Aquaculture Asia April 2010

Volume XV No.
2 April-June 2010
Marine finfish cage culture practices Impact of whitespot, Iran

Changing role of women in aquaculture Diets for cobia, Vietnam
Strengthening small-scale aquaculture in ASEAN Apatani rice-fish culture
A healthy underwater world
A clear vision from

Intervet Aquatic
Animal Health
For more information please email spaquaculture@spcorp.com

http://aqua.intervet.com and www.spaquaculture.com
Aquaculture Asia Volume XV No. 2 ISSN 0859-600X
is an autonomous publication April-June 2010
that gives people in developing
countries a voice. The views and Cooperatives: The future of small-scale farming?
opinions expressed herein are
those of the contributors and Pick any emerging industry you like and consider its development over time. The
do not represent the policies or pattern should be familiar: A few pioneers kick things off and achieve early success.
position of NACA. A ‘goldrush’ ensues with large numbers of entrants piling in chasing (what looks
like) easy money. This is followed by a production boom and a price collapse, at
which point the uncompetitive tend to go out of business. The survivors pick up
Editorial Board the pieces and expand their own holdings, gaining economies of scale. Slowly,
Wing-Keong Ng the industry consolidates and settles into a new and somewhat less dynamic
M.C. Nandeesha equilibrium.
Editor This trend of competition and consolidation appears to be an inevitable economic

Simon Wilkinson consequence in the development of a new industry. It is, according to popular
simon@enaca.org economic theory, both normal and good, in that it leads to cheaper prices and a
higher standard of living for consumers.
NACA The benefits of this cycle to producers are less clear. The social impacts associated
An intergovernmental with people going out of business are considerable. The price of failure and debt
organisation that promotes can be high, particularly among poor rural communities where there are few other
rural development through livelihood options. Asian aquaculture is to a large extent characterised by large
sustainable aquaculture. NACA numbers of small-scale and frequently poor producers. How can these people
seeks to improve rural income, compete effectively with larger, more industrialised operations in an increasingly
increase food production and globalised world?
foreign exchange earnings and
to diversify farm production. The One possible solution is for small scale farmers to emulate the pattern of
ultimate beneficiaries of NACA consolidation through formation of farming cooperatives or ‘clusters’. NACA
activities are farmers and rural has explored this approach over the last ten years or so, mainly working with
communities. small-scale shrimp farmers in India, Vietnam and Indonesia, and more recently
with catfish farmers in the Mekong Delta. By working together, small farmers
can wield greater market power when buying inputs for their farm or selling their
Contact product. They gain economies of scale and increase their negotiating power with
The Editor, Aquaculture Asia government authorities, who find it much easier to deal with organised groups than
PO Box 1040 thousands of individual farmers.
Kasetsart Post Office
Bangkok 10903, Thailand NACA has sought to use cooperatives as a practical mechanism to develop and
Tel +66-2 561 1728 implement better management practices among small-scale farmers. Many better
Fax +66-2 561 1727 management practices are things that require neighbouring farmers to coordinate
Website http://www.enaca.org their activities, for example in the timing of stocking, harvesting and discharging
water and in obtaining healthy seed. The financial benefits of participating in the
Submit articles to: cooperative (and the potential impacts of non-compliance on neighbouring crops)
magazine@enaca.org result in considerable incentive as well as peer pressure amongst members to
follow the cooperative’s rules. Such self-regulation is both effective and sustainable
Follow us on Twitter under when farmers gain a benefit from it.
'AquacultureAsia'
NACA has recently begun expanding its work on better management practices to
cover other commodities in the region including tilapia, snakehead, striped catfish
and seaweed. I refer interested readers to the article concerning a project funded
by the ASEAN Foundation in this issue.
Printed by
Scand-Media Co., Ltd.
1
Sustainable aquaculture
Peter Edwards writes on rural aquaculture: 3
The Dedanaw Project
The changing face of women for small-scale aquaculture 9

development in rural Bangladesh
Samina Shirajee, S., Salehin, M.M. and Ahmed, N.
Strengthening capacity of small holder ASEAN aquaculture 16

farmers for competitive and sustainable aquaculture
Research and farming techniques

Carp seed production at rural front in Orissa, India 20
Radheyshyam
CONTENTS
Sustainable mountain paddy-fish farming of the Apatani 25
tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, India
Nimachow, G., Rawat, J.S., Dai, O. and Loder, T.
Aquatic animal health

The economic impacts of WSSV on shrimp farming production 29
and export in Iran
Salehi, H.
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Current practices of marine finfish cage culture in China, 32
Indonesia, Thailand and Viet Nam
Kongkeo, H., Wayne, C., Murdjani, M., Bunliptanon, P. and
Chien, T. 3
Effects of different trash fish with alginate binding on growth 40
and body composition of juvenile cobia (Rachycentron
canadum)
Hung, P.D. and Mao, N.D.
NACA Newsletter 43
2 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Peter Edwards writes on
Rural Aquaculture
The Dedanaw Project
Dr Edwards is a consultant and

Emeritus Professor at the Asian Institute
of Technology in Thailand where he
founded the aquaculture programme.
He has over 30 years experience in
aquaculture education, research and
development in the Asian region.
Email: pedwards1943@gmail.com.
Dedanaw village has extensive rice fields.
Background The Chairman of EGG, Zaw Zaw Han, submitted a proposal

to FAO, Yangon, ‘Recovery Assistance for Small Scale
Myanmar was hit by Cyclone Nargis in May 2008 with winds Aquaculture Project, Dedanaw Village, Kum Gyan Gone
of 190km/hour and an enormous sea surge. It destroyed Township’ which was subsequently funded by SIDA through
houses and even whole villages and caused massive FAO and implemented by EGG. The project with a modest
flooding with an officially estimated death toll of 140,000 budget of US$20,000 is being run from April 2009 to April
people and the livelihoods of 2.4 million people seriously 2010 and the beneficiaries are 27 small-scale farming
affected. I outlined issues relating to small-scale aquaculture households. I was invited by EGG in January 2010 to review
in articles in previous columns (‘Myanmar revisited’ in the the progress of the project and to suggest how to move
January-March 2009 issue and ‘Small-scale aquaculture forward which form the topic of this issue’s column.
in the Ayeyarwady Delta’ in the April-June 2009 issue).
Many agencies have been working since the disaster on
the emergency distribution of food, non-food items and Dedanaw village
providing shelter, agriculture inputs and medical care to the
victims in the affected areas to reduce their vulnerability and The village like most of the Ayeyarwady Delta comprises
dependency on foreign food aid. mostly extensive rice fields dissected by canals. There are
a total of 700 households, 150 of which farm rice with the
Among them the Ever Green Group (EGG), Social Enterprise majority being landless, a typical pattern in the Delta. Fish
Partnership for Development, a local NGO, has been farming was an established activity in Dedanaw village
facilitating the early recovery of the livelihoods of suffering prior to the Cyclone with the knowledge of how to farm fish
families. EGG has a housing support project in Dedanaw obtained by farmers from Twante, the major aquaculture area
village, Kungyangon Township, Yangon Division in the upper in the country to the west of Yangon. About 50 farmers in the
Ayeyarwady Delta about three hours drive south of the capital village had constructed ponds in rice fields, dug with both
city Yangon and through this project we came into contact family and hired labour, mostly initially to provide a source of
with small-scale fish farmers there. Following my second water for domestic use and for watering rice seedlings but
visit to the village I recommended that assistance be sought wild fish which entered unaided were harvested. Most of the
to help farmers to restart the aquaculture component of ponds were dug about 10 years ago but the Government
their livelihood portfolio. Staff from the national FAO office in banned conversion of rice fields to fish ponds as discussed in
Yangon, including those from the Emergency Rehabilitation my two earlier columns. Most of the ponds are not used today
& Coordination Unit (ERCU) set up to help Nargis victims for domestic water as the water supply has been improved so
subsequently visited the village and expressed interest in most are abandoned ponds and used only to harvest wild fish.
supporting the recovery efforts.
Volume XV No. 2, April-June 2010 3

On a previous visit to the village I was told by a villager that

there were only four fish farmers in the village so imagine
my surprise when I was later informed that 27 farmers are
being assisted through the project to restart or develop pond
aquaculture. On my latest visit I asked the same farmer about
this apparent discrepancy and was told that the previous low
number was that of farming households for which aquaculture
had been a significant practice before Nargis. However, 27
farmers had renovated their derelict or idle fish ponds as the
project provided them with assistance to get restart farming
fish. Cyclone Nargis had flooded the village and washed away
stocked fish and in some cases damaged the pond dikes. The
rice farming villagers’ first priorities following Nargis were to
repair houses and to re-establish rice production, their major
livelihood. Before the implementation of the project the fish
farmers in the village had been unable to restart their fish
culture businesses as they lacked funds for the start-up costs.
Large cattle introduced by the British over a 100 years ago to
pull their cannon but used today to plough rice fields. Their
The project manure is used to fertilise crops.
The project is being coordinated by Zaw Zaw Han, Chairman

of EGG. The technical aspects of the project were designed
by Htin Aung Kyaw, National Consultant for ERCU, an Asian
Institute of Technology (AIT) alumnus. Excellent advice on
how to execute the project was provided by Rick Gregory,
Fisheries Advisor for FAO, one of whose previous positions
was Director of the AIT Outreach Program in Cambodia.
Regular monthly supervision, monitoring and data recording
of types and amounts of pond inputs and growth of stocked
fish are being carried out by Win Maung Kyaw, Technical
Specialist assisted by Ko Naing, a village farmer who serves
as village-level Extension Agent.
The main project objective is to restart aquaculture as a

livelihood for rice farmers in Dedanaw village. The ‘traditional’
fish species cultured in freshwater in Myanmar are the Indian
major carps (IMC) (mainly rohu with much smaller numbers
of catla and/or mrigal) and common carp. As IMC grow well
in relatively large ponds such as the 1-2 acre (0.4-0.8 ha)
ponds owned by many farmers, the culture of the smaller and
shorter life cycle species Nile tilapia was introduced for the U Aung Sint the first rice farmer to build fish ponds in the
many smaller ponds less than 1 acre (0.4 ha) in size. Nile village on swampy land unsuitable for rice more than 25
tilapia is also a more appropriate species for the poorest rice years ago.
farmers. This project is thus demonstrating how to farm the
smaller Nile tilapia and is providing an opportunity to compare
first hand their established carp culture system with that of the
novel culture of tilapia.
Twenty seven fish farmers are involved in the project with a

total of just over 50 acres (20 ha) of ponds. It is expected that
over 50 tonnes of fish will be produced which will improve the
nutrition of fish farming households as well as that of the local
community as well as provide income for the fish farmers.
Project experiences are being documented and will be

circulated to other organisations.
Approach
EGG followed a farmer field school type of approach to
working with the fish farmers that involves training and
communal learning through regular experience-sharing U Win Maung Kyaw project Technical Specialist (left) and Mrs
Ki Ti Aung (right) a project farmer.

opportunities. Field sessions involved test netting and It was explained to the Dedanaw village farmers at the
technology demonstration and are facilitating discussion of outset that the Project would not pay for draining their ponds,
the performance of carp and tilapia fish culture systems. removing excess mud and aquatic weeds which filled most
of the ponds, or repairs to the dikes. Only ponds that had
The first project activity was to form a fish farmers group with a high and complete dike and which had been drained,
a Chairman and Secretary and it is being encouraged to meet de-weeded and had predatory fish removed would be eligible
on a regular basis. Training was provided on a range of topics for project support. The costs of these operations were to be
during alternate months through the first 8 months of the met by the fish farmers themselves. The Technical Specialist
project, starting with pond preparation and stocking in June verified the status of each pond to prevent fish seed from
2009. Three one day long training sessions were held for the being wasted through stocking in under-prepared ponds.
farmers on pond fertilisation, general grow-out and tilapia The project provided lime for pond preparation, diesel to
nursing and grow-out. The stocking of the fish ponds required cover the costs of pumping water to fill the ponds prepared
a high level of cooperation between the farmers. It was for stocking fish, fish fingerlings and the initial fertilisation of
important that stocking took place early in the wet season the pond to create productive conditions for stocking. The
(June-July) before predatory fish species had a chance to farmers were told that only when their pond was predator-free
repopulate the prepared ponds. and potentially productive would free fingerlings be provided
through the project. This strategy served to separate out
the approximately 50% of the farmers in the village with
abandoned ponds who would only be interested in a ‘free ride’
from those willing to devote their own limited resources to
ensuring that fish farming would be successful.
The project agreed to restock at least one pond of each of

the 27 fish farmers in the village who prepared their ponds
for stocking. Farmers also selected the type of fish culture
that they wished to conduct. They were given the choice of
stocking rohu or tilapia. Farmers with both large and small
sizes of pond could choose to stock both rohu and tilapia,
respectively. The procurement and distribution of fingerlings
obtained from Khayan, the main seed producing area of the
country, was be done by the project Technical Specialist.
Farmers were provided with 10-12.5 cm carp rohu fingerlings,

and/or 2.5-3.75 cm tilapia fingerlings which they were taught
to nurse in a hapa suspended in the pond for 1 month to
reach a size of 5.0-6.25 cm before they were stocked in
The project provided diesel for the farmers to pump water into the pond at a density of 0.5 fingerlings/m2 for rohu and 3.0
their ponds. fingerlings/m2 for tilapia.
Farmers were provided with free chemical fertilisers to use

in their ponds at the rate of 24.6 kg urea and 6.2 kg TSP/
acre (0.4 ha)/2 weeks based on recommendations from the
USAID-funded CRSP project based at AIT. No feed is being
provided by the project as the farmers agreed to provide
supplementary feed themselves for the fish.
No other inputs were provided under the project following

stocking the ponds to increase the likelihood of sustainability
at the end of the project. Farmers have to provide their
own fertiliser and feed. Integration with existing livestock,
especially ducks, was encouraged to provide manure to
fertilise the ponds. One large high-quality seine net was
provided to the fish farmer’s group to facilitate harvesting fish
by group members.
Feeding rice bran which was not provided by the project.
Figure 1. Gantt chart of project activities, July 2009-February 2010.
Activity Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
1. Formation of fish farmers group ●
2. Training course on preparation and stocking ●
2. Preparation of fish ponds and verification ●
3. Purchase and stock of fingerlings ● ●
4. Training courses and farmer field schools ● ● ● ●
5. Harvesting of fish begins ●

Findings Their degree of involvement in rice farming varied. Of the six

farmers I enquired about their rice holdings, one household
I visited 9 project farms with ponds, a third of the project had none, a second only 2 acres (0.8 ha) and the other three
total of 27 farmers. The farmers unanimously expressed sizable rice holdings of 14-23 acres (5.6-9.2 ha).
satisfaction with, and appreciation of, the benefits provided by
the project. However, most commented that the fish were not I reported on the only project family without a rice field in my
growing fast enough as their ponds required more fertiliser two previous columns on the Delta. During my first visit all
and supplementary feed that they could afford to purchase. their fish had been washed out of their three 500 m2 ponds
on their 2 acre plot of land (0.8 ha) and their house had
One farmer said it was possible to borrow money to buy been destroyed by Nargis so they were living in a temporary
more fertiliser and feed but at an interest rate of 5%/month,
equivalent to an exorbitant rate of 60%/year; and this is
probably only half the rate at which some farmers would be
able to obtain credit from loan ‘sharks’. Future projects as
advised by one of the farmers should either loan the farmers
fertiliser and feed to be repaid after final harvest and sale of
fish; or provide low-interest credit.
According to detailed project records 23 farmers had a total of

33 ponds ranging in size from 0.1-4.0 acres (400m2 – 1.6 ha)
stocked with 10-15 g rohu in July 2009 that ranged in average
size from 35-290g by December 2009, 160 days after
stocking. Furthermore, 5 farmers, some of whom had stocked
one or more ponds with rohu, opted to stock monosex tilapia
in a total of 6 ponds ranging in size from 0.2-0.8 acres
(800-3,200m2) with 0.4g fingerlings in July 2009 and they had
grown to an average size of 80-120g by December 2009, Feeding baskets.
again 160 days after stocking.
The considerable range in fish growth was mainly due to

variation in amount of fertiliser and supplementary feed used
by individual farmers. Remember that the farmers were only
given free fertiliser and not feed, and fertiliser was provided
weekly only for the first month after stocking fingerlings
although the initial dose was at double the weekly rate. Only
about 25% of the farmers continued to fertilise their ponds
when they had to purchase their own fertiliser. Some farmers
also purchased rice bran as supplementary feed but usually
insufficient to maintain high fish growth.
The farmers were unaware and were pleasantly surprised

that chemical fertilisers could be used in fish ponds as their
only previous experience had fertilising rice. Traditionally the
farmers used mainly rice bran and occasionally oil cake as
pond nutritional inputs.
The growth performance of tilapia was relatively higher and

less variable than rohu which probably also reflects the Plankton-rich green water from partial confinement of ducks
selection of the new species, tilapia, by more adventurous over the pond during the night.
and conscientious farmers.
Two of the farms visited had ducks which at the time of

the visit were scavenging for food in the rice field. Partially
housing the ducks over the fish pond is an effective way
to fertilise the pond as one of the farmers with 170 ducks
housed at night over a 0.3 acre (0.12 ha) fish pond or a duck
stocking rate of about 12,000 ducks/ha had green pond water
and the best growth of rohu among project farmers.
Some of the farmers had purchased and stocked a few grass

carp to control vegetation in the ponds. Grass carp were
smaller than rohu when stocked but after a few months were
much larger in size.
Sampling rohu.

dwelling. At the time of my second visit Mr Hla Min who is a In my previous column on small-scale aquaculture in
bus conductor and seasonal farm labourer and his wife Ki Ti Myanmar I reported on and photographed a landless family
Aung had rebuilt their house but still had insufficient money excavating soil from a ‘borrow pit’ on their small plot of
to purchase fish seed and feed and be able to restart the land to raise the level of the house. The borrow pit could
fish farming part of their livelihood portfolio. By the time of have been used as a fish pond but project staff informed
my visit this January the project had helped them to restart me that the family was not interested in joining the project.
aquaculture. They had stocked two ponds with rohu and This underscores the fact that it is difficult for the poorest
one pond with tilapia and were feeding rice bran as well as households to spend their very limited resources on farming
fertilising once/month. Mrs Ki reported that the main thing the fish.
project taught them was pond fertilisation which reduced the
need to purchase costly rice bran.
Sampling tilapia.
Ducks scavenging for feed during the day in the rice field.
A 350 g rohu from a well-managed project pond.

