KARTIKEYA BISHT

CHEMISTRY
Semester 1 Notes YEAR 11 ATAR
BISHT Kartikeya

Topic 1: Atomic Structure

Topic 2: Inter and Intramolecular Forces
Topic 3: Calculations and Equations
Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space

Homogenous homogenous means having a uniform composition and structure
Heterogeneous having a non-uniform structure and composition
Pure substances:
i. A pure substance is a material with distinct measurable chemical and physical properties
ii.That is homogenous
iii.
And cannot be separated by physical means
a. Element:
- A pure substance made up of one type of atom
- That has a unique atomic structure as well as:
- Unique chemical and physical properties
b. Compounds
- A pure substance made up of two or more atoms chemically bonding together
- Has a unique structure
- And unique chemical and physical properties
Mixtures:
i. An impure substance
ii. Made of 2 or more pure substance that are mixed together
iii. Having physical properties dependent on the relative amount and identity of the
substance making the mixture.
a. Homogenous Mixtures: Solution
- A solution is a homogenous mixture
- Where solute molecules (ones of lower amount) dissolve in solvent molecules (ones of
greater amount.)
- Having properties based on the identity and relative amount of pure substances
making a mixture
b. Heterogeneous Mixture
- A physical combination of two or more pure substances
- That is heterogeneous
- Having properties based on the identity and relative amount of substance that make
the mixture
Making a Supersaturated Solution
a. Add more solute than a given amount of solvent can dissolve at a given temperature
b. Heat the solution beyond the saturation temperature
c. Slowly cool the solution without disturbing the solution the avoid crystal formation.
Terms
a. Miscibility property of substances (liquids) to dissolve/mix in all proportions and form a
homogenous solution
b. Volatility volatility is the ability of a substance to evaporate.
Properties
a. Chemical Properties
Chemical properties are characteristics that become evident when a substance undergoes a
chemical reaction. A chemical reaction/change is when the bonds of the reactants are
broken and rearranged to form at least one new substance.
Examples:
- Reactivity
- Ionisation energy
- Solubility
- Atomic Radius
- Electronegativity
b. Physical Properties
Physical properties are characteristics that can be identified without a substance undergoing
a chemical change. A physical change is when there is a change in the physical properties of
a substance with no change in the chemical properties: no reaction occurring.
Examples:
- State of matter
- Lustre
- Malleability, ductility
- Hardness, softness
- Melting and boiling point
- Electrical and heat conductivity
Separation:
Individual pure substances making up a mixture retain their original chemical and physical
properties. The pure substances making a Mixture can be separated using the difference In the
physical and chemical properties of these pure substances.
a. Particle Size
i. Sieving
Sieving is a separation technique that uses the difference in particle size to
separate the pure substances making a mixture.
Separates solid from liquid or usually large particle solids from small particle
solids.
You pour mixture through a sieve and particles larger than a particular width
and length are trapped.
ii. Filtration
Separation of solid from a liquid due to the difference in particle size of the
solid particles compared to the liquid particles
The mixture is poured through filter paper and the large solid particles are
trapped and are called residue
The liquid passes through the filtration paper and is called the filtrate.
b. Boiling Points
i. Vaporisation
A separation technique relying on the difference in the boiling points of pure
substance in a mixture
 You heat the mixture and cause the solvent ot evaporate leaving a
crystallized solid.
Vaporisation only works when the solvent in volatile and the solid is not
ii. Simple distillation
Separation of liquids from other liquids in a mixture due to the difference in
the boiling points of the individual pure substances (liquids.) Requires at
least a 50 degrees Celsius difference in BP
You heat the solution in a distillation column causing the volatile and low
boiling point substance to evaporate and travel up the column condensing
at the very top and being collected in a column that leads this condensed
liquid to a beaker.

iii. Fractional distillation

A separation technique used to separate multiple pure substance liquids
from other liquids with close BP due to the small difference in their BP.
You first heat the mixture and so more volatile substance (lower boiling
point) will evaporate and turn to vapour first and travel higher in the
fractional column.
As the vapour rises; it will cool down and condense at different heights.
When the vapour cools down it will condense and be collected at varying
heights with liquids found at higher heights being liquids with lower boiling
points.
 - Distillation is the process of separating mixtures based on differences in B.P. b process
of heating and cooling the mixture.
c. Density
i. Decantation
Decantation is a separation technique where pure substances are separated based
on their different densities.
The mixture is carefully poured into another beaker until the liquid is
completely removed from the original beaker and the denser and heavier
solid remains.
ii. Separation funnel
Separation technique of two immiscible solids based on their density and
the fact that they do not mix.
You pour the mixture in a separation funnel and let the mixture flow until
the denser mixture has flowed through and the less dense mixture is left at
the top. H20 is less dense than Oil than Alcohol.

iii. Gravity separation

A separation technique where a solid is separated from a liquid based on
their difference in densities. The mixture is poured down a spiral sluice that
is angled inwards with slots in the centre. The denser solid collects at the
middle while the rare liquid flows through.
 d. Solubility
i. Crystallisation
In crystallisation you heat the solution until the solvent evaporates leading to the
remaining solute molecules to crystallize
ii. Recrystallization
Recrystallization is used to separate A from Impurity B
Add a solvent C that only dissolved A
Filter off the impurity
Heat the A-C solution until C evaporates
Crystals of A will form
e. Magnetic
Magnetic separation is a technique that uses the difference in the magnetic attraction
different substances can experience from a magnet to separate these substances
- A strong magnet is placed over a mixture
- Magnetic pure substance will stick to the strong magnet
Choosing a Separation Technique
- Always choose the most appropriate least work and hassle
Atomic Structure:
Atoms are the basic unit of matter
a. Small dense nucleus
- The nucleus is the central region of the atom that makes roughly 0.05% of the volume
but 99.95% of the mass of the atom
- It contains protons: positively charged, 1amu particles
- It contains neutrons: neutral 1amy particles
- That are held together by a strong nuclear force
b. Electron Cloud
- The nucleus is surrounded by electrons existing in a cloud of probabilistic distribution
- High density means high probability of the atom being in that location and vice versa
- Electrons exist in probabilistic distribution clouds as we cannot determine the velocity
and location of an electron simultaneously -> Heisenberg uncertainty
- There is an electrostatic force of attraction between positive nucleus and electrons
that causes the electrons to be found around the nucleus
c. Energy Level, Subshells and Orbitals
- Orbitals: Electrons are found in regions of space called orbitals that hold a maximum of
2 electrons
- Subshells: Each orbital is found in region of space called subshells. Each subshell has a
fixed number of orbitals
S1
P3
D5
F -> 7
 - Energy level: each subshell exists in a region of space called energy levels. Each energy
level has a specific number and type of orbitals. Each energy level is quantized (has a
fixed amount of energy) proportional to its distance from the nucleus.
1/K 1s
2/L 2s 2p
3/M 3s 3p 3d
4/N 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
- Energy levels that are further away from the nucleus have greater energy and the
electrons have greater energies as well
d. The electron configuration
The electron configuration of elements closely follow this pattern:
1 20 t 2,8,8,2
21 38 2, 8, 18, 8, 2
39 56 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2

Atomic Theory:
a. Leucippus atomos
b. 1661 Boyle Defined Elements
c. 1789: Laurent conservation of mass
d. 1794: law of definitive proportions
e. 1803: John Daltons Atomic Theory:
i. Elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called ATOMS.
ii. All atoms for a given element are identical (same shape, size, mass and chemical
properties.)
iii. Atoms are not created, destroyed or changed into different types in a chemical
reaction; a chemical reaction only involves the combination/rearrangement or
separation of atoms
iv. Atoms combine in fixed proportions to form compounds
f. 1897: J.J. Thomson Discovers Electrons:
i. Cathode ray tube; a high vacuum tube in which cathode rays (electrons) produce a
luminous image on a fluorescent screen
 ii. Thomson passed cathode rays through electric and magnetic fields noticing the rays
bent towards the positive plates and upwards in magnetic fields beam had a
negative charge and some mass particle
iii. He then passed it between a magnet and a electric field such that no deflection
occurred. Using the measurements for the power of the magnet and electric fields
he was able to determine the charge to mass ratio correctly but incorrectly
determined the mass of the electron to be 1/1000.
iv. Nevertheless he stated that the cathode ray is made of a stream of particles with a
negative charge and a low mass: electrons.

