J.

Trivedi 1
 Water Flooding
Secondary Oil Recovery

Japan Trivedi
Associate Professor
School of Petroleum, University of Alberta
J. Trivedi 2
 EOR Targets: % OOIP
Light Oils Heavy Oil Tar Sands

Primary Primary
25% OIP 5% OIP
EOR Target Secondary EOR Target
45% OIP 5% OIP 100% OIP
Secondary
30% OIP EOR Target
90% OIP

Assumes Soi 85% PV and Sw = 15% PV

Thomas, Oil & Gas Science and Technology (2008)

J. Trivedi 3
 EOR
Oil Recovery by Injection of Fluids not normally
present in the reservoir

Incremental Recovery = $$$

EOR = $$$ + JOBS !!!

4
J. Trivedi
 Oil Recovery Mechanisms
CONVENTIONAL RECOVERY

PRIMARY
RECOVERY Natural Artificial Lift
Flow (Pump, Gas Lift, etc.)

SECONDARY
RECOVERY Pressure Maintenance
Waterflood
(Water, Gas Reinjection)

EOR

TERTIARY
RECOVERY Thermal Solvent Chemical Other

5
J. Trivedi
Adapted from the Oil & Gas Journal, Apr 23, 1990
EOR Classification

6
J. Trivedi
 Est. Worldwide EOR Production, 2007
Other Canada
17,800 B/D 325,500 B/D
22% 14%

Venezuela Indonesia
365,600 B/D 220,000 B/D
16% 10%

China USA
166,900 B/D 649,300 B/D
7% 30%

Mexico
500,000 B/D
22%
Percentages are those of total
7
J. Trivedi
Thomas (2008) EOR production of 2.5 MM B/D
 EOR
Rock/Fluid Properties

J. Trivedi

J. Trivedi 8
 Aim & Scope of the lecture
Goal
Wettability of a Rock
Contact Angle
Imbibition and Drainage
Capillary Pressure v/s Saturation

Relevance in context of water flooding

J. Trivedi 9
Wettability

Why water drops dont

wet the umbrella !!!

J. Trivedi 10
 Wettability
Oil Droplet

Contact angle

Wilson et al,
1989

J. Trivedi 11
 Wettability
Definition

Wettability is defined as the tendency of one fluid to spread on or

adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids.
In other words wettability of reservoir rocks is the actual process by
which a liquid spreads on (wets) a solid substrate or surface
[Anderson, 1986].

Classification
The wettability of fluid/rock system can range from strongly water-
wet to strongly oil-wet.
When the rock has no strong preference for either oil or water, the
system is said to be neutral (or intermediate) wettability.
Besides strong and neutral wettability, there are two different types
of wettability such as fractional wettability, and mixed wettability
[Anderson,1986].
J. Trivedi 12
 WETTABILITY CLASSIFICATION

Strongly oil- or water-wetting

Neutral wettability no preferential wettability to either water or oil

in the pores

Fractional wettability reservoir that has local areas that are

strongly oil-wet, whereas most of the reservoir is strongly water-wet
- Occurs where reservoir rock have variable mineral
composition and surface chemistry

Mixed wettability smaller pores area water-wet are filled with

water, whereas larger pores are oil-wet and filled with oil
- Residual oil saturation is low
- Occurs where oil with polar organic compounds invades a
water-wet rock saturated with brine

J. Trivedi 13
Contact angle & Wettability

Wettability or wetting is the actual process when a liquid

Complete wetting spreads on (wets) a solid substrate.

Wettability can be estimated by determining the contact

angle
Partial wetting

Ref: KSV Instruments

J. Trivedi 14
 CONTACT ANGLE
Oil
ow

Oil q Water Oil

os ws os
Solid The contact angle, q, measured through the denser
liquid phase, defines which fluid wets the solid
AT = adhesion tension, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm) surface.

q = contact angle between the oil/water/solid interface measured through the water, degrees

os = interfacial energy between the oil and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm

ws = interfacial energy between the water and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm

J. Trivedi 15
ow = interfacial energy (interfacial tension) between the oil and water, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm
CONTACT ANGLE OIL DROP

The contact angle, q, measured through the

denser liquid phase, defines which fluid wets
the solid surface.

J. Trivedi 16
 Implication - in porous media

In preferentially water-wet rock, the brine occupies the small pores and forms a
continuous film on the grain surfaces.

In contrast, in an oil-wet rock, brine tends to be located in the centre of the

larger pores, with an oil film contacting the grain surfaces

In which system water flooding will

recover more oil ?
J. Trivedi 17
 Water-wet Reservoir

Sor = residual oil saturation

Increase in wetting phase (water) saturation Process is termed as

Imbibition

J. Trivedi 18
 Oil-wet Reservoir

19
Swir = irreduciable water saturation

Decrease in wetting phase (oil) saturation Process is termed as drainage

J. Trivedi
 20

J. Trivedi
 Implication - Oil Recovery

How to recovery this oil ?

Oil in pore space of water-wet

sandstone rock

J. Trivedi 21
 Capillary Tube

Rise of colored water along a

capillary. Notice the concavity of the
meniscus.

Notice : water tends to rise near the walls of a glass

container. This happens because the molecules of this
liquid have a strong tendency to adhere to the glass.
a non-wettable liquid ?
J. Trivedi 22
 Effect of waterflood on an water reservoir ?
Effect of waterflood on an oil reservoir?

Water-Wet System concave surface

Convex surface Oil-Wet System

A water-wet system will exhibit ??? oil recovery under waterflooding.

direction of water rising in capillary filled with oil

J. Trivedi From Levorsen,
231967
 Capillary pressure (Force balance)

po patm o gh1

pw patm o g (h1 h) w gh

po p w h ( w o ) g

pc po p w h ( w o ) g

Enhanced Oil Recovery Green & Willhite

J. Trivedi 24
 Porous media relation
Pressure exerted by non-wetting phase is higher than
wetting phase. (Pnw >> Pw)
To push the non-wetting phase out from the pore wetting
has to supply additional pressure.
For water-wet sandstone reservoir
P nw = oil
P w = water
At equilibrium Po >> Pw. Hence to push the oil out Pw has to
overcome Po.
What is this minimum required pressure called ?

J. Trivedi 25
 CAPILLARY PRESSURE SURFACE TENSION CONTACT ANGLE

Hydrostatic equilibrium of two fluid phases in contact

with a solid phase (after Melrose and Brandner, 1974) Capillary rise in a slim tube (Wilson et al., 1989)

Upward vertical force of surface tension * wetted

perimeter = downward gravitational force acting on
fluid column = Contact angle
r = capillary tube radius
* cos q * 2r r 2 h( w a ) g = surface tension
a = density of air (g/cm3)
rh( w a ) g w = water density (g/cm3)
aw
2 cosq rPc
ow
2 cosq
pc po p w h ( w o ) g J. Trivedi 26
 Example
a) If the rise of a liquid (density = 1000 kg/m3) in a single capillary of 100 m radius
is 15 cm, and the angle to the surface is 20 deg; Calculate the surface tension.

27
b) What is the minimum pressure required (threshold pressure) to force the oil drop
from A to B assuming it is strongly water-wet capillary ( = 0). What would be the
pressure gradient (psi/ft) if the drop length were 0.015 cm? (rA = 14.5 m; rB = 6.5 m;
IFT = 25 dynes/cm).

2 * Cosq
Pc
J.
r Trivedi
 Capillary Tubes (diff diameter)

Essentials of multiphase flow and transport

in porous media G. PINDER & W. GRAY

2 * Cosq
Pc
r
Water will rise higher in tubes of smaller diameters.
The capillary pressure at the interface between the water and air is greater
in the smaller tubes and the curvature of the interface in these tubes is also
greater.
This is an example of wetting fluid moving into pores of smaller diameters.
(small diameter first then big diameter)
J. Trivedi 28
Capillary Pressure

Reservoir Eng. Handbook TAREK AHMED

J. Trivedi 29
 Capillary pressure and water saturation

Why ????

Water (Wetting phase) flows in small pores first Capillary Pressure is High
(High Swi)
Then it flows into larger pores Capillary Pressure is lower (Low Swi)

Higher the % of large pores : Lower the water level : So Low Swi
J. Trivedi 30
Higher the % of large pores : Lower the restriction to flow : High Perm
 Capillary Pressure
Reservoir rocks are composed of varying sizes of grains, pores,
and capillaries (channels between grains which connect pores
together, sometimes called pore throats).

