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Design of a prototype braking

simulator
D.F. Moore*

This paper describes the fundamental design aspects and subsequent develop-
ment of an elaborate laboratory rig for the accurate measurement of braking
system performance. It consists of a fully-instrumented moving stainless steel
belt assembly with superimposed texture passing over end pulleys and driven
by a variable speed motor. The test wheel forms part of a test axle having
torsional strain gauges, a partial drum brake, a slip-ring assembly, a rotational
accelerometer unit, a speed sensor and a variable-inertia disc mounted in line.
The simulator permits as many as ten variables to be preset independently
prior to or during any test run. The rig can be used to simulate hydroplaning
behaviour and to test tread pattern design, and also to evaluate the effective-
ness of locked-wheel, constant slip and anti-skid pulsed braking systems. The
entire wheel support system can be removed if desired, and a second super-
structure substituted to evaluate the high-speed friction and wear behaviour
of tread rubber and plastic block samples

This paper is concerned with the design and development of


a high-speed friction machine to simulate the dynamic
friction performance of tyres and elastomeric block samples
under dry and lubricated conditions. The broad layout of
the original version of the machine is shown in Fig 1. A
rectangular mild steel framework mounted on a wooden
platform serving as a base for the machine supports the
rotor and belt assemblies as shown. In the earlier design
illustrated in this figure, the rotors consisted of hollow mild
steel cylinders rolled from 9.5 mm thick steel plate and
seam welded on both sides, with superimposed 420 mm
diameter mild steel discs welded in position. Precision
machining and careful location of the centre of rotation
of the fabricated rotors were required to minimise high-
speed unbalance. The planes for the addition of final
balancing masses were provided by aluminium discs bolted
firmly to the sides of each rotor and containing circum-
ferential grooves for angular positioning of the correction
masses.
The stainless steel belt which passes over the rotors as a
continuous surface contains the required surface texture
in the form of sandpaper strips cemented to the outer belt
surface. The belt is also supplied with tracking ropes
cemented longitudinally to its underside surface and
Fig 1 Side view o f high-speed friction tester during
meshing with rubber hose guides attached circumferenti-
construction
ally to the curved surface of each rotor. These guide ropes
prevent transverse movement of the band on the rotor rotors is supported by a specially-designed air-bearing
surfaces during rotation. The amount of pre-stretch in the having three compartments and with separate pressure
rubber hose rings and the particular bonding adhesive used gauges and throttle controls mounted on a control panel.
were both carefully selected to eliminate the possibility of A pneumatic tensioner which consists of a pair of rubber-
separation and of loosening at the higher rotor speeds. tyred wheels on a common axle loaded against the slack
Selection of the belt material itself was made on the basis belt underside is required to maintain uniform belt tension
of initially comparing the relative performance of mild irrespective of speed.
steel, nylon, rubber and stainless steel in terms of thickness
The friction sample consisting of a 25 mm cube of elasto-
required, centrifugal force, radial deflection, corrosion
resistance etc. The upper flat portion of the belt between meric material is loaded pneumatically against the stainless
steel belt at its upper flat portion, and the resulting fric-
*Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College, tional force due to belt rotation is resisted by a restraining
Dublin, Eire and Director, In ternational Mechanical arm as shown in the figure. The loading cylinder is
Consultants Ltd mounted on a superstructure which permits three-dimen-

0301-679X/80/040159-06 $02.00 1980 IPC Business Press TRIBOLOGY international August 1980 159
Moore - Design o f a p r o t o t y p e braking s i m u l a t o r

