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KINETIC THEORY
Derive the force balance equation (Boltzmann equation) that drives the
temporal evolution of f (r, v, t);
Show that low order velocity moments of f (r, v, t) give various important
macroscopic parameters;
Consider the role of collision processes in coupling the charged and neutral
speicies dynamics in a plasma and
Show that low order velocity moments of the Boltzmann equation give
uid equations for the evolution of the macroscopic quantities.
30
r = xi + y j + z k
v = vx i + vy j + vz k
in velocity space. The coordinates (r, v) dene the particle position in phase
space.
For multi-particle systems, we introduce the distribution function f (r, v, t)
for species dened such that
z vz
dz dvz
dx dvy
dy dvx
r v
o o
y vy
x vx
applied to the six dimensional phase space surface S bounding the phase space
volume V enclosing the six dimensional vector eld E.
Now note that conservation of particles requires that the rate of particle ow
over the surface ds bounding the element V plus those generated by collisions
be equal to the rate at which particle phase space density changes with time.
If we let V = (v, a) be the generalized velocity vector for our mathematical
phase space (r, v), then the rate of ow over S into the volume element is
ds. [V f ]
S
.(f V ) = f .V + f .V
we can write
v .(vB)f = (vB).v f (why?)
Moreover, since r and v are independent coordinates, we nally obtain the Boltz-
mann equation
f q f
+ v.r f + (E + vB).v f = (2.5)
t m t coll
with time (f /t) and an additional term v.f that accounts for variations in
f due to the change in location in time (convection) of f to a position where f
has a dierent value. As an example, consider water ow at the outlet of a tap.
The water is moving, but the ow pattern is not changing explicitly with time
(f /t) = 0. However, the velocity of a uid element changes on leaving the tap
due to, for example, the force of gravity. The ow velocity changes in time as the
water falls because the term (v.)v is nonzero. When the tap is turned o, the
ow slows and stops due to (f /t) = 0.
What does df /dt = 0 mean? With reference to Fig 2.2, consider a group of
particles at point A with 2-D phase space density f (x, v). As time passes, the
particles will move to B as a result of their velocity at A and their velocity will
change as a result of forces acting. Since F = F (x, v), all particles at A will be
accelerated the same amount. Since the particles move together, the density at
B will be the same as at A, f can only be changed by collisions.
It is important to understand that x and v are independent variables or co-
ordinates, even though v = dx/dt for a given particle. The reason is that the
particle velocity is not a function of position - it can have any velocity at any
posiiton.
vx
Collisions
B
dx
dvx
A Collisions
In a similar fashion, multiplying the ux by the charge density gives the charge
ux density or current density for a given species
j = qnv = q (2.15)
vr vr = 0 = (2.19)
2 = v 2 = v 2 /3
= vr (2.20)
r r
vy
Drifting Maxwellian
Beam
vx
vy
Anisotropic
distribution
vx
If we dene 1/2
2kB T
vth = (2.26)
m
then
n v2
fM (v) = exp 2 . (2.27)
vth vth
If we follow this analysis through in 3-D we nd
n v2
fM (v) = exp 2
(2.28)
( vth )3 vth
Relation to pressure
The pressure is also a second moment quantity, so that it wil not be surprising
to nd it related to temperature in the case of a Maxwellian distribution. It is
instructive to review the concept of plasma pressure using a simple minded model
and show how the result relates to that obtained using distribution functions.
Consider the imaginary plasma container shown in Fig. 2.4. The number of
particles hitting the wall from a given direction per second is nAv/2 (only half
contribute). The momentum imparted to the wall per collision is mv (mv) =
2mv so that the force (rate of change of momentum) is F = (2mv)(nAv/2) and
the pressure is p = F/A = nmv 2 per velocity component. The energy per degree
of freedom is 12 mv 2 = 12 kB T so that p = nkB T
That is, the electrons and ions contribute equally to the plasma pressure!
Explanation:
By equipartition, 12 mi vthi
2
= 12 me vthe
2
so that vthe = vthi mi /me whereupon the
momenta imparted per collision are related by me vthe = mi vthi me /mi . Note
however, that the collison rate for electrons is mi /me faster.