As the size of the pores and channels decrease, the surface

tension of fluids in the rock increases.

When there are several fluids in the rock, each fluid has a
different surface tension and adhesion that causes a pressure
variation between those fluids.

This pressure is called capillary pressure and is often

sufficient to prevent the flow of one fluid in the presence
of another.

J. Trivedi 31
 Capillary Pressure
For example, Figure above shows that the same adhesive forces that were
mentioned previously will cause water, when in contact with air, to rise slightly
against the walls of its container, against the pull of gravity, and form a
concave meniscus.

If several tubes of varying diameter are placed in a water-filled container, a

meniscus forms on the inside walls of the tubes. In the very narrow tubes, the
entire air-water interface will be concave upward.

However, surface tension at the air-water interface will attempt to flatten this
interface, thereby causing a slight rise in the level of water across the entire
diameter of the tube.

As this occurs, the adhesion of the water to glass will continue to pull water
molecules upward near the edge of the tubes.

By this mechanism the water level in the tube will continue to rise until the
upward force is balanced by the weight of the water column.

J. Trivedi 32
 Capillary Pressure
Again, referring to Figure above, the strength of the capillary pressure may
be thought of in terms of the concavity of the air-water interfaces seen in
the different tubes.

The greater the capillary pressure, the more the air-water interface will be
distorted into concavity by the adhesion of water to glass on the side of
the tube.

As seen in the illustration, the air-water interfaces in the narrow tubes

exhibit more concavity than to the air-water interfaces in the wide tubes.

Consequently, the height of the water columns in the B tubes (which are
narrow) rise even higher than that of the A tubes (which are wider).
The smaller the opening, the greater the capillary pressure.

With respect to a reservoir, this may be thought of in terms of pore throat

diameters.

J. Trivedi 33
 Summary of Pc Sw relation
Summary of Imbibition / Drainage
Jamin or bypassing effect
Snap off
Relative permeability

Relevance in context of wettability and water

flooding

J. Trivedi
34
 Capillary in porous media (sugar cure model - in tea)

The surface of the cup of tea is large such that it is flat (except at the
edges where the tea meets the cup wall). Thus the pressure at the surface
is atmospheric, equal to the pressure of the air that is in the sugar cube.

Nevertheless, as soon as the cube touches the surface, the tea will flow
upward into the cube.

This happens because when the small pores of the solid cube are put in
contact with the wetting tea, a curved interface forms such that, to reach
a new equilibrium state where the microscale interface equilibrium
condition, pw + pc = pn , is satisfied, phase w will move upward into the
solid.

The movement of a phase w into a dry porous medium occurs as soon as it

is put in contact with the medium.

J. Trivedi 35
 Capillary in porous media (sugar cure in tea)
On the other hand, if the sugar cube in the previous example were actually made of
some hydrophobic material (oil-wet), the tea would not move into the cube at first contact.

The cube would have to be pushed down into the tea to a depth such that the pressure in
the tea (Pw) is high enough to overcome preference of the cube material for the air phase.

The tea would enter first into the larger pores, where capillary forces are smaller, and
would enter into smaller pores only if the cube were submerged deeply enough into the
cup to overcome the capillary forces in those pores.

These observations give rise to the concept of entry or threshold pressure .

The entry pressure is the macroscale pressure difference, Pn Pw , that is required to

enable a nonwetting phase to begin to invade a porous medium saturated with the wetting
phase, i.e., a porous medium with Sw = 1.

The entry pressure is related to the largest pore diameter since invasion will take place first
into the largest pores where capillary pressure effects will be smallest.

J. Trivedi 36
 Water displacement from largest pore first

A core with five different pore sizes and completely saturated with water (w phase)
B Core subjected to oil (nw phase) with increasing pressure until some water is displaced from
the core, i.e., displacement pressure pd. (from largest pore)
C Oil pressure will have to increase to displace the water in the second largest
J. Trivedi 37
 Displacement Pressure
Above figure shows a schematic illustration of a core that is represented
by five different pore sizes and completely saturated with water, i.e.,
wetting phase.

Assume that we subject the core to oil (the nonwetting phase) with
increasing pressure until some water is displaced from the core, i.e.,
displacement pressure pd.

This water displacement will occur from the largest pore size. The oil
pressure will have to increase to displace the water in the second largest
pore.

This sequential process is shown in sections B and C of Figure.

J. Trivedi 38
 Capillary pr. & wettability

capillary pressure values are positive for strongly water-wet and negative for strongly
oil-wet conditions. Why ?
J. Trivedi 39
Intermediate Wettability
In the intermediate wettability case,
the small positive value of
threshold pressure during the
drainage cycle suggests the sample
was moderately water-wet. After
the drainage cycle, the sample
spontmeously imbibed water until
the capillary pressure was zero at a
water saturation of 55% . Then, as
water pressure was applied, the
maximum water saturation of about
88% was achieved.

J. Trivedi 40
 Effect of Grain Size Distribution on Shape

Poorly sorted
Capillary pressure, psia

Well-sorted
Decreasing
Permeability,
Decreasing

Water J.saturation,
Trivedi % 41
 Effect of absolute perm. on Capillary Pressure

Permeability , capillary pressure ( at a constant value of water saturation)

Smaller diameter pores = Lower permeabilities.
Water saturation = Capillary pressure
(effect of the radius of curvature of the water-oil interface.)
J. Trivedi 42
Jamin - Bypassing Effect
According to the Pc equation, at the same
condition non-wetting phase tends to invade
the larger pores because of the lower capillary
pressure. This tendency leads to special
trapping mechanism.

The (slowly) injected water displaces the oil

contained in the pores more easily if the pores
are narrower, because the capillary effect is
added to the external forces.

The oil/water interface (meniscus) thus

advances faster in narrower pore and reaches
the narrow exit of the doublet, which is thus
bathed in water at entrance and exit.

A second interface thus appears in the large

pore, forming a drop of oil which, during its
movement, may ultimately be blocked in the
pore network Jamin Effect
J. Trivedi 43
 Bypassing

(a) In a water-wet system, the oil-water interface is moving faster in the

small pore than in the large pore, and the oil in the latter is partly
bypassed
(b) In an oil-wet system the oil-water interface is moving faster in the large
pore than in the small pore, bypassing oil in the latter one.

(a) Represents imbibition process: water-wet rock, wetting phase i.e. water entering smaller pores first
(b) Represents drainage process: oil-wet rock, non-wetting phase (water) displacing the wetting phase
(oil) out. J. Trivedi 44
 Bypassing
The porous medium is very heterogeneous in pore size, pore throat
dimensions, aspect ratios, pore-wall roughness.

When the water is flowing through water-wet porous media

containing oil, the oil can be bypassed due to several different
unfavourable pore geometries.

The oil-water interface is moving faster in the small pore causing

bypassing of oil in the larger pore in water-wet reservoir - Figure
(a) in previous slide.

The opposite is shown in oil-wet reservoir Figure (b).

J. Trivedi 45
 Snap-off effect

Oh & Slatter, 1976

(Snap-off model)

Effect of pore aspect ratio on organic liquid trapping in a tube of non-uniform diameter (after Chartzis et al., 1983)

46

J. Trivedi 46
 Snap off
When oil is flowing from one pore into another filled with water through a
narrow throat, the oil surface will at some point become unstable and a
droplet will detach from the main bulk oil. This process is referred to as
snap-off of oil.

Snap-off of oil is a major mechanism causing residual oil in porous media,

especially for strongly water-wet systems.

80% of the trapped oil in Berea sandstone cores occurred in snap-off

geometries.