v. Plum Pudding Model:

Electrons are spread through a region of uniform mass and uniform positive
charge. There is net neutrality.

g. 1901: Robert Millikan: Oil Drop Experiment

In 1901; Robert Millikan correctly determined the mass of an electron to be 1/1803 amu.

h. Ernst Rutherford: Nucleus and Protons:

i. Fired Alpha (Helium -4 ) particles at a thin sheet of gold foil.
ii. Most of the alpha particles passed straight through but some were deflected in a
minor way where as some were deflected quite a bit (1 in 20 000.)
iii. This mean the atom was mostly empty space with a dense central nucleus as if there
was an uniform positive charge and mass there would be no/even deflection of all
alpha particles.
iv. So the nucleus was a dense positive region and most of the atom was empty space
v. However the nucleus must have been positive and have protons as some alpha
particles were not deflected due to colliding with the nucleus but due to slight
repulsion of positive charges.
 vi. Rutherford Model:
Dense central nucleus with protons
Electrons orbit the nucleus
Most of the atom is empty space
i. 1932: Chadwick: Neutrons
Chadwick determined that protons made only the mass of the atom
Chadwick fires alpha particles at beryllium which emitted an unknown radiation.
This radiation when emitted at paraffin (proton rich) caused paraffin to release
protons
Using the equation of linear momentum; Chadwick determined that the radiation
was a particle of mass 1amu but 0 electric charge. He called this the neutron.
j. 1912: Aston and Isotopes
In 1912l Aston discovered variant forms of the same elements with different masses;
isotopes
k. 1913 Neils Bohr: Quantum Atomic Model
- Line emission spectra; spectrum of electromagnetic radiation produced when the
electrons of an element transition to a lower energy level from an excited energy level
 - Bohrs Model explained line emission spectra and explained why electrons dont spiral
into the nucleus.
i. Bohrs Model:
Electrons orbit the nucleus at quantised energy levels
The energy of each level is determined by its distance to the nucleus;
large distances = large energy
Electrons transition from the lowest energy level (ground state) to an
excited state by absorbing a specific amount of energy
Electrons are unstable at excited states
So they transition back to a lower energy level giving of photons of
energies equivalent to the difference between the energies of the
excited and new state.
The total types of photons that can be produced if the electron moves
up to the nth transition level is 2
Electron Transition Diagram:

Electron Notation:
i. Energy level
ii. Followed by subshell
iii. Followed by number of electrons
Example: Fluorine (9th element) = 1 2 , 2 2 25
- Always follow the diagonal rule given below:
Flame Test

A Flame test in a qualitative analytical technique used to detect elements by observing their unique
emission spectra.

a. What is the science behind the flame test:

- As the compound is heated, the electrons of the ions are excited as they gain energy:
transitioning to a higher energy level (an excited state)
- In this new energy state, the electrons are unstable and so quickly transition back to a
lower energy state that is more stable, when this occurs; photons are emitted with
specific wavelengths that are equivalent to the difference in energies of states. This
specific energy means that the photons have specific wavelengths; higher energies
means smaller wavelengths and vice versa. Specific wavelengths mean that specific
colours are observed.
- As the excited electrons can transition down to the ground state in multiple stages; a set
of different photons of different wavelengths can be emitted. Thus a spectra of multiple
wavelengths of light is noticed.
- As most non-metals emit EMR outside the visible spectrum we cannot use the flame test
to detect non-metal atoms present. Most metals produced some EMR in the visible
spectrum that can be used to identify them

Different Elements have Different EMS.

-Different elements have different values for their energy levels leading to the difference
in energies of the levels being different. This means that photons of different
wavelengths are produced meaning the emission spectra for different elements if
different and unique.
- Thus when an element emits a variety of photons (spectra); through constructive
interference a dominant coloured light is observed, the wavelength for which is created
by the cancelling and combining of the various different wavelengths of light.
- Some metals appear to have very similar flame test colours like Strontium and Lithium. If
the light they emit is diffracted or viewed through a spectrometer a different emission
spectra will be identified for the different elements
b. What Component of the salt is responsible for the colour
- The metal ion in the salt are responsible for emitting the light; as they are heated their
electrons are excited to a higher energy level (excited state) where they are unstable.
From there they transition back to a lower energy state, emitting a photon that has the
same energy as the energy difference between the two energy states. This energy value
determines the wavelength of the photon as = /. Hc is the Planck constant
multiplied by speed of light (a constant absolute value) and so the energy of the photon
is inversely proportional to the wavelengths. Greater energy means a smaller
wavelength and different energies means different wavelengths of light resulting in
different colours. Small wavelengths (high energy) meaning blue (towards UV) and larger
wavelengths (low energy) meaning red (towards infra-red).
-
Visible Spectrum

- Violet (400-450nm) Blue (450-500nm)

- Green (500-570nm) Yellow (570-590nm)
- Orange (590-610nm) Red (610nm-700nm)
- As the wavelengths increase the energy of the light decreases; below red is Infrared and
above violet is Ultraviolet. All of the above are the colours of the visible spectrum. 1nm
1 = 1 109

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

- Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a technique used to identify the presence and
concentration of substances by analysing the spectrum produced when a substance is
vaporised and absorbs certain frequencies of light (a qualitative and quantitative
analytical technique.) AAS is used particularly for detecting the concentrations of metal
ions in solutions.
a) Procedure
i. Hollow cathode tube is used with target metal
ii. It produces a specific emission spectra
iii. The test sample is aspirated and heated atomization
iv. The light produced by the cathode ray tube is absorbed by the atomized sample to
some degree
v. Exiting light from the sample hits a monochromators that selects one wavelength
vi. The photomultiplier detects the selected wavelength light and determines the
degree of absorbency by comparing its intensity to control samples
vii. Concentration is determined using a calibration standard curve of absorbency vs
concentration.
Systematic vs. Random errors

a. A random error is an error in measurement caused by factors which vary from one
measurement to another. The effect of random errors can be reduced by increasing the
number of experimental trials (averaging.)
b. Systematic errors are errors that are not determined by chance but are introduced by an
inaccuracy (as of observation or measurement) inherent in the system. To reduce a
systematic error, the method/system needs to be altered as the results cannot be adjusted
by an average. Example is colour perception of humans; this is subjective from one human to
another and common sense varying from one person to the next is involved; this can be
reduced by choosing a piece of equipment that can measure colour intensity (colorimeter)

Mass Spectrometry

a. An analytical technique used to determine the relative abundance of isotopes and type of
isotope present.
b. Procedure:
i. Vaporisation turned into gaseous phase by heat
ii. Ionisation made into a cation by electron gun
iii. Acceleration accelerated so they all have the same kinetic energy
iv. Deflection (by magnet) high mass/charge ration means lower deflection and low
mass/charge ration means greater deflection
v. Detection
vi. Display of a mass spectrogram

Terms:
Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons
Mass Number (A) protons + neutrons
Isotope variant form of an element with same number of protons but different number of
neutrons and thus a different mass number
Relative Atomic Mass:
a. Definition
A Weighted average of the masses of all isotopes occurring naturally of an element relative
to 1/12th mass of a C-12 atom.
b. Equation
(% ) + (% ) + + (% )
() =
100
Mass Spectrum
- A mass spectrum is a relative intensity or %abundance vs. m/z (mass-to-charge ratio)
plot representing a chemical analysis. Using Mass Spectrum; the relative atomic mass
can be calculated.
a. Relative Intensity vs. Mass/Charge
- Here one element (greatest abundance will be 100 and others will have a
intensity relative to it.) You convert first to percentage.
()
% () =
.
- Using the percentages you can calculate the relative atomic mass using the
equation in section above

b. Percentage Abundance Vs. Mass/charge.

