26th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition

QUALITY CONTROL OF PV-MODULES IN THE FIELD

USING INFRARED-THERMOGRAPHY

Claudia Buerhop*, Dominik Schlegel*, C. Vodermayer**, Monika Nie**

*ZAE Bayern e.V.

Am Weichselgarten 7, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
Tel.: +49 (0)9131-691297, Fax: +49 (0)9131-691181
Email: buerhop@zae.uni-erlangen.de

**BEC-Engineering GmbH
An der Leiten 39, 85662 Ottersberg, Germany
Tel.: +49 (0)8121-884567-0, Fax: +49 (0)8121-884567-88
Web: http://www.bec-engineering.de/ Email: info@bec-engineering.de

ABSTRACT: Detecting hot spots in photovoltaic (PV) generators using infrared (IR) imaging has become a valuable
tool in the last years. Identifying faulty or defect PV-modules in large PV-generators with IR thermography is a cost
and time saving method to evaluate PV plants under operating conditions. In the course of this evaluation 16 different
PV-plants with crystalline modules, of different operating time, were investigated. Additionally, about 260 modules
have been dismantled and analyzed regarding electroluminescence, IR thermography applying an external current and
power measurements. All defects like short-circuited cells, faulty soldering, bypassed substrings and cell fractures
could be visualized. It was demonstrated that the detected defects show an observable impact on the resulting module
temperature, the IV curve and the power output. One major part of this study was to evaluate the correlation between
temperature increase and power reduction. Furthermore, at selected PV plants the importance and reliability of IR
overview scans has been proved, by verifying that all modules or cells with increased temperature show significantly
reduced power output. Then, aging effects of single pre-damagedmodules could be documented by using IR
imaging and a first correlation between the age of PV-plants and the number of defects can be presented.
Keywords: IR-imaging, operating conditions, failure mechanisms.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 FAST CHARACTERIZATION OF 2500 PV-

In recent years investors, proprietors and contractors
of PV-plants began to appreciate the benefit of IR-
mapping PV-modules and plants. Hot cell areas were
visible in IR-images and indicated irregularities which
were probably due to a defect in the module [1-4]. The
origin of such located hot spots and especially their
impact on the module performance had not been
investigated adequate. For this reason the aim of this
work was the validation of the quality control of
installed, crystalline PV-modules using IR-imaging under
operating conditions. Further inspections focused on
installed modules [5-7] and on systems [7, 8]. The
systematic examination of different types of defects can
be used to get a better understanding of the correlation
between specific module defects, reduced yield and IR
images.
The following points are summarizing the objectives
of these examinations:
The detection of installed defective and reduced-yield
PV-modules during operation with an IR-camera; the
main question is whether all PV modules with
thermal irregularities are defective.
The influence of the thermal irregularities of the PV-
module on its actual performance. What kind of
defect or damage exists?
The verification, whether the IR imaging technique is
able to detect damaged and reduced-yield PV-
modules at high hit rates and reliability?
MODULES UNDER OPERATION CONDITIONS
This investigation was focused on modules with
mono- and polycrystalline solar cells. 15 roof mounted
PV-generators with peak powers from 5 kWp up to
75 kWp under normal operating conditions were
investigated, which means that IR-data from 2569 PV-
modules were recorded and evaluated. Standard,
commercially available bolometer cameras were used for
the field investigations.
In addition, one large-scale field PV-plant consisting
of 15400 PV-modules was mapped in terms of IR-
overview scans. In order to take the images under optimal
optical conditions almost perpendicular to the module
surface, mobile platforms were used. The selected plants
had an operation time between 0.5 and 6 years. Out of the
total amount of modules, 256 PV-modules were removed
and additional investigations for further characterization
were performed in the laboratory in detail, by using dark
IR-thermography, Electroluminescence (EL) imaging,
and IV-characteristics. In these detailed measurements,
power measurement with a pulsed solar simulator
(flasher) under STC (standard test conditions) conditions
were done to determine the rated output power of the
modules. In a next step the modules were connected with
an external power supply, for high-resolution IR-
measurements in the laboratory and to create EL images
of the modules.