If we use distribution functions, we obtain for a Maxwellian
3
Ur = Eav = kB T [Eq. (2.34)]
2
2
p = nUr [Eq (2.22)]
3
40
where
1
v
dv | v | fM (v)
n 0
1/2
8kB T
= (Maxwellian) (2.39)
m
is the mean speed of the particles. The ux in a given direction is thus non-zero.
Question: Why doesnt the plasma vessel melt?
where now
n n(r, t)
T T (r, t)
depend on the spatial coordinates and time. fLM can be shown to satisfy the
Boltzmann equation. Though each species in a plasma is characterised by its
own distribution function, the time evolution of these distributions are coupled
by collisions between the species and the self-consistent electric eld that arises
through particle diusion.
where ne0 is the electron density in the zero potential region and the exponential
term is known as the Boltzmann factor. Substituting from Eq. (2.28) we have
mv 2 /2 + e
fe (r, v) = A exp = A exp (E/kB Te ) (2.44)
kB Te
where E is the sum of the kinetic and potential components of the electron
energy. The expression indicates that only the fastest electrons can overcome
the potential barrier and enter regions of negative potential. In other words,
the electron density (zeroth moment of fLM ) is depleted in regions where the
electric potential is negative. We shall visit this concept again in relation to the
electric sheath that is established at the boundary between a plasma and a wall
in Chapter 3.
2.6 Quasi-neutrality
In Chapter 1 we introduced a number of fundamental concepts and criteria that
characterise the plasma state. In this and the following two sections we apply the
tools of kinetic theory to obtain a more rigorous treatment of Debye shielding,
plasma oscillations and collision phenomena.
The potential at a distance r from an isolated positive test charge Q is
Q
= . (2.45)
40 r
When immersed in a plasma Q attracts negative charge and repels positive ions.
As a result, the number density of ions and electrons will vary slightly around Q
but will be in charge balance for large r (i.e. ne = ni for Z = 1).
The eect of this screening will be to exponentially damp over a distance
comparable to the Debye length
= exp (r/D )
.E = /0 , E = 2 = /0 .
en0 Q
2 (r) [exp (e/kB Te ) 1] = (r).
0 0
Q
= exp (r/D ). (2.46)
40 r
Noting that
Thus neutralization of the test particle takes place on account of the imbalance
of charged particles in the Debye sphere.
Check: e/kB Te 1 (range of validity)
e e2
= exp (r/D )
kB Te 40 rkB Te
D exp (r/D )
=
3 r
1 for r > D / (2.48)
f f qE f
+v + = 0. (2.49)
t x m v
Figure 2.6: The contributions (i) and (ii) noted in the text [3]
where we have truncated the series after the two most signicant terms (the terms
containing even powers of v are zero by the antisymmetry of the integrand). These
integrals can be evaluated by parts and substituted into Eq. (2.56) to obtain
2
pe 3k 2 2
1= 2 1+ 2 v
where we have made use of the denition of the mean square particle speed and
ignored the contribution from the singularity. For f0 Maxwellian, we have
1 2 1
mv = kB T
2 2
and the above can be solved for 2 in terms of k 2 to obtain (show this)
3kB T 2
2 pe
2
+ k . (2.58)
m
This is the so-called Bohm-Gross dispersion relation for electron plasma waves
(or Langmuir waves). The inclusion of nite electron temperature has contributed
2.7 Kinetic Theory of Electron Waves 47
Treating the imaginary part (damping term) as small, and neglecting the thermal
correction, we can use Taylors theorem and rearrange to obtain (Prove this
result)
2
pe f0
= pe 1 + i (2.63)
2 k 2 v /k
Now consider electrons at the potential energy peak moving with velocity
slightly faster than the phase velocity of the wave. These electrons will be accel-
erate, sacricing potential for kinetic energy. Those particles in the trough will
be decelerated. However, there are more particles in the trough than at the peak,
so the net eect is deceleration and the electrons give energy to the wave.
