
from Plants and Animals, FP5 EESD ENK5 CT-2000-35008,
Sud recuperation Sarl, France, 2001, <www.cordis.lu/data/
PROJ_ EESD/ACT IONe qD ndSES SIONe q2611920 0595
ndDOCeq216ndTBLeqEN_PROJ.htm>, accessed 14 March
2006
Development of Property Integration Techniques for Waste
Minimisation, Ministry of Science, Technology and
Innovation, Malaysia University of Nottingham Malaysia,
September 2007August 2009
INEMAGLOW European Community Project MARIE CURIE
CHAIR (EXC) MEXC-CT-2003-042618 Integrated Waste to
Energy Management to Prevent Global Warming, <inemaglow.
dcs.vein.hu>
Project SUCLEAN, Research on Minimization of Energy
and Water Use in Sugar Production by Cooling Crystallization
of Concentrated Raw Juice, IC15960734, <cordis.europa.eu.
int/inco/fp4/projects/ACTIONeqDndSESSIONeq6118200595
ndDOCeq42ndTBLeqEN_PROJ.htm>, accessed 10 December
2005
WREED, Development of an Energy Efficient to Reduce the
Cost of Drying Food and Feed Waste, FP5 EESD ENK6-
CT2001-30002, Ceramic Drying Systems Ltd, UK, 2004, <cordis.
europa.eu/search/index.cfm?fuseaction=acro.document&
AC_LANG=EN&AC_RCN=5264809&pid=0&q=147D222710D
BDE0DC2BE8C48AD190162&type=sim>, accessed 3 May 2010
Western Renewable Energy Zones, a joint initiative of the
Western Governors Association and U.S. Department of Energy,
<www.westgov.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=ar
ticle&id=219&Itemid=81>, accessed 29 December 2009
Flexible Distributed Energy and Water from Waste for the
Food and Beverage Industry, General Electric, <www1.eere.
energy.gov/industry/distributedenergy/pdfs/water_to_
waste.pdf>, accessed 29 December 2009
13.5.2 Journals
AIChE Journal, <www.aiche.org/Publications/AIChEJournal/
index.aspx>
Chemical Engineering and Processing, <www.elsevier.com/
wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/504081/description
#description>
Chemical Engineering Science, <www.elsevier.com/wps/find/
journaldescription.cws_home/215/description>
Chemical Engineering Transactions, <www.aidic.it/cet>
Computers & Chemical Engineering, <www.elsevier.com/wps/
find/journaldescription.cws_home/349/description>
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, <pubs.acs.org/
journal/iecred>
Journal of the Chinese Institute of Chemical Engineers, <www.
elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/712103/
description>
Journal of Universal Computer Science, <www.jucs.org>
13.5.4 Projects
ZEROWIN, Towards Zero Waste in Industrial Networks,
Austrian Society for Systems Engineering and Automation,
Gurkgasse 43/2, A-1140 Vienna, Austria, <www.zerowin.eu>
EMINENT 2, Early Market Introduction of New Energy
Technologies in Liaison with Science and Industry, <www.
eminentproject.com>
PRISM, Knowledge-Based Processing Systems, FP6 MC
Human Resources Project (Prof. E. Pistikopoulos, coordinator),
Imperial College of Science Technology and Medicine,
London, UK, <www.cpi.umist.ac.uk/prism/>
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 14
Conclusions and
Further Information
T
he two options when writing this book were either to make it
fully comprehensive or to present selected material while
directing the reader to sources of further information. The
first option would have resulted in a book of more than a thousand
pages, so it was decided to keep the book compact and thus accessible
to a wider audience. This chapter supplies additional references to
provide guidelines for more detailed and comprehensive studies.
313
314 Chapter Fourteen
14.3 Conclusions
In recent years there has been much interest in the development of
renewable, non-carbon-based energy sources to combat the threat of
increased CO2 emissions and related climatic change. Increases in
the price of oil and gas have further boosted interest in such
alternative energy sources. These concerns have resulted in increased
efficiency of energy and water use in the industrial sector, although
the major industrys use of renewable energy sources has been only
sporadic. In contrast, domestic energy supply has moved more
positively toward the integration of renewable energy sources,
including wind turbines, solar heating, and heat pumps. Yet efforts
to design a sustainable combined energy system that includes both
industrial and residential buildings have been limited and ad hoc,
since there are no systematic design techniques available for
producing a symbiotic system on this scale.
Increasing the efficiency of energy-using processes is the most
effective current method for reducing costs and emissions that affect
the stability of the worlds climate, and contributing to sustainable
growth. Increasing energy efficiency is the cleanest short-term
method to produce green energythat is, energy that produces the
least amount of emissions. The situation is similar with respect to
minimizing the consumption of water and the generation of
wastewater. Unfortunately, these relatively mundane approaches are
often overlooked by those who are seduced by exciting new
technologiessuch as renewable energy sourcesthat have
generated more publicity. Nonetheless, the primary sustainability
issue remains the efficient use of resources: raw materials, energy,
and water.
Two metrics have recently been developed to assess the impact
of energy-efficient methods and energy-reduction proposals. The
carbon footprint (CFP) takes account of all carbon emissions over the
entire life cycle of a process or product, and the water footprint (WFP)
indicates how much water is used during the life cycle of a product
or service.
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Index
A American Process Inc., 301, 305
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), 43
ABB algorithm. See Accelerated
Branch and Bound algorithm ant colony optimization stochastic
Accelerated Branch and Bound search method, 32
algorithm (ABB), 157158 AO Sodrugestvo-T, 300, 303
ADAS, Inside and Solutions, 297 Applied Thermal Engineering, 301, 307
Advanced Process Combinatorics, aqueous streams, 23
Inc., 310 arcs, 161
AEA Technology, 4 Artie McFerrin Department of
AIChE International Congress on Chemical Engineering, Texas
Sustainability Science and A&M, 297, 301, 305
Engineering (ICOSSE), 296, 309, ASPEN, 202203
310 AspenTech, 297, 307, 310
AIChE Journal, 310 audits of energy, 5, 6
algorithms: availability:
combinatorial, 8 optimization, reliability and,
curve-fitting methods search, 30 186190
descent-based, 30 P-graph solution for energy system,
deterministic search solutions, 2931 186
Fibonacci method search, 30 PI and integrating maintainability,
golden section method search, 30 reliability and, 144146
gradient-based (local search), 2829 azeotropic distillation systems:
HENs, 19 maximal/optimal structure for
line search, 30 base-case synthesis, 175
LPR models, 29 optimal process synthesis and,
MSG, 38 173176
Newton method search, 30 P-graph representing structure of,
NLP models and simplex, 29 176
nonlinear unconstrained problems process steps incorporated into
and search, 30 base case, 174
optimality conditions and global/ residue of curve map, 175
local search, 2829
P-graphs and, 38, 158 B
PNS solutions and starting state of Balanced Composite Curves (BCCs),
MSG, 192 15, 6869
primal, 31 heat recovery targets, utility
process synthesis and heuristic, 13 placement and, 239
14 balancing technology, 7
PTA, 5660 barrier methods, 31
SSG, 38 BAT. See best available techniques
345
346 Index