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 26th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition
3 TYPICAL INFRARED OVERVIEW OF A PV-
PLANT WITH MALFUNCTIONING MODULES
The resulting IR overview scans typically display
numerous PV-modules of a PV plant where irregularities
in the temperature distribution are clearly visible. Usual
anomalies are one cell or several cells or even entire
substrings with increased temperature levels, the detected
hot spot areas are rarely smaller than the respective cell
size, see Figure 1. The investigations shows that the
regions of increased temperature are mainly due to short-
circuited cells, cells with open solder joints, fractured
cells, and by-passed substrings. If cells appear at a lower
temperature level compared to the neighbor cells, this is
due to delamination effects, which will not be discussed
here.
Figure 1: IR overview image of a roof-mounted PV
generator revealing malfunctioning modules,
environmental conditions: Ta 16 C, E 770 W/m.
Figure 1 shows a typical IR overview image of a roof-
mounted PV plant under real operating conditions with
different possible failure types of modules. Five modules
show irregular heating of various cells. Module 4.14
(nomenclature: first number describes the row from the
top, second number the column beginning from the left)
shows a by-passed substring and an overheated bypass-
diode on the left side of the module. The modules 2.11
and 6.15 respectively show a single heated cell due to cell
fracture. Module 1.12 has several heated cells due to
diverse fractures of almost all cells in this module.
4 CORRELATION BETWEEN TEMPERATURE
INCREASE AND POWER REDUCTION
Short-circuited cells usually show a temperature
increase of about (1.2 0.4) C compared to unaffected,
adjacent cells. The actual working point depends on the
number of hot-wired cells. Although the current at
maximum power point is only affected very slightly
Impp = -0.067 A/cell, the voltage at maximum power point
is shifted considerably V mpp = -0.14 V/cell. Measuring
the IV characteristic of modules having short circuited
cells reveals that the series resistance is increased and the
parallel resistance is decreased. Therefore, a
displacement of the IV curve occurs. As a result the
yielding output power reduces with the number of
concerned cells around P = -2.84 W/cell.
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Considerable influence of faulty soldering on the
module performance was observed for a particular solar
cell type, which has two separate grids on one wafer.
Faulty soldering includes typical features like micro
cracks, solder bridging, lifted leads, displaced solder
joints and open or missing joints. Here, open solder joints
cause a temperature increase of about (12.5 3.6) C.
The quantitative analysis of modules with an increasing
number of cells with the correspondent defect yields a
decreasing fill factor and a decreasing module power as
well as an increasing series resistance. The experimental
data indicate a power reduction of about P = -6.0 W/cell
and a change of the fill factor of approx.
FF = -2.7 %/cell.
For by-passed substrings a temperature increase of
T = (4 2) C is a characteristic value with respect to
unaffected, adjacent cells. Because the by-passed
substring does not contribute to the module voltage, the
module output power is reduced respectively.
The most common failure mechanisms observed and
documented elsewhere are micro cracks and cell
fractures. For such modules the temperature difference
to neighbor cells ranges from 2.5 C up to 45 C
depending on the various parameters, like number of cells
in series, size of broken fragments. Thus, even higher
temperatures can arise locally and exceed a critical
temperature and harm the module. Kntges [9] even
related this failure due to mechanical stress with the
module power. The impact of cell fracture on the module
power increases with the size of the fragment.
5 VALIDATION OF THE RELIABILITY OF IR-
SCANS BY INVESTIGATING COMPLETE PV-
PLANTS
In order to examine the reliability of the IR-scan, one PV-
plant consisting of 156 modules with a rated peak power of
165 W each was dismounted completely and all modules
were analyzed in the laboratories. Different failure
mechanisms have different impact on the module power.
Power classes less than 120 W indicate modules with
bypassed substrings. The others comprise modules with
fracture of one or more cells. The size of the fragments
determines the impact on the output power. Figure 2
shows the frequency of the power classes of all modules
and additionally the power of the modules which showed
up in the IR-scan. Because this investigation is very time-
consuming, further analyses are limited to more practical
stratified random samples, see Figure 3.
 26th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition
Figure 2: Relative frequency of measured power output
of PV-modules with nominal power of 165 W and 6
years of operation. Recorded are all 156 modules of the
plant and additionally the 29 modules, which showed up
in the IR-scan. Modules in the classes up to 95 W and
until 110 W have a bypassed-substring. The others
consist of one or more hot cells which are due to cell
fracture.
The comparison of the power of the modules, which
are outstanding in the IR image and those which are not,
yields that all modules with poor power output and
several failures can be detected and localized reliably
using IR-imaging.
Figure 3: Relative frequency of measured power output
of PV-modules with nominal power of 160 W and 6
years of operation. Recorded are 39 modules which
correspond to one quarter of the modules of the plant and
additionally the 21 modules, which showed up in the IR-
scan. Here, the detected modules have cells with faulty
soldering.
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6 INCREASE OF THE FRACTION OF DEFECTIVE
MODULES ACCORDING TO THE OPERATING
TIME
Finally, Figure 4 reveals that older PV plants have
probably more defective modules than newer ones. The
reasons may be multifaceted: better technology, higher
quality of new modules or increase of failure and
degradation of older modules.
Figure 4: Fraction of outstanding modules in the IR
scans of the investigated plants of different age.
Also, aging effects of modules can be visualized by using
IR imaging. In Figure 5 the temporal modification and
resulting degradation of one module is presented
exemplarily. The IR scan on the left side shows that, in
2009, only a single cell with an elevated temperature is
visible in the marked module. One year later, in 2010, the
entire substring is bridged by the bypass diode, which
also heats up. This may be due to the fact that the
fracturing of this particular pre-stressed cell becomes
stronger. Passing a certain threshold drives this cell into a
consumer regime. In order that damaging of the cell and
the module and total power loss of the module will be
avoided, the bypass diode bridges that specific substring,
now. Accordingly, the by-passed substring reduces the
module voltage Voc, by approx. one quarter. The heavily
used bypass diode on the left side of the module heats up,
too.
IR-Scan 18.06.2009 IR-Scan 08.04.2010
Figure 5: IR imaging of aging effects of the marked
module of the examined plant, environmental conditions
2009: Ta 29 C, E 1000 W/m and 2010: Ta 18 C,
E 690 W/m
 26th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition
7 CONCLUSION
In the course of the investigations of the PV plants
during operation conditions, all severely affected
modules with significant reduced power output could be
identified and located clearly. It can be said that modules
showing one or more exceptionally heated cells in an IR
image are always damaged. Even PV modules with no
existing power reduction at the present moment but very
small defect areas can be located by using IR cameras.
By evaluating the collected data, the PV modules with
the lowest output power are detected with high certainty.
Also the influence of different defects or damages of
a PV module on its actual performance was considered.
Therefore different kinds of defects or damages were
examined, as the origin of exceptionally high
temperatures in various modules can be manifold.
Commonly, bypassed substrings as well as broken and
fractured cells, open solder joints, and short-circuited
cells are identified as irregular heat sources. A correlation
between the quantity of defect cells and their type of
defect on the output power of PV modules has been
shown.
In a third step it was verified that the IR imaging
technique is able to detect all damaged and reduced-yield
PV modules and that this technique can classify the
maximum occurring temperatures of the module areas.
Depending on the failure mechanism the measured
temperature increase compared to adjacent, regular cells
ranges from 1 C up to 45 C. The IV characteristics of
these malfunctioning modules show a significant impact
on electrical data.
Further, aging effects of single modules can be
visualized and recorded by using IR imaging. This
method allows the detection of defects or damages at an
early stage, so that yield decreases or even system
failures can be avoided.
For a more detailed analysis it is recommended to
examine more PV plants with different parameters, to
quantify the relationship between temperature increase
and power loss of PV-modules in a more reliable way.
8 ACKNOWLEGEMENT
The authors thank Prof. Weimann for fruitful
discussions. This work was supported by the German
Federal Foundation for the Environment (Deutsche
Stiftung Umwelt (DBU)).
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