The main parameters governing snap-off are aspect ratio, pore-wall

roughness, connectivity of the pore system, oil-water IFT and the
wettability of the porous media

Slower supply of water to the pore throat region is expected to be the

reason for less snap-off in system with low oil-water IFT or wettability close
to neutral.
J. Trivedi 47
Snap-off Effect

J. Trivedi 48
 Snap-off Effect
When the thin layer of water phase reaches the exit pore throat, a large
blob of oil still remains in the pore. Snap-off occurs as the water continues
through the exit throat leaving behind the now disconnected single blob.
In a sequence of high aspect ratio (small pore throat), single blob is trapped
by snap-off in each pore.
In low aspect ratio (Large pore throat as pore bodies) it is possible to
completely displace the oil

Trapping, in addition to pore geometry is also a function of wetting and

contact angle.
The combined effect of contact angle and pore geometry control the
curvature of a fluid-fluid interface and determine the potential for snap-off
Interface with a 90 degree contact angle passing from a pore throat
through high aspect ratio pore body.
The intermediate contact angle of 0-90 causes the curvature of interface to
remain relatively small. As the interface reaches exit throat,

J. Trivedi 49
Trapping Mechanism

Moore & Slobod, 1956 (Pore

Doublet Model)

J. Trivedi 50
 Trapping using doublet model : By-passing
Pore doublet model describes trapping mechanism on a microscopic scale
A pore doublet consist of a tube which splits into two pores, one generally
narrower than the other, and other rejoins.
The pore walls are smooth and strongly water wet.

Fig a : Circumstances under which no trapping occurs

(Stage 1.A) The advancing water phase enters the narrower pore opening first
In each pore, the total pressure drop driving flow is the sum of the capillary
pressure and the dynamic pressure drop caused by flow (Moore and Slobod,
1956)

For the pore doublet the have any physical meaning, the flow rate (and dynamic
pressure drop) should be low enough to approximate aquifer conditions.

On a pore scale, under such conditions, capillary forces are much larger than the
dynamic viscous forces. Capillary then controls advance of wetting front causing
water to initially fill the narrower pore (chartzis and Dulllien, 1983)

J. Trivedi 51
 Trapping using doublet model : By-passing
Stage 2.A : The water-oil interface remains stable at the entrance to the
wider pore

When the water reaches the downstream node (where the pores rejoins), it
forms a stable meniscus with the oil because the cross-section at the
downstream node is greater than at the entrance to the wider pore.

In instances where a stable meniscus can be maintained at the downstream

node, water can then push oil out of the wider pore (Stage 3.A)

The menisci rejoin at the downstream node (Stage 4.A). In this case, the
water has displaced the oil completely from the pore doublet and no trapping
has occurred.

Case B
Water enters the narrower pore first. However, as water reaches the
downstream node, it does not stop because no stable interface is formed (Stage
2.B).

The oil in the wider pore has become disconnected from the main body of oil
and is now unable to drain from the pore. This liquid has become by-passed
by the advancing water (Stage 3.B)
J. Trivedi 52
 Summary

(a) Drainage Process, No Trapping

(b) Drainage Process, Bypassing in Smaller Throat
(c) Imbibition Process, Bypassing in Larger Throat
(d) Imbibition Process, Snap-Off
(e) Imbibition Process, Snap-Off in Smaller Throat and Bypassing in Larger
Throat
J. Trivedi 53
Effective Permeability and
Relative Permeability

J. Trivedi 54
Review: Absolute Permeability
Absolute permeability: is the permeability of a porous
medium saturated with a single fluid (e.g. Sw=1)

Absolute permeability can be calculated from the

steady-state flow equation (1D, Linear Flow; Darcy
Units):

k A p
q
L
J. Trivedi 55
 Multiphase Flow in Reservoirs
Commonly, reservoirs contain 2 or 3 fluids
Water-oil systems
Oil-gas systems
Water-gas systems
Three phase systems (water, oil, and gas)
To evaluate multiphase systems, must consider the effective and
relative permeability

Effective permeability: is a measure of the conductance

of a porous medium for one fluid phase when the
medium is saturated with more than one fluid.
The porous medium can have a distinct and measurable
conductance to each phase present in the medium
Effective permeabilities: (ko, kg, kw)
J. Trivedi 56
 Effective Permeability
Steady state, 1D, linear flow
ko A o equation (Darcy units):
Oil qo
o L qn = volumetric flow rate for a
specific phase, n

k w A w
Water qw A = flow area
w L n = flow potential drop for
phase, n (including pressure,
gravity and capillary pressure
k g A g terms)
qg
Gas g L n = fluid viscosity for phase n

L = flow length

J. Trivedi 57
 Relative Permeability
Relative Permeability is the ratio of the effective permeability of a
fluid at a given saturation to some base permeability
Base permeability is typically defined as:
absolute permeability, k
air permeability, kair
effective permeability to non-wetting phase at irreducible wetting
phase saturation [e.g. ko(Sw=Swi)]
because definition of base permeability varies, the definition used
must always be:
confirmed before applying relative permeability data
noted along with tables and figures presenting relative
permeability data

J. Trivedi 58
 Relative Permeability
ko ( 0.5,0.3)
Oil k ro ( 0.5, 0.3)
k So =0.5
Sw =0.3
k w( 0.5,0.3) Sg = 0.2
Water k rw ( 0.5, 0.3)
k

k g ( 0.5, 0.3)
Gas k rg ( 0.5, 0.3)
k

J. Trivedi 59
 Relative Permeability Functions
Imbibition Relative Permeability
1.00
kro @ Swi Wettability and direction of
Relative Permeability (fraction)

saturation change must be

0.80 considered
drainage
Two-Phase Flow imbibition
0.60 Region
Base used to normalize this
Oil relative permeability curve is
0.40 kro @ Swi
As Sw increases, kro decreases
and krw increases until
0.20
krw @ Sor reaching residual oil
Water saturation
0
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Modified from NExT, 60
1999
Water Saturation (fraction)
J. Trivedi
 Effect of Wettability for Increasing Sw
1.0 1.0

Relative Permeability, Fraction

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
Relative Permeability, Fraction

Oil Oil Water

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Water
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation (% PV) Water Saturation (% PV)

Strongly Water-Wet Rock Strongly Oil-Wet Rock

In a strongly oil-wet system, water is expected to Water flows more freely

flow easier than in a strongly water-wet system. Higher residual oil saturation
In addition, we generally would expect that the
residual oil saturation will be higher.
J. Trivedi 61
Rule of Thumb

Characteristics of
typical relative
permeability for a two-
phase flow, where Sw
is the wetting phase

left: a water-wet
formation and right:
an oil-wet formations.

J. Trivedi 62
 Rock Wettability and Relative Permeabilities
Let us note that the endpoint values of the relative permeabilities are usually (if
not always) less than 1 and which are measures of wettability.
The non-wetting phase occurs in isolated globules, several pore diameters in
length, that occupy the center of the pores.
Trapped wetting phase, on the other hand, occupies the cavities between rock
the grains and coats the rock surfaces.
Thus we would expect the trapped non-wetting phase to be a bigger obstacle to
the wetting phase, then the trapped wetting phase is to the non-wetting phase.
The wetting phase endpoint relative permeability will, therefore, be smaller
than the non-wetting phase endpoint.
The ratio of wetting to non-wetting endpoints proves to be a good qualitative
measure of the wettability of the medium.
For extreme cases of preferential wetting, the endpoint relative permeability to
the wetting phase can be 0.05 or less.
Others view the crossover saturation (kr2 = kr1), of the relative permeabilities is
a more appropriate indicator of wettability, perhaps because it is less sensitive
to the value of the residual saturations (see the rule of thumb, above).

J. Trivedi 63
 Characteristics of Relative Permeability Functions

Relative permeability is unique for different rocks and fluids

Relative permeability affects the flow characteristics of
reservoir fluids.
Relative permeability affects the recovery efficiency of oil
and/or gas.

Applications
Reservoir simulation
Flow calculations that involve multi-phase flow in reservoirs
Estimation of residual oil (and/or gas) saturation

J. Trivedi 64
Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities

Fluid saturations
Geometry of the pore spaces and pore size
distribution
Wettability
Fluid saturation history (i.e., imbibition or
drainage)
After Standing, 1975

J. Trivedi 65
Wettability effect on relative perm

Based on absolute brine permeability Based on effective oil permeability at initial

water saturation

E&F, 2004 Karabakal & Bagci et al.

J. Trivedi 66
Screening Criteria

J. Trivedi 67
 General Rules
Miscible Gas Injection
Miscible gas injection techniques are, in a sense, the opposite extreme to steam
flooding. To be feasible, the reservoirs must have considerable depth so that the
process pressure is adequate for achieving miscibility between a displacing
fluid and the displaced fluid.
Miscible gas injection techniques are divided into hydrocarbon, nitrogen and
flue gas and carbon dioxide.