A 100 g tilapia from a well-managed pond.
Feeding rice bran which was not provided by the project. A large abandoned pond.

The farmer who had only 2 acres (0.8 ha) of rice fields had
three ponds with a total area of 3.1 acres (1.2 ha). He used
to raise chickens and fish but they were both washed away
by Nargis. Now he is developing fish culture as his main
business. He inherited the land but worked as a rickshaw
driver until he had saved enough to invest in poultry and fish.
I also observed a large abandoned fish pond of 3.5 acres

(1.4 ha). When I enquired why such a resource was not
being used to culture fish I was told that it belonged to a
better-off rice farming family who also have 20 acres (8 ha)
of rice fields. The farmer and his wife are getting on in years
and their grown-up children have left the farm and are not
interested in fish culture. A small abandoned pond.
Some of the larger fish, some faster growing rohu and Many families depend on small-scale aquaculture in Yangon
grass carp, had already been seined out and harvested in Division and northern Ayerwaddy Division and there is
December after 5 months of growth. They were able to sell considerable potential for this activity to spread to new areas,
350g rohu for kyats 1,700/viss (1.6 kg) or about US$1/kg. particularly those with less than abundant wild fish stocks.
In some areas, aquaculture is an important means of food
I was told that the farmers had organised themselves into six and income generation, as well as providing significant
farmer groups rather than one, each with a leader, to avoid employment opportunities for casual labourers. Very few
problems, especially staging fish harvests to avoid flooding organisations to date have supported the rehabilitation of
the local market with fish, thereby lowering the price. Clearly small-scale aquaculture in Nargis affected areas although
the project is working well and farmers reported that they several have shown an interest in piloting aquaculture
would be able to continue farming fish without further support approaches.
at the end of the project.
As there is considerable wild vegetation on and around farms,
grass carp should be stocked also in the ponds in polyculture
Rationale and future with either carps or tilapia. Grass carp stocked at 12.5 cm
can control growth of vegetation in the pond and after only 6
The project was conceived as a pilot to provide learning months is large enough to be harvested.
opportunities within Dedanaw village for both farmers and
project staff, with the intention of extending the experience To maximise profit in fish culture it is necessary to effectively
later within Dedanaw Village (witnessing the success of the use pond space and volume by stocking large fingerlings in
project should lead to interest by some of the other farmers the grow-out phase, as was done in the project. However,
in the village with abandoned ponds to farm fish), elsewhere some farmers should be taught how to nurse fry to fingerlings,
in the Delta and in other areas in the country. Efforts are perhaps in hapas suspended in the ponds as most of the
currently underway to locate other villages with abandoned ponds are too large to be prepared for nursing by small-scale
fish ponds in the Delta and funding will be sought to replicate farmers. As well as it being easier and cheaper to transport
the successful project experience in other villages. fry than fingerlings from the main seed producing area of
Khayan near Yangon to the Delta for grow-out, nursing fry to
I also visited Khayan, the major fish seed producing area fingerlings would thus become a livelihood option for some
in Myanmar, to investigate the availability of seed for future farmers.
expansion of aquaculture in the Delta. I was informed by U
Aye Ko, the Leader of the Khayan Fish Farmers’Association
that they would be able to supply sufficient fry and/or
fingerlings. The total seed production last year was 1 billion
3cm and 700 million 10-15 cm fingerlings. They sell seed to
nursery and grow-out farms throughout the country.
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The changing face of women for small-scale aquaculture

development in rural Bangladesh
Samina Shirajee, S.1, Salehin, M.M.2 and Ahmed, N.3
1. Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; 2. Department of Rural Sociology, Bangladesh
Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh; 3. Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh; E-mail: nesar_2000@yahoo.com
Bangladesh is considered one of the

most suitable countries in the world for
freshwater aquaculture, because of its
favourable resources and agro-climatic
conditions. A sub-tropical climate and
vast areas of shallow water provide
ideal conditions for fish production.
Over the last decade, there has been a
dramatic increase in inland freshwater
aquaculture production in Bangladesh,
growing at an average annual rate
of nearly 20%1. Around 400,000 ha
of freshwater ponds and ditches are
used for aquaculture and more than
900,000 households are involved in
aquaculture activities2. Conditions
are highly favourable for the rapid
expansion of aquaculture. This is mainly
due to the recent rapid advances in
seed and feed production. The total
annual fish production in Bangladesh
was estimated at 2.44 million tons in
2007 of which 945,812 tons (39% of
the total production) were obtained
from freshwater aquaculture3. The main production systems remains inadequately addressed. It is therefore necessary
for freshwater aquaculture in Bangladesh are extensive and to understand related issues and develop gender sensitive
semi-intensive pond polyculture of Indian major carps and interventions in aquaculture for their empowerment.
exotic carps which accounts for 80% of the total freshwater
aquaculture production. The remaining 20% are mainly from This study seeks to broadly understand the role of women
prawn, catfish, tilapia, small indigenous fish and rice-fish in small-scale aquaculture. It is assumed that women’s
farming2. empowerment can be enhanced through their active
participation in aquaculture. The aim of this paper is therefore
It is changing the face of rural Bangladesh through small- to describe linking women’s empowerment and their
scale aquaculture development, and a large number of participation in aquaculture. This description is based on
rural women are involved in various aspects of aquaculture published sources, together with the results of primary data
activities. Traditionally, the work of women in rural collected in rural Bangladesh.
Bangladesh is mostly confined to the homestead due to
cultural, religious and social restrictions. Generally, household
management in rural communities vest in the male head of Methodology
the family and female members of the family depend upon
the earnings of men. As such, almost all economic decisions The study was conducted in the Mymensingh area of
are ordinarily done by men. There have, however, been north-central Bangladesh. Geographically, Mymensingh has
more recent changes in the attitude of the people towards been identified as the most important and promising area
the role of women in various aspects of household decision for freshwater aquaculture because of favourable resources
making, household management, economic decision and and climatic conditions, including the availability of hatchery-
income generating activities4, and a number of activities produced fry, low-lying agricultural land, pond, warm climate,
associated with freshwater aquaculture increasingly involve fertile soil, and cheap and abundant labour. The soil, water
women. The women have been involved in small-scale and climate support high levels of aquaculture production,
aquaculture in different stages of operation. They are active and thus, about 40% of the country’s aquaculture production
caretakers of fish in homestead ponds, nurseries, cages comes from the greater Mymensingh area5. Small-scale
and even in rice fields. Despite the fact that their role in freshwater aquaculture has benefited especially from
aquaculture growth has not been sufficiently recognised and sustained efforts in a major long-running development project,
namely Mymensingh Aquaculture Extension Project (MAEP)
- funded by Danish International Development Assistance. A

large number of farmers including women received training July to December 2007. The participatory rural appraisal tool
in fish farming through MAEP. As a result, there has been a focus group discussion (FGD) was conducted with women
dramatic increase in fish production over the last few years. farmers (i.e. farmers’ wives). A total of 20 FGD sessions were
conducted in Phulpur sub-district under Mymensingh district
A wide range of tools can be used for data collection to obtain where each group consisted of 8 to 12 women (total 192) and
a broad and in-depth understanding of women’s participation the duration of each session was approximately two hours.
in aquaculture. A combination of participatory, qualitative and FGD was used to solicit an overview of women’s participation
quantitative methods were used for primary data collection in small-scale aquaculture activities. Questionnaire interviews
(Figure 1). Data were collected for a period of six months from with women were preceded by preparation and testing
of the questionnaire and training of enumerators. A total
of 100 women were interviewed in their houses and/or
farm sites. Women were selected through simple random
sampling. Several visits were made to selected women for
observation of aquaculture practices. The interviews, lasting
about an hour, focused on their involvement in aquaculture
activities, constraints and socioeconomic benefits. Cross-
check interviews were conducted with 20 key informants,
including district and sub-district fisheries officers, local
leaders, school teachers, researchers, policymakers and
relevant non-government organisation (NGO) workers for the
validation of collected information. Data from questionnaire
interviews were coded and entered into a database system
using Microsoft Excel software for analysis using SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Science) to produce descriptive
statistics.
Carrying fish feed from the market. The role of women in aquaculture
In the study area, the women are involved in various facets
of aquaculture activities, including stocking of ponds,
feeding of fish, pond management, fertilisation, liming, and
Feeding the fish.
A girl with harvested fish - high value prawn (Macrobrachium

Helping with the harvesting. rosenbergii).

fish harvesting and marketing. Based on a sample of 100 lime and fertiliser. Most women reported that they managed
women farmers, it was found that women were involved in the pond regularly in two ways: first, most routine operations
aquaculture activities with various degrees of participation such as fertilisation and feeding could easily be managed
(Table 1). According to the survey, the majority of women by women, and second, husbands were often busy in other
were regularly involved in feed preparation, feeding of fish, work, away from the home for long hours, and hence the
fertilisation, pond supervision and management, and fish wife had to take the lead role in day-to-day operations. In
harvesting. In general, women provide partial assistance to several cases, harvest of fish for family consumption is done
men in pond supervision and management, by applying feed, by women with the help of children. Husbands only help
when they are at home or when the ponds water is too deep,
requiring more specialised gear to be used for fish harvesting.
Nevertheless, harvesting of fish for marketing is done by
men with commercial harvesters. In that case, women are
involved in post-harvest handling including sorting, grading
and washing of fish.
Although the women are involved in various aquaculture

activities, their participation has been generally limited to
fish stocking, transporting and marketing. Men are generally
involved in buying of fish fingerlings from hatcheries,
stocking ponds and transporting harvested fish to markets.
Nevertheless, some advanced women noted that they bought
and transported fish feed, fertiliser and lime from markets,
which is half a mile to three miles distant from their houses.
According to key informants, the women are now more active
in many aquaculture activities those were not previously
involved.
A baby girl sorting fish with her father (today’s girl tomorrow’s
woman fish farmer). According to the survey, fish production (an average 4,500
kg/ha/year) has increased 10-20% due to involvement of
women. Job opportunities for women have increased since
widespread of small-scale aquaculture in the Mymensingh
area. The rapid development of the freshwater aquaculture
industry has provided employment opportunities for women,
Aquaculture has improved economic power of rural women.
Aquaculture income has improved drinking water facilities. Icing of fish by a young girl.

meaning that they are now able to contribute to household farming experience. Nevertheless, there is a negative
income. Even women from the poorest households often work association between family size and women involvement in
outside the home as paid labourers in fish hatcheries and aquaculture, valued at - 0.37, significant at the 10% level.
fish feed industries for their family survival. A few women are
involved in weaving fishing nets, a traditional occupation of
women. These nets are used for fish harvesting, which has
generated increased demand for nets. The result increase in
the price of nets has increased their earnings.
Almost all interviewed women stated that small-scale

aquaculture activities had increased their workload. The
study revealed that women’s average daily involvement in
fish cultivation was 3.5 hours, ranging from 2 to 6 hours.
The women were engaged in aquaculture activities for an
average of 27% of their total daily working hours. The women
stated that they would like to spend more time in aquaculture
because of the high economic return. However, the main
constraint was their household work obligations. Based on
respondents’ descriptions, a woman’s day typically begins
with cleaning the house; from the morning until late at night
she has to wash dishes and clothes, cook food, look after
children, carry out homestead gardening, poultry rearing,
livestock feeding, fish farming and other agricultural works.
The women’s involvement in aquaculture activities is further Women come forward to participate in development activities
explored by examining correlations between their human outside their homestead.
capital and working hours (Table 2). The analysis shows
significant positive correlations between involvement in
aquaculture and age of women, education level, farming
experience and training received. The analysis finds that the
age of women is the weakest relationship to involvement
in aquaculture among these capitals. In turn, there is a
strong positive association between training received and
aquaculture participation, followed by education level and
Rural women are typically involved many household works

beside aquaculture.
A girl with harvested vitamin-A enriched mola fish

Working together in fish harvesting. (Amblypharyngodon mola).

Table 1. Degree of participation by women in various aquaculture activities (n = 100).
Activities Regular participation (%) Irregular participation (%) Seldom participation (%) No participation (%)
Fish stocking 12 23 56 9
Feed preparation 67 28 5 0
Feeding of fish 82 12 6 0
Fertilisation 53 29 12 6
Liming 36 42 12 10
Pond supervision 55 41 4 0
Harvesting 62 21 12 5
Marketing 4 11 48 37
n: sample size of women farmers
Linking participation and and drinking water facilities through tube-wells, improvement
of housing structures and children education. Study results
empowerment suggest that women have broadly improved their standard
of living, purchasing power and ability as an economic
The role of women in small-scale aquaculture related actor. Women respondents cited several examples of how
activities is potentially very important for their empowerment. the standards of living of their families have improved since
A conceptual framework has developed to show linkage their participation in aquaculture. Most households reported
between the participation of women in aquaculture and that they have improved their housing conditions, nutritional
their empowerment (Figure 2). The women involvement in benefits, health and sanitary facilities, drinking water facility,
aquaculture provides three basic improvements: economic, children education and recreational items including cell
nutritional and social benefits, those are assumed to be phone, television and radio. Income from fish production
interlinked in order to empower women. The households offers to engage women in poultry farming, livestock rearing
of women have improved their income through increased and homestead gardening to supplement their income.
profitability in fish farming. According to the survey, almost all Income also provides the opportunity to increase security for
women reported that they have improved their socioeconomic coping with uncertain situation, such as illness of household
conditions through involvement in aquaculture activities. members and natural disasters (i.e. floods, heavy rain and
Such improved conditions can be described on the basis of cyclones).
qualitative indicators, including food consumption, sanitary
It is recognised by the family and society that women play
a significant role in small-scale aquaculture development in
the study area. Aquaculture activities of women at village
level have enhanced their position in families. Almost all
women interviewed noted that their position has improved
due to such involvement. They now tend to play a stronger
role in economic decisions for the management of their
households, including those concerning education of children,
attending social functions, inviting guests and attending
religious functions. Women’s participation in aquaculture
has changed the attitudes of family members, including
their husbands, mothers-in-laws and other female relatives
as their aquaculture activities willingly offer help in meeting
their household responsibilities because of increased income
through increase fish production. During field visits, it was
observed that improved women’s status has improved child
nutrition because women with greater status have better
nutritional status, are better cared for themselves, and
provide higher-quality care to their children. According to
key informants, the participation of women in aquaculture
has increased rural women’s mobility and access to
markets. They can also get access to better health services,
educational opportunities and financial services.
Women’s empowerment:
Reality or dream?
The empowerment of women could be the principal
strategy to upgrade their status. The most effective ways of
empowering rural women and enabling them to move out of
poverty will depend on local economic, cultural and political
Trading fish at an urban market. conditions6. Moreover, women’s empowerment depends on a

range of factors including psychological, cognitive, economic, Access to aquaculture resources is one of the elements
social and political dimensions7. Women’s empowerment of women’s empowerment. Resources may be economic
may give them greater equity, mobility, more control over (e.g. pond, land and credit), political (participation in local
resources and political awareness, and thus, reduce incidents government and community decision-making) and social
of domestic violence8,9. The empowerment status of rural (education and training)11. Poverty alleviation in rural areas
women in Bangladesh can be significantly improved by is significantly related to women’s increased access to
increasing their involvement in income generating activities productive resources12. Access to productive resources for
including aquaculture10. Nevertheless, the participation of women enhances knowledge on farm management and
women in different aspects of aquaculture activities is strongly income generation, develops bargaining and decision making
affected by social, cultural and religious norms. Due to rapid power, improves children’s schooling and health, increases
development of small-scale aquaculture in rural Bangladesh, self-confidence and social networks13,14. Rural women’s
the women are now breaking through the traditional norms empowerment can be enhanced through forming social
and coming forward to participate in the development capital by various development activities which could increase
activities outside their homesteads. productive resources under women’s control11. The women
Table 2. Human capital of women and correlation to participation in aquaculture.
Variable Measure Mean value Correlation (r value)