Here just plug numbers into the Relative Atomic Mass equation to calculate the
relative atomic mass:
Periodic Table
a. Period table is an arrangement of all known elements organized into rows (periods) and
columns (groups.)
b. Each element is ordered in rows so that each element to the right has 1 more proton and so
an atomic number greater by 1.
c. The period represents the number of occupied energy levels
d. Each element if a group has similar properties
e. Elements to the left are metals, to the right are non-metals and in the middle are transition
metals.
Atomic Radius
a. Definition
The distance from the centre of the atoms nucleus to the outermost valence electron
b. Trends
i. Down a group:
Atomic radius increases down a group as each element has an extra energy
level.
Each energy level is subsequently further from the nucleus and thus atomic
radius increases down groups.
ii. Across a Period (to right):
Each element in the same period has the same number of energy levels
As you move to the right; the number of protons in the nucleus increases
causing a greater electrostatic force of attraction between each electron and
the nucleus.
Thus electrons move towards the nucleus and so the atom radius decreases
from the left of a period to the right
c. Comparison
- Atomic radius is greatest in lower periods always. lower the bigger
- Within the same group; atomic radius is greater towards metals the more to the left
the more bigger.

d. Graph
Ionisation Energy
a. Definition
- The energy required to remove the outermost valence electron (most loosely held) from
an atom in gaseous phase. measure of how strongly the valence electrons are held
- Energy required to overcome the electrostatic force of attraction between the valence
electron and the nucleus:
() + + () +
b. Trends
i. Down a group:
Ionisation energy decrease down groups due to
Increasing atomic radius leading to the intensity of the electrostatic
attraction between the outermost valence electron and nucleus being
weaker.
Increasing shielding effect due to large number of core electrons large
number of core electrons leads to the net electrostatic attractive force
between valence electron and nucleus being smaller.
Thus large atomic radius and increasing shielding effect = weaker
electrostatic attraction lower ionisation energy
ii. Across a Period (right)
Ionisation energy increases from the metals to non-metals due to:
Stronger electrostatic attraction between electron and the nucleus cause by
a smaller atomic radius (greater intensity.)
Greater number of protons in the nucleus leading to greater attraction
between electrons and nucleus (in accordance with Coulomb force.)
c. Comparison
- Ionisation energy is always greater further up the period table (in lower periods )
- In the same period ionisation energy is greater towards the non-metals.

d. Graphs
 e. Successive Electrons
- Removing additional electrons require more and more energy.
- Within the same energy level the amount of energy required to remove successive
electrons increases in a linear fashion
- But to remove an electron from a lower energy level; a huge increase in IE is noted as
this electron is much closer to the nucleus and not easily removed.
Electronegativity
a. Definition
The measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons
b. Trends
i. Down groups
Electronegativity decreases down a group due to
Increasing atomic radius leading to a weaker electrostatic attraction
between the nucleus and the furthermost valence electron
Increasing core electron shielding effect: leading to a weaker net
electrostatic attraction between nucleus and furthermost valence electron
due to repulsion from core electrons
ii. Across a Period (to right)
Electronegativity increases from left to right due to
Large nuclear charge leading to a stronger electrostatic force of attraction
between valence electrons and the nucleus
Smaller atomic radius leading to a more intense electrostatic force of
attraction between valence electrons and the nucleus.

Electron Affinity
a. Definition
The ability of an atom in gaseous state to accept an electron and form an anion
b. Trends
i. Down a Group
Electron Affinity decreases down a group due to
Increasing atomic radius leading to weaker electrostatic attraction between
the nucleus and the valence electron
Increasing core electron shielding effect: greater number of core electrons
means there are greater repulsive forces leading to a smaller net attractive
force between valence electros and positive nucleus.
ii. Across a Period (to right)
Electron affinity increases across (to the right) of a period due to
Decreasing atomic radius leading to a stronger electrostatic attraction
between the nucleus and the valence electron
 Increasing number of protons leading to a stronger electrostatic attraction
between nucleus and the valence electron.

Metal Reactivity
- Metals with the lowest ionisation energies are the most reactive as they can easily
donate electrons forming metallic or ionic bonds
- Most reactive is Francium
Non-Metal Reactivity
- Non Metals with the greatest IE, EN and EA are most reactive as they can easily accept
electrons meaning they can form ionic and covalent bonds readily
- Fluorine is most reactive.
Nanomaterial
a. Nanomaterial
A nanomaterial is any material composed of nanoparticles
b. Nanoparticles
A Nanoparticle is any particle with at least one dimension in the 1 100nm range. 1nm = 1 *
10^-9m
c. Nanotechnology
- The study of nanoparticle
- Including structure and properties
d. Properties
Nanoparticles have different properties from their bulk material resulting due to the
quantum effects that arise due to their small size.
e. Example 1: Carbon Nano tubules
- A covalent structure of formula Cx
- A graphene sheet of carbon allotrope graphite
 - Rolled into a tubular shape
- Diameter 1- 10nm
- And length ranging from nms to cms
- Also called CNTS
Uses:
- Bullet Proof Armour: CNTs are spun into long fibres that are stronger than Kevlar and
more flexible. They have high tensile strength and flexibility plus they are lighter.
f. Example 2: Quantum Dots
- Nanoparticles of dimension 2-10nm made from compounds such as Ti02 and Zn0
Uses:
- Bulk material is white and visible while protecting from UV light
- Nanomaterial is smaller than wavelength of light and so is invisible (cosmetic use) but
still retains UV deflecting properties
g. Advantage vs. Disadvantage
- Advantage: Properties are enhanced than bulk material and new properties can arise
- Disadvantage: do not really understand them and so they can interact negativity with
our bodys cells especially the cells in the alveoli
h. Health and Environmental Issues
- Health: coating of particles can have adverse effect in Human Body
- Environmental: not well understood and so Nano pollution may cause damage in the
long run.
Disadvantages of Flame Test:
- The salts metal cation may not be excited by the relatively low temperature of the
flame: example magnesium
- The salt may not be completely excited meaning only a part of the emission spectra is
emitted leading to a different colour being observed
- The material is a non-metal and so it may not be excited at low temperatures or may
produce EMR outside visible spectrum.
- The ethanol and oxygen may get involved; changing the colour observed
- Some elements have very similar colour.
Writing Net Ionic Equations:
- When writing Net ionic equations the following steps need to be followed:
a. Balance the original equation
b. See if a precipitate forms
c. Remove non-participating spectator ions.
d. Write an equation with only ions involved show states
e. Make sure the equation is balanced
f. Write Observations:
When making observations you have to say:
- Colour of original solution/s stuff involved
- Precipitate forms yes/no
- Colour of final solution + colour of precipitate.
i. If no precipitate forms and no observable reaction has occurred you have to write
- No Visible Change
 - No observation
Solution, Colloid and Suspension
a. Solution a homogenous mixture where the solute molecules (lower quantity) dissolve in
the solvent molecules (larger quantity.)
b. Colloid A heterogeneous mixture where one substance of very small dispersed insoluble
particles is suspended throughout another substance. does not settle but does not let
light pass straight through; appears cloudy
c. Suspension A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which insoluble solute-like
particles settle out of a solvent-like phase sometime after their introduction.
Calculations
a. Mole
Standard chemical unit describing number of particles in a substance . 1 mole = Avogadros
constant: 6.02 1023
b. Molar Mass:
- Molar Mass of an element is defined as the mass of one mole of a elements atoms. The
molar mass of an element = relative atomic mass on periodic table gives the mass of
6.02 1023 particles of an element.
c. Mass Moles Relationship:

= =

d. Number of Moles From Formula
- The Number of moles of an element in a molecule can be determined like so:
There is 3.2 Moles of NH3. How many moles of Hydrogen atoms?
() =
() = 3 3.2 = 9.6.
e. Quantities in chemical reactions:
- The coefficients of a balanced chemical equation give the relative number of molecules/
relative number of molecules.
- The actual amount of moles is different but in the same ratio.
Example:22 6 + 72 () 42+ 62 0
- Here the relative number of moles is 2:7:4:6
- If there was actually 1.5 moles of C2H6 present then the actual number of moles for the
other substance would still be in the ratio of 2:7:4:6 1.5 to 5.25 to 3 to 4.5.
f. Number of Moles and Volume
=
C concentration in mol/L)
V volume in Litres
N moles
Solution Concentration
- Concentration is defined as the quantity of solute in a given quantity of solution.
a. Moles Per Litre (molarity):

=

C concentration
 N Moles
V Volume in litres.
b. Grams Per Litre

=

C concentration
M mass (grams.)
V volume (litre)
c. Parts Per Million 1 (by mass.)
The concentration of something out of a million parts.

=

M mass in milligrams
Mass Solution mass in kilograms
d. Parts Per Million 2 (by mas.)

= 106

- M mass of solute in grams
- M solution mass of solution in grams
e. Volume
- 1 = 3
- 1 = 1 3
Drinking Water:
a. Potable water potable water is water than is clean and safe to drink.
b. TDS total dissolved solids: the maximum allowable total solid in drinking water is TDS.
In Australia it is recommended that there are only 600milligram/L of TDS

Potable Water from Seawater:

- Sea water has high salinity greater than 35 000mg/L making it undrinkable
- The 1st approach to purify this water is simple distillation
- The 2nd approach to purify salt water is reverse osmosis.
Reverse Osmosis:
Reverse osmosis is the process where by reverse osmosis unit use high pressure to force
water through synthetic semipermeable membrane in the opposite direction to which
water would naturally flow.
- The starting water is called the feed water
- The water collected through reverse osmosis is called the permeate.
- Now disinfection occurs
- Fluoridation occurs
Ground Water Treatment:
- Ground water is water held underground in solids/rocks.
- The typical processes used to treat ground water are:
i. Aeration ground water contains dissolved gases. Aeration is when ground
water is sprayed into the air to expel these gases and increase concentration of
 dissolved Oxygen in water. The extra oxygen along with added chlorine oxidise
and remove dissolved organic compounds
ii. Clarification Clarification is achieved in a large settling tank where Al2(S04)3
and lime (Ca0) are added while stirring; these two coagulant agents cause fine
particle to clump and settle out. Clarified water is then drawn off the top.
iii. Sand Filtration water is passes through filter beds of granulated anthracite.
Anthracite absorbs organic substances.
iv. Disinfection disinfection is when pathogen in the water are killed by the
disinfectant formed by chlorine in ammonia.
v. Fluoridation Fluoride strengthens tooth enamel and so 0.6 1mg/L
concentration is maintained in drinking water. Fluoridation occurs when fluoro
silicic acid is added to water to increase concentration of fluoride ions.
Water Monitoring
- Water is monitored for its pH, TDS, turbidity, bacterial and viral pathogens plus a range
of toxic metals (heavy metals) like Cd etc. and toxic ions like cyanide as well as toxic
organic compounds.
Chromatography:
A series of analytical techniques used to separate mixtures of compounds for analysis.
Principle:
a. Stationary phase solid/liquid supported on solid that does not move
b. Mobile Phase the phase that flows through the stationary phase; liquid or gas
c. Separation of individual compounds from a mixture relies of
- Tendency of a molecules to stay dissolved
- Tendance of a molecules to adsorb onto the stationary phase.
Both these properties depend on polarity and intermolecular bonding
d. Adsorb binding of molecules to a surface (adhere.)
Paper Chromatography
a. Stationary phase strip of chromatograph paper (cellulose bound to H20 Molecules.)
b. Mobile Phase liquid solvent; chosen on ability to dissolve components of analyte.
Procedure:
a. Spot a sample of analyte on pencil line drawn above edge of pape
b. Paper is suspended in a sealed container with a shallow layer of suitable mobile phase in
it.: lid is placed on top to ensure air inside the tube is saturated with water vapour.
c. Mobile phase is soaked up the chromatography strip by capillary action
d. It dissolves and carries the components of the analyte with it
e. Over time; various components of the analyte separate out depending on their tendency
to stay adsorbed/ dissolved based on intermolecular forces based on polarity.
f. When the solvent from approaches the end of the paper; remove the paper and let it
dry
For solvent water: the more polar a molecule the more likely it is to stay dissolved
with the mobile phase (water) and so it will travel further up the chromatography
paper.
Retention Factor:
 - Retention factors is the distance moved by solute divided by the distance moved by
solvent
- The distance must be measured from the original line to the centre of the dot.
- Under identical conditions only The Rf values of different substances are constant .

=

Paper Chromatography with Colourless Components:

a. Position of colourless components ca be determined by
b. Drying the strip
c. Exposing a suitable indicator; a reagent that reacts with components o produced a coloured
product.
d. Example U.V. light for invisible stuff and ninhydrin turns stuff purple.
Chemistry behind PC
a. The separation of molecules occurs because the molecules making the analyte are carried by
the mobile phase at different rates.
b. The speeds are due to the variance in the molecules tendency to
- Adhere to the stationary phase
- Remain dissolved in the mobile phase
c. These tendencies are a result of the intermolecular forces between molecules and stationary
and mobile phases which arise due to the different molecular polarities.
Thin Layer Chromatography.
a. Stationary phase thin glass plate coated with finely powdered alumina (Al203) or silica
(Si02); very polar.
b. Mobile phase (non-polar) a solvent chosen for its ability to dissolve and separate
components of the mixture analysed.
c. Separation occurs due to polarity and tendency to adsorb/stay dissolved same as paper
chromatography.
Procedure:
- Same procedure as paper chromatography but with different stationary phases.
Column Chromatography
A method used to separate chemical compounds from mixture
a. Mobile phase suitable solvent
b. Stationary phase silica gel (Si02) or alumina (polar)
Procedure:
a. The column is a glass tube with a tap at the bottom
b. Place a glass wool at the bottom to prevent silica gels from drawing out
 c. Prepare a gel solvent slurry and pour into tube
d. A small sample of solution containing mixture is placed at top.
e. This mixture and solvent will flow down and out of column; fresh solvent needs to be added
at the same rate as exit rate.
f. Overtime the components will separate due to different flow rates arising because of the
varying tendency of molecules to adsorb onto the solid stationary phase or stay dissolved
this is based on their intermolecular forces; which is based on their polarity.
g. As the mixtures components separate and flow; they can be collected one after the other.

Gas Chromatography
a. An analytical technique used to identify individual substance and concentrations
b. Mobile phase inert carrier gas (He.)
c. Stationary phase high boiling point, non volatile, viscous liquid coated onto solid
particles.
Procedure:
a. Injection liquid sample is injected via silicon rubber seal using microsyringe
b. Vaporisation due to high temperature in the injection chamber; liquid analyte vaporises
and is carried by gas
c. Separation in the column; the components separate and travel at different rates. Volatile
tendency to evaporate.
 High volatility: highly volatile substance stay in the mobile phase as they tend to
stay vaporised. This means they stay in the carrier gas for longer times and have a
faster flow rate leading to a smaller retention time
Low volatility: low volatile substances tend not to be found in the carrier gas but
tend to condense and stay adsorbed in the stationary phases leading to a slower
flow rate and a higher retention time.
d. Detection a detector signals the presence of components as they emerge from column.
Records the intensity and retention time (time spent in column.) Under identical
conditions; retention time for a substance is unique and constant.
Flame ionization detector along with mass spectrometer are used to record relative
intensity which can be compared to a standard calibrated curve to find concentration.
e. Display: data is displayed as chromatogram. Intensity vs. Retention Time.
f. Retention time time taken for a compound to travel the entire distance of the column;
the time taken since the time of injection to the time of detection.