Chemical Flooding
Reservoir permeability poses some restrictions on chemical flooding, but more
often, characteristics affecting chemical stability, such as temperature,
formation brine and rock composition are the limiting parameters.
Generally not preferred for carbonate reservoirs. Chemical flooding has a much
less restricted set of conditions for use and is divided into polymer, surfactant-
polymer and alkaline recovery techniques.
For alkaline flooding, the oil should have an acid number greater than 0.2 mg
KOH/g of oil.

J. Trivedi 68
 General Rules
Thermal techniques are subdivided into in situ combustion and steam flooding. To be
technically and economically feasible, thermal techniques usually require reservoirs
with fairly high permeability. Steam flooding is traditionally the most used EOR method
in the US, and is most often applied to relatively shallow reservoirs containing viscous
oils.

Limitation of Steam Flood Process

Process is applicable:
In shallow and thick, high permeability sand stone and unconsolidated sand to avoid
heat loss in well and adjacent formation
Steam flooding is not normally used in carbonate formation and also where water
sensitive clays are present
Also high mobility and challenging of steam may make the process unattractive
In high depth reservoir maintaining steam quality is not possible
Cost per incremental bbls is high. Normally 1/3 of incremental oil is used in
generation of steam
J. Trivedi 69
 Screening Method
Backward chaining (Goal-driven method)
If we search the table starting at the top, and move left-to-right, before
moving down a row, we are using the backward-chaining or goal-
driven method. That is, we are first assuming a solution, e.g.
hydrocarbon gas-injection, and then checking the data either to verify
or disprove that assumption.

Forward chaining (data-driven method)

A data-driven, or forward chaining, approach would begin the search in
the upper-left-hand corner of the table and would move down row-by-
row to the bottom, before moving to the next column. That is, the
search would start with the value of the oil gravity and check it against
every EOR method before moving on to the other data.

J. Trivedi 70
 Case Study - I
Reservoir properties
Depth - 3800 ft
Temperature 140 0F
Rock type - carbonate
Formation thickness - 50 ft
Porosity - 15%
Permeability - 120 md
API gravity 370 (high percentage of light hydrocarbons)
Oil viscosity - 8 cP
Dipping angle - 35
Clays - present (large quantity)
Formation water 25,000 ppm chlorides
Acid number 0.1 mg KOH / g of oil

J. Trivedi 71
Method API Comp So type T K(avg) Depth Temp
CASE STUDY
HC
N2 & Flue
CO2
Chemical
Surfactnat/
Polymer
Polymer
Alkaline
Thermal
Combustion
Steam

J. Trivedi 72
Method API Comp So type T K(avg) Depth Temp
CASE STUDY 37 8 High 50 Carbonate 50 120 3800 1400 F
cp C4-C7 % ft md ft
HC Y Y OK Y OK NC Y NC
N2 & Flue Y Y OK Y OK NC N NC
CO2 Y Y N Y OK NC Y NC
Chemical
Surfactnat/ Y Y OK N
Polymer
Polymer Y Y NC N
Alkaline N
Thermal
Combustion
Steam

J. Trivedi 73
 Screening
To check the applicability of the expert system, a reservoir whose
properties are summarized, is considered as a case study. The reservoir
investigated here is assumed to have already been produced to its
economic limit and is a potential candidate for an EOR process or
otherwise subject to abandonment.
The followings are feasible EOR processes for this reservoir:
1.carbon dioxide flooding,
2.miscible hydrocarbon injection, and
3.nitrogen flooding.
In addition, the results also show that miscible hydrocarbon injection
is the most suitable EOR process for the reservoir. Reasons for this
answer can be summarized by listing some rules:

J. Trivedi 74
 Screening Rules - Analysis
1. The presence of high amount of clays is undesirable for surfactant and
polymer flooding. Clays increase polymer adsorption.
2. High chloride concentration in the formation water (25,000 ppm.) is not
suitable for surfactant Flooding.
3. Polymer, surfactant, or alkaline flooding is not preferred for carbonate
reservoirs.
4. The oil API gravity range for alkaline flooding is 13340 API.
5. For alkaline flooding, the oil should have an acid number greater than 0.2 mg
KOH/g of oil.
6. Carbonates are avoided for alkaline flooding because they often contain
anhydrite or gypsum that interact adversely with the caustic chemical.
7. In-situ combustion is used for heavy crudes and in sandstone with high
porosity.
8. Steam flooding is applicable to viscous oil (oil viscosity generally greater than
100 cP. ) and is not normally used in carbonate reservoirs.
9. Deeper reservoirs are needed for nitrogen and CO2 flooding (generally greater
than 4500 ft.) in order to develop miscibility with the reservoir oil.

J. Trivedi 75
 Case Study - II
gravity = 18 API,
viscosity = 500 cP,
composition = high-percentage C4-C7,
oil saturation = 50%,
formation type = sandstone,
payzone thickness = 35 ft,
average permeability = 1000 mD,
well depth = 2000 ft,
temperature = 110 F.

J. Trivedi 76
Method API Comp So type T K(avg) Depth Temp
CASE STUDY 18 500 High 50 SS 35 ft 1000 2000 1100 F
cp C4-C7 % md ft
HC N
N2 & Flue N
CO2 N
Chemical
Surfactnat/P N
olymer
Polymer N
Alkaline YES N
Thermal
Combustion Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N
Steam Y Y NC Y Y Y Y Y NC

J. Trivedi 77
 Analysis
We used backward-chaining to find that steam flooding is the only good
method to use for this situation.

Although in situ combustion techniques might also work, it is not perfectly

clear what is meant, in Table , by "greater than 150 F preferred."

This situation is not ideal because we have only one candidate for the next
screening step.

Furthermore, if this one candidate were eliminated for other reasons in

later screening, we would have no candidate recovery methods for this
case.

Having a well that is not recommended for EOR is certainly legitimate, but
we shouldn't eliminate the possibility because of too little knowledge. 78
J. Trivedi
 Case Study - III
(1) gravity = 35 API,
(2) viscosity = 10 cP,
(3) composition = high percentages C4 - C7 and some organic acids,
(4) oil saturation = 50%,
(5) formation type = sandstone,
(6) payzone thickness = 10 ft,
(7) Average permeability = 1000 mD,
(8) well depth = 5000 ft,
(9) temperature = 150 F.

J. Trivedi 79
Method API Comp So type T K(avg) Depth Temp
CASE STUDY
HC
N2 & Flue
CO2
Chemical
Surfactnat/
Polymer
Polymer
Alkaline
Thermal
Combustion
Steam

J. Trivedi 80
 Next Class
Quiz next class
Donuts/Samosas

EOR screening methods

J. Trivedi 81
Method API Comp So type Thick K(avg) Depth Temp
CASE STUDY 35 10 High 50 SS 10 ft 1000 5000 1500 F
cp C4-C7 % md ft
HC Y Y OK Y Y OK NC Y NC
N2 & Flue Y Y OK Y Y OK NC Y NC
CO2 Y Y OK Y Y OK NC Y NC
Chemical
Surfactnat/P Y Y OK Y Y Y Y Y Y
olymer
Polymer Y Y NC Y Y NC Y Y Y
Alkaline Y Y OK Y Y NC Y Y Y
Thermal
Combustion Y Y OK Y Y Y Y Y NC
Steam N

J. Trivedi 82
EOR Screening Criteria

J. Trivedi 83
J. Trivedi 84
 Example -2

Example -3

J. Trivedi 85
 Criteria - 1
Oil Gravity (API)

Criteria 2
Oil Viscosity (cp)

J. Trivedi 86
 Criteria - 3
Oil Composition

Criteria 4
Formation Salinity (ppm)

J. Trivedi 87
 Criteria - 5
Oil Saturation (% PV)

Criteria 6
Formation Type

J. Trivedi 88
 Criteria - 7
Net Thickness (feet)

Criteria 8
Permeability (md)

J. Trivedi 89
 Criteria - 9
Well Depth (feet)

Criteria 10
Formation Temp. (F)

J. Trivedi 90
 Criteria - 11
Formation Porosity (%)

Ref : Fuzzy Logic and Control: Software and Hardware Applications, Volume 2

Not feasible -50

Very poor -20
Poor 0
Possible 4
Fair 6
Good 10
Not critical 12
Preferred 15

Note that "Not Critical" is a very good situation to have.