Age Years 32 0.34**
Literacy Percent 29 0.65***
Family size Persons 5.8 - 0.37*
Farming experience Years 5.2 0.59**
Training received Percent 17 0.71***
Single (*), double (**) and triple (****) denote significant at 10%, 5% and 1% levels, respectively
Table 3. Strategies for empowering women to be actively involved in aquaculture activities.
Key Strategies Women’s empowerment

1. Education Increase overall knowledge, help decision making, control over resource, more involvement in
economic activities including aquaculture
2. Training Increase technical knowledge on aquaculture, help farm supervision and management, increase farm
production
3. Awareness Self-confidence in aquaculture activities, motivation and inspiration to active participation in
aquaculture
4. Credit Widen economic activities in aquaculture, help to gain independence and improve social status
5. Information Poverty alleviation through aquaculture, sustainable livelihoods in aquaculture and other income
generating activities, human rights, etc
6. Group formation Participation in local institutions and political process, exchange and sharing knowledge, conflict
resolution, bargaining power and gaining freedom
Figure 1. Methodology followed for field works, data collection and data analysis.
Field work for data collection
Qualitative method: focus Quantitative method: Cross-check interviews

group discussion with questionnaire interviews with key informants for
women with women data validation
Dissemination Transfer to computer
Conceptual framework Report writing based on Data processing and

development for women’s analytical data and analysis using MS Excel
empowerment qualitative information and SPSS
Desk works for data analysis and report writing

Figure 2. A conceptual framework for empowering women through their participation in aquaculture.
Small-scale
aquaculture
Women’s participation
Economic Nutritional benefits Social
Women’s empowerment
Gender equity
of rural households negotiate their livelihoods by obtaining aquaculture activities. Table 3 provides some of the strategic
access to land, pond, labour, capital, knowledge and market, measures for empowering women through their involvement
which leads to enhance family well-being and sustainable use in aquaculture activities.
of resources15.
While there is great potential for increasing family incomes Conclusions

through engaging in aquaculture activities by women, a
number of factors might constraint to their active involvement. Increased economic activities leading to income generation
Despite their tremendous contribution to fish production, rural opportunities for the rural women are the most important
women are underestimated and overlooked in development benefits that have resulted from small-scale aquaculture
strategies. Although women and men are by constitution development in rural Bangladesh. Women’s growing
equal in Bangladesh, the reality is different. There is a gross participation in aquaculture has been a significant indicator
disparity between women and men in every sphere of life. of increased empowerment at the household level as well
The underlying problem lies in the sexual division of labour, as society. With increased participation in aquaculture,
in which females perform mainly unpaid labour in the home women’s socioeconomic conditions within the households
and males perform largely paid labour outside the home. and communities have risen significantly. This has begun
Moreover, the lack of technical knowledge in aquaculture, to change giving women increased decision-making
heavy household tasks and socio-cultural constraints such as power on household management and income generating
mobility restriction hinder women’s participation in aquaculture activities. However, poverty reduction should be prioritised
activities. As a result, the level of participation in aquaculture in the government’s intervention programmes for women’s
by women in general remains below expectation. There development based on dignity and equality to reduce gender
is therefore huge scope to involve women in aquaculture. discrimination as poverty is the main cause of disparity. With
The active participation of women would have a crucial and poverty very much a rural phenomenon, women’s active
positive impact on the social and economic well-being that will participation in aquaculture is crucial to facilitate economic
ultimately help in reducing poverty and empowering them. If growth and reduce poverty in Bangladesh.
the status of men and women are equalised, women may be
empowered, and thus, women’s empowerment may operate There is much scope for increased participation of women
for improving household incomes through involvement in in aquaculture production. Education, training and capacity
building are necessary for empowering rural women. Training

might increase their knowledge and skill and may create 4. Ahmed, N., 2005. The role of women in freshwater prawn farming in
opportunities of employment and increase income earning southwest Bangladesh. Fish Farmer 28(2):14-16.
for improving their participation in the family decision making 5. Winrock International. 2004. Mymensingh aquaculture extension component
process which in turn empower the rural women in their impact evaluation study. Winrock International, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
family and society. With the support of local and national 6. Parveen, S., 2007. Gender awareness of rural women in Bangladesh.
governments, NGOs and international organisations, the Journal of International Women’s Studies 9(1):253-269.
participation of rural women in aquaculture can be increased 7. Stromquist, P.N., 1995. The theoretical and practical bases for
through well-planned projects which put emphasis on empowerment. In: Women, Education and Empowerment: Pathways
manpower development at the grassroots level. It may towards Autonomy (ed. C. Medel-Añonuevo), pp 13-22, UNESCO Institute
also necessary to establish institutional and policy support, for Education, Hamburg, Germany.
financial support as well as extension services to women for 8. Hoque, M. and Itohara, Y., 2008. Participation and decision making role of
active participation in aquaculture activities. rural women in economic activities: a comprehensive study for members
and non-members of the micro-credit organisations in Bangladesh. Journal
Acknowledgements of Social Sciences 4(3):229-236.
9. Quisumbing, A.R., 2008. Reducing poverty and hunger in Asia: women’s
The findings of this study are outputs from a research project status and the changing nature of rural livelihoods in Asia. 2020 Vision for
funded by the Bangladesh Agricultural University Research Food, Agriculture and the Environment, Focus 15, International Food Policy
System (BAURES). The opinions expressed herein are those Research Institute, Washington DC, USA.
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the 10. Rahman, M.H. and Naoroze, K., 2007. Women’s empowerment through
BAURES. The authors would like to express their gratitude participation in aquaculture: experience of a large-scale technology
to all participated women those have given a lot of valuable demonstration project in Bangladesh. Journal of Social Science 3(4):164-
information without which the study could not have been 171.
realised. 11. Parveen, S., 2008. Access of rural women to productive resources in
Bangladesh: a pillar for promoting their empowerment. International Journal
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3. DOF. 2008. Fishery statistical yearbook of Bangladesh. Fisheries households and groups, strategies and transitions. Agriculture and Human
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Fisheries and Livestock, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Strengthening capacity of small holder ASEAN

aquaculture farmers for competitive
and sustainable aquaculture
Globally aquaculture is recognised as the most rapidly ASEAN countries, greater importance is attached to ensure
growing food production sector with an average growth of healthy fish and its products availability to all sections of the
8%. More than 90% of the global aquaculture production is population. Recognising the importance of aquaculture in
contributed by Asia and more than 90% of this production the region the ASEAN Foundation has supported the project
is reported to be produced by the small scale aquaculture “Strengthening the capacity of small holder ASEAN farmers
farmers. However, globalisation is changing the way for competitive and sustainable aquaculture” through NACA
commodities are traded and small farmers are largely to accomplish the ASEAN vision of 2020. The project has
unorganised, sometimes being illiterate or not adequately the objectives to improve the competitiveness of ASEAN
literate enough to deal with the increasing restrictions being aquaculture small holders in the domestic, regional and global
imposed, they are confronted with many challenges. The markets, to improve sustainability of their farming systems, to
ASEAN foundation has the mission of helping farmers of make them adopt responsible farming practices and improve
ASEAN countries to improve their livelihoods by improving their profitability.
not only husbandry practices, but also enhancing their
entrepreneurship that would help them to improve their Five ASEAN countries, namely, Cambodia, Indonesia,
livelihoods. Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam were chosen as
the representative countries for implementation of the
In ASEAN countries, aquaculture is an important activity and project. Following the inception workshop, based on the
millions of small farmers are engaged in this activity to earn interest expressed by each of the countries, following five
their livelihood. Fish being a major animal protein source in commodities have been chosen in five different countries

In Cambodia, snakeheads contribute to the food and materials in bulk. The benefits are many, but the challenge is
economy of people immensely. These group of fishes to organise them in to groups and ensure sustainability to the
were cultured in cages and ponds for several decades by group with good leadership.
feeding them with small fishes. In 2005, Cambodia, banned
the culture of this species as all farmers were using seeds Lack of capital is an issue in all countries and in respect of all
collected from wild and fed them with fresh fish caught commodities. The availability of capital at the right time to the
from wild. In order to develop better feed management farmers with easy terms of reference is the major problem.
practices and explore the culture of snakeheads using other Although banks in all the countries have priority to lend
feed resources, Cambodia has chosen snakeheads as the money to farmers, the procedures involved being complex,
commodity. farmers tend to borrow money from other sources with high
interest rates when possible or otherwise, they restrict their
Indonesia has made a very good progress in breeding activities.
of groupers and sea bass and several small farmers are
engaged in culturing these species both for local as well Market access is frequently an issue. Farmers do not have
as export market. As the livelihood of several farmers the right information on the market in almost all countries,
is dependent on the culture of these species, Indonesia though in some countries like Thailand, there is not so much
preferred to work on groupers and sea bass as the difference between the farm gate price and price of fish in the
commodities. wholesale market. In general, farmers become obligated to
middlemen who finance the culture operation when farmers
Tilapia being the most rapidly growing and widely cultured need money and at the end, buy the product with bigger
commodity, Thailand expressed its interest to work with discounts coupled with several other extraction methods. In
farmers engaged in farming of tilapia in cages as well as some countries like Indonesia, the price of groupers between
ponds. Among the 573,090 farms engaged in fish culture, farm gate and the retail market is nearly 100%. Farmers
nearly 39% of the farms are actually involved in tilapia culture can derive enormous benefits by organising themselves into
and tilapia farms are growing at an average of 5% per year. groups to obtain the best price.
Sea weed cultivation has contributed immensely in providing Excepting for the local farmer to farmer exchanges of
livelihoods to several farmers in Philippines. It is reported information that have been occurring more informally, farmers
that there are over 160,000 families engaged in sea weed are confronted with the challenge of obtaining the necessary
cultivation and the country has earned over 72 million USD market information and technical issues that are essential
in export during 2005. However, with the increasing quality to be successful. Existing traditional government support
requirements in the international markets, farmers are facing systems in most countries, though they make an effort to
many challenges in the declining environmental qualities that reach the farmers, because of the inherent problems, have
are contributing for the increasing crop failures and declined not able to provide the required level of information that
profitability. To address these problems Philippines decided to is required by farmers who are also widely scattered and
work with farmers engaged in sea weed farming. unorganised.
Vietnam has demonstrated its entrepreneurial approach in Most importantly changing export market requirements on
developing market for various aquatic products. The country various sanitary measures being imposed by importing
is earning over 4 billion USD from aquatic products export countries are hardly understood by farmers. They need
and shrimp constitutes a major component of the export. education on better farming practices that are environment
Although, shrimp farming is continued to be practiced widely friendly and help to produce commodities that are healthy for
in the country, like in many other countries, the activity has acceptance in the international markets.
been affected by the disease problems. Hence, Vietnam
chose to work with shrimp.
Training of trainers program
Needs assessment Based on the needs assessment carried out by all the
participating countries, a training of trainers program was
Each of the participating country carried out detailed needs designed taking in to consideration of several needs brought
assessment of the farmers dealing with the commodities out through the study. The training not only looked at greater
they had identified. Focus group discussions, structured depth on the technical necessities identified, but also helped
surveys and the secondary information collection from train participants on how better management practices that
various agencies involved with the commodity in each country can be evolved for each of the species that are being dealt
provided the issues that need to be addressed to build the with by different countries. Examples were drawn from
competitiveness of farmers. However, there were common the practical experience of NACA in developing such best
elements in all the commodities and these remained same in management practices for shrimp in India and Indonesia and
all countries, irrespective of the commodities. pangasius in Vietnam were shared with the participants. In all
the species cultured, the biggest technical problem confronted
As the farms are generally small and the scale of operation by the farmers is the disease. As better management
being limited, to reap the greater benefits from the markets, practices aim in part to reduce the risk of disease, participants
farmers need to be organised. This will help to increase were given examples from shrimp on how the most dreaded
volume of commodity availability for the buyers and also viral diseases can be prevented by organising farmers into
get the best possible price. When the farmers organise groups, obtaining healthy seed from the hatchery through
themselves in to groups, efficiency of the service delivery adoption of strategies that include even the selection of
can be increased and farmers can also procure various brooders and checking their health, followed by checking of

the larvae by using advanced techniques like nested PCR, Participation of the ASEAN Executive Director in the closing
ensuring stocking of seed by the group of farmers at a time, ceremony and his eloquent presentation on how ASEAN is
taking precautionary measures in case of outbreak of disease aiming to bring common vision among the ASEAN countries
to prevent its spread, etc. In India, Indonesia and even in and also assisting large number of farmers who form
Vietnam this disease problem could be prevented by the back bone of the ASEAN economy helped participants to
adoption of the above stated better management practices. understand the importance of the work they are carrying
out. He appreciated the progress made by the project and
Feed is the major input cost in all the aquaculture systems. indicated that if the project outcome demonstrate the greater
With the increasing feed cost and the declining feed prices, if benefits, the Foundation will explore ways to support the
the farmers do not adopt proper feeding practices, profitability activities to get the desired output. Hence, he requested the
declines drastically. It is because of this farmers not only need participants to make use of the knowledge attained to address
to have good knowledge on feeding practices, but also have the problems encountered in the field and aim at getting the
the ability to produce homemade feeds that can reduce the results that would be worthy to scale up.
costs substantially. Commercial companies have now come
up with feeds that are specific to species and have succeeded
in improving food conversion ratio by improving the quality of Development of training manuals
feed. However, as the cost of the feed of these commercial
feeds is always on increase, wherever possible, farmers can Based on the knowledge gained and the skills acquired in
produce homemade feed to reduce cost of production. Water the training of trainers workshop, participants worked in close
quality is another major factor that has been affecting all partnership with various stakeholders and have prepared the
cultured organisms and suggestions were made on how to draft manuals necessary for each commodity. The manuals
maintain good quality water. specifically aim at addressing the issues identified by farmers
and build their capacity to evolve better management
Market issues being a key factor, participants were educated practices, besides addressing other issues through group
on dealing with volatility of the market and planning their approach. Using these draft manuals as the basis trainings
culture taking in to consideration of market targeted and have been conducted in all the five countries. The training
produce products that can fetch the best price in the market. manuals are expected to be revised based on the input
In order to have information on markets as well as other provided by farmers to make them user friendly.
aspects of technology, information technology plays critical
role. Examples from India, Indonesia on how the farmers
have been able to use the information technology to address Training of farmers in
various problems was presented. In addition, a detailed
account on using different internet communications to obtain different countries
technical information and solve were demonstrated. In India,
shrimp farmers have been able to organise themselves and Seaweed cultivation
establish direct link with buyers in USA and this has helped
farmers to get premium prize for the shrimp produced by As already stated, large number of farmers are engaged in
small farmers. sea weed cultivation in Philippines. Farmers are able to make
good profits when they are able to harvest crop successfully
Organising farmers into groups and the enormous benefits and get good price in the market. The major problem of
that they can derive from disease prevention, production of farmers is only getting good information on the market price,
quality product through mutual sharing and caring, access but also getting credit during the culture operation to meet the
to markets, information and even credit, impressed the livelihood expenses. Maintaining the quality of the harvested
participants. The guidance and support necessary for the sea weeds through proper drying process is another major
farmers in the early stages for the formation of groups and problem. Further when the seaweed are infected with the
adoption of democratic process to develop their own rules disease, getting the disease free planting material has been a
and regulations through participatory process and election major challenge.
of office bearers were identified as the key factors for the
success of the organisation. Gender being a key issue, Taking the above points in to consideration, training manual
participants were enlightened on how a gender balanced has been designed to evolve best management practices
approach can empower both men and women in the that can help farmers to produce good crop of sea weeds
community. The Thailand Department of Fisheries being and obtain the best price in the market. In a five day training
recognised for its role in addressing gender issues was program held in November, 2009, with the participation of
used as an example on how the sustained efforts can bring fifty farmers, they learnt about the best farming practices
solutions to the major problems. with the involvement of trainers from the processing sector,
researchers dealing with the sea weed diseases, extension
The training program also provided an opportunity for the specialists, etc. After two days of class room discussion,
participants to present their findings and the strategies they farmers spent time in the field to learn about the practical
wish to adopt to address the problems confronted in respect aspects of seaweed cultivation and processing.
of the commodities that they are dealing. A plan of work
on how they will proceed in respect of developing training These farmers have been organised in to groups and assisted
manuals for each of the commodities was discussed and to use the knowledge and skills acquired in the field. As the
agreed upon. MCPI Corporation involved in seaweed processing is also
involved in the project, it is hoped that the farmers would get
the best benefit from the industry perspective.