This argument can be inverted, however, by considering electrons moving
slightly slower than the wave. The net eect is opposite: the wave gives energy
to the electrons. There is remaining, however, a fundamental asymmetry in that
there are more particles moving slower than the wave velocity vph than going
faster due to the slope of the distribution function. Thus, overall, there is a net
loss of energy by the wave which is damped and a corresponding modication of
the distribution function around v = vph . There is no dissipation inherent in the
process. However, collisions will cause the perturbed distribution to relax back
to Maxwellian in the absence of a source for the wave excitation which could
maintain the perturbation.
2.8 Collision Processes 49
The model is not very good if the masses of the species are very dierent.
= 0 exp (x/mfp )
1
mfp = (2.68)
nn
50
Area A n atoms/cm3
Incoming particle
dx x
Figure 2.8: Particles moving from the left and impinging on a gas undergo colli-
sions.
where mfp is the mean free path for collisions characterised by the cross-section
. The physics of the interaction is carried by , the rest is geometry.
The mean free time between collisions, or collision time for particles of ve-
locity v is = mfp /v and the collision frequency is = 1 = v/mfp = nn v.
Averaging over all of the velocities in the distribution gives the average collision
frequency
= nn v (2.69)
where we have allowed for the fact that can be energy dependent as we shall
see below.
qQ C
F = 2
2 (2.70)
40 r r
This is a long range force and the cross-section for inetraction of isolated charges
is innity! It is quite dierent from elastic hard-sphere encounters such as
that which can occur between electrons and neutrals for example. In a plasma,
however, the Debye shielding limits the range of the force so that an eective
cross-section can be found. Nevertheless, because of the nature of the force, the
most frequent Coulomb deections result in only a small deviation of the particle
path before it encounters another free charge. To produce an eective 90 scat-
tering of the particle (and hence momentum transfer) requires an accumulation
of many such glancing collisions. The collision cross-section is then calculated by
the statistical analysis of many such small-angle encounters.
2.8 Collision Processes 51
Consider the force Eq. (2.70) on an electron as it follows the unperturbed path
shown in Fig. 2.9 In this picture, only the perpendicular component matters
because the parallel compoent of the force reverses direction after q passes Q.
Thus F /F = b/r or
cb
F = Cb/r 3 = 2
(x + b2 )3/2
where b is the impact parameter for the interaction. Since x (the parallel coordi-
nate) changes with time, we integrate along the path to obtain the net perpen-
dicular impulse delivered to q
dx dt
(mv ) = F dt = cb
(x2 + b2 )3/2 dx
x Unperturbed path
q
Impact b
parameter F
Q
Now
dx x
=
(x2 + b2 )3/2 b2 (x2
+ b2 )1/2
1/b2 x
2
1/b x
so that
2c
v =. (2.71)
mvb
We consider a statistical average over a random distribution of such small
angle collisions. For a random
walk with step length s, the total displacement
after N steps is s = N s (i.e. (s)2 = (s)2 ) where N is the number of
steps. The total change in velocity is thus
(v )2 = N(v )2 . (2.72)
52
Now integrate over the range of impact parameters b to estimate the number of
glancing collisions in time t. Small angle colisions are much less likely because of
the geometrical eect
N(b) = n(2bdb)vt. (2.73)
We combine equations (2.71), (2.72) and (2.73) and integrate over impact param-
eter:
2 8nC 2 t bmax db
(v ) = . (2.74)
m2 v bmin b
bmin is the closest approach that satises the small deection hypothesis. We
obtain this be setting v = v
2c 2qQ
bmin = = . (2.75)
mv 2 40 mv 2
Outside D the charge Q is not felt. We thus take bmax = D and
bmax
db D
= ln = ln .
bmin b bmin
8nc2 t
(v )2 = v 2 = ln
m2 v
and
8nq 2 Q2 ln
90 = 1/t = .
16 220 m2 v 3
For electron-ion encounters, q = e and Q = Ze so
ni Z 2 e4 ln
90ei ei = (2.76)
220 m2 v 3
and ei = ni ei v implies that
Z 2 e4 ln
ei = (2.77)
220 m2 v 4
Lets review this derivation
v0 V0
Before
m M
v V
After
Figure 2.10: Collison between ion and electron in centre of mass frame.