sional motion of the sample: lateral, longitudinal and The remaining diagl:ams in Fig 2 indicate a systematic
vertical. Thus, lateral positioning of the loading assembly progression from what might be described as minimal to
will permit the frictional interface between elastomer maximum rigidity as parallelogram, collar-sliding and
sample and track to occupy a fixed bandwidth, and the roller assembly mechanisms are considered in turn. The
corresponding air compartment is appropriately activated present design incorporates a prototype version of the
with compressed air. Both friction force and normal load roller assembly mechanism seen in Fig 1.
are obtained from strain gauges and displayed in the
original design on an X - Y plotter. Pneumatic circuitry
For lubricated conditions, water or other lubricant is pumped Compressed air at 0.55 MN/m 2 pressure is supplied by a
via a centrifugal pump to a spray nozzle in the form of a slit compressor specially installed within the Tribology
mounted in front of the elastomeric test piece, and a Laboratory to supply four separate pneumatic circuits.
galvanised shroud (shown in Fig 1) is utilized to collect the Fig 3 shows the entire pneumatic circuitry. In the original
excess spray and feed it by gravity to a lubricant reservoir design as a high-speed friction tester for elastomeric block
mounted beneath one of the rotors. A heating element with samples, the following three circuits were utilised:
thermostatic control in the reservoir permits the lubricant Air-bearing
temperature to be varied at will. Pneumatic tensioner
Pneumatic loading
The air-bearing is an elaborate three-compartment design
Special features with its own flow regulators and pressure gauges mounted
The overall design permits as many as ten variables to be on a display panel at the side of the machine. Details of
preset independently in any frictional test: the structure of the bearing are not provided in this article
Belt speed for reasons of brevity. The bearing is mounted in a trans-
Roughness, or belt texture verse tray with levelling screws for varying its effective
Belt track position height with respect to the underside of the belt. Both the
Pneumatic loading pneumatic tensioner and the loading cylinder for the test
Interface pressure sample incorporate 4-way valves for manual loading and
Lubricant film thickness unloading together with regulators and pressure gauges.
Lubricant viscosity Fig 4 is a three-quarter view of the completed tester show-
Lubricant temperature ing in particular the various pneumatic controls mounted
Sliding block material on a control panel at one end of the machine.
Sliding block temperature
Preheating of the elastomeric block material is accom-
Measuringfriction force with strain gouges
plished by embedding heating elements during the moulding
phase, and temperature is then recorded by thermocouples
(also embedded during moulding) and displayed initially
or continuously during a test (in the latter case, there will R2A
be an increase due to frictional heating). Lubricant viscosity
and temperature are independently varied within the
reservoir by the use of additives and a heating element
Load cell, or
respectively. Pneumatic loading is independent of inter- strain gougemodule
face pressure by altering the size of the block sample and/or RIB R2B
introducing a surface texture into the slider itself during
the moulding phase. Typicalstraingaugebridge
A particular feature of the design is the wear-compensation,
self-adjusting mechanism incorporated in the restraining arm.
Measuring
with
normal
load ~_ RIA~
straingauges R~B
Resistors

Fig 2 indicates the principle of operation of the device.


In the first place, it is essential to measure frictional force
by a transducer placed only within the plane of friction, TO pneumatic T
as shown in the upper sketch of Fig 2. This is possible for load c' finder
R2A
a laboratory machine by the offset linkage shown, and it is
thereby assured that the static loading on the friction \/ Resistors
sample is identical with the dynamic loading which is
effective when sliding of the belt takes place. It is essential
that the offset linkage remains entirely rigid, since the r..

occurrence of bending and deflection would defeat its


-- Block holder
purpose.
_.~i- - "~ R,A R,B
The wear compensation device adjusts the distance h to
allow for wear of the elastomeric sample during any test , R=;'
run and in such a manner that the point of support is Elastomerblock
always an extension of the plane of friction. Indeed, for
dry belt conditions in the case of an abrasive sandpaper
texture, severe wear at high speeds may occur in a matter t

of seconds or less. It is therefore necessary to allow h to


diminish as wear proceeds while still preserving link rigidity. Fig 2 Types of wear compensation mechanisms

160 TRIBOLOGY international August 1980


Moore - Design o f a p r o t o t y p e braking simulator

Compressor
Fqlter 1 Filter
Regulator A ,.- Regulator

Lubricator Lubricator
Air- terminal
Regulator
I. Regulator ~ff Regulator~ ~
On/off valve
7 On/offvalve Flowr e ~
[ -~- 1

I I
Brake
_re
g a u g e s ~
J cylinder
I reservoir I
TrTnsducer I
I Pneumatic
tensioner
Loadino
cylinder Exh Air-bearing
IAnti-skid
ICircuitry J
Anti-skid system
Fig 3 Pneumatic circuitry