Snakehead culture These trained farmers are expected to be given follow up

support to establish the group and help them carry out the
Farmers on the Great lake of Cambodia have initiated the activity. As there is huge difference in the farm gate price and
cultivation of snakehead Channa striata in cages using the international retail price, it is hoped that farmers would be
homemade feed. Fisheries Administration has granted able to benefit largely from such an effort.
permission for the farmers to conduct the experiment with a
view to evolve new culture methods that will help to reduce Tilapia cultivation
the usage of trash fish. Farmers are now using trash fish
unsuitable for human consumption along with large quantity of As the farmers in Thailand are facing major disease problems
good quality rice bran rice bran and silk cotton leaves powder. in the cultivation of tilapia both in ponds and cages, the
The proportion of these feed ingredients would vary based training focused on building the capacity of farmers in
on the cost and availability in the market. Farmers have preventing disease problems in tilapia cultivation by adopting
reported good growth of fish on the feed and the trials are in good practices. When the disease occur, steps that need
good progress. Although pellet feed specifically designed for to taken to prevent the spread of disease were taught to
snakeheads is now marketed, it is yet to found acceptability farmers. Lead farmers who participated in the training
by farmers because of cost and food conversion efficiency. provided inputs on the design of the training manual to their
requirements. Farmers have indicated that the manual, in
It is also important to record here that farmers have been addition to being a reference material, it should serve as
able to breed the snake head successfully and produce small record book. Farmers have also suggested to produce the
amount of seed. Farmers are confident of producing the seed posters on various aspects of culture of tilapia so that they
locally, if the government lifts the ban on its cultivation and can utilise the same in training farmers. Existing training
allow people to cultivate. materials in the Department of Fisheries would be modified to
suit the necessities.
Training for two batches of farmers comprising twenty farmers
from Siem Reap and another twenty from Pursat province has Extension specialists also trained lead farmers on the
been planned. In the training conducted in Siem Reap in Dec, effective communication methods to help farmers have the
2009, farmers shared the knowledge they have generated required level of confidence in the field.
in seed production and growing fish successfully using the
home made feed. Experts in the training assisted farmers Shrimp cultivation
to understand the developments made in the production of
seed, nutritional requirement studies and how to make made Some of the self organised groups in Vietnam have been
feed can be prepared using different feed resources. successful in growing shrimp successfully without any
disease problems. These farmers have evolved the good
In the group discussion held involving both husband and wife practices that will help in the disease prevention and even in
of the cage farmers, they identified lifting of Government ban case, there would be a disease outbreak, sufficient measures
on cultivating snakehead as the most urgent necessity. In the have been developed to prevent the spread of the disease.
absence of such a rule that facilitates them to carry out the As the farmers are organised in to group and follow well
culture, farmers are subjected for exploitation. In addition, established norms like stocking healthy seed and all stocking
farmers recognised credit availability as the second urgent almost at the same time in an area, use of pellet feed instead
necessity to enable them to withstand the financial shortages of trash fish or use the well proceed homemade feed, prevent
and plan marketing of fish when the price would be high. unnecessary exchange of water, dissemination of information
to all other farmers in the area in case of the disease
Farmers have agreed to establish themselves in to a group outbreak, etc.
and work collectively to develop best aquaculture practices
for the culture of snakeheads. Based on the results obtained, In contrast to the above, in several areas, farmers not being
the government will be appraised with a view to also farmers organised are confronted with many challenges with frequent
to undertake culture of snakeheads using homemade feed. crop failure or very low yield. For example, farmers in Ninh
Binh Province are faced with such crop failures and an effort
Groupers and sea bass cultivation is made through this project to educate farmers on how the
problem could be eliminated by following the best practices.
Twenty farmers involved in grouper and sea bass farming In the training, farmers were educated on the need for group
participated in the two day organised in Lampung in the formation since the spread of disease will be rampant, if there
Marine Fish Culture Station in December 2009. Farmers is no coordination among farmers. Starting from preparing
discussed the best ways to cultivate fish in cages to meet the pond properly to stock seed, obtaining tested and disease
market standards. Although at present they use largely trash free seed for stocking, feeding either pellet feed or well
fish for cultivation, they are gradually realising the benefits cooked homemade feed to prevent the virus introduction
of using pellet feed, mainly to prevent disease problems. As through uncooked trash fish, periodic checking of the seed for
the culture period for groupers take long time, small farmers health and on how to manage the disease in case of disease
are facing the problem of credit and they often depend on occurrence, etc were taught to farmers.
the middlemen to borrow the required amount under an
agreement that grown up fish would be sold. Because of A large number of women participated in the training program
these obligations, farmers do not get the best price they along with men. In the group discussion, men and women
deserve to get and hence the need for them to get organised identified the activities they can carry out efficiently. Further,
themselves in to group and initiate saving related activities women were also categorical in stating that all the activities
was discussed. men can do, they also can do in shrimp farming. As the
work is divided between men and women, each continue to

Research & farming techniques
specialise in their area of operation, but if necessity demands, The Vietnam team has also developed a good pictorial guide
each can carry out all the activities. However, it was identified on the benefits of forming farmer organisation. This manual
that both men and women should be trained to enable them would be useful to all countries in educating people on
to carry out the activity in the family as a team. establishing farmer groups.
Following the training, based on the expressed desire of

farmers, a field trip for the selected group of farmers was Conclusion
organised top see the shrimp farming activity in Ham Ninh
commune in Quang Binh province. The farmers could see The project has been able to accomplish most of the
themselves on how the shrimp farming can be carried out anticipated outcomes owing to the active interest and
successfully by getting themselves organised into a group. support extended by the participating countries. As all the
Each farmer in the group is successfully harvesting two commodities identified by different countries are significantly
crops of shrimp with tiger shrimp cultivation being taken up important from the trade, the project has focused on building
high saline season followed by the white leg shrimp in the the capacity of people in meeting the market requirements
monsoon season. Farmers could learn about the type of both domestically and internationally. Access to information is
coordination needed in shrimp farming to prevent disease and key not only for the successful culture of the aquatic products,
how quality inputs can be obtained by organising in to groups. but also for profitable marketing. Since buyers require the
product in bulk, if farmers become organised, they can have
Farmers have planned to form group in Ninh Binh province better bargaining power.
and undertake shrimp farming following the good practice
of Ham Ninh commune. Farmers from Ham Ninh Commune In the coming months, project is expected to provide support
have promised to help the farmers in Ninh Binh to establish for the formation of groups and help them begin best
the farmer groups and initiate the activity. All this would aquaculture practices. All these experiences will be shared
depend largely based on the leadership and it is hoped that, among all the ASEAN countries in the workshop scheduled to
having seen the success with the follow up support, they be held in August in Vietnam.
would initiate the activity on the similar lines.
Carp seed production at rural front in Orissa, India

Radheyshyam
Aquaculture Production and Environment Division, Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture

Kaushalyagang, Bhubaneswar 751002, India
The availability of quality seed is prerequisite for rapid

expansion and growth of aquaculture. However, uncertainty
in timely seed supply is one of the major constraints.
Considering its significance constant efforts have been
made to produce large quantity of carp seed every year in
increasing trends. For instance, the total fry production in
India was estimated at 632 million in 1986-87 which had
increased to 18.5 billion in 2002-2003 and in 2005-06 it was
over 22.6 billion. Quantified data on larger size fingerlings
and/or yearlings are not available, although it is much needed
for grow out culture.
Fish seed production includes egg to spawn production for

3 days, spawn to fry nursing for 15-20 days, fry to fingerling
rearing for 60-90 days and fingerling to yearling rearing for
8-9 months. Thus the carp seed may be categorised at its
final size into spawn (6-8 mm size), fry (20-25 mm size),
fingerlings (100-150 mm size) and yearlings (100-200 g
weight). Mass production of carp eggs in a spawning pool.
The distribution system of carp seed is complex and dynamic. seed to the fish farmers but also stimulate and support
Though some of the entrepreneurs produce and supply the neighbouring farmers to adopt fish culture within their
fish seed to end users often as a part of complex networks, situation. Earlier studies indicate that paucity of carp spawn
their supply remains erratic in other part, particularly in compelled village farmers to stock their ponds with riverine
rural sectors1. The gap between demand and supply of fish seed2 and due to lack of technical support and basic
quality seeds, by and large, remains a daunting task in rural infrastructure facilities; carp breeding was rarely adopted by
aquaculture development. This can be mitigated, if village farmers3. In view of this various attempts have been made
farmers produce quality carp seed in their ponds to not only to demonstrate carp breeding4-8, spawn to fry rearing and fry
make the access of locally produced and nursed quality to fingerling rearing6, 9-22 and fingerling to yearling rearing21

in rural area. Despite pointed extension focus in this regard,

the sustainability aspect of the production of carp seed by the
farmers still remains a missing link. Present communication
summarises the carp spawn production and seed rearing
management by the fish farmers of Orissa by citing examples
of some selected cases.
What is rural carp seed production?

Rural carp seed production may be defined as “carp seed
production by small-scale households or communities
using mainly extensive and semi-intensive management
appropriate to existing resource base for their own use and/
or improving their family income” or “carp seed production
using technologies adapted to locally available and limited Release of carp spawns in incubation pool.
resources of households”. Rural carp seed production is
not very capital intensive or input intensive and contributes method has certain disadvantages like: difficult to estimate
to rural livelihoods. It is different from more commercially eggs, egg predation by pond animals, poor egg fertilisation
carp seed production systems or entrepreneurial carp seed etc.
production.
Hapa breeding: Brood fish are reared either in separate
ponds or in composite fish culture ponds. Brood fish are
Evolving rural to entrepreneurial netted out to segregate mature males and females. They
are weighed and kept in breeding hapa containing suitable
carp seed producers egg collectors in evening hours. Generally 3-4 kg Hydrilla/ kg
female fish is used as egg collector. Males and females are
The system of carp seed production process is a kept in ratio of 1:1 by weight. They breed naturally in hapa
continuum and it is very difficult to strictly divide rural from after 6-8 hrs. In less suitable condition fishes are injected
entrepreneurial fish seed producers. In fact, many farmers with inducing hormones to ensure breeding. After spawning,
who have been involved in subsistence level carp seed the females are weighed to estimate the egg release. About
production increased their production over the years, with 12-15% of the weight difference goes towards faecal matter of
the more inputs and better management skill, resulting fish and rest weight difference is due to egg release in ovary.
in enlarging their resource base and gradually becoming One gram weight difference in ovary provides an estimate
entrepreneurial. For example, a farmer who used to stock of 700 egg release. Egg attached 2-4 kg Hydrilla is spread
spawn in unprepared pond because of not knowing the per inner hatching hapa. Depending on water temperature,
technique of pond preparation, when came to know, followed hatching takes place in 2 days and inner hatching hapas are
the technique strictly and got better recovery and more removed in 3 days. After 4-5 days, spawn are collected for
income. Thus over a period of few years he could afford stocking in nursery ponds23.
more inputs and intensifies his management and becomes
entrepreneurial seed producer. It is more desirable to make Hatchery breeding: Some of the village hatchery owners use
the resource poor farmers entrepreneurial farmers in rural breeding pools for common carp spawning. They use nylon
area. Such evolution is already taking place with the time. For threads or plastic threads or plastic nets or Hydrilla or water
instances, farmers of Sarakana village evolved as carp seed hyacinth as egg collectors. Egg incubation is carried out in
entrepreneurs from traditional carp seed producer. hatching pools.
Indian and exotic major carp spawn production

Spawn production in rural area
Hapa breeding: In remote villages brood fish are grown
Common spawn production in composite fish culture ponds. During monsoon season
they are netted out and fully mature males and females are
In rural areas generally carp spawn are generally produced selected. Breeding hapas are fixed in composite fish culture
twice during June-August and January-March of the year, ponds having common carps. Presence of common carp,
following the adaptive breeding methods. prawns and crabs cause severe damage to carp eggs in
breeding hapas. Hence, to avoid hazards of loss of viable
Pond breeding: Common carp brood fish are reared in eggs, the breeding hapas are fixed inside the net enclosure5,7.
composite fish culture ponds. In season, clean aquatic weeds Generally for one female two males are used. Intra-muscular
such as Hydrilla / Najaj or water hyacinth are placed in pond’s and/or intra-peritorial injection is administered to brood fish
corners or inside floating bamboo frames in the evening during June-October. Females are injected with PG extract
hours. During late night to early morning fish breed naturally or glycerine extract of PG twice but males are injected only
and eggs are attached to aquatic weeds. Since water once. First dose is given in the evening hours to female @
hyacinth is floating, the eggs get attached on the roots only. 5-6mg/kg and second dose after 4-6 hours of first injection
The egg loaded aquatic weeds are collected in morning hours @ 8-16 mg/kg. Males are injected at the time of second dose
and kept for incubation in hatching hapas or directly spread of female @ 4-5mg/kg male. Presently synthetic hormones
in well prepared nursery ponds. However, in nursery spread (ovaprim or ovatide) are used as inducing agents in rural
eggs the spawn survival is very poor than hapa hatching. This areas7. Both the males and females are injected only once.

These synthetic hormones are administered @ 0.2-0.5 ml/

kg female and 0.1-0.2 ml/kg male. After 4-6 hours of injection
fish spawn. Fertilised eggs are identified and quantified at
comma stage of embryos and hatching are done using hapa
hatching device. Spawn are collected after 72-80 hours
of hatching by filtering with inner hatching hapa with the
spawn recovery of only 24-44% of the fertilised eggs7,8. The
low recovery of spawn from hapa hatching device could be
due to a combination of factors such as cutting of hapas by
crabs and/or large freshwater prawns, entry of unwanted
fishes in hatching hapas8, presence of predatory cyclopoid
copepods in hatching hapas4,24 and sudden change in water
temperature, depletion of DO content, water bloom and
cyclonic weather7,8,25.
Hatchery breeding: For hatchery breeding, brood stocks are

maintained in separate ponds by stoking 1-3t/ha brood fish Carp fry production in rural area.
under scientific management. Brood fishes are injected with
inducing hormones as mentioned in hapa breeding. In rural the region, they ploughed back their hard earned money
area the spawning is done in breeding hapa and/or spawning to construct another carp hatchery with higher production
pool but hatching is done in incubation pools. Two-three year efficiency. As a result of which they are able to produce
old carps weighing 2-5 kg are the best for hypophysation. 100-150 million carp spawn annually. This suggests that
“Eco-hatchery” is used by the village entrepreneurs. It traditional seed production in rural area transformed into
includes overhead tank, spawning pools, egg collection entrepreneurial seed production by utilising the improved
chamber, incubation pools and spawn collection chamber. technology. They produce carp seed not only to meet the
An overhead tank is generally made on the roof of single or market demands but also earn handsome income and
double storied building and a water holding capacity of 5000 employment.
litre can supply water to spawning and incubation pools.
Depending upon the requirements, the sizes of spawning Carp spawn production at Kantapada: Farmers from
pools vary. Spawning pool is 8-9 m diameter and 1.0-1.5 Kantapada village initiated carp spawn production in 1996
m deep with the provision of water circulatory system and using hapa breeding device. With spawn recovery of 25-40%
shower. Farmers use 20-30 kg female per spawning pool of viable eggs, they produced 40, 50, 67and 42 lakh spawn
and produce 250-400 litres of carp eggs in one operation. during 1996, 1997, 1998 and 199925. After realising the
These eggs are incubated in 3-5 hatching pools. Incubation poor spawn recovery, farmers constructed one circular carp
pools are 3-4m inside diameter and 1 m deep. Generally hatchery and now they are producing 40-60 million carp
1 egg is incubated in one ml water. During egg incubation, spawn annually.
farmers maintain water flow @ 2.5 l/sec. initially, @ 2.0 l /
sec at twisting movements of embryos and @ 3.5 l/sec after Carp spawn production at Bhatapadgarh: Carp breeding
hatching to get better spawn recovery. Farmers harvest was started with hapa breeding with the technical guidance of
800,000 to 1,000,000 spawn/pool/operation. KVK/TTC, CIFA, Kausalyagang in stored rain water in ponds constructed
CIFA designed and fabricated portable FRP carp hatchery in at hilly terrains during 200227. Farmers have been trained
1989 with the maximum spawn recovery of 3,000,000 lakh / through participatory approach in carp breeding skills. During
operation/pool26, now modified and commercialised by CIFA skill learning farmers could produce 1,100,000 carp spawn
and it is used by the village entrepreneurs to produce carp with 20-40% recovery in hapa breeding. Meanwhile, they
spawn. From hatchery breeding farmers get 80-95% recovery constructed one commercial carp hatchery during 2003 and
from the viable eggs. By adopting circular carp hatchery some made it operational through the technical guidance of the
of the rural fish farmers changed into entrepreneurial seed author in 2004. Now farmers are producing 50-110 million
producers. spawn of C. catla, L. rohita, C. mrigala, C. carpio, L. calbasu,
C. idella and H. molitrix every year at the hilly terrains to meet
Success cases of carp spawn production the regional demand.
Carp spawn production at Sarakana: Farmers from the By seeing the economic profitability in carp spawn production,
Sarakana village started carp spawn production in 1987 many of the neighbouring farmers and entrepreneurs have
with common carp and produced 3.5 lakh spawn in hapa constructed carp hatchery to produce carp spawn to meet the
- breeding. Gradually they learnt the induced breeding local carp seed demand.
techniques of Indian major carps and exotic carps in hapa17.
Carp spawn production increased to 1,440,000-8,555,000 up
to 1995. The spawn recovery was poor and ranged between Carp fry and fingerling rearing in
24-44%8. To mitigate the problems of poor recovery of spawn
in hapa, they have been motivated by KVK/TTC, CIFA to rural areas
construct a cemented circular hatchery in 1995 which resulted
higher spawn recovery of 74-85% from 1996 onwards. This In rural area, spawn to fry nursing is carried out in smaller
resulted in producing 15,750,000-31,950,000 spawn of ponds of 0.02-0.05 ha (0.5-1.0m depth). In same perennial
Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala, Cyprinus carpio, ponds fry, fingerling and/or yearlings are reared in succession
Ctenopharyngodon idella and Hypophthalmychthys molitrix during June-July, August-November and December-June
annually8. To meet the market demand of carp spawn in respectively. Alternatively the ponds are stocked with carp