For glancing collisions the energy transfer between ions and electrons is even less.
Coulomb collisions result in very poor energy transfer between electrons and
ions. The rate of energy transfer is roughly (me /mi ) slower than the e-i collision
frequency . On the other hand, energy transfer rate and collision frequency are
the same for collisions between ions ii ei me /mi :
1/2 3/2 1/2
ii m2 v 3 me me ve2 me
= e2 e3 = = for Te = Ti
ei mi vi mi mi vi2 mi
m1 v1 = m2 v2
1 1
m1 v12 + m1 v12 = 17.6 MeV
2 2
2.8 Collision Processes 55
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer respectively to the -particle and the neutron.
Eliminating v1 gives
1 m2
m2 v22 1 + = 17.6 MeV.
2 m1
Substituting m2 /m1 = 1/4 shows that 14.1 MeV is carried by the neutron which
escapes the conning magnetic eld to deliver useful energy elsewhere. The fast
(3.5 MeV) is conned by the magnetic eld where it delivers its energy to the
deuterium and tritium ions.
For the D-T reaction in a high temperature plasma with n 1 1020 m3
and 1029 m2 at 100 keV where v 5 106 m/s, the mean free path for a
fusion collision is
1
mfp = = 109 m
n
and = mfp /v 200 s. In other words, D and T have to be conned for 200
s and travel a million km without hitting the container walls! The situation is
mitigated by the fact that 17.6 MeV
10 keV so that not all particles need to
fuse in order to achieve a net energy gain.
mv 2 e2
F = = .
r 40 r 2
The kinetic energy of the electron is 12 mv 2 = e2 /(80 r) and the potential en-
ergy is e2 /(40r) so that the total energy of the atomic system is KE+PE =
e2 /(80 r) (it is a bound system).
Given that electrons are bound in states having de Broglie wavelength satis-
fying n = 2r, we may obtain for the energies of the bound states
En = 13.6 eV/n2 n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(To see this, we write nh = hkr = mvr, or r = nh/mv and substitute into the
expression for the kinetic energy to obtain r = (n2 /Z)a0 where a0 is the Bohr
radius. This is nally subsituted into the expression for the total energy of the
atom.) It is clear that the energy required to ionize the H atom is 13.6 eV and
to excite from the ground state is E2 E1 = 10.2 eV. Photons of these energies
reside in the deep ultarviolet of the spectrum. Since the photon energy is used
to disrupt a bound system, this is an inelastic process.
56
Figure 2.11: The electron impact ionization cross-section for hydrogen as a func-
tion of electron energy. Note the turn-on at 13.6 eV. [2]
The cross-section falls for energies greater than 100 eV since the electron does
not spend much time in the vicinity of the atom. The cross section, averaged
over the distribution of electron velocities, can be used to estimate the electron
mean free path for a given neutral density. Again this is an inelastic process.
At low energies, the released electron energy is less than the work function and it
cannot escape. At intermediate energies we can have > 1 (gain). The shape of
the plot of secondary emission coecient (number of electrons emitted for each
incident electron) versus incident energy is similar for all materials. Because of
the mass dierence, electrons have low probability of ejecting atoms.
Figure 2.12: Electron secondary emission for normal incidence on a typical metal
surface [2]
where we have used Eq. (2.14) and dened u as the uid velocity. The term
involving E in the third integral vanishes:
f
E. dv = .(f E)dv = f E.dS = 0 (2.86)
v v S
where the surface S is the v-space surface at v . The rst step is valid
because E is independent of v while the second is an application of Gauss vector
integral theorem. This last integral vanishes because f vanishes faster than v 2
(area varies as 4v 2 ) as v (i.e. nite energy system). The vB component
can be written
f
(vB). dv = .(f vB)dv f (vB)dv = 0 (2.87)
v v v
The second term can be transformed to a surface integral which again vaishes at
innity. Because /v and vB are mutually perpendicular, the second right
hand term also vanishes. Finally, the 4th term of Eq. (2.83) vanishes because
collisions cannot change the number of particles (at least for warm plasmas,
where recombination can be ignored). The nal result is
n
+ .(nu) = 0 (2.88)
t
which expresses conservation of particles . Multiplying by m or q yields conser-
vation of mass or charge.