High Liquid Performance Chromatography

Analytical technique used to find the identity and concentration of components of an analyte.
- Mobile phase: liquid solvent.
- Stationary phase: tightly packed column of fine particles like Si02.
- Separation occurs due to tendency to adhere to stationary phase based on polarity.
Procedure:
a. Sample is injected via injector loop into high pressure column of solvent
b. Sample passes through chromatography column
c. Components are separated due to different travelling rates.--> due to varying tendencies to
adhere to stationary phase due to polarity.
d. A detector signals the presence of components
e. Ultraviolet detect is used to identify components and measures absorbance at different
retention time
f. This data is graphed as a chromatogram: absorbance vs. retention time.
 g. Now the absorbance is compared to a calibrated curve to find concentration.

1. Normal Phase HPLC

- Stationary phase polar
- Mobile phase non-polar
- Low retention time non-polar
- High retention time polar
2. Reverse Phase HPLC
- Stationary phase non-polar
- Mobile phase polar
- Low retention time polar
- High retention time non-polar
Capillary action
a. Capillary action can be defined as the ascension of liquids through slim tube, cylinder or
permeable substance due to adhesive and cohesive forces interacting between the liquid
and the surface such that adhesive forces are greater than cohesive forces.
b. Adhesive forces are forces of attraction (intermolecular) between two different molecules
(e.g. water and glass etc.)
c. Cohesive forces are forces of attraction (intermolecular) between the same molecules (e.g.
water water.)
d. Capillary action only occurs when the adhesive forces (intermolecular forces) between the
water molecules and glass surface are greater than the cohesive forces (intermolecular
forces) between H20 molecules. When this occurs; the water molecules at the side move
upwards pulling along the other water molecules
Valency:

Valency is the measure of an atoms bonding capacity; it is the number of Hydrogen Atoms that
Element can bond with.
Chemical Bonds:
A chemical bond is an electrostatic attraction between the positive (+) and Negative (-) charges in
participating atoms.
Chemical Formulas:
a. Molecular A normal formula showing the type and number of atoms present in a molecule
b. Hydrated A formula showing the no. of Water of Crystallization attached per molecule.
c. Empirical A formula showing the smallest ratio of atoms in a molecule
d. Percentage Composition The percentage by mass of an element in a molecule
Ionic Bonds
a. Ions:
An atom/molecule that are electrically charged due to a loss or gain of electrons. Cations are
positively charged ions (atoms/molecules lose electrons.) Anions are negative charged ions
(atom/molecules gain electrons.)
b. Naming
When you name an ionic compound you first name the metal followed by the transition metal
charge in roman numerals (If It has one) and finally the non-metal. For example FeCl3 becomes
Iron(III)Chloride.
c. Formulas
When you convert the name of an ionic compound into a formula you have to first start by recording
the element symbol and valency. Then cross the valency over and write them as subscripts for each
of element of a compound.
d. Definition
Ionic Bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction (coulomb) between oppositely charged ions.
e. Structure
i. Ionic compounds form when metal atoms form cations by losing electrons and non-
metals form anions by losing electrons.
ii. These anions and cations form stable noble gas configurations and arrange themselves
into a 3D crystal lattice of alternating cation and anions.
iii. Each anion bonds to a cation by ionic bonding resulting due to the electrostatic force of
attraction between charged ions.
iv. In the lattice each cation is as far possible to other cations and each anion is as far as
possible to other anions. Thus the attractive forces are greater than the repulsive forces
and so the crystal is stable.
v. Ionic bonds are non-directional as they occur between an anion and all surrounding
cations and vice versa.
f. Properties
i. Poor Conductor as solids
As there are no free/mobile charged particles; when a voltage is applied to an ionic solid,
there is no movement of charged particles within the solid and so no current is
conducted.
ii. Good electric conductors (liquid and Molten.)
- As the ionic solid is in liquid phase; there are now free charged particles (ions). This
means when a voltage is applied; the anions move to the cathode and cations move to
the anode and so as there is a movement of charged particle, a current is conducted.
- As the ions in an aqueous solution are free to move, when a voltage is applied to an
aqueous solution of an ionic compound; there is movement of charged particles as the
cations move to the anode and the anions move to the cathode. This movement of
charged particle is a current.
iii. Soluble in Water:
 - Most ionic compounds are soluble in water as the polar solvent molecules (H20) can
attract to the charged ions overcome the ionic bond and cause the ions to dissociate
from the lattice.
- Some ionic compounds are not soluble in water as the ionic bonding between the ions
of the compound is too strong meaning the H20 molecules cannot overcome this
strong Intramolecular bond and so the ions dont dissociate.
iv. High Melting and Boiling Point
- As there is strong electrostatic attraction between ions in a ionic crystal lattice, a high
amount of kinetic energy is required to force the ions to move away from each other.
As temperature is a measure of kinetic energy; when a high amount of kinetic energy is
required to melt/boil a compound; the compound will boil/melt at high temperatures
v. Hard and Brittle
Hardness hardness is the resistance a solid has to being scratched
Brittle a solid is brittle if it is ridged and hard but has no tensile strength.
- As a large force of required to remove ions from the lattice due to strong electrostatic
attraction (ionic bonding;) the object is hard as it is not easy to displace ions from the
crystal lattice.
- When a sufficient level of force is applied to the ionic compound; the layer of ions
move and so the like charged ions and other like charged ions come close to each
other. This leads in the repulsive forces between like charged particles being greater
than the attractive forces between oppositely charged ions leading to the crystal lattice
breaking apart shattering.
vi. Bad conductor of Heat:
- As there are no free/mobile particles that can move around the lattice; heat can only
be transferred from an ion to its direct neighbour through vibration. As this process is
relatively slow and may not occur due to dissipation of energy; ionic compounds are
bad conductors of heat.

Metallic Bonds
a. Definition and Structure
- Metallic Bonds are electrostatic attraction between metal cations and the mobile sea
of delocalised electrons in a 3D lattice structure
- Metal atoms lose electrons to form positively charged cations.
- These cations occupy fixed locations in a 3D lattice where the valence electrons that
are released, move freely between the cations. These are called delocalised electrons
- Metallic Bonds occur due to the strong electrostatic attraction between the cations,
the sea of delocalised electrons and other cations
 - Metallic Bonds are non-directional as they act in all directions; each metal cation
experiences electrostatic attraction in multiple directions and so the bonding has no
set direction: non-directional.