fry and rearing of fingerlings and yearlings are continued in scientific management practices and expanded rearing area
succession. For rearing larger size carp fingerlings 0.05-0.1 to 20 ponds (2.0 ha) gradually25. Farmers are harvesting
ha with an average depth of 1.0-2.0m are preferred. Ponds carp fry within 12-20 days with the recovery of 35-60%. Multi
shaded by trees are rendered unproductive by reduced cropping of fry production is also done. They are able to
sunlight. Accumulation of leaf litter and an excessive organic harvest 3,000,000-7,600,000 fry annually. The same ponds
load in the pond further deteriorates water quality, adversely are used for fingerling rearing with the production of over
affecting carp and carp food organisms28. At times, masses 300,000-600,000 fingerlings every year.
of foamy brown/white frog eggs, which tend to fall into ponds
during rains, caused a proliferation of tadpoles8. Therefore, Fry and fingerling production at Bhatapadagarh village:
marginal trees and bushes are cleared before launching the Terrace type a series of 17 nursery and rearing ponds
seed raising programme. Pond embankments are renovated (0.05-0.17ha) are constructed with a network of inlets and
with the provision of secured inlet and outlet. Since backyard outlets systems during 2003 to store huge quantity of water
ponds are shallow and small, aquatic weed clearance is flowing in from the hilly terrains27.These ponds were prepared
completed manually by rural farmers. Predatory animals/ by manuring, liming and insect control and stocked with carp
fishes and weed fishes are eradicated by de-watering and spawn @ 3,000,000-6,000,000/ha. Ponds were harvested
drying the ponds or application of suitable piscicides. Raw after 20-30 days of rearing with the recovery of 20-60%
cattle dung is applied as basal manure in ponds. To enhance yielding about 5,900,000 fry from July to September in 1 or 2
the fertilisation effect liming is done. For sustained production crops. After developing confidence in economic profitability,
of natural fish food organisms a mixture of de-oiled cake, the farmers also started using even large size ponds of
cattle dung/ bio-gas slurry and single super phosphate or a 0.5-0.7ha for stocking carp spawn at shallower depth
multiplex pre mineral mixture and vitamins are used in liquid followed by phased increase of water level29 for commercial
forms before 4-5 days of spawn stocking29. fry and fingerling production. They are producing 6,000,000-
15,000,000 fry and 100,000-800,000 fingerlings of catla, rohu,
Fry are harvested and/or thinned in phases according to mrigal, calbasu, common carp, silver carp, and grass carp
the local demand, allowing an extended period of rearing every year for supply in the region.
(14-44 days) in rural area. Prolonged retention of fry in
nursery ponds adversely affects the fry survival. Fry recovery
is 20-40%3, 8,10,12,19. Stocking spawn at shallow water depth Large sized fingerling and
(35-45 cm) followed by phased increase of water level at
3 - 4 days intervals, results higher fry recovery of 50-70 yearling production
%8,29. Fortification of micro-nutrients in artificial feeds is also
enhances the growth and survival of fry16. A commercially Yearlings are produced traditionally in village ponds. When
available multiplex pre-minerals mixture with vitamins farmers fail to sale their fingerlings and they continue to rear
accelerates plankton production and fry survival in nursery them up to May-June. Before monsoon, when ponds are
ponds8. In case ponds are used for fry rearing, fry are prepared for next fry rearing crops, farmers harvest stunted
harvested by repeated netting on day 15-20 of stocking. At fish for consumption as they are grown with reduced nutrient
times, two crops of fry are taken. After fry harvesting, the uptake. But now a days with the increased awareness of
ponds are fertilised with the mixture of above manure to yearlings significance as stocking materials, it is being sold at
produce adequate natural fish-food organisms. On day 2 or pond site for grow out fish culture. When stunted fingerlings
3 of fertilisation, the fresh fry are stocked along with residual are kept on a high quality diet they grow rapidly leading
fry in such a way to maintain the density of 300,000-500,000/ efficient body weight21. Some of the village fish farmers
ha. Later a mixture of above fertilisers is applied in liquid produce yearlings and/or stunted fingerlings with improved
form at weekly or fortnightly intervals. Fingerlings are also management on commercial scale. In this, the fingerlings
fed traditionally and harvested by repeated netting after three stocked in well prepared ponds at high density July-August.
months of rearing. Yearlings are also reared by stocking appropriate carp
fingerlings along with residual stock of fingerlings. During
Success cases of fry and fingerling production culture period ponds are fertilised monthly once. Fingerlings
are fed with the mixture of ground nut oil cake and rice bran
Fry and fingerling production at Sarakana village: in the ratio of 1:1 by weight @ 4-6% of the body weight.
Farmers from the Sarakana village started carp fry raising Complete harvesting of yearlings is done by repeated netting
in one pond of 0.08ha and produced only 220,000 fry and from May-June. Adopting this management the farmers of
40,000 fingerlings17. High profitability in fry and fingerling Kantapada and Bhatpadagarh are producing 3-5 tonnes of
rearing work encouraged the farmers to invest money for yearlings every year.
creating more facilities by constructing two other ponds in
1988 and produced 384,000 fry and over 100,000 fingerlings8. Acknowledgements
Since then every year the farmers expanded their activities by
excavating new ponds and at preset 23 ponds of 0.02-0.1ha Author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. A. E. Eknath,
each are available for fry and fingerling production. Now they Director of Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture,
are producing 4,300,000-6,000,000 lakh fry and 440,000- Kaushalyagang and Dr J.K. Jena, Aquaculture Production
570,000 fingerlings every year. and Environment Division for their constant encouragement
and inspiration for this work. Thanks are also due to Dr. H.
Fry and fingerling production at Kantapada village: In this K. De, Sr. Scientist for critically going through the manuscript
village fish seed nursing was initiated in 1983 by using 12 and improving suggestions.
nursery ponds. Ponds were prepared and stocked @ 30-50
lakh spawn/ha. The fry were harvested after 30-45 days
with the recovery of 15-30%. With the time farmers acquired

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A sustainable mountain paddy-fish farming of the Apatani
tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, India
Nimachow, G., Rawat, J.S., Dai, O. and Loder, T.
Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Itanagar – 791112, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Efficient land utilisation.
Integrated paddy-fish farming systems can be found in parts managed4. Similarly, although common carp culture in rice
of China, Japan, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, fields is quite advanced in Japan5, it has had serious setbacks
Thailand, Myanmar and India. In some cases these systems because of pesticide use in paddy cultivation1.
date back virtually to when man started paddy cultivation.
These systems generally involve some form of on-farm The paddy-fish culture of the Apatani, however, is a purely
waste recycling technique or multiple usage of resources that an organic farming practice and is distinctly characteristic of
enhance production capacity, helping to improve farmer’s Apatani agro-ecosystem2. UNESCO has, therefore, proposed
socio-economic conditions and often benefiting the ecology Ziro valley as a World Heritage Site for it’s for its ancient
as well. Integrated paddy-fish systems can aid intensive custom, forming the basis of the eco-preservation efforts.
production of rice and fish protein with greater efficiency than This article describes the integrated paddy-fish farming of the
they can be grown in isolation, as the by-products of one Apatani Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh.
system component becomes the input for other1.
With 26 major tribes and 110 sub-tribes, Arunachal Pradesh Background of Ziro Valley
is well-known for its ethnic diversity and a wealth of traditional
ecological knowledge. The efficient management and Located at the altitude of 1572 meters Ziro valley has about
sustainable use of agro-ecosystems by the Apatani tribe of 32 km2 of cultivable area, the rest being covered with hills
the Ziro Valley in lower Subansiri District is unmatched when and mountains unsuitable for wet rice cultivation. As per the
compared to the other adjacent tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, 2001 census, the total population of Apatani tribes was about
which largely depend on a low productivity slash-and-burn 26,650 with a density of 948 person km-2. The annual rainfall
economy. Apatanis are well known for their integrated fluctuates from 2,240mm – 2,910 mm with the maximum
system of rice and fish culture (Aji-ngyii) in the valley2, which rainfall during the months of June and July. The minimum
has become an additional source of income and important and maximum temperature during summer is 6.3°C and
economic avenue of the Apatani farm families3. At the same 28.1°C respectively and that of winter is 1.0°C and 18.4°C3
time fish culture in paddy field may sometime cause health respectively. The air has mountainous soils with high water
risks if the input of pesticides in the paddy crop is not properly holding capacity suitable for paddy cultivation.

The land and water resource utilisation system developed

by Apatanis is essentially necessitated by the limited land
resource available for large population base. The Apatanis
are densely concentrated in the Ziro valley. The population
density of the Ziro valley, as shown in Table 1, is more than
hundred folds than that of state’s density and also much
higher than the average for the country. In the year 1961 it
was 415 persons km-2 against 4 persons and 142 persons
km-2 of the state and country respectively. The population
density of Ziro valley had doubled by 1991 where as that
of state and country doubled by 1981. Interestingly, the
0.03% area of the Ziro Valley to the total geographical area
of Arunachal Pradesh is supporting 2.26% population of the
state.
Looking at the distribution scenario of landholding size

and number of farmers, as evident in Table 2, farmers with
marginal (very small) holdings make up almost half of the Wooden pipe to convey water in another terrace.
farming population in Ziro Valley. In contrast, the rest of the
district and state have more than 50% medium-sized farmers. channel and again redistributed to numerous secondary
On the other hand medium size landholdings in Ziro valley channels to convey water in each and every field plots. The
are only 17% of farms and the large size landholdings are a water is conveyed from one terrace to another through the
low 0.8% of holdings compared to the district and state figure bamboo or wooden pipes put above 15 – 25 cm above the
of 5.1%. The paucity of the arable land has compelled the bed to ensure the proper water level. In order to contain soil
Apatanis to evolve and indigenous technique of intensive erosion, bio-fencing is installed alongside of the main canals.
farming and efficient method of land and water management. The irrigation systems are managed by a group of farmers led
The Indian Council for Agricultural Research for North East by Bogo Ahtoh to ensure proper supply and sharing of water2.
Himalayan region has demonstrated sustainable agriculture
through paddy-cum-fish culture in Manipur. The Apatanis Paddy fields terrace are developed with size ranges from 235
of Ziro valley have also developed their own techniques of to 2740 m2 which are levelled uniformly to ensure the uniform
rearing fish along with paddy to meet both the requirements water height. In order to hold the water level dykes or bund,
of rice as well as fish as an important part of their diet. supported by bamboos and wooden clips, are constructed in
the fields. The width of the dykes ranges from 0.6 m to 1.4 m
and height varies between 0.2 m to 0.6 m. No ploughing is
Land, water and nutrient done in the field to retain the soil fertility and land is prepared
with the help of spades. The household’s waste water drained
management to the irrigation canals provides good source of manure in the
field. Soil nutrients are also maintained through recycling of
The Apatanis have developed a multipurpose water agricultural wastes, paddy straw, rice husk, ash, weeds, etc.
management system, which integrates land, water and After the harvest free cattle grazing is allowed to add green
farming systems by protecting against soil erosion, manure. In addition, the decomposed leaf litter leaching from
conserving water for irrigation and paddy-cum-fish culture6. It the forest floor is collected in separate pipes connected to the
is managed by diverting streams originating in the forest into main canal so that it goes on to the plots.
a single canal to which each field is connected with bamboo
or pinewood pipe7. The streams are trapped into a major
Paddy-fish culture
Table 1. Population & density (people/km2) of Ziro Valley vis-a-vis
Arunachal Pradesh & India People believe that tali nguyi (Channa
sp.) and papi nguyi (Puntius sp.) fishes
Year Apatani Arunachal Pradesh % to state India were naturally available in the paddy
Population Density Population Density density fields. Usually, these fishes are caught
1961 10,793 415 336,588 4 3.21 142 by opening the outlet of bunds so that
1971 12,888 496 468,511 6 2.75 177 the volume of water becomes lesser
1981 16,580 638 631,839 8 2.62 216 in the field. Indigenous trap prepared
1991 22,526 866 864,558 10 2.61 267 from bamboo is placed in the outlets
2001 24,650 948 1,091,117 13 2.26 324 to catch the fishes. The remaining fish
Source: Census of India (1961, 1971, 1981, 1991 & 2001), Government of India. in the field are caught by indigenous
baskets, nets, etc. Such natural
Table 2. Landholding wise number and proportion of farmers occurrence of fish in paddy fields led the
Government of Arunachal Pradesh to
Holdings Apatani Valley Lower Subansiri State’s start paddy cum fish culture in Apatani
Number % Number % Total (%) valley during 1964-65 on experimental
Marginal 1,360 47.5 2,323 20.01 19.24 basis. The experiment started with 23
Small 990 34.6 2,678 23.07 19.33 plots of paddy fields covering an area
Medium 489 17.1 6,017 51.82 55.65 of 10 acres and was found remarkably
Large 23 0.8 592 5.10 5.75 successful8. The Paddy fields are
Sources: 1. District Ag. Officer, Lower Subansiri & Agricultural Census 1995-96.