J. Trivedi 91
 EOR Screening & Ranking
Example 3
Scenario : 1 Scenario : 1
(1) Gravity = 23 degrees API (1) Gravity = 24 degrees API
(2) Viscosity = 30 cp (2) Viscosity = 22 cp
(3) Composition = high percent C5-C12 (3) Composition = high percent of C5-C12
(4) Salinity = 101,000 ppm (4) Salinity = 99,000 ppm
(5) Oil saturation = 29% (5) Oil Saturation = 31 %
(6) Formation type = sandstone (homogeneous) (6) Formation type = sandstone (homogeneous)
(7) Payzone thickness = 26 ft (7) Payzone thickness = 24 ft
(8) Average permeability = 24 md (8) Average permeability = 26 md
(9) Well depth = 1999 ft (9) Well depth = 2001 ft
(10)Temperature = 91F (10)Temperature = 89F
(11)Porosity =19% (11)Porosity = 21%

1- Polymer flooding 102 points 1- Surfactant/polymer 142 points

2- Alkaline flooding 97 points 2- Polymer flooding 136 points
3- In situ combustion 93 points 3- Alkaline flooding 127 points
4- Steam flooding 92 points 4- Carbon dioxide 116 points
5-(tie) Microbial drive 88 points 5- Nitrogen and flue gas 114 points
6-(tie) Surfactant/polymer 88 points 6- Hydrocarbon miscible 104 points
7- Carbon dioxide 85 points 7- Microbial drive 94 points
8- Hydrocarbon miscible 77 points 8- Steam flooding 83 points
9- Nitrogen and flue gas 72 points 9- In situ combustion 80 points

J. Trivedi 92
 EOR Screening & Ranking
Example 4
Scenario : 1
Scenario : 1
(1) Gravity = 15 degrees API
(1) Gravity = 15 degrees API
(2) Viscosity = 1001 cp
(2) Viscosity = 999 cp
(3) Composition = high percent of C5-C12
(3) Composition = high percent of C5-C12
(4) Salinity = 50,000 ppm
(4) Salinity = 50,000 ppm
(5) Oil saturation = 50%
(5) Oil saturation = 50%
(6) Formation type = sandstone (homogeneous)
(6) Formation type = sandstone (homogeneous)
(7) Payzone thickness = 35 ft
(7) Payzone thickness = 35 ft
(8) Average permeability = 1000 md
(8) Average permeability = 1000 md
(9) Well depth = 2000 ft
(9) Well depth = 2000 ft
(10)Temperature = 110F
(10)Temperature = 110F
(11)Porosity = 28%
(11)Porosity = 28%

1- Steam flooding 132 points

1- Steam flooding 132 points
* In situ combustion 65 points (Not Feasible)
2- In situ combustion 125 points
2- Alkaline flooding 117 points
3- Alkaline flooding 117 points
*- Surfactant/polymer 66 points (Not Feasible)
4- Surfactant/polymer 116 points

J. Trivedi 93
 EOR Screening Tools

http://www.petroleumsolutions.co.uk/eorguimain.html
J. Trivedi 94
J. Trivedi 95
 Fractional Flow Equation
BL Theory Immiscible displacement
PETE 471

J. Trivedi 96
Frontal advance - Immiscible

Progression of water displacing oil for immiscible, 1D

J. Trivedi 97
 Frontal advance - Immiscible
Earlier figure shows snapshots in time of the frontal boundary as
water is displacing oil.
In sequence, A depicts the initial state of the sample (or reservoir)
where saturations are separated into irreducible water, residual oil
and mobile oil components.
After a given time of injection, the front advances to a position as
shown in B. Ahead of the front water saturation is at irreducible,
but behind the front water saturation is increased.
Continuing in time, eventually the water will breakthrough the end
of the core (reservoir) and both oil and water will be produced
simultaneously, C.
Continued injection will increase the displacing phase saturation in
the core (reservoir), D.

To predict the displacement performance - the analytical solution is given by

Buckley Leverett (1941) J. Trivedi 98
Front Concept

J. Trivedi 99
Frontal advance - unsteady 1D displacement
The Buckley-Leverett theory [1942] estimates the rate at which an injected water
bank moves through a porous medium.
The approach uses fractional flow theory and is based on the following assumptions:

Flow is linear and horizontal

Water is injected into an oil reservoir
Oil and water are both incompressible
Oil and water are immiscible
Gravity and capillary pressure effects are negligible
In many rocks there is a transition zone between the water and the Oil zones. In
the true water zone, the water saturation is essentially 100. In the oil zone, there is
usually present connate water, which is essentially immobile. Only water will be
produced from a well completed in the true water zone, and only oil will be
produced from the true oil zone. In the transition zone both oil and water will be
produced, and at each point the fraction of the flowrate that is water will depend
on the oil and water saturations at that point.

J. Trivedi 100
 Derivation of fractional flow equation

We start with Darcys equations:

kkro A po
qo o g sin .........(1)
o x
kkrw A pw
qw w g sin .........(2)
w x
And replace the water pressure by Pw = Po - Pcow
kkrw A po pcow
qw w g sin .........(3)
w x
After rearranging, the equations may be written as :
o po
qo w g sin .........(4)
kkro A x
w po pcow
qw w g sin .........(5)
kkrw A x x J. Trivedi 101
Substracting the first equation from the second one, we get
1 w o pcow

qw qo
g sin .........(6)
kA k rw k ro x
Substituti ng for The fractional flow of a phase, f, is defined as the
volume fraction of the phase that is flowing at x, t.
qt qw qo
qo qo
fo
qw qt qw qo
fw , fo f w 1
qt qw qw
fw
and solving for the fraction of water flowing, qt q w qo

we obtain the following expression for fraction of water flowing :

kkro A pcow
g sin
1 o qt x
fw .........(7)
k ro w k ro w

1


1
k rw o k rw o
J. Trivedi 102
 Pcow Pcow S w
pcow
with negligible , the expression reduces to : x
w
S x
x
Which shows Pc/ x will be small when
kkro A
g sin Pc/ Sw and/or Sw/ x are small.
1 q This situation will occur at moderate to
fw o t .........(8) high water saturations.
k ro w k ro w
1 1
k rw o k rw o
1
fw .........(9)
k ro w When x is in horizontal plane = 0, there is no
1
k rw o gravity term

In linear displacement, dPc/dSw 0 at moderate to

high water saturations as observed by the capillary
pressure curve. As a result, dPc/dx 0.

J. Trivedi 103
 Fractional Flow curve
From the definition of water cut, i.e., fw = qw/(qw + qo), we can see
that the limits of the water cut are 0 and 100%.
At the irreducible (connate) water saturation, the water flow rate qw
is zero and, therefore, the water cut is 0%.
At the residual oil saturation point, Sor, the oil flow rate is zero and
the water cut reaches its upper limit of 100%.
The shape of the water cut versus water saturation curve is
characteristically S-shaped.
The limits of the fw curve (0 and 1) are defined by the end points of
the relative permeability curves.

Draw a fractional flow curve computed from (8/9) for oil/water system.
Draw a tangent to the fractional flow curve that originates from the initial water
saturation (Swi)
The point of tangency defines the breakthrough or flood front saturation, Swf.
J. Trivedi 104
 Tangent from Swc determines the water saturation at the front (Swf)
The point where the tangent meets the line fw=1, represents the average
water saturation in the reservoir at the time of breakthrough

J. Trivedi 105
 Properties of Fractional Flow Curves
By drawing the tangent to fractional flow curve, which goes through Sw irr
or Swc point, the following properties are determined in the figure.

Sw at tangency point corresponds to that of the displacement front. It is

the water saturation obtained at the output face at Breakthrough (BT).
Fractional flow, at the same point, corresponds to that obtained at BT.
Intersection of the tangent with fw=1 (at the top of the vertical scale)
determines mean water saturation in the porous medium, when BT
occurs.
The section of the fractional flow curve - concavity upwards - determines
the range of undefined saturations in the frontal advance theory. It
includes all saturations comprised between Swirr and the displacement
front saturation.