b. Properties:
i. Malleable and Ductile:
Metallic bonding is non-directional; this means layers of cations can move relative to
each other without the metallic bonds breaking. Thus the lattice can change shape
and can deform as the layers can move.
- Thus the metallic substance is malleable: can be beaten into shape as layers of cations
simply roll over each other while maintaining metallic bonds with the sea of
delocalised electron around them.
- Ductile means the substance can be drawn out into a wire. Metals are ductile because
the layers can move relative to each other without the metallic bond breaking; this
means the layer of cations can be drawn out to form a long, thinner layer of cations
can be drawn out into a wire.
ii. Good Electric Conductors:
- Metals are good conductors of electricity in solid and liquid phase as when a voltage is
applied; the delocalised electrons can move freely towards the positive terminal of the
power supply leading to a movement of charged particles conduction of a current.
Exception; Mercury, valence shell electrons are strongly attracted to nucleus and so
cannot easily move from one area to another.
iii. Good Conductors of Heat:
- Due to the sea of delocalised electrons; heat can be transferred from one end of a
metal to the other end very quickly. The electrons are mobile and so they can move
quickly from areas of high kinetic energy (high temperature) to areas of lower
temperature. This means heat can be transferred very quickly and so metals are good
conductors of heat. Mercury; delocalise electrons are very attracted to nucleus
iv. High Melting and Boiling Point:
- As the electrostatic force of attraction between cations and the sea of delocalised
electrons is very strong; a lot of energy as kinetic energy is required to disrupt the
lattice and force the metal cations to move further away (melt/boil). Therefore metals
have a high boiling and melting point. Exception: Mercury, does not form strong
metallic bonds.
v. Some variable Properties:
- Hardness is usually high but varies as alkali metals are quite soft.
 - Density is usually high as a lot of cations are packed closely; however density varies
from one metal to another.
Alloys An alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals.
- When two or more metals are combined; the lattice is not regular as it is with a pure
metal Thus the layers of metal cations cannot move easily relative to each other and so
the malleability of an alloy is usually lower than that of a pure metal.
Covalent Bonding
a. Definition and Structure
i. Covalent bonding is the bonding that occurs between non-metal atoms that occurs
due to the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nucleus of
participating atoms and the valence electrons shared by these atoms (bonding
pairs.)
ii. Covalent Bonding is direction as electrons are localised along an axis.
iii. The pairs of electrons that are shared are known as bonding pairs whereas the pair
of electron that are not involved in the bonding are known as lone pairs.
iv. Atoms covalently bonded to each other obtain a noble gas configuration; have a
duet or an octet.
Covalent Molecular
a. Definition
i. Covalent molecular substance consists of atoms covalently bonded to form small
cluster of atoms called molecules. The forces between atoms making the molecule
are Intramolecular forces (covalent bonds) while the forces existing between
different molecules are intermolecular forces known as Van Der Waals.

b. Properties
i. Non-conductors of electricity
- Electrons in covalent molecular substance are localised within the atoms electron
cloud or as bonding pairs.
- As there are no charged particles to move freely; there cannot be a flow of charge
(current) and so no current can be conducted.
Exceptions: Some strong acids and bases like HCl will dissociate when they
dissolve in an aqueous solution to form free mobile ions. These ions can move
and thus conduct a charge.
ii. Bad Conductors of Heat
- In a covalent molecular substance, there are no free particles that can move from one
end of the substance to the other, carrying heat as kinetic energy so these substances
are usually bad conductors of heat.
 iii. Soft
- A covalent molecular substance is soft as only weak Van Der Waal forces exist between
the molecules and so these molecules can be easily separated and rearranged making
them soft.
iv. Low Melting and Boiling Point
- As the intermolecular forces between the molecules are weak and are not as strong as
ionic, covalent network or metallic bonds; they are easily broken by a low energy input.
This means a low amount of kinetic energy (heat) is required to force the molecules to
move away from each other (boil/melt.)
- Melting and Boiling Point usually increases as the intermolecular force strength
increases.
c. Naming
i. Prefixes are used to show the number of atoms present;
- Mono 1, Di 2, Tri 3, Tetra 4, Penta 5, Hexa 6, Hepta 7, Octa 8, Nona 9 and deca 10 etc.
ii. 1st prefix is never mono
iii. Following prefix are the names of the non-metal elements
iv. The least electronegative element is listed first
v. General Prefix X Prefix Y; Example: Carbon Tetra Fluoride.
d. Formulas
To derive the formulas from the names of a compound you first write the elements symbol,
then the prefix is used to fins the number of that element and this process repeats.
So Dihydrogen Mono Oxide. Has 2 H atoms and 1 O atoms bonded in that order; H20
Covalent Network
a. Definition and Structure
i. A covalent network substance is a substance where the atoms (usually group 14
elements) non-metal atoms form covalent bonds with multiple neighbouring atoms
resulting in a continuous array of covalently bonded atoms.
ii. Covalent network substances have differing properties to covalent molecular substance
due to their structure; having strong covalent bonds between neighbouring atoms
instead of Van Der Waal forces.
Allotrope: an allotrope is a variant form/ different form of the same element.
Example diamond and graphite are allotropes made purely of Carbon.
b. Properties
i. Very High Melting and Boiling Point
A lot of Kinetic Energy is require to break the strong covalent bonds between atoms
in the Covalent Network Structure

ii. Hard and Brittle

- Strong covalent bonds mean a very high impact force is required to disturb the
positions of atoms in the network therefore the network solid is hard does not
scratch easily
- The covalent network substances are brittle as breaking the bonds of the atoms in the
network will cause the structure to shatter.
 Graphite: Carbon atoms in Graphite are covalently bonded into 2D layers and
the 2D layers are held together due to weak electrostatic attraction so they
move relative to each other; soft
iii. Non-conductors of Electricity
- Electrons are fixed in position; localised as either lone pairs, electrons in the atoms
electron cloud or as bonding pairs. This means that there cannot be movement of
charged particles and so a current cannot be conducted.
Graphite: graphite has some delocalised valence electrons that can move freely
within the structure. Therefore as there can be a movement of charged particle;
graphite can conduct a current
iv. Good conductors of heat
- Heat can be transferred very quickly due to lattice vibrations known as phonons.
v. Insoluble
- As the covalent bonds between atoms in a covalent network are very strong; solvent
molecules (polar or non-polar) cannot overcome these strong forces; this makes
covalent network substances insoluble in almost all solvents.
vi. Examples:
1. Silicon Di-oxide: In silicon di-oxide, each silicon atoms is bonded to 4 other
Oxygen atoms which are in turn bonded to 2 Silicon atoms. Silicon Di-oxide is
also known as quartz and has the same properties as general covalent network
substance

2. Graphite: an allotrope of Carbon where each carbon atom is bonded to 3 others

on a 2D layers. Layers are attracted to each other due to electrostatic attraction.
They have varying properties due to delocalised electron.
 3. Diamond: Another allotrope of Carbon where each Carbon atom is bonded to 4
other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral 3D shape. Has the standard property of a
covalent network solid.

Lewis Dot Diagrams

Lewis dot structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone
pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule. The rules to draw a correct Lewis Dot Structure are
as follows:
a. Procedure:
i. Calculate the total Number of Valence Electrons
E.g. 3 1 have a total of 5 + 18 + 1 = 24 electrons
ii. Draw a skeleton where you chose a central atom (least EN). Place only single bonds
around the central atom.

iii. Now place the remaining electron around peripheral atoms until an octet is achieved in
each of them.

iv. Place the remaining electron in the centre. If there is no electron left now you need to
count the number of electron per atom. Ensure this is an octet. If an octet cannot form
then minimised the electron deficiency. Electron deficiency is the number of electron
needed to make an octet.
- To form octets between all atoms you can rearrange bonds forming double and triple
bonds
 v. Place brackets around the molecule if it is an ion. Now place the charge on the top right
corner. If there are more than of these ions then place a number on the left side of the
ion to show the amount.

vi. If ionic bonding occurs then multiple brackets need to be assigned.

b. Exception:
There are three main exceptions to the octet rule:
I. Boron, Beryllium and Aluminium usually have incomplete octets
II. Period 3+ central atoms usually have expanded octets (more than 8 electrons. they have
entered the d and f orbitals.)
III. An odd number of total valence electrons lead to incomplete octets (less than the octet of 8)

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR.)

a. Principle
i. The VSEPR theory states that the molecular shape of the molecule results due to the
amount of bonding and lone pairs of electron in the valence shell of central atom
ii. Electron pairs around the nucleus form roughly spherical clouds with a negative
charge.
iii. These charge clouds repel each other to position themselves at the greatest angular
separation possible.
b. How To use it/ Steps
i. Draw an electron dot diagram
 ii. Find the number of electron pairs within the central atom (general shape);
1 linear
2 linear
3 trigonal planar
4 tetrahedral
6 octahedral
iii. Count the number of bonding pairs and lone pairs and use the drawing to determine
the shape of the molecule.
- Example: H20 is a bent molecule because it has the Oxygen has 4 electron pairs around
its central atom. However there are only 2 bonding pair of electron. This leads to the
electron structure being tetrahedral whereas the structure of the actually molecule is
bent as the two lone pairs are not considered part of the shape.