Paddy harvesting and digging trenches side by side.
suitable for fish culture because these fields have strong carp feeds on paddy leaves and hence it damages the crops.
dykes or bunds locally known as agher for preventing leakage So this variety of fish is being stocked when the paddy is
of water and retaining it to the desired depth and also to grown well above water level.
prevent the escaping of cultivated fishes during floods. On the
bunds, sarse (millet) is cultivated which is a common practice The people categorise their fields as zebi aji (soft field)
among the Apatani people. Therefore, no portion of paddy and aller aji (hard field). Generally in soft fields the pyapin
plots remains unutilised. (Oryza sativa) variety of paddy is grown and lesser numbers
of common carp are reared for once in a year. Due to the
Apart from the naturally available tali ngiyi (Channa spp.) and softness of the field, there is a risk of roots being damaged by
papi ngiyi (Puntius spp.) fish species, there are other varieties fish. Hence, only one batch of paddy and fish are reared. On
of fishes like ngilyang ngiyi (Schizothorax spp.), tabu ngiyi the other hand, in hard fields, two batches of fish are reared
(eels), ribu (Nemaucheilus), ngiyi papi (dorikona or weed in a crop season. The first batch of fish is stocked during
fish) found in Kiley River draining the valley. The Government late March to early April before the transplantation of paddy
of Arunachal Pradesh had introduced aji ngiyi (common saplings. These fishes are harvested in mid June and the
carp or Cyprinus carpio) in the paddy fields of the people. second batch is put in the month of July which is harvested
Presently, this is the most frequently reared fish species in the month of September. A long multi-purpose trench is
in the region. Currently, species such as kuri mass (Labeo prepared along the middle of the paddy field. When weeding
gonius), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver carp the paddy field fish are kept in the trench. When there is no
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), Barbonymus gonionotus, etc. rain, hot weather, etc the stagnant water of the field become
are also stocked along with common carp. But the success warm. However, the water in deep trench provides cool
rates of these varieties are much less than the common carp. hideouts for the fishes. While harvesting the fishes, water
The reason may be unfavourable climatic conditions of the is completely drained out from the paddy field. Fishes are
Ziro valley for these varieties of fish. Fish rearing in field is bound to concentrate in the trenches from where they are
reported by the farmers to be beneficial in multiple ways. caught easily using the traditional traps. Such trenches dug
These fishes feed on small insects like water beetle, larvae, out just after the harvest of paddy or even during the harvest.
and others harmful to the paddy. In turn the waste material of Different traditional species of Oryza are grown in the paddy-
fish works as manure to paddy plant. Fish such as the grass fish system locally known as ampo, mipya, layi and misang
amo. They mostly cultivate amo, mipya and layi varieties

of paddy which are indigenous in nature. Missang amo is a 9. Tangjang, S., Arunachalam, K., Arunachalam, A., and Deb S. (2008)
variety of paddy that have been taken from the neighboring Adoption of traditional agroforestry system for sustainable landuse in and
Nyishi tribe. Mipya is early variety and harvested in the early around Arunachal Pradesh, In: Proc Natl Sym Silver Jublee of Agroforestry
part of July whereas Empo is a late maturing variety ripe Initiative in India, 104-106.
at different periods and harvested in the month of October. 10. Xiuzhen, F. (2003) Rice-fish culture in China, Aquaculture Asia, 8(4): 44-46.
Mipya is at the verge of extinction due to more emphasis on
other varieties for higher productivity and quality.
The average weight attained by the fingerlings at the time of

harvest ranges from 130 to 400 g. Based on the conservative
estimates of village elders a hectare of land on an average From "Tragedy of Commons" to
yields about 200 kg of fish. The excellent efficiency of the
fish production is despite high mortality of fingerlings9. The "Wisdom of Conservation"
fishes form an important part of diet of the Apatanis and
fetches them subsidiary income with low inputs. Paddy-fish "That which belongs to everyone
systems help poor and small farmers having too small holding Is not taken care of by anyone"
for crop production and a few heads of livestock to diversify was Aristotle's serious apprehension
their farm production, increase cash income, improve quality About common property resource exploitation
and quantity of food produced and exploitation of unutilised
resources1. It has been observed that until now paddy-fish Came in 1968, Economist Garret Haddin's assertion
culture is not been carried out on a larger scale or on full Through his "Tragedy of Commons" proposition
time commercial purpose thus leaving a good scope for That unless we care for and take immediate action
improvement. This practice has potentials of becoming To prevent resources' over exploitation
commercially vibrant only if the people and the government There won't be any resource left for consumption
works towards its development. Such an important culture
can also be disseminated among other surrounding tribes. A team of Canadian scientists have already forecast a
The success of paddy-fish culture in the area can be used grim situation
in the form of illustration to the farmers belonging to other For world's marine fish stock position
different ethnic groups for sustainable mountain agriculture. That if not reversed the current pace of destruction
This would enhance the economic prosperity of the rural By 2048 all world fish stocks would face extermination
people. By now almost every tribe in the state has started
wet rice cultivation in the available cultivable lands. Thus, With growing concern for dwindling fish stock condition
paddy-rice practice can be encouraged initiated in those Came in 1982 a collective global opinion
fields. It is a relatively easy, low-cost and low-risk entry point Through FAO's World Conference deliberation
for rural farming communities to improve their livelihood and To steer the world towards aquatic resource
household income without jeopardising the sustainability of conservation
rice production10.
Snowballing subsequently,
It was realised from the present study that increased The idea got a definite shape and improvisation
population leads disintegrating/fragmenting of cultivable land. And culminated in
Therefore, the available land can be managed in such a Rio de Janeiro's 1992 Earth Summit's discussion
manner that it will yield both paddy and fish together at a time
to meet the need of food and capital simultaneously. With emphatic world opinion
Generated through UNCLOS resolution
References Finally came into force in 1995
FAO's Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and
1. Sinha, V.R.P. (1985) Integrated Carp Farming in Asian Country, Network of its draft circulation
Aquaculture Centres in Asia, NACA/WP/85/25, 1-13.
2. Dolo, M. (2009) Traditional Irrigation System: A Case of Apatani Tribe in Let every nation arise and realise
Arunachal Himalaya, North East India, Mountain Forum Bulletin, 2009, 9(1), And take concrete preventive action
9-11. To channelize the wisdom of fish conservation
3. Das, D.N. (2002) Fish farming in rice environment of North East India, To ensure the availability of fish for future generation!!
Aquaculture Asia, 7 (2): 43-47.
4. Chen, D.F., Meter, P.G., and Helbert, M.S. (1984) Organoclorine pesticides S.M.Shivaprakash.
residues in paddy-fish in Malaysia and the associate health risk to farmers,
Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 62(2): 251-253.
5. Hickling, C.F., (1962) Fish Culture, Faber & Faber, London, 295 p.
6. Dabral, P. P. (2002) Indigenous Techniques of Soil and Water Conservation
in North Eastern Region of India, 12th ISCO Conference Beijing, 90-96.
7. Dollo, M., Samal, P.K., Sundriyal, R.C. and Kumar, K. (2009.
Environmentally Sustainable Traditional Natural Resource Management
and Conservation in Ziro Valley, Arunachal Himalaya, India, Journal of
American Science, 2009;5(5):41-52.
8. Sobhapati, S (2008) Paddy-cum-fish culture to boost Manipur’s rural
economy, 2008, http://www.sinlung.com/?p=2765.

The economic impacts of WSSV on shrimp farming

production and export in Iran
Salehi, H.
Economic Studies Group, Iranian Fisheries Research Organization, No.297, West Fatemi, Tehran, Iran,
Email: hsalehi_ir@yahoo.com.
White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) occurs worldwide and

causes high mortality and considerable economic damage
to the shrimp farming industry. WSSV, which was first
discovered in Southeast Asia around 1992, is currently the
most serious viral pathogen of shrimp worldwide. It causes
up to 100% mortality within 7 to 10 days in commercial
shrimp farms, resulting in large economic losses to the
shrimp farming industry1. Shrimp culture has been a
booming business since the beginning of the 1990s, and
worldwide production was 1 million metric tonnes in 20022,
increased to almost 2.4 million tonnes in Asia by 20083. The
shrimp farming industry is an important source of economic
development and provides well-paid employment in poor
coastal areas4.
From the 1990-1995, potential areas for shrimp culture

development were surveyed in Iran, comprising some 2,000
km of coastline and more than 110,000 ha of cultivable area. Abadan shrimp site, photos by Dr Afsharnasab.
Prior to 2001, more than 7,000 ha of shrimp ponds had been
constructed and 11,000 ha were under construction. The disease outbreaks that took place in 2002, 2005, and 2007
main native species produced under semi intensive systems also caused liquidity problems among farm operators. Many
was the Indian white shrimp (Penaeus indicus). However, shrimp hatcheries, shrimp farms and shrimp processing
since outbreaks of WSSV farmers have changed to white leg factories could not make bank payments on their loans. This
shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) in Khuzestan and Bushehr led lenders, especially the Agriculture Bank, to come up with
provinces. Shrimp culture development has taken place along a loan rescheduling programme for shrimp farmers.
the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman,
where the soils are alkaline and infertile and the water is
alkaline (37-42 ppt). Salinity increases up to 47-50 ppt in the Shrimp culture development in Iran
ponds and air temperature reaches 50°C. These are generally
considered harsh conditions, but the Indian white shrimp and In Iran, shrimp farming started about 15 years ago and
white leg shrimp not only survive but seem also to thrive very it has undoubtedly seen great experience over this time.
well. Shrimp farms are located along the 2,000 km coastline in
the southern parts of Iran from Abadan (Khuzestan province)
The sustainability of shrimp farming has become a major in the southwest through Bushehr province, Hormozghan
concern among the small-scale coastal farmers in Iran, as the province and finally to Goater (Sistan and Baluchestan
sector has experienced widespread disease problems for four province) in the southeast, near the border of Pakistan.
or five consecutive years. In 2002, an outbreak of disease Since 1991, the Fisheries Organization of Iran has initiated
of cultured Indian white shrimp occurred in semi-intensive development of marine shrimp farming in the southern coast
farms in Abadan (Khuzestan province), southwestern Iran, provinces. Initial trials were carried out with FAO/UNDP
where it caused losses of almost 100 percent of production. assistance in the years 1991-92, producing post-larvae of
Later WSSV disease occurred in all shrimp sites in Bushehr local species such as P. semisulcatus, P. merguiensis and
province, where it severely affected small-scale farms M. affinis and reviewing favourable areas for shrimp culture.
practicing high stocking density, resulting in great economic The development of shrimp culture in the region attracted
loss. In 2007, an outbreak of disease of cultured Indian white considerable investment and expanded very fast, however
shrimp occurred in semi-intensive farms in shrimp site of there is still a long way to meet the goals of the national
Goater (Sistan and Baluchestan province), southeastern Iran. development plan. Though the potential of shrimp culture to
expand may be apparent, it may be constrained by market
Production and export of shrimp play a dominant role in the demand and producer profitability. From 1992-2002 the
fisheries economy in southern Iran; the shrimp sector was sector had undoubtedly seen great success, but since 2002
the second largest contributor to fisheries export earnings. production has declined due to the impact of WSSV.
Per ha production increased from almost 500 kg in 1993
to 2,300 kg in 2002. Since 2003, the effect of WSSV has
caused a decline of per ha production in shrimp farming
in Iran. In 2005, yield in Bushehr had declined to almost
1,000 kg / ha5. Besides the reduction in export income, the

Provincial production
As Table 1 shows, production rose from less than 20 tonnes
in 1993 to more than 7,600 tonnes in 2001 before declining
to 6,000 tonnes in 20026, with a recovery to 9,000 tonnes in
2004 and further declines in 2005 and 20075. In Khuzestan
province, shrimp farming production increased from less
than 10 tonnes in 1993 to the highest level of production
of more than 2,050 tonnes in 2001. In 2002, an outbreak
of WSSV disease caused loss of all production. Over
the four years from 2003 - 2007, all governmental effort
including introduction of new species of white leg shrimp
increased production to 70 tonnes. In Bushehr province,
shrimp farming production increased from less than 1 tonne
in 1993 to 5,600 tonnes in 2004. In 2005, an outbreak of
WSSV disease caused losses of great economic loss and
production declined to almost 475 tonnes. Introduction of
white leg shrimp increased production to 1,623 tonnes in
2006 and 876 tonnes in 2007. WSSV did not affect the declined, due mainly to disease outbreaks. In 2000, 2003 and
Hormozgan province, though, where the production trend is 2004, from both captured and cultured shrimp Iran earned
almost constant. In Sistan and Baluchestan province, shrimp (US$22.9 million, US$32.6 million and US$32.8 million) by
farming production increased from less than 1 tonne in 1993 exporting 7,860 tonnes, 6,630 tonnes and 7,680 tonnes of
to 2,500 tonnes in 2006, In 2007, an outbreak of WSSV frozen shrimp respectively, while in 2005, 2006 and 2007,
disease caused losses of great economic loss and production Iran exported only 1,920 tonnes, 2,980 tonnes and 2,290
declined to almost 16 tonnes in 2007 (Table, 1). tonnes and earned (US$7.2 million, US$13 million tonnes and
US$8.7 million)5,7,8.
Shrimp farming production

Conclusions and recommendations
and exports
Since 2002, WSSV disease has caused losses of production
The area of shrimp farming rose from 2 ha in 1992 to more and export income of shrimp farming industry in three main
than 3,660 ha in 2001 before declining to 2,650 ha in 20029, shrimp farming areas of coastal southern provinces in Iran.
increasing again to 3,600 and 4,270 ha in 2003 and 2004 Overall, small-scale shrimp farmers in the coastal area in all
respectively (Figure 1)5. Since 2005, the areas of operating southern provinces are presently in a poor state. The flow
farms have again started to decline and fell to almost 1,000 of capital between the shrimp farmers and related financial
ha in 2007. However, more than 7,000 ha of farms were support activities has almost stopped. Measures need to be
constructed and more than 11,000 ha were also under taken to assist shrimp farmers and other related industries
construction, although the active area did not increase more such as hatcheries, feed factories and processing factories;
than 4,250 ha. Over the 1993-2004 periods, the number otherwise this potentially valuable sector will disappear from
of farms increased from 12 farms to 310 farms, declining this area. Recommendations include:
to almost 200 farms in 2006-2007. The average area of
operating ponds per farm was less than 3 ha in 1993 and • Extension activities, which need to be within the farmers’
increased to almost 14 ha over the 2003-2006, declining reach. An informed extension service and a routine
dramatically to less than 6 ha by 2007 (Figure 2). Since 2001, reporting system should be in place. Co-ordination of
farm gate price has declined almost 40% (Figure 3) and some experts, extension workers, investment agencies and
companies have left the industry. In Iran, the inflation rate farmers is urgently required.
averaged between 12 to 24 percent over the 1997 to 2007
periods. The inflation rate was also negatively affected shrimp • Farm management and management strategies should
industry and caused for losses of companies. be adopted at the conception of the shrimp farm,
including pond preparation, the use of fine screens at
Throughout the end 1990s, the shrimp sector grew inlets, maintenance of standard stocking densities and
dramatically in response to global demand. Iran produces implementation of a water management system. In the
9,000 tonnes of farmed shrimp in 20046. However, over the
years 2002-2007, the exportation of cultured shrimp has
Table 1: Shrimp farming production in four coastal provinces over the 1993-2007 in south Iran.
Province 1993 1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Khuzestan 8.6 35 114 491 850 2054 0 26 21 0 17 70
Bushehr 0.6 63 296 1,062 1,955 3,334 3,788 3,585 5,600 476 1623 876
Hormozgan 6.6 32 106 205 850 1,213 872 1,737 2,004 1,284 1,560 1,538
Sistan and 0.5 5 3 69 355 1,023 1,300 2,114 1,278 1,800 2,500 16
Baluchestan
Total 16.3 135 517 1,858 4,010 7,624 5,960 7,462 8,903 3,560 5,700 2,500
Sources: Salehi, 2003, PDD, 2002, 2004 & 2005 and Fisheries of Iran, 2008.

Figure 1: Area and production of shrimp farming from

1993-2007 in Iran.
10000 EWK
9000
8000
7000
EWB
6000
5000
4000
EWS
3000
2000
1000
0
1993 1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
year
Production (MT) Area (ha)
EWK= Effect of white spot syndrome virus in Khuzestan

case of imported brood stock and post-larvae, proper Province, EWB= Effect of white spot syndrome virus in
checking should be carried out before importation is also Bushehr Province, EWS= Effect of white spot syndrome virus
allowed. in Sistan and Baluchestan Province. Sources: Salehi, 2003,
PDD, 2002, 2004 & 2005 and Fisheries of Iran, 2008.
• Network building, including a co-operative network to
address shrimp diseases should be further developed
that includes research, extension, field investigation,
information exchange and preventative measures.
Figure 2: Number of operating farms and average area of
• If it is possible, alternative income generation activities ponds per farm from 1993-2007 in Iran.
should be supported and provisions should be made
for small-scale shrimp farmers and hatchery centers to 350 16
explore, and engage in, alternative activities. 300 14
250 12
References 10
Number
Hectare
200
8
150
1. Lightner, D. V. (1996). A handbook of pathology and diagnostic procedures 6
for diseases of penaeid shrimp. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, 100
4
LA. 50 2
2. Rosenberry, B. (2002). World shrimp farming 2002. Shrimp News 0 0
International, San Diego, Calif. 1993 1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
3. Aquaculture Asia Pacific (2009). Marine shrimp in Asia: Production trends. Year
Aquaculture Asia Pacific, January/February 2009. Vol. 5. No., 1. pp26-29. Number of farms Average used area per farm
4. Adger, W. N. (1998). Sustainability and social resilience in coastal resource
use. CSERGE working paper GEC 97-23. Center for Social and Economic Sources: Salehi, 2003, PDD, 2002, 2004 & 2005 and
Research on the Global Environment. University of East Anglia and Fisheries of Iran, 2008.
University College, London, England.
5. Fisheries of Iran, (2008). Fisheries statistics. Fisheries of Iran, Tehran, Iran,
65p.
6. PDD (2004). Fisheries statistics, Shilat, Tehran, Iran, 51p.
7. Salehi, H. (2002). Shrimp farming development in Iran, paper presented in Figure 3: Farm gate price IR Rials per kg. of shrimp
8th shrimp farming conference in Tehran, (in Persian), unpublished, 18p. production from 1996-2007 in Iran.
8. Salehi, H. (2003). A strategic analysis of shrimp farming development in 45000
Iran, paper presented in government committee (in Persian), unpublished, 40000
28p. 35000
9. Aquaculture Department (2003). Annual report of aquaculture production in 30000
IR Rials
25000
Iran (in Persian). Shilat, Tehran, Iran, 40p.
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
61-70 71-80 81-100
Sources: Salehi, 2002 & 2003 and Fisheries of Iran, 2008.