J. Trivedi 106
 At any water saturation, Sw2, we may draw a tangent to the fw- curve in
order to determine saturations (Sw2) and corresponding water fraction
flowing.
Sw2
0.7 .703 .713 .721 .73
1
.766

fw2
0.95

fw2 Sw2
fw

fw2 Sw2

0.9
Sw2

0.85
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
Sw
107
J. Trivedi
 S w Siw The displaced hydrocarbon saturation (PV)

N P VP S w S wi NP = Cumulative oil displaced

Wi Qi = Pore volume of water injected

Pore Volume Injected Qi Wi = Total volume of water injected ,
AL AL = Pore Volume (Vp)
qi = water injection rate
qi t
Qi
AL
At breakthrough : Total amount of water injected (PV) = Total Oil production (PV)

Qi bt
qi tbt
AL

S wf S wi

S S wi 1 Simillarly for subsequent saturations (Sw2 );
f f
wf
Qi bt
f wi
wf w 1 S w2 S w2
S Qi
w S wf f w 1 f w2

f wf 1 S w Sw 2
f wi 0 J. Trivedi
108
 Production Rates
The fractional flow of water is determined from the frontal advance solution for every value of Sw2

f w 2 qt
qw 2
Bw
f o 2 qt 1 f w 2 qt
qo 2
Bo Bo
WOR
The WOR is a measure of the efficiency of the displacement at a point in the process

The volume of water that must be handled to produce a unit volume of oil

f Bo f w2 Bo
WOR Fwo w 2
fo2 Bw 1 f w2 Bw

Time required for Displacement (injection rate is constant)

Qi Qi = Pore volume of fluid injected

t L = length of the linear system
qi / AL

109
J. Trivedi
 B-L steps
1.Organize relative permeability data into form suggested in Table. If several sets of relative perm
data exist for a reservoir, use the set which is representative of the portion of the reservoir

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sw Kro Krw Kro/Krw w/o fw fw/Sw
2.Calculate the fractional flow, fw, as a function of water saturation (Sw), using equation of fw and
plot on Cartesian coordinate paper 1 1
fw
k 1
1 o w 1
k w o M
3.Draw tangent to fractional flow curve as indicated. This gives the water saturation value at the
flood front at breakthrough. The average saturation behind the front is read at fw = 1.0

4.Draw 6 to 8 tangents to the fractional flow curve at Sw values greater than that at breakthrough.
Determine the S and fw2 values corresponding to these Sw2 points.
w2

5.Determine the rate of change in fractional flow , fw as a function of the change in the flood
front water saturation.

df w f w 1 f w2
f w'
dS w S w S w 2 S w 2
110
J. Trivedi
 B-L steps
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Sw2 (front) S w2 fw2 Qi t Sw2 - Siw Np qo WOR
(Fraction PV) (Days) (STB) (B/D) (bbl/STB)

6. Calculate the cumulative water injected, Qi (Fraction of Pore Volume)

1 S S w2 Qi
Wi
Qi w2
f w 1 f w2 AL

S w Sw 2 Qi = Pore volume (PV) of water injected
Wi = Total volume of water injected ,
AL = Pore Volume (Vp)
7. Calculate the time, t , to reach each Sw points

Qi qi = water injection rate

t
qi / AL

8. Calculate the recovery oil oil, Np, in barrels at breakthrough following steps in Table

N P VP S w 2 Siw NP = Cumulative oil displaced
J. Trivedi 111
 B-L steps
9. Calculate water - oil production rates for each of the Sw

f w 2 qt
qw 2
Bw

qo 2
f o 2 qt

1 f w 2 qt
Bo Bo
10. Calculate water/oil production ratio [WOR] for each of the Sw

f w2 Bo f w2 Bo
WOR Fwo
f o 2 Bw 1 f w2 Bw
11. Plot WOR v/s Np Select a WOR cutoff which is acceptable

12. Plot WOR v/s time To determine the life of flood from the WOR cutoff point

13. Plot WOR v/s Wi Determine total water injection from the WOR cutoff point

112
J. Trivedi
Fractional Flow Equation
Example

J. Trivedi 113
 Waterflooding Example
Reservoir is 300 ft wide [91.44 m], 20 ft [6.1 m] thick, 1000ft [305 m] long.
The reservoir is horizontal and has a porosity of 0.15
an initial water saturation of 0.363, which is considered immobile.
It is proposed to drill a row of injection wells at one end of reservoir and flood the reservoir by
injecting water at a rate of 338 B/D [53.7 m3/d].
Viscosity of oil and water are 2 and 1 cp [0.002 Pa.S & 0.001 Pa.S].
Relative permeability data corresponding to the displacement of oil by water are given by
following equations.
The residual oil saturation is 0.205 (Sor). Oil and water FVFs are 1.0.
Estimates of the oil displacement rate and cumulative oil displaced are required as functions
of injection rate.

k ro 1 S wD S w Siw S w 0.363 S 0.363

2.56

S wD w
k rw 0.78S wD
3.72 1 Sor Siw 1 0.205 0.363 0.432

J. Trivedi 114
Index Sw Krw Kro fw
1 0.363 0 1 0
2 0.38 0 0.902 0
3 0.4 0 0.795 0
4 0.42 0 0.696 0.001
5 0.44 0.001 0.605 0.004
6 0.46 0.003 0.522 0.011
7 0.48 0.006 0.445 0.026
8 0.5 0.011 0.377 0.055
9 0.52 0.018 0.315 0.103
10 0.54 0.028 0.26 0.179
11 0.56 0.042 0.21 0.285 1
12 0.58 0.06 0.168 0.418 fw .........(9)
k w
13 0.6 0.084 0.131 0.562 1 ro
14 0.62 0.113 0.099 0.696 k rw
o
15 0.64 0.149 0.073 0.805
16 0.66 0.194 0.051 0.884
17 0.68 0.247 0.034 0.936
18 0.7 0.31 0.021 0.968
19 0.72 0.384 0.011 0.985
20 0.74 0.47 0.005 0.995
21 0.76 0.57 0.002 0.999
22 0.795 0.78 0 1
J. Trivedi 115
 1
Swf

fwf

0.8 Swf

0.6
fw

0.4

0.2

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
J. Trivedi 116
 Sw2
0.7 .703 .713 .721 .73
1
.766

fw2
0.95

fw2 Sw2
fw

fw2 Sw2

0.9
Sw2

0.85
0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
Sw
J. Trivedi 117
Sw2 Sw2 fw2 Qi Time Np q0 WOR

(Tangent) (fra. PV) (days) (STB) (B/D) (bbl/STB)

0.363 0 0.173 82 27729 338 0

0.665 0.7 0.899 0.337 159.8 54016 34.1 8.9

0.67 0.703 0.913 0.379 179.8 54497 29.4 10.5

0.68 0.713 0.936 0.516 244.7 56100 21.6 14

0.69 0.721 0.953 0.66 313 57392 15.9 20.3

0.7 0.73 0.968 0.938 444.8 58825 10.8 30.3

0.71 0.736 0.977 1.13 535.9 59786 7.8 42.5

0.72 0.741 0.984 1.313 622.6 60972 5.4 61.5

0.73 0.75 0.99 2 948.4 62030 3.4 99

0.74 0.758 0.995 3.6 1707 63312 1.7 199

0.75 0.766 0.997 5.333 2529 64595 1 322.3

J. Trivedi 118
Sw2 Sw2 fw2 Qi Time Np q0 WOR

(Tangent) (fra. PV) (days) (STB) (B/D) (bbl/STB)

0.363 0 0.173 82 27729 338 0

0.665 0.7 0.899 0.337 159.8 54016 34.1 8.9

0.67 0.703 0.913 0.379 179.8 54497 29.4 10.5

0.68 0.713 0.936 0.516 244.7 56100 21.6 14

0.69 0.721 0.953 0.66 313 57392 15.9 20.3

0.7 0.73 0.968 0.938 444.8 58825 10.8 30.3

0.71 0.736 0.977 1.13 535.9 59786 7.8 42.5

0.72 0.741 0.984 1.313 622.6 60972 5.4 61.5

0.73 0.75 0.99 2 948.4 62030 3.4 99

0.74 0.758 0.995 3.6 1707 63312 1.7 199

0.75 0.766 0.997 5.333 2529 64595 1 322.3

J. Trivedi 119
 Sample Calculation for row - 2

Pore Volume = 0.15 * 91.44 * 6.1 * 305 m = 25518.618 m3

or 900000 ft3 or 160284.95 bbl

Swf = 0.665 (Point of tangency to fw curve starting from Swi)

fwf = corresponding y axis = 0.899

Sw2 (3) = average saturation in the reservoir

(tangent at Swf intersecting at fw = 1)
= 0.7
Q(3) = (0.7-0.363)/(1-0) = 0.337 fraction PV
T(3) = (Q(3) * Pore Volume) /qi = (0.337 * 25518.618 m3) / (53.7 m3/d) = 160
days
= (0.337 * 160284.95 bbl) / (338 b/d) = 159.8 days