c. Molecular Shape Table:

i. 2, 3 or 4 electron Groups Around Central Atom
 ii. 5 or 6 electron Pairs around Central Atom

Polarity
a. Electronegativity and Trends
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in gaseous phase to attract electrons to itself;
measured on a scale of 0 4 where 4 is very EN.
b. Bond Polarity
i. Polar Covalent Bonds:
- Polar Covalent bonds occur when 2 atoms of different EN share electrons.
- The difference in EN leads to an uneven sharing of electron and so an uneven
distribution of charge as the electrons spend more time towards the Highly EN atom
and so the more EN atom becomes partially negative and the less EN atom becomes
partially positive.
- The uneven distribution of charge caused by the difference in EN of the atoms involved
in the covalent bond is known as a bond dipole as one side of the bond is partially
positive and the other side is partially negative.
ii. Pure Covalent Bonds
- Pure Covalent Bonds form when atoms of equal EN form covalent bonds leading to an
equal sharing of electron and an even distribution of charge between the two atoms:
leading to no net dipole.
 iii. Ionic Bonds
- Occur when atoms of vastly different EN form covalent bonds leading to a complete
transfer of electron from a low EN atom (usually metal atom) to the highly EN atoms
(non-metal;) resulting in the formation of ions that form ionic bonds due to
electrostatic attraction between them
c. Net Dipole/ Molecular Polarity
- A Net dipole is the vector sum of all the bond dipoles occurring within a molecule.
(Greater than 0.) Due to the molecule being unsymmetrical and there being a net
uneven distribution of charge in the molecule.
- This means one pole/side of the molecule will have a partially positive charge while the
other will have a partially negative charge; When there is a net uneven distribution of
charge within a molecule and the two opposite sides poles have differing charges; a
net dipole exists and the molecule is said to be polar.
d. How to Determine Polarity
i. Draw an electron dot diagram
ii. Figure out the shape
iii. Draw individual bond polarities
iv. Figure out the vector sum
v. If the molecule is unsymmetrical then the vector sum should point in a particular
direction: molecule is polar.
e. Example: HCCl3

Intermolecular Forces:
i. Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction occurring between all molecules of a
substance; known as Van Der Waal forces.
a. Dipole-Dipole
i. Definition and Structure
- Dipole-dipole forces are present between polar molecules and other polar molecules
and are a result of the electrostatic attraction between 2 net dipoles; specifically the
partially positive pole of one molecule and the partially negative pole of another
neighbouring molecule and vice versa.
- Dipole-Dipole forces are relatively weak compared to ionic, metallic and covalent
bonds but are stronger than dispersion forces as they are permanent and there is a
greater separation of charge in each molecule resulting in larger net dipoles and so
stronger electrostatic attraction between the two polar molecules (in accordance with
Coulombs law.)
ii. Strength
- As Dipole Dipole forces occur between polar molecules; each molecule has a greater
separation of charge than non-polar molecules leading to a greater net dipole. This
larger net dipoles means there is stronger electrostatic attraction between the two
partially charged ends of a molecule compared to the electrostatic attraction between
non polar and non-polar molecules.
- Dipole Dipole forces are still weaker than covalent, ionic and metallic bond for a few
reasons:
1. They occur over a greater distance leading to a decrease in the intensity of the
attraction
2. Molecules are electrically neutral and there may be some electrical charge in the
molecule based on their polarity. However this charge is very small compared to
the charges of the atoms involved in a metallic, covalent or ionic bond. In an
ionic bond two ions with a complete +/- charge are electrostatically attracted. In
a metallic bond a positively charged cation is bonded to multiple negatively
charged delocalised electrons and in covalent bonding; there is strong
electrostatic attraction between the very positively charged nucleus of the two
non-metals and the valence electrons shared. As the Intramolecular forces arise
due to stronger electrostatic attractions compared to the relatively weak
attraction between a partially positive terminal and a partially negative terminal:
Intramolecular forces are stronger than intermolecular forces.
b. Dispersion Forces
i. Definition and Structure:
- Dispersion forces exist between all molecules and arise due to electrostatic attraction
between induced and temporary dipoles
- Due to the random motion of electrons; sometimes the electron are localised on one
side of the molecule producing a very p[partially positive and very partially negative
side of the molecule; these charges are temporary as the electrons keep moving and so
this temporary separation of charge is called a temporary dipole.
- Molecules with temporary dipoles can polarize nearby molecules causing them to form
short lived temporary dipoles as well called induced dipoles.
- The weak electrostatic attraction between the temporary and induced dipoles are
known as dispersion forces
- Dispersion forces are constantly forming; breaking and reforming as the temporary and
induced dipole rapidly form, disappear and reform elsewhere.
 ii. Strength
1. Molecular Shape:
Molecular shapes that allow max surface contact between molecules usually
have stronger dispersion forces as the intensity of the electrostatic attraction is
greater at smaller distances.
2. Molar Mass/Size
As the molar mass/size increase; the number of electrons increases in a
molecule and so there is a greater molecular size meaning the valence electrons
are held more loosely and so the molecule can be polarized easily meaning
stronger dispersion forces occur and more frequently.
c. Hydrogen Bonding
i. Definition and Structure
- Hydrogen bonds area special form of dipole-dipole forces that occur due to
electrostatic attraction between the partially positive Hydrogen bonded to a highly EN
F/O/N atom and the lone pairs of another f/o/n ATOM.
- H bonds only occur with F/O/N atoms as these are highly EN resulting in a very high
separation of charge very strong dipole.
- H bonds are the strongest Van Der Waals as there is
1. High separation of charge: leading to a strong dipole and thus a strong
electrostatic attraction between these two dipoles
2. H atoms are very small allowing them to be very close to the lone pair of the
F/O/N atoms. As they are closer; the distance between them is smaller leading
to an attractive force of higher intensity.

ii. Strength:
- If the H is covalently bonded to a more EN atom such as a F/O/N; a stronger dipole will
form resulting in stronger electrostatic attraction between these dipoles.

Vapour Pressure
- Vapour Pressure measure of the tendency of a substance evaporates and is
measured in kPa.
- Vapour gas phase of material usually a liquid/solid. The rate of evaporation = rate of
condensation. Here the pressure exerted by vapour = vapour pressure.
a. Trends:
Temperature:
As the temperature increases the tendency of a substance to evaporate will increase; thus
vapour pressure increases
 Van Der Waals
As the strength of the intermolecular bonds increases; fewer molecules can evaporate
leading to a reduction in vapour pressure. Therefore the vapour pressure decreases as the
strength of the intermolecular forces increases. This is why Water has the highest v.p.