2.9 Fluid Equations 59
Note that taking the zeroth moment of the Boltzmann equation has intro-
duced a higher order moment u the rst velocity moment of f . Its description
will require taking the rst order moment of the Boltzmann equation. As we shall
see, this will in turn generate second order moments and so on. This is known
as the closure problem. At some stage, the sequence must be terminated by
some reasonable procedure. Usually this is eected by setting the third velocity
moment of f (describing the thermal conductivity) to zero.
Pressure tensor
The elements of the pressure tensor are dened by Eq. (2.16) such that Pij =
mnvi vj . For an isotropic Maxwellian distribution,
p 0 0
P= 0 p 0
(2.91)
0 0 p
and . P = P where P = mnvr2 /3 = nkT is the scalar pressure. In the
presence of a magnetic eld, isotropy can be lost and the species may assume
distict temperatures along and across the magnetic eld so that p = nkT and
p = nkT with
p 0 0
P = 0 p 0
0 0 p
where it is customary to take the z direction to conincide with the direction of
B. Note that the pressure is still isotropic in the plane normal to B.
60
The left hand side terms represent the change of energy density with time and the
energy ow across the surface bounding the volume element of interest. The sum
of these two terms equals the electric power dissipated in the plasma plus any
energy that might be generated per unit time through collisions. The magnetic
eld does no work because it always acts in a direction perpendicular to the
particle velocity.
The equation can be dramatically simplied under the assumption that the
distribution function is a drifting Maxwellian (v = u + vr where v r is the random
or thermal velocity component) and provided collisions do not create new par-
ticles (ionization) or change the temperature (thermal conductivity = 0). This
corresponds to a system undergoing adiabatic changes (no heat ow). The second
moment equation then becomes the equation of state:
dp 5p
= (2.95)
dn 3n
On integration this gives
p = p0 n5/3 . (2.96)
2.9 Fluid Equations 61
Problems
Problem 2.1 A chamber of volume 0.5 m3 is filled with hydrogen at a pressure of
10 Pa at room temperature (20 . Calculate
(b) the mass of the gas in the chamber (proton mass = 1.67 1027 kg)
(e) the energy in Joules required to heat the gas to 100,000 K, given that it takes 2
eV to dissociate a H2 molecule into H atoms and 13.6 eV to ionize each atom.
Assume that Te = Ti and that the plasma is fully ionized.
(g) the RMS speeds of the ions and electrons when Te = Ti = 105 K
(h) The electron plasma frequency pe , Debye length D , number of particles in the
Debye sphere ND and the ion-electron collision frequency ei .
Problem 2.2 In the two dimensional phase space (x, v), show the trajectory of
a particle at rest, moving with constant velocity, accelerating at a constant rate,
executing simple harmonic motion and damped simple harmonic motion.
2.9 Fluid Equations 63
Problem 2.3 For any distribution f which is isotropic about its drift velocity v,
prove that
vr vr = vr2 /3
where is the Kronecker delta
Problem 2.5 Calculate the cross-section 90 for an electron Coulomb collsion with
an ion which results in at least a 90 deflection of the electron from its initial trajectory.
(HINT: This cross-section is b2 where b is the maximum impact parameter for such
a collision). Show that the ratio ei /90 = 2loge where ei is the collsion cross
section calculated in the notes for multiple small angle Coulomb collisions. Comment
on the significance of this result.
Problem 2.6 Consider the motion of charged particles, in one dimension only, in
an electric potential (x). Show, by direct substitution, that a function of the form
f = f (mv 2 /2 + q) is a solution of the Boltzmann equation under steady state
conditions.
Problem 2.9 The entropy of a system can be expressed in terms of the distribution
function as
S = k dr dv f f
Show that the total time derivative of the entropy for a system which obeys the
collisionless Boltzmann equtaion is zero.