Np(3) = (0.7 0.363) * 160284.95 = 54016 bbl

qo(3) = (1 fw2) * qi / Bo = (1 0.899) * 338 = 34.1 B/D
J. Trivedi 120
WOR = f / (1 - f ) = 0.899 / (1 0.899) = 8.9 B/D
 Sample Calculation for row - 3

Pore Volume = 0.15 * 91.44 * 6.1 * 305 m = 25518.618 m3

or 900000 ft3 or 160284.95 bbl

Sw2 (3)= 0.67 (first selected saturation point on fw curve)

fw2(3) = corresponding y axis = 0.913

Sw2 (3) = average saturation in the reservoir

(by drawing tangent at Sw2 and getting the intersection at fw = 1)

Q(3) = (0.703-0.67)/(1-0.913) = 0.37931 fraction PV

T(3) = (Q(3) * Pore Volume) /qi = (0.3793 * 25518.618 m3) / (53.7 m3/d) =
180 days
= (0.3793 * 160284.95 bbl) / (338 b/d) = 180 days

Np(3) = (0.703 0.363) * 160284.95 = 54497 bbl

qo(3) = (1 fw2) * qi / Bo = (1 0.916) * 338 = 29.4 B/D
WOR(3) = fw2 / (1 - fw2) = 0.913 / (1J.Trivedi
0.913) = 10.5 B/D 121
 Effect of oil viscosity on fw
Use the relative permeability as shown in Figure to plot the fractional flow curve for
a linear reservoir system with the following properties:

Question : What is the effect of oil viscosity

Perform the calculations for the following values of oil viscosity: 0 = 0.5, 1.0,
5, and 10 cp.

Ref: Reservoir Engineering Handbook, Tarek Ahmed, pp-896

J. Trivedi 122
fw with change in o

J. Trivedi 123
fw with change in o

J. Trivedi 124
 fw with change in dip angle
The linear system in above example is under consideration for a waterflooding
project with a water injection rate of 1000 bbl/day. The oil viscosity is considered
constant at 1.0 cp.
Calculate the fractional flow curve for the reservoir dip angles of 10, 20, and 30,
assuming (a) updip displacement and (b) downdip displacement.

J. Trivedi 125
Result Graph: Fw v/s Sw

J. Trivedi 126
 Summary
The fractional flow equation, as discussed in the
previous section, is used to determine the water cut, fw
at any point in the reservoir, assuming that the water
saturation at the point is known.

The question, however, is how to determine the water

saturation at this particular point.

The answer is to use the frontal advance equation.

The frontal advance equation is designed to determine
the water saturation profile in the reservoir at any
give time during water injection.

J. Trivedi 127
Fractional Flow Equation

J. Trivedi 128
 Topics covered
Effect of o or M on fw
Effect of gravity on fw
Effect of dip angle on fw
Effect of wettability on fw

J. Trivedi 129
In which of the following cases recovery will be higher?

J. Trivedi 130
 fw with change in M or o
The efficiency of a water flood depends greatly on the mobility ratio
(M) of the displacing fluid to the displaced fluid.

The lower this ratio, the more efficient displacement, and the curve is
shifted right. M (Higher) Unfavorable [High o]
M (Lower) Favorable [Lower o]
Ulimate recovery efficiency is obtained if the ratio is so low that the
fractional flow curve has no inflection point, ie. no S-shape.

Typical fractional flow curves for high and low oil viscosities, and thus
high or low mobility ratios, are shown in the figure below.

In addition to the two curves, an extreme curve for perfect

displacement efficiency, so-called piston-like displacement, is included.
J. Trivedi 131
fw with change in o

J. Trivedi 132
J. Trivedi 133
 Effect of oil viscosity on fw
EXAMPLE: Use the relative permeability as shown in Figure to plot the
fractional flow curve for a linear reservoir system with the following
properties:

Question : What is the effect of oil viscosity

Perform the calculations for the following values of oil viscosity: 0 =
0.5, 1.0, 5, and 10 cp.

J. Trivedi 134
Effect of oil viscosity on fw

J. Trivedi 135
fw with change in o

Oil Viscosity decreases

from left to right

J. Trivedi 136
Five-spot saturation profile mobility effect

M=1

1/M = 20

Wang et al.
J. Trivedi 137
Effect of gravity on fw

In a non-horizontal system, with water

injection at the bottom and production at
the top, gravity forces will contribute to a
higher recovery efficiency.

J. Trivedi 138
fw with change in dip angle ()

J. Trivedi 139
 fw with change in dip angle ()
Example : The linear system in above example is under consideration for a
waterflooding project with a water injection rate of 1000 bbl/day. The oil
viscosity is considered constant at 1.0 cp.

Calculate the fractional flow curve for the reservoir dip angles of 10, 20,
and 30, assuming (a) updip displacement and (b) downdip
displacement.

J. Trivedi 140
fw with change in wettability

No inflection point

J. Trivedi 141
 Location(x) of saturation Sw
S w S w ( x, t )
S S
dS w w dx w dt
x t t x

Setting dSw = 0

S w

dx t x Velocity at which the saturation (Sw) moves
through the porous media
dt S w S w

x t

142 J. Trivedi
 Location(x) of saturation Sw

dx qt f w
B-L equation Frontal advance equation
dt Sw A S w t

Calculating saturation profile at particular time (t days after waterflood)

qt t f w
xSw
A S w S For Siw < Sw < Swf
wf
(Interstitial water saturation to breakthrough)

qt t f w For Siw < Sw < 1-Sor

xSw
A S w

Sw
(breakthrough to final saturation)

143 J. Trivedi
The Buckley-Leverett solution

J. Trivedi 144
Using the expression for the front position, and plotting water saturation
vs. distance, we get the following figure:

Clearly, the plot of saturations is showing an

impossible physical situation, since we have
two saturations at each x-position.

J. Trivedi 145
 However, this is a result of the discontinuity in the saturation function,
and the Buckley-Leverett solution to this problem is to modify the plot
by defining a saturation discontinuity at xf and balancing of the areas
ahead of the front and below the curve:

J. Trivedi 146
Areal Sweep Efficiency

J. Trivedi 147
 Macroscopic Displacement of Fluids Sweep
Efficiency Considerations
So far we have considered only one-dimensional flow.

Even in considering the effect of viscous fingering, we averaged out

variations in directions perpendicular to the flow direction.

Such models are very useful in developing an understanding of the

mechanisms involved.

They are also very good for describing the process at a microscopic
scale, i.e. what happens in a very small elementary volume.

However, when you look at the reservoir scale behaviour, there is

considerable non-uniformity in the contact between the displacing
and displaced fluids.

For a variety of reasons, only a fraction of the reservoir volume is

actually contacted by the displacing fluid.
J. Trivedi 148
 Overall Recovery Efficiency
The overall recovery factor (efficiency) RF of any secondary or
tertiary oil recovery method is the product of a combination of
three individual efficiency factors as given by the following
generalized expression:
RF = ED * EA * EV
In terms of cumulative oil production
N P OIP * E D * E A * EV
N P cumulative oil production, STB
OIP initial oil in place at start of the flood, STB
E D Microscipic displacement efficiency;
E A Areal sweep efficiency;
E V Vertical sweep efficiency
N PBT OIP * EDBT * E ABT * EVBT
N PBT cumulative oil production
J. Trivediat breakthrough, STB 149
 Factors Affecting Areal &Vertical Sweep

In areal sweep you are looking at a horizontal plane to see what portion of
the total area has been swept.
In vertical sweep, you are looking at a vertical plane to see what fraction
of the plane has been swept.

Mobility ratio is the most important factor.