Later adaptation of the rig for braking and hydroplaning mum belt speed, which is somewhat less than the electrical
tests required an additional compressed air supply to output of the drive motor and therefore acceptable. Belt
operate a complex anti-skid braking system, and this was slip on drive pulleys was eliminated both by using two
provided from the same compressor using a second control pulleys rather than one and by increasing pulley diameters
panel mounted at the same end of the machine. Fig 3 at the output end at the expense of belt speed, the latter
indicates the additional components required, including being another example of a torque matching exercise
in particular an air reservoir, brake cylinder and a set of requiring experience and good judgement. Later, in the
six high-speed solenoid-operated two-way valves. The case of the anti-skid application, the frictional torque of
loading cylinder in the most recent version of the anti- a locked tyre on the belt surface cannot be allowed to
skid adaptation is utilised as an unloading device to parti- exceed drive motor capability less losses, and a further
ally counteract the heavy gravity loading on the test axle. braking interface between drum brake and test axle also
The air-bearing, of course, differs from the other uses of required careful design to ensure satisfactory operation.
the compressed air supply by the amount of air which it An early consideration during the construction phase of the
consumes as a flow device. Thus, about 90% of the com- machine was the provision of an emergency brake for the
pressor output is utilised in the air-bearing in the case of system. Such a brake would have entailed considerable
the braking adaptation described later, and most of the
remainder in the anti-skid pneumatic circuitry.

Power drive system and torque matching


The rotor and belt assembly is driven via a gear and pulley
system by a variable-speed 3.5 kW dc motor mounted on
the base of the machine. A speed control panel permits a
pre-selection of desired belt speed in the range 0 to 45 km/h.
Such a speed setting is infinitely variable in the given range,
and a commercially available thyristor control unit was
selected in conjunction with the variable speed motor to
achieve the desired speed regulation at any one setting.
Again, details of the feedback circuit, thyristor control
and oscillator network within the unit are beyond the
scope of this article. This type of control unit was eventu-
ally chosen in preference to a stepped speed reduction unit.
Selection of the motor size and power rating was accom-
plished by carefully matching' the torque requirements of
the machine at various interfaces. Thus, starting with a
25 mm square friction sample loaded against a dry, stainless
steel surface with a pressure of approximately 0.5 MN/m 2
gives a mechanical power consumption of 1.4 kW at maxi- Fig 4 Three-quarter front view of completed friction tester

TRIBOLOGY international August 1980 161


Moore - Design o f a p r o t o t y p e braking s i m u l a t o r

additional complexity because of the curved surface of the


rotors and the limitations on intra-rotor space. Fortunately,
it transpired that the elastomeric block sample itself when
applied at maximum pressure could also serve for
emergency braking action.

Instrumentation
The high-speed friction tester in its earlier form was pro-
vided with semi-conductor strain gauges to measure normal
load and frictional force by bending, as illustrated in Fig 5.
A load cell or strain-gauge module to record frictional force
was fabricated and used in the restraining arm near the
support as shown in the top diagram. A similar arrangement
was designed to measure normal load, and each set of
strain gauges (from friction and loading) was assembled in
a Wheatstone bridge circuit to cancel temperature effects
as shown. Both the normal load and frictional transducers
were carefully calibrated to give a virtually linear force vs.
galvanometer current characteristic in each case, with mean
slopes of approximately 0.25 and 0.35 kgf per micro-
ampere, respectively.
Both signals (ie frictional force and normal load) are dis-
played on an X - Y plotter in such a manner that the slope
of the resulting curve gives the coefficient of sliding friction,
f. Alternatively, either signal in conjunction with the time-
Fig 6 Overall l,iew ()f to,droplaning/brakhtg rig
base module in the plotter can be used to give time-
dependent plots. Belt speed is indicated by a tachometer mits slider temperature to be recorded using embedded
attached to one of the rotors, so that sliding velocity vs. thermocouples or temperature probes, and graphs of
friction force may also be obtained as a two-dimensional friction force vs. temperature may be displayed. Friction
record using the X Y plotter. Yet another variation per- force vs. sliding velocity or temperature give valuable
information concerning viscoelastic effects which occur
when rubberlike materials slide under controlled con-
Measuring
friction
insliding~_~
(planeh"" ~ ditions on a hard substrate.