Intermolecular Forces and some Properties:

a. Melting and Boiling Point
- As the IMF become stronger; more energy is required to make the molecules making a
substance move apart; this means a higher temperature is required to melt/boil a
substance greater MP/BP.
b. Viscosity
- Viscosity is a liquids resistance to flow. As the IMF increases; the attraction between
neighbouring molecules becomes stronger meaning molecules cannot quickly move
relative to each other. Thus the substance cannot flow easily and is more viscous.
c. Density
- Density is the amount of mass per unit volume.
- As the intermolecular forces increase; the molecules experience greater attractive
forces between each other meaning more molecules can be packed in the same space.
This means the mass per unit of volume increases and so the density increases.
Unique Water Properties:
a. Anomalous Melting and Boiling Point
As H20 Molecules have strong hydrogen bonding between them; a lot of energy is required
to separate the H20 molecules meaning a high temperature is required to melt/boil water.
b. More Dense as Liquid:
- Ice floats on water as Ice is less dense than water and less dense substance float on
denser substances.
- When water freezes it forms a regular crystal lattice. In this crystal lattice; each Water
Molecule has to have 4 hydrogen bonds but as a liquid the water molecules do not
need to have 4 H bonds as they can have 1,2 or 3
- Due to 4 hydrogen bonds being present between the water molecules in ice; the lattice
expands; the molecules need to be spaced out in order for each of them to form 4 H
bonds.
 -This means as a liquid; the water molecules are packed closer together and so per unit
of volume there are more water molecules. Therefore the density of water as liquid is
greater than its density as ice.
c. Viscosity
Viscosity is a liquids resistance to flow. As the IMF increases; the attraction between
neighbouring molecules becomes stronger meaning molecules cannot quickly move relative
to each other. Thus the substance cannot flow easily and is more viscous. Due to the
presence of strong H bonds being present between the water molecules; water molecules
cannot move very easily relative to each other and so they are viscous.
d. High Vapour Pressure:
As Strong Hydrogen Bonding is present between water molecules; fewer molecules can
evaporate at any constant temperature leading to a reduction in vapour pressure. Therefore
water has a high water pressure
e. High Surface Tension:
- Surface tension a liquids tendency to resist increase in its surface area.
- At waters surface there is an imbalance of cohesive forces leading to a net downwards
force on the molecules. Thus the surface is trying to contract and achieve the minimum
surface area resulting in a meniscus and high surface tension.
Solution
a. A solution is a mixture where particles of solute are homogenously spread amongst particles
of solvent.
b. Aqueous Solution an aqueous solution is a solution where the solvent is water.
The Solution Process:
When a solid dissolves, the particles that makes up the solid break away from the solid lattice and
mix with the solvent molecules
I. Bonds between the molecules of solute are broken
II. Bonds Between the solvent molecules (liquid) are disrupted as the solvent molecules mix
with the solute molecules
III. New intermolecular bonds form between the solute molecules and the solvent molecules
(e.g. Ion Dipole Forces.)
- The relative strengths of the bonds that need to be broken and the new ones formed is
a major factor in determining whether a solution forms.
- If the bonds being broken are of similar strength or weaker than the new bonds being
formed, then the solute should dissolve in the solvent.
Dissolving Conditions:
For a solute to dissolve in a solvent then the following conditions must be met:
a. The bonds being broken are similar/weaker than the new bonds being formed
b. This energy of the original bonds must be equal/less than energy of the new bonds. Energy
needed to break original bonds must be lower than energy released by new bond formation.
- This why only polar dissolves polar/ionic and onl non-polar dissolved non-polar.
Why some Ionic Solids dont dissolve:
- Some ionic solids dont dissolve as the ionic bonds between the individual ions are
much stronger than the ion-dipole forces between the solvent and the ions of the
 lattice. This means that the ions in the lattice do not dissociate and remain bonded to
each other.
Dissociation
Dissociation is the process where an ionic solid dissolves in a solvent; causing the individual ions to
move apart from each other
Ionisation:
Ionisation is an actually chemical reaction that occurs when covalent molecules substance dissolve
to form ions.
Describing Solubility
All aqueous solutions have two main processes that are occurring; dissolving and crystallisation.
a. Saturated Solution:
A Saturated solution is a solution containing as much solute as it can normally dissolve: here
the rate of dissolving = rate of crystallisation.
b. Unsaturated Solution:
An unsaturated solution is one containing less solute than it can dissolve at a given
temperature. Here the process of crystallisation occurs faster than the process of dissolving.
c. Supersaturated Solution:
A solution containing more solute than it can dissolve at a given temperature: Here the
solution cannot have an crystals forming as then it will not be a solution; it will be
considered heterogeneous as there will be crystal at the bottom and a saturated solution on
top.
Solubility Graphs
Solubility is a chemical property referring to the ability for a given substance, the solute, to dissolve
in a solvent. A solubility graph shows the trend in the solubility of a substance at different
temperatures.
a. For solids; as the temperature increases; solubility increases as the higher kinetic energy
allows the solvent molecules to more effectively break apart the solute molecules from their
lattice.
b. For gases; increased temperature causes an increase in kinetic energy. The higher kinetic
energy causes more motion in the gas molecules which break intermolecular bonds and
escape from solution. Therefore the solubility for gas solutes decreases with increasing
temperature.
A Saturated
B Unsaturated
C supersaturated

Water of Crystallisation:
Water of Crystallisation are water molecules that occur inside crystal lattices; these water
molecules are attracted ions of a salt due to ion-dipole forces and come out of solution found with
the salt when the salt crystallises.
Anhydrous: Anhydrous salts are ionic compounds with no water of crystallisation due to
evaporation usually.

Electrolytes:
a. Strong Electrolytes a strong electrolyte is a compound that when dissolved in water
produces independent ions. Strong electrolytes dissolve in water to produce a very
electrically conductive aqueous solution. Strong electrolytes are usually strong
acids/bases or ionic compounds.
b. Weak Electrolytes a weak electrolyte is a compound that when dissolve in water only
partially produces independent ions. Weak electrolytes dissolve in water to produce an
aqueous solution that can conduct electricity but they are less conductive compared to
strong electrolytic solutions. Weak acids and bases are usually weak electrolytes
c. Non- electrolytes; non electrolytes are compounds than when dissolved in water do not
produce ions at all.
Conductivity in Solution
a. Electrical conductivity in solution depends on the concentration of ions present in the
solution.
b. A strong electrolyte dissolved to form a solution with high concentration of mobile ions that
can flow towards the oppositely charged terminal of the power supply.
c. Thus greater concentration of ions = greater conductivity.
Ion Dipole Interaction:
a. Hydrophilic water loving; polar/ionic molecule
b. Hydrophobic water hating; non-polar molecule.
c. Hydration is when a substance is dissolved by water.
i. Hydration occurs when electrostatic forces of attraction between an Ion and a
dipole; ion dipole forces, form between an Ion and the oppositely charged end of a
dipole (such as H20.) This involves the partially positive H atoms of the water
molecule being attracted to an anion and the partially negative 0 atoms of the water
molecule being attracted to a cation.
ii. First the ion-dipole forces overcome the ionic bonds within the solute causing the
ionic solid to dissociate into individual ions
iii. Then the solvent molecules mix with the solute molecules disrupting the
intermolecular forces between the solvent (H bonds for water.)
iv. Finally ion-dipole forces occur between solute molecules and solvent molecules
where each solute molecule is surrounded by multiple solvent molecules.

Precipitates:
Precipitates are insoluble solids that form within a solution in the form of a suspension when two or
more ions in solution bond with each other forming a new molecule where the Intramolecular forces
are stronger than the attractive forces between them and the solvent molecules. This causes them
to be insoluble and to fall out of solution usually as a suspension.

Ions to Memorise:
a. Ammonium
b. Cyanide
c. DiHydrogenPhosphate
d. Ethanoate
e. Hydrogen Carbonate
f. Hydrogen Sulphate
 g. Hydroxide
h. Nitrate
i. Nitrite
j. Manganate
k. Permanganate
l. Carbonate
m. Chromate
n. Di Chromate
o. Hydrogen Phosphate
p. Oxalate
q. Sulphate
r. Sulphite
s. Phosphate
t. Aluminium
u. Silver
v. Hydrogen Per-Oxide
VSEPR for large molecules:
a. When you are applying the VSEPR theory for large molecules; there are multiple central
atoms each with different electron geometry. So you have to first draw an electron dot
diagram followed by the names of each central atom and the type of shape they would form
b. Then for each central atom you make a shape and then using this shape you do vector
addition of bond dipoles to find the net dipole/polarity of the molecule.
Example: Ethanol
Adding Salt to Water
a. Effect on vapour pressure

b. Effect on MP/BP
 c. Effect on freezing point

Relative Strength of Bonds

Relative Strength of Intermolecular Forces