Current practices of marine finfish cage culture in China,

Indonesia, Thailand and Viet Nam
Kongkeo, H.1 , Wayne, C.2, Murdjani, M.3, Bunliptanon, P.4, Chien, T.5
1. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand; 2. Guangdong Provincial Aquatic Animal Epidemic
Disease Prevention and Control Center, Guangzhou, China; 3. Main Centre for Mariculture Development, Lampung, Indonesia;
4. Phuket Coastal Fisheries Research and Development Centre, Phuket, Thailand;
5. Research Institute of Aquaculture No.3, Nha Trang, Viet Nam.
The regional project Reducing the dependence on the

utilisation of trash fish/ low value fish as feed for aquaculture
of marine finfish in the Asian region is being implemented in
China, Indonesia, Thailand and Viet Nam under the auspices
of the Technical Cooperation Programm (TCP) of the FAO
of the UN. The Lead Technical Officer for the project from
FAO is Dr. Mohammad Hasan, Fishery Resources Officer,
FIRA, Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture of the FAO.
The regional activities are coordinated by the Network of
Aquaculture Centrees in Asia-Pacific, headed by Professor
Sena S De Silva. The article has been prepared based on
the contribution from the country national project coordinators
and has been edited by Mohammad Hasan and Sena S De
Silva.
In contrast to most aquaculture practices, there is a steady

increase in the diversity of marine finfish species farmed in grouper (E. lanceolatus), tiger or brown-marbled grouper
the Asia-Pacific region. In the last two decades there have (E. fuscoguttatus), seabass (Lates calcarifer), snubnose
been a strong demand for high-value live reef fish in Asia, pompano (Trachinotus blochii), Russell’s snapper (Lutjanus
particularly by the live food fish restaurant trade (LFFRT) in russellii), and cobia (Rachycentron canadum).
China, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan Province of China
and also the rest of Southeast Asia, driven by improved On the other hand, marine finfish farming is still predominantly
economic conditions. Marine fish cage culture is now dependent on the direct use of trash fish/low-value fish,
replacing capture fisheries for much sought after reef fish and remains a contentious issue on many grounds such as
species, such as groupers, snappers and wrasses. Also the resource use, environmental pollution, irregular supply, poor
capture fisheries of such species tended to use destructive feed conversion efficiency (high FCR) and energy/oil costs
fishing gears, and this together with increasing fuel costs for capture. The ongoing FAO/NACA project on “Reducing
have resulted in a decline, and also a general reluctance of the dependence on the utilisation of trash fish/ low value
the public, to consume wild caught reef fishes. fish as feed for aquaculture of marine finfish in the Asian
region” is expected to address these issues through a direct
In the early stages of the farming of important reef food fishes involvement of farmers in reducing the perception that the
there was a high degree of dependence on wild caught seed. trash fish/low value fish perform better than pellet feeds. It is
The supply of wild caught seed for cage culture, which also expected that the farmer based trials will lead to a transition
involves destructive fishing practices and quarantine risks phase from the use of one feed form to the other, and
makes it neither reliable in quantity nor quality. Closing the consequently contribute to overall sustainability of this sector
life cycle of some of the important farmed species, and the in Asia, and preservation of the livelihoods of the farmers
commercialisation of these practices, has gradually led to a and trash fish suppliers. Indeed, the project will attempt to
very significant increase in the use of such seed stocks in address whether the use of trash fish/ low-value fish directly
the farming practices in the region. Some of the important as a feed is more detrimental than the use of commercial
species, the farming of which are based on hatchery reared feeds. Accordingly, participatory trials for comparisons
seed stocks, albeit to varying degrees, are orange-spotted between commercial pellet feeds and trash fish in marine fish
grouper (Epinephelus coioides), Malabar grouper (E. cage culture are being conducted in Zhanjiang, Guangdong
malabaricus), humpback grouper (Cromileptes altivelis), giant Province in China; Lampung in Indonesia; Phuket, Phang-nga

and Krabi provinces in Thailand and; Nha Trang, Khan Hoa requirement of skilled labour in nursery rearing. Often the
Province in Viet Nam, supplemented with relevant livelihood spawning time and frequency is unpredictable, and therefore
surveys of fish farmers and trash/ low value fish suppliers. mass production of live feed such as rotifer, Chlorella,
Tetraselmis etc. for feeding hatchlings for one or more
This presentation is the first of a series, and attempts to spawns at a time is often difficult. This small-scale model is
evaluate the current mariculture practices in operation in the similar to the grouper network developed by NACA which is
four countries participating in this project. now developing in ASEAN countries particularly in Indonesia
and Thailand. The simplified and inexpensive technology
of small-scale hatcheries also minimises the risk on heavy
Marine fish culture operations mortality caused by disease transmission, poor management
by unskilled workers and other physical factors (e.g. power
in Asia disruptions, shortage of feed and other supplies).
The marine finfish production in these four major producing In China, medium-scale hatcheries are found mainly in
countries dealt with here have significantly increased over Hainan Island while large-scale enterprises are found on
the years and currently accounts for 394,580 tonnes, valued mainland. Most farms are small to medium scale (10-100
at nearly US$ 512 million, with China being the largest cages per farm) with increasingly developed large-scale
producer. The above production however, is achieved mostly offshore cages. Traditional cages were generally developed
through small, farmer owned / leased, operated and managed from small-scale operations (4-20 cages) and subsequently
practices, as in most aquaculture practices in the Asia-Pacific expanded to medium size (20-100 cages) until becoming
region. crowded and hence there are limitations of suitable space for
operations.
In Asia, there has been a considerable development of small-
scale or backyard hatcheries for marine finfish species, as is Over 80% of hatcheries in Indonesia, particularly in Bali are
the case for shrimp, that have only a couple of larval rearing small-scale. Fertilised eggs are produced by large-scale
tanks. These hatcheries use simple but effective technologies hatcheries that maintain broodstock and distribute eggs to
to produce seedstock of a range of marine finfish species for many small-scale hatcheries for larval rearing and nursing
cage culture. The key for commercially successful hatcheries using simple technology. Such small-scale hatcheries also
in Taiwan Province of China is to share the fertilised eggs have the capability to switch production between species
among the small-scale hatcheries for mutual benefit. As such as for example between mouse grouper, tiger grouper,
grouper species usually spawn over a million eggs at any milkfish and shrimp depending on price and demand.
one time, it is often difficult for a hatchery to complete the Grow-out operations in cages in Indonesia is generally more
larval rearing cycle by self due to a strong demand for live medium-scale (20-100 cages) than small-scale (less than
feed production, space and other facilities and intensive 20 cages) and large-scale (over 100 cages). As an island
country, investment on cage farming is
Table 1. Aquaculture productions and values of economically important high due to requirements for more rigid
marine fish in 2007 (FAO, 2009). structures suitable for deep water but
the water quality is excellent.
Country / species
Quantity (tonnes) Value (US$ 1,000)
Commercial seabass hatcheries in
China Thailand also supply fertilised eggs
Japanese amberjack 11,528 13,603 to small-scale hatcheries for similar
Cobia 25,855 30,508 reasons as above. In Thailand,
Groupers 42,854 50,567 small-scale or backyard hatcheries
Yellow croaker 61,844 72,976 also engage in nursing of 1 cm Asian
Red drum 49,291 58,163 seabass fry produced from hatcheries,
Flounder 66,549 78,528 or wild caught grouper fry up to stocking
Japanese seaperch 100,574 119,683 size for cage culture. These operations
Total 358,495 414,028 are also capable of shifting between
Indonesia species, ranging from marine shrimp,
Asian seabass 4,417 6,802 freshwater prawn, seabass, grouper,
Groupers 6,370 12,294 etc. according to price and market
Total 10,787 19,096 demand, which is strong evidence of the
Thailand resilience of these small-scale operators
Asian seabass 15,700 42,444 to meet the challenges of the market
Groupers 3,000 18,433 fluctuations. Cage culture in Thailand
Total 18,700 60,877 is mainly a small-scale operation
Viet Nam* which is commonly located inshore
Groupers 766 4,020 or in mangrove creeks, not far from
Snappers 1,069 5,005 farmers’ houses for easy management
Seabream 3,805 7,229 by owners, security and saving of
Asian seabass 750 1,875 labour costs. Other advantages are that
Cobia 208 1,681 these offer convenient sites, savings
Total 6,598 17,934 on transportation and less mortality for
partial harvest and supply to live fish
* Data from Statistics Centre, Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development, Vietnam. markets in the main cities and tourist

Inshore cages in Xe Cuan Bay, Hainan, China. Each raft with the living quarters is owned and managed by one family, and the
main species cultured are grouper, pompano and cobia (Photo: S.S. De Silva).
spots. Over 80% of marine cages are small-scale (4-20 disinfection of tanks, aeration and water system as well as
cages) while the rest are medium-scale (20-100 cages). outbreak of disease cycle in grow-out cages. In essence the
Large-scale cage culture is always limited by insufficient above observations on marine finfish culture are very similar
fingerling supplies, irregular demand of the domestic live to that reported for shrimp culture in the region.
fish market and unreliable export markets. Many small-scale
farmers also use gill nets to trap small fish to feed their
farmed stock in order to reduce costs. Culture practices in China
Over 30,000 small-scale cages have been reported in Viet Since the late 1980s, Chinese mariculture has been growing
Nam, with many in Halong Bay where they are well protected very rapidly with a large increase in species and expansion
by strong winds and wave action. In the middle of the of culture areas due to the government’s open economic
country, cages are more medium-scale which requires more policy. Over one million traditional (mostly wooden) cages
investment for rigid structure against typhoons and storms. still account for the majority of marine cages along coastal
provinces, e.g. Fujian (54%), Guangdong (15%), Zhejiang
There is evidence to suggest that small-scale operations (10%), Shandong (7%), Hainan (5%) and others (9%). These
run by owners / family for both hatchery and cage culture, traditional cages are small to medium-scale with a simple
are more suitable under the prevailing conditions than design (3-5m x 3-5m with 4-5m depth), made of locally
large-scale enterprises which are operated by paid workers. available materials for the frame (bamboo, wooden board,
When problems occur, production can be discontinued, steel pipe) and for floats (plastic container or drum and
even for a long period without much economic suffering. polyurethane foam) similar to other Asian countries. Cages
Such family businesses are in contrast to large-scale, are connected together to form a large floating raft in order to
sophisticated operations, in which the cost of wages, power, reduce the effects of wave action and strong currents. Cage
supporting facilities and other overheads such as interest rafts are commonly equipped with a mincer, high pressure
on bank loans, still has to be borne during closure periods. pump, freshwater pipe, electricity and accommodation
Periodic discontinuation of operations is, in fact, necessary facilities for owner and workers.
for aquaculture in order to facilitate reconditioning, drying and

Inshore (traditional) cage culture has been facing constraints,

particularly in areas most conducive for cage culture, with
good water exchange and easy access to services, due
to limitations on suitable areas for expansion, typhoons,
environmental pollution and disease outbreaks. Self pollution
caused by accumulation of metabolites of fish and feed
waste in crowded cage areas, leads to eutrophication and
disease outbreaks. Therefore, offshore typhoon resistant
cages are being developed to solve the above problems
and to create new job opportunities for thousands of fishers
who can no longer survive through fishing. The Chinese
government and the relevant authorities strongly support this
development both through policy and financing. Since the
late 1990s, offshore cages from Norway, USA, Japan have
been introduced and modified to suit local conditions and the
economic situation in China.
Accordingly, large floating and submersible circular cages

made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) are now locally Offshore (1 to 1.5 km from shore) cages in Zhanjiang, China,
produced at a very cheap price (less than US$ 15 per m3). culturing mostly cobia and giant grouper.
Circular cages generally withstand the rough sea conditions
better because the HDPE frame is more flexible than wooden As China has a large marine area covering both temperate
and or metal frames. It can be submerged up to 4-10 m below and subtropical waters, there are more than 65 species
the sea surface within 8-15 minutes if typhoon conditions that are being cultured, but these are in different stages of
prevail. Due to higher stocking density and production, development. In south-east China, the large yellow croaker
farmers are able to maintain economic viability even though (Pseudosciaena crocea), groupers and cobia (Rachycentron
the profit margin is less. The reduction in sale price of the fish
canadum) are the most important cultured species, while
also attracts more consumers in both domestic and potential Japanese flouder (Paralichthys olivaceus) dominates in
export markets. However, the expansion of offshore cage the northeast. On the other hand, the Japanese seaperch
culture is also limited by the availability of hatchery bred seed
(Lateolabrax japonicus) and red seabream (Pagrosomus
stocks because the demand of fingerlings for stocking per major) are important to both regions. A few species have
cage is much higher than traditional inshore cages. The feed also been introduced and include red drum (Sciaenops
cost is still high because suitable pellet specific for different
ocellatus) from the US and turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)
fish species has not yet been developed. There is also likely from Europe. Those species except groupers are commonly
occurrence of high feed loss through the net in strong current bred in commercial hatcheries. The high valued grouper
conditions of deep sea for slow feeding species like grouper. species which have been successfully bred in hatcheries,
The common species for stocking in offshore circular cages include Hong Kong grouper (E. akaara), yellow grouper (E.
are cobia and giant grouper which are fast growing hatchery awoara), orange-spotted grouper, Malabar grouper but the
bred species. volume of seed produced by hatcheries in Hainan, Fijian,
Guangzhou (Daya Bay), etc, has not been able to meet the
demand for seed stock for cage culture. Traditionally, fish are
fed with minced trash fish/low valued
Table 2. A comparison of a number of relevant parameters between inshore fish as much as 3% to 5% biomass
(traditional) and offshore cages (Chen et al., 2006). daily. Trash fish is sourced from deep
sea trawlers. Trash fish/low valued fish
Traditional Offshore prices vary from US$ 0.20 to 0.53/kg
Survival rate of fish (%) 70 >90 and is not fresh as in other countries.
Cage volume (m3) <100 >1,000 Generally, there is a shortage of trash
Capacity against wind (km/hr) <100 >110 fish/low valued fish during summer and
Capacity against current (m/s) <1 <1.5 winter. Therefore some farmers buy
Capacity against wave-height (m) 2 >6 commercial fish powder, starch, corn,
Life span of cage (year) <3 >10 soybean, wheat and other ingredients
Suitable site Sheltered inshore areas Offshore and mix it with fish oil, water and
Yield (kg/m3) Around 5 >20 vitamins to produce a farm made feed.
Table 3. Summary of practices of marine fish cage culture in China (SD - stocking density; HS - harvest size; CP -
culture period; FGP - farm gate price).
Species SD /m3 Seed sources CP (month) HS (kg) Survival (%) Production FGP
(kg /m3) (US$/kg)
Groupers 50 Hatchery, wild, imported 8-14 0.5 40 15 10
Snappers 50 Hatchery, wild 8-12 0.5 70 15 6.4
Pompano 60 Hatchery, imported 6-10 0.5 80 20 3.5
Cobia 7 Hatchery 8-12 3 85 15 3.5-4.5
Asian seabass 45 Hatchery, imported 6-10 0.6 85 20 2.5
Seabream 40 Hatchery, wild 8-12 0.5 75 10 5.8

There are four main types of feed in

use including trash fish, moist diets,
farm made feeds and artificial diets.
There have been many locally produced
formulated feeds for common marine
fish but the results for grouper culture
show that they are not as efficient
or economic as trash fish. Though
farmers have accepted these feeds
(US$ 0.75-0.85/kg) for cobia, pompano
and seabream culture, the FCRs are
still high. The daily feed ration for
marine fish depends on ambient water
temperatures. In winter and spring, it is
generally reduced by 2-3 times than in
summer and autumn.
Culture practices in
Indonesia
Indonesia has a major development
potential due to its vast potential areas, Medium-scale cages (40 to 80 cages operating at any one time) in Lampung,
mostly inshore sheltered bays etc. for Indonesia.
mariculture. Production of the high value
species makes a significant contribution to export earnings, hatchery operators. Mouse grouper fingerlings of are also
domestic food supply and aquatic resources conservation. valued in the marine ornamental trade which is commonly
Mariculture, brackishwater pond culture, freshwater pond exported to USA, EU, Singapore, Hong Kong and China.
culture, cage culture, culture in floating net cages and paddy Recently, leopard coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus),
field culture accounted for 20.0, 41.0, 22.9, 3.3, 4.7 and 7.7 giant grouper, orange-spotted grouper, camouflage grouper
percent, respectively of the total aquaculture production in the (E. polyphekadion), pompano, Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus
country. Grouper and other high valued marine carnivorous undulatus)- a CITES listed species , and golden trevally
species contributed much to this increase in aquaculture (Gnathanodon speciosus) have also been produced in
production. government hatcheries and growout trials for these species
are being conducted by Indonesian fish farmers.
There are a number of marine fish species widely cultured
in cages such as mouse or humpback grouper (Cromileptes Over 125 marine finfish hatcheries are now operating in
altivelis), tiger grouper, Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer), Bali, Lampung and East Java. These hatcheries have
primarily driven by the commercial success in artificial the capability to switch to species depending on market
breeding of such species in Lampung and Gondol (Bali) demand, such as in the case of milkfish and mouse grouper.
hatcheries, followed by uptake of the technologies by private However, still the culture of orange spotted grouper, Malabar
grouper, dusky tail grouper (E. bleekeri), red snapper (L.
argentimaculatus), rabbit fish (Siganus spp.) is mostly
dependent on wild seed stocks, collected in Sumatra, Java
and Sulawesi.
A stationary trash fish trap, a traditional method of fishing,

in Lampung, Indonesia. In Lampung Bay these are fairly
common, and in the recent years these have been further
modified and made mobile in a manner similar to purse seine Large-scale cages (> 200 cages operating at a time),
operation dragged by two boats. Lampung, Indonesia.