Adaptation of machine for automotive braking


Slidingplane T tests
During the past three years, the superstructure containing
the friction block, restraining arm, loading cylinder etc was
removed from the tester and replaced by a more complex
Minimallinkrigidity- parallelogramlinkagemechanism test axle. Figs 6, 7 and 8 illustrate the newly-adapted
system, including an elaborate display panel. The solid
rotors of the earlier design were replaced by light pulleys
Restrainingarm .~ to achieve closer speed regulation during braking tests. In
f the new design, the test wheel is mounted on an axle
having a slip-ring assembly, a pneumatic drum brake,
torsional semiconductor strain gauges, a rotational accelero-
Increasinglinkrigidity - collarslidingmechanism meter unit, a variable wheel-inertia disc simulator, a speed
sensor and a dummy support wheel mounted in line. The
test tyre is loaded by gravity against the upper surface of
the flat steel belt and resisted by a hydrostatic support
Restrainingarm air-bearing supplied by a compressor. The framework
supporting the test axle and components can be adjusted
laterally relative to the stainless steel belt so that the test
tyre occupies different track positions. The steel belt is
provided both with a waterproof sandpaper strip to simu-
Maximum link rigidity- roller assembly late wet or dry concrete, and the stainless steel surface
itself, when wetted, has a low coefficient of friction not
unlike slippery road surfaces. A water nozzle placed ahead
of the test wheel above the belt surface supplies pressurised
~ Restrainingarm and temperature-controlled water to the contact patch.
The brake is applied and re-applied in pulsing sequence by
a specially-designed pneumatic air valve assembly having
Fig 5 Strain-gauge module for measurement of friction extremely rapid action and a minimum of moving parts.
force and normal load The air valve assembly is a key element in the new anti-

162 TRIBOLOGY international August 1980


Moore - Design o f a p r o t o t y p e braking s i m u l a t o r

Fig 8 Detailed view of test axle assembly

Display panel and instrumentation


The main source of data in the braking/hydroplaning rig
is a six-channel uv recorder, displaying in chart form the
following si variables:
Acceleration/deceleration of test wheel
Wheel speed
Tank pressure
Line or brake pressure
Friction force, and
Axle torque, or torsional strain
The recorder is conveniently mounted beneath the bench
of the control panel, and is equipped with on/off and speed
controls.
The control or display panel itself for the braking rig has a
selection of indicating meters, test monitoring points, light-
l~;ig 7 Display panel and instrumentation emitting diodes, adjustment controls and switches. Four
separate meters in the centre of the panel display measured
skid system design, and extensive computer simulation runs frictional force, peak frictional coefficient, belt or road
were carried out in advance to finalise its design details and speed and wheel speed. Plug-in monitoring points are
to predict its performance. The individual solenoids are located and clearly marked on the left-hand side of the
controlled in complex sequential action by a miniature panel for monitoring deceleration, friction, pressure
electronic computer, also designed especially for the system. signals etc at various points in the electronic circuitry.
The result is an on and off braking action at a frequency A set of six light-emitting diodes operating in pairs within
in the range 2 to 7 Hz, where both the rate of onset of the upper right quadrant on the panel indicate the closing
braking pressure and the peak value reached are adjusted and opening of the high-speed solenoid valves which
in accordance with the frictional capability of the tyre/belt control the supply and application of pneumatic brake
interface. pressure.
Semi-conductor strain gauges are used to measure the The application of vehicle brakes by the driver is simulated
braking force due to tyre/belt friction, the resulting cyclic by a brake application switch located in the lower right
torsional strain in the test axle, and the normal load beneath quadrant of the panel. A latch re-set button is also pro-
the dummy non-rotating wheel. At the same time, the vided to return control to the driver once the automatic
speed of the belt and the acceleration/deceleration of the system has come into operation.
test wheel during braking action are recorded. The latter
The braking rig can also be used to test the effectiveness of
signal is provided by a specially-designed rotational accelero-
different modes of braking without the use of anti-skid
meter unit which is a second key element in the anti-skid
control, and also to evaluate tyre tread effectiveness and
system and protected by separate patent applications.
wear. Fig 9 shows a typical set of experimental traces
The decelerometer unit has a linear output characteristic
obtained with the anti-skid system.
and requires no power supply or amplification of the
resulting test signal.
Acknowledgements
The design of the anti-skid system is unique in that it is the The author is deeply indebted to Mr John C. Fitzpatrick
only truly adaptive system in existence, and it improves who painstakingly designed and developed the original
stopping .distance and vehicle control on dry, wet or icy high-speed tester and obtained a M. Eng. Sc. Degree for his
surfaces. Modern integrated circuits and high-speed pneu- work; to PCB Controls Ltd who sponsored the project
matics are both used to achieve these objectives. The design at the later stage of conversion to anti-skid measurement,
at present is ideally suited to articulated trucks and heavy to the Industrial Development Authority who provided
commercial transport which use pneumatic/vacuum brakes. two research and development grants; to the National
A special feature of the overall design is its mechanical , Science Council (now the National Board for Science and
simplicity. All mechanisms used are of the on/off variety Technology) who provided a special equipment grant;
and no proportional devices are used in the design, thus and to the staff of the mechanical engineering workshops
ensuring reliability and low cost. All complex decision- at University College Dublin who fabricated and assem-
making is performed by the electronic circuitry. bled the entire test rig over a period of years.