EA depends on: When M < 1, the areal sweep is generally high.
1. Well pattern
2. Permeability heterogeneity
3. Mobility ratio
4. Relative importance of capillary, viscous and gravitational forces
5. Volume of fluid injected

Factors Affecting Vertical Sweep (EV)

1. Mobility ratio
2. Density difference
3. kv/kh
4. Capillary forces
5. Vertical variation in permeability
J. Trivedi 150
 (Microscopic) Displacement Efficiency
Microscopic displacement efficiency (ED) is the fraction of movable
oil that has been recovered from the swept zone at any given time.
Mathematically, the displacement efficiency is expressed as:

Volume of oil at start of flood - Remaining oil volume

ED
Volume of oil at start of flood
Soi So
(Pore volume) (Pore volume)
Boi Bo
ED
Soi
(Pore volume)
Boi
Boi S o average oil saturation in the flood pattern at a
S oi S o ED 1 So
S B particular point during the flood
Boi Bo oi o
ED
S oi So
E D 1

Boi S oi Assuming
J. Trivedi constant oil FVF 151
 Displacement Efficiency
Initial oil saturation Soi is given by
S oi 1 S wi S gi
S o 1 S w (in the swept area, gas saturation is considered zero)
S w S wi S gi S w S wi If no gas is present
ED
1 S wi S gi 1 S wi
S w average water saturation in the swept area
S S wi
ED w
S initial gas saturation at the start of flood
gi 1 S wi
S wBT S wi
S initial water saturation at the start of flood
E DBT
wi 1 S wi
E DBT displacement efficiency at breakthrough
SwBT average water saturation at breakthrough

Remember!!! we found S w
and calculated ED
(Recovery factor) & NP
during B-L Method

J. Trivedi 152
 Microscopic Displacement of Fluids

Microscopic efficiency largely determines the success or failure of

any EOR process. For crude oil it is reflected in the magnitude of Sor
( i.e., the residual oil saturation remaining in the reservoir rock at the
end of the process).

J. Trivedi 153
 Example
Initial oil saturation, Soi, is 0.60 and Sor in the swept
region for a typical water flood is 0.30
ED = (Soi Sor) / Soi
ED= ( 0.60 0.30 ) / 0.60
ED=0.50
A typical waterflood sweep efficiency, Evolumetric (or
macroscopic efficiency), at the economic limit is
0.70. Therefore,
E = ED * EA * EV =ED Evolumetric = 0.50 X 0.70 = 0.35

J. Trivedi 154
 Areal Sweep Efficiency
Areal sweep efficiency (EA)is
defined as the fraction of the
total flood pattern that is
contacted by the displacing fluid.
It increases steadily with
injection from zero at the start
of the flood until breakthrough
occurs, after which EA continues
to increase at a slower rate.
EA depends basically on the
following three main factors:
Mobility ratio M Think of a top-view of the reservoir
Flood pattern
Cumulative water injected Winj

J. Trivedi 155
The following figure illustrate the definition
of areal sweep efficiency

Areal contracted by displacing agent

EA
Total
J. Trivedi
area 156
 Viscous Fingering

The mechanics of displacing one fluid with another are

relatively simple if the displaced fluid (oil) has a tendency to
flow faster than the displacing fluid (water).

Under these circumstances, there is no tendency for the

displaced fluid to be overtaken by the displacing fluid and the
fluid fluid (oil-water) interface is stable.

J. Trivedi 157
 Viscous Fingering
If the displacing fluid has a tendency to move faster than
the displaced fluid, the fluid-fluid interface is unstable.
tongues of displacing fluid propagate at the interface.
This process is called viscous fingering.

J. Trivedi 158
 Viscous Fingering
E A - Decreases when the mobility ratio increases because the displacement front
becomes unstable. This phenomena, known as viscous fingering results in an
early breakthrough for the displacing fluid, or into a prolonged injection to
achieve sweep-out. The next figure illustrates this phenomena, which is
commonly observed in solvent flooding.

J. Trivedi 159
Areal Sweep Efficiency

J. Trivedi 160
 Areal Sweep Efficiency

Figure (previous slide) shows that at the start of the flood, the water front
takes on a cylindrical form around the injection point (well).
As a result of the continuous injection, pressure distribution and
corresponding streamlines are developed between the injection and
production wells.
However, various streamlines have different lengths with the shortest
streamline being the direct line between the injector and producer.
The pressure gradient along this line is the highest that causes the
injection fluid to flow faster along the shortest streamline than the other
lines.
The water front gradually begins to deform from the cylindrical form and
cusp into the production well as water breakthrough occurs.

J. Trivedi 161
 Areal Sweep Efficiency
The effect of the mobility ratio on the areal sweep efficiency is
apparent by examining the figure. It shows that at breakthrough,
only 65% of the flood pattern area has been contacted (swept) by
the injection fluid with a mobility ratio of 1.43 and 82.8% when the
mobility ratio is 0.4.

This contacted fraction when water breakthrough occurs is defined

as the areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough, as denoted by EABT.

In general, lower mobility ratios would increase the areal sweep

efficiency and higher mobility ratios would decrease the EA.

Figure also shows that with continued injection after breakthrough,

the areal sweep efficiency continues to increase until it eventually
reaches 100%.

J. Trivedi 162
 Areal Sweep Prediction Methods
Methods of predicting the areal sweep efficiency are essentially
divided into the following three phases of the flood:
Before breakthrough
At breakthrough
After breakthrough

The areal sweep efficiency before breakthrough is simply

proportional to the volume of water injected and is given by:

Winj
EA
( PV )( S wBT S wi )
where,
E A Areal sweep efficiency before breakthrough
Winj cumulative water injected, bbl
(PV) flood pattern pore volume,
J. Trivedi
bbl 163
 Areal Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough
Craig (1955) proposed a graphical relationship that correlates the
areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough EABT with the mobility ratio for
the five spot pattern.
The graphical illustration of areal sweep efficiency as a strong
function of mobility ratio shows that a change in the mobility ratio
from 0.15 to 10.0 would change the breakthrough areal sweep
efficiency from 100 to 50%.
Willhite (1986) presented the following mathematical correlation,
which closely approximates the graphical relationship

Areal Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough

0.03170817 0.30222997
E ABT 0.54602036 M
0.00509693M
M e
where, M Mobility ratio J. Trivedi 164
 Areal Sweep Efficiency After Breakthrough
In the same way that displacement efficiency ED increases after
breakthrough, the areal sweep efficiency also increases due to the
gradual increase in the total swept area with continuous injection.
Dyes et al. (1954) correlated the increase in the areal sweep efficiency
after breakthrough with the ratio of water volume injected at any time
after breakthrough, Winj, to water volume injected at breakthrough, WiBT

Areal Sweep Efficiency after Breakthrough

Winj
E A E ABT 0.633 * log or
WiBT
Winj
E A E ABT 0.2749 * ln
WiBT
where, E A areal sweep efficinecy after breakthrough
Winj cumulative water injected
WiBT cumulative water injected at breakthrough
J. Trivedi 165
Five-Spot Pattern

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Inverted Five-Spot Pattern

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Line-Drive Pattern

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Stagered line-drive

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Four Spot

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Skewed Four spot

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Seven-Spot Pattern

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Well configurations

173
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Well configurations

174
J. Trivedi
 Vertical Sweep Efficiency
The vertical sweep efficiency, EV, is defined as the fraction of the
vertical section of the pay zone that is the injection fluid.
This particular sweep efficiency depends primarily on (a) the
mobility ratio, and (b) total volume injected.
As a consequence of the nonuniform permeabilities, any injected
fluid will tend to move through the reservoir with an irregular
front.
In the more permeable portions, the injected water will travel
more rapidly than in the less permeable zone.
Perhaps the area of the greatest uncertainty in designing a
waterflood is the quantitative knowledge of the permeability
variation within the reservoir.
The degree of permeability variation is considered by far the most
significant parameter influencing the vertical sweep efficiency.
J. Trivedi 175
This figure illustrates the concept of the vertical and
areal sweep efficiency

J. Trivedi 176
 Methods
Displacement Efficiency
1D
B-L / Weldge Method

Vertical Sweep Efficiency Methods

Stiles Method Layered Reservoir
Dykstra Parsons Method Recovery factor R = ED
Johnsons Method

Areal Sweep Efficiency

Willhite (1986) Correlation
Caudle and Witte Method

J. Trivedi 177