TRIBOLOGY international August 1980 163


Moore - Design o f a p r o t o t y p e braking s i m u l a t o r

Speed 50 mm/s

Belt surfoce dried Surfoce friction


Wheel occelerotion as test proceeds lowered by wetting

Wheel spee

Friction
System odapling to ~-
force Wheel here kept ot constont voiue of slip by o ~ lower friction surface
pressure just sufficient to couse criticol slip on
porticular surfoce
System adopting to Tank pressureheld
higher friction surfece ot peokline pressure

Line pressure- ~ ~ ~ --

Fig 9 Sample experimental results for anti-skid system

References Brake: Partial drum type, pneumatic, actuated by system


1. Fitzpatrick J.C. Design and Development of a High-Speed electronics
Friction Tester for Elastomers. M. Eng. Sc. Thesis, Dept. Wheel deceleration: Rotational decelerometer (new inven-
Mechanical Engineering, University CollegeDublin, 1975 tion)
2. Moore D.F. and Byrne P. Self-Adaptive Anti-Skid Braking Signals: Test axle torque, dummy test wheel load, braking
System. Automotive Engineer, February/March 1979, 50- 52 force, belt speed, test wheel speed, wheel deceleration,
line and brake pressures
Appendix Instrumentation: uv recorder, 6-channel
Specifications of the braking/hydroplaning rig Display panel: See elsewhere
Belt speed range: 0 - 45 km/h
Equivalent road speed range: 0 - 100 km/h
Normal wheel load: 20 - 50 kg
Test wheel diameter: Variable between 0.25 m and 0.5 m
Line air pressure: 5 atm., or 0.5 MN/m 2 absolute Additional specifications of the high-speed friction tester
Air bearing reservoir pressure: 3 arm., or 0.3 MN/m 2
absolute When the anti-skid system test axle assembly is removed
Support air pressure beneath belt: 1.3 - 1.8 atm., or 0.13 - and the support framework altered slightly, a pneumatic
0.18 MN/m 2 absolute loading assembly for tread rubber blocks is substituted
Motor drive: Variable speed, 3.5 kW dc motor, belt drive with the following features:
Automati'c belt tensioner: Pneumatic, 3 atm. or 0.3 MN/m 2 Block dimensions: Nominally 25 m m x 25 mm x 25 mm
absolute (1 inch cube)
Belt wetting system: Nozzle ahead of test wheel, supplied Block support and loading: Removable housing supported
with pressurized water via centrifugal pump and separate so as to be frictionless in three dimensions (vertically,
motor drive or belted drive from main belt motor. Closed laterally and longitudinally), pneumatic and/or gravity
water circuit, belt water draining into shroud and loading
temperature-controlled water reservoir Friction measurement: strain gauges with X Y automatic
Water condition: Variable film thickness on belt, constant plotter
or variable with belt speed as desired. Variable water Special feature: Automatic wear compensating mechanism
temperature and lubricity so that friction is always measured in plane of block/belt
surface
Using model scaling laws, all dimensions of test rig and all speeds, Wear measurement: Dimensional changes, or weight change
loads etc are in direct proportion to road experience for trucks or Temperature measurement: Thermocouples embedded in
cars block samples

164 T R I B O L O G Y international August 1980

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