However, there are constraints to cage

culture including access to markets,
fluctuation of prices, irregular hatchery
supply, lack of suitable feeds for grow
out and diseases particularly viral
nervous (VNN) and iridoviruses.
Culture practices in
Thailand
The main cage culture species
in Thailand are Asian seabass,
orange-spotted grouper, tiger grouper,
areolate grouper (E. areolatus),
Malabar grouper, dusky-tail grouper,
coral trout, giant grouper, red snapper
and cobia. Seabass, orange-spotted
grouper, tiger grouper, leopard coral
trout, giant grouper and cobia have
been successfully bred in hatcheries
to varying degrees while the rest are
still reliant on wild seed collection.
In Thailand, marine fish farming is
Small-scale cages in Phang-nga canal, Thailand. practiced in the coastal areas along
the Gulf of Thailand and the west
Marine fish cage culture in Indonesia is carried out in many coast (Andaman Sea). Due to better water quality and water
areas as there are several well sheltered bays and water exchange, the Andaman coast has a greater potential for
quality is generally good compared to other countries in Asia. future development but there are less sheltered areas.
Cage culture can be found throughout Indonesia, including Seabass cages are mainly located along the river mouths
the islands of Sumatra, Bangka, Bengkulu, Lampung, or canals because this species can tolerate lower salinity or
Kepulauan, Seribu, Banten, Java, Lombok, Kalimantan even freshwater.
and Sulawesi. Most cage farms in Lampung are relatively
medium and large-scale operations (80-120 cages) and The preferred size for stocking in cages in Thailand is over
well constructed with wooden walkways, often shaded, 10 cm since mortality is reasonably low. Therefore, it is
house (accommodating 6-10 workers) and equipped with necessary to nurse both hatchery bred and wild caught
electricity, freshwater supply and high-pressure pumps for fingerling (1-2.5 cm) in small net cages (1x1x1.5 m3), earthen
net cleaning. Fish are held in net cages typically 4-18 months ponds (800-1,600 m2) and concrete tanks (5-10 ton) in small-
depending on the size of the cultured species. There have scale (backyard) hatcheries prior to stocking in cages.
been a few commercial pellet feeds (such as Comfeed,
Matahari, Cargil, CP, etc.) developed for marine fish culture There are two types of fish cages including stationary (mainly
with the price around US$ 1.0-1.2/kg but the results are still for seabass) which is suitable for shallow water, not deeper
not economically profitable and generally not well accepted than 2.5 m along the river, canal and lake with less than 1
by the farmers. In most parts of Indonesia trash fish / low metre tidal fluctuation, and floating which is commonly located
valued fish is sourced through fish traps and or small-scale in deeper water of coastal area.
gill net around cage farming areas and these are still readily
available at a relatively low price (US$ 0.1-0.2/kg) and in a Stationary net cages are anchored at four corners by wooden
fresh condition. In other areas or during storm season, the or bamboo poles and is not movable. Floating cages located
price of trash fish of the same quality may rise up to US$ at the mouth of rivers and canals use low cost materials such
0.3-0.5/kg. In general, in Indonesia, the sourcing of trash fish as wooden or bamboo poles for the frame while cages in
/ low valued fish for mariculture operations provides many open water use wooden board or steel frame. Polyurethane
thousands of jobs. foam covered by mosquito net is more common for making
float of cage than plastic drum due to its lower cost.
Table 4. Summary of marine fish cage culture practices in Indonesia (SD - stocking density; HS - harvest size; CP -
Species SD/m3 Seed Source CP (month) HS (kg) Survival (%) Production FGP
(kg/m3) (US$/kg)
Tiger grouper 15-20 Hatchery 9-12 0.5-0.7 80-90 7.5-8.0 8-10
Red snapper 15-20 Wild, hatchery 9-10 0.5-0.6 80-90 7.5-10.0 3-4
Coral trout 15-20 Hatchery, wild 12-14 0.5-0.7 70-80 7.5-8.0 18-20
Mouse grouper 12-15 Hatchery 18-20 0.4-0.6 60-80 6.0-7.0 45-48
Cobia 3-5 Hatchery, imported 10-12 4.0-5.0 80-90 8.0-10.0 3.5-4.0
Asian seabass 15-20 Hatchery 9-10 0.5-0.6 70-90 7.5-10.0 3

Table 5. Summary of procedures adopted in nursing of marine fish fingerling to juvenile in Thailand.
Nursery type Stocking density (pc/m2) Stocking size (cm) Nursing period (days) Harvest size (cm)
Net cage 300-500 5.0 60-75 12.5-15.0
Earthen pond 25-100 2.5 75-90 10.0-15.0
Concrete tank 50-100 1.0-2.5 60-75 5.0-10.0
Table 6. Summary practices of marine fish cage culture in Thailand (SD - stocking density; HS - harvest size; CP -
Species SD/m3 Seed sources CP (month) HS (kg) Survival (%) Production FGP
(kg/m3) (US$/ kg)
Tiger grouper 5-7 Hatchery 10-12 0.4-0.7 70-75 1.8-3.7 9.0-10.5
Orange spotted grouper 5-7 Hatchery, wild 8-12 0.4-0.7 70-80 1.4-3.9 5.0-7.0
Cobia 1-2 Hatchery 12-15 5-8 80 4.0-12.8 3.0
Red snapper 5-7 wild 8-10 0.5-0.7 80 2.0-3.9 4.5-6.0
Asian seabass 5-7 Hatchery 6-8 0.6-1.0 80-90 2.4-6.3 3.5-5.0
Locally developed commercial floating pellets including CP, seabream, cobia, red snapper, seabass, pompano and red
Thai Union, Chaipatana, etc, are used for grow out of some drum (Scianops ocellatus), and seed stocks are obtained
of marine fish species and are available at US$ 1.2-1.4/ from both government and private hatcheries. There has been
kg but farmers still believe that growth performance and considerable investment in hatcheries, particularly by the
profit margins are not as good as feeding with trash fish / government and enterprises from Taiwan Province of China,
low valued fish (US$ 0.30-0.40/kg). Trash fish are usually from where fertilised eggs at early stages of development are
chopped by machine to save labour cost. There are many usually imported. The cultured species that are still dependent
problems in grouper culture including lack of a reliable seed on wild caught fry include Malabar grouper, dusky-tail
supply, disease outbreaks, and high investment for improving grouper, areolate grouper, Hong Kong grouper, yellow
cage structure, lack of trash fish, good pellet and export grouper (E. awoara), crimson snapper (L. erythropterus),
market. red snapper and rabbit fish (Siganus spp.). Wild caught
fingerlings are also exported by boat to China (including the
mainland, Hong Kong, Taiwan Province of China and Hainan
Culture practices Island) but the quantities have gradually decreased.
in Viet Nam Most cage farms are located in fishing villages where they
can easily obtain, relatively cheap supplies of fresh trash / low
Viet Nam has the potential to significantly increase the valued fish. Large-scale Norwegian circular cages for cobia
development of the marine fish-culture industry due to the using imported feed from Canada (EWOS) and Chile (BioMar)
strong export market. The total finfish aquaculture production have been developed in Nha Trang and followed by locally
from cages was over 6,500 tonnes in 2007. The main areas developed large cages in Nghe An and Vung Tau. The fry
for cage culture production in 2007 was in the north, e.g. were originally imported from Taiwan Province of China and
Quang Ninh Province (4,200 tonnes from 9,000 farms) and later produced locally. However, cobia culture is encountering
Hai Phong (1,900 tonnes from 7,280 farms). There were more problems with low prices and limited markets. Although Viet
than 40,000 cages which mainly farmed lobster and also Nam has more than 30 feed mills producing a substantial
produced marine fish, more than 1,000 tonnes in Khan Hoa amount of feeds for aquaculture there is no domestic
and nearby provinces in central and southern Viet Nam. The production for feed for marine finfish. Therefore, most of feeds
main marine finfish species used in cage culture are orange- are imported from Norway (EWOS) for cobia and grouper,
spotted grouper, tiger grouper, green or greasy grouper from Thailand (CP) for seabass and Taiwan PC for cobia and
(E. tauvina), glass-eyed perch (Psammopeca waigiensis), grouper. More than 90% of marine fish farms still use trash
fish (US$ 0.4-0.5/kg) caught by small
fishers and delivered to cages daily by
boat as fresh feed and moist feed.
There are still several constraints

including hatchery development,
nursery technologies, feed
development, disease control, health
management and market expansion
impeding mariculture development
in Vietnam. As more than one million
tonnes of trash fish is currently used as
direct feed in aquaculture in Viet Nam,
it is urgently needed to develop artificial
feed to prevent the shortage of trash
fish in the future.
38
Medium-scale cages in Nha Trang, central Viet Nam. Aquaculture Asia Magazine
Markets for marine fish

Live food fish trade in Asia is still very
much a growing sector due to the boom
in tourism, improved incomes, improving
transportation means and strong and
traditional preference for live and fresh
fish. Reduction in retail prices brought
about by the increase in aquaculture
productions also attracts more
consumers. Over 10,000 tonnes of high
valued live marine fish were imported
both by air and sea from Australia,
China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, Viet
Nam and Maldives to the largest market
in Hong Kong which is also an important
distribution centre to China.
China is the largest producer and

consumer of marine fish in the world. In
line with the country’s rapid economic
development, the market demand
for marine fish in China is very high, Small-scale cages in Nha Trang, central Viet Nam.
especially the demand for live high
valued species, catering to the live food fish restaurant trade. by sea from Viet Nam, Taiwan Province of China or even
Directly imported high value live coral reef fish or brought Indonesia. Thailand used to export millions of hatchery bred
in via Hong Kong are mainly targeted for high-end seafood seabass and wild caught grouper fry to Hong Kong, China
restaurants in major cities such as Shanghai, Guangzhou and (through Hong Kong) and Taiwan Province of China. Since
Beijing. The world’s largest wholesale markets in Shanghai they have been successfully bred and mass cultured in those
and Guangzhou play an important role in distribution of importing countries, it was not necessary to import both fry
seafood throughout the country. Marine fish are transported and adult fish from Thailand anymore. Though there are few
both by air and by land. China is also the largest live fish problems on hatchery and culture practice, seabass culture
exporter in the world, particularly finfish (seabream, basses, still faces major constraints due to the lack of export markets
grouper) and eel to Japan, Hong Kong, Korea and Macau. of both live and frozen fish. Farmers also consider not be
economically profitable to grow large size seabass (1.5-3.0
In Indonesia, the regional trade of adult fish and fingerling kg) for export of frozen fillets due to stunting on reaching 1.0
is considered to be economically important, particularly kg.
its exports to Taiwan Province of China, Hong Kong and
Singapore both by boat and by air. The major species for A strong export market is the driving force for the growth in
export include leopard coral trout, humpback grouper, tiger aquaculture in Viet Nam. Exported species include orange
grouper and orange spotted grouper. Domestic consumption spotted grouper, greasy grouper, areolate grouper and
of live fish is not much but it is improving, particulary in Bali, Malabar grouper. Because of Vietnam’s relative proximity
Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Medan and Surabaya. to large markets in Hong Kong, Taiwan Province of China,
Hainan and western / southern China, live fish are mainly
In Thailand, seabass market is mainly live and chilled forms traded by boats which is more cost effective, and commands
for local consumption and is exported to Singapore and a decisive advantage over other ASEAN countries. There is
Malaysia by land but live grouper is mainly exported only by also a growing demand of live or chilled fish in the domestic
air to Hong Kong, Taiwan Province of China and mainland market as personal income have been improved substantially
China. Export species include orange spotted grouper, over the years after Viet Nam has adopted market economy.
tiger grouper and leopard coral trout. However, Hong Kong
considers Thai grouper as low grade product (pale color To expand marine fish as a global commodity to the huge
and muddy taste) due to their culture in low saline water or frozen market in other regions, it is necessary to develop
mangrove creeks. Shipment by air also burdens the cost for suitable species, particularly fast growing and low production
Thai exporters as they cannot compete with fish transported cost species in order to produce fillet or frozen whole fish
Table 7. Summary practices of marine fish cage culture in Viet Nam (SD - stocking density; CP - culture period; HS -
harvest size; FGP - farm gate price).
Species SD/m3 Seed Sources CP (month) HS (kg) Survival (%) Production (kg/ m3) FGP (US$/kg)
Seabass 20 Hatchery, wild 8 1.0 76.5 10-15 2.5
Red drum 20-30 Hatchery 12 0.8-1.0 70-80 15 NA
Cobia 2.5 Hatchery 12-18 8.0-10.0 80 15-20 3.5-4.5
Groupers 13.8 Hatchery, wild 12-15 0.6-0.8 60-80 8-15 7.0-8.8
Red snapper 6.3 Wild 10-14 0.8-1.0 70-80 5.0-15 4.1
Pompano 15.6 Hatchery, wild 10-14 0.8-1.2 80 15 3.5-5.8

which yield lower price than live or fresh fish, similar to Xan, L. 2007. Present Status and Strategy Development of Mariculture
salmon, tilapia, catfish and shrimp. Cobia and giant grouper in Vietnam, Proceedings of FAO/NACA Workshop on the Future of
are the candidates but it is necessary to lower the feed cost Mariculture, 7-11 March 2006, Guangzhou, China, pp 272-276.
and to promote them in international markets, particularly Phillips, M. Marine Fish Hatchery Development in Asia, NACA Publication.
in US and EU supermarkets and in restaurant chains. Rimmer, M. 2007. Regional Review on Existing Major Mariculture Species and
Meanwhile, governments and relevant authorities should Farming Technologies, Proceedings of FAO/NACA Workshop on the Future
also promote domestic consumption similar to the success of Mariculture, 7-11 March 2006, Guangzhou, China, pp 105-118.
of Penaeus vannamei in China and Thailand. Though the De Silva, S.S., Phillips, M.J. 2007. A Review of Cage Aquaculture: Asia
profit margin of the domestic market is smaller it is more (excluding China), FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 498, pp 18-48.
s than export markets, which always encounter problems Sim, S.Y. 2006. Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture News, NACA
of competition in production and price fluctuations due to Aquaculture Asia Magazine, 2006, pp8.
extraordinary events. Pawiro, S. 2006. Live fish trade in Asia: Update, INFOFISH International
1/2006, pp 54-59.
References Hong, W. 2001. The status of marine fish culture in China, World Aquaculture
magazine, December 2001, pp 18-20
Kongkeo, H. 2009. Backyard Hatcheries and Small Scale Shrimp and Prawn Sadovy, Y. 2000. Regional Survey of Fry/fingerling Supply and Current
Farming in Thailand, Success Stories in Asian Aquaculture (Editors: Sena Practices for Grouper Mariculture, Final Report to the Collaborative APEC
De Silva and Brian Davy), Springer Sciences and Business, pp 69-86. Grouper Research and Development Network, December 2000, NACA.
Chen, J., 2006. Marine Fish Cage Culture in China, Proceedings of FAO/NACA
Workshop on the Future of Mariculture, 7-11 March 2006, Guangzhou,
China, pp 308-325.
Effects of different trash fish with alginate binding

on growth and body composition of juvenile cobia
(Rachycentron canadum)
Hung, P.D. and Mao, N.D.
Faculty of Aquaculture, Nha Trang University, Vietnam, email: hungpd@cb.ntu.edu.vn
The cobia (Rachycentron canadum) is a carnivorous fish. It Materials and methods

can grow with good feed conversion efficiency in offshore net
cage systems from fingerling to marketable size (4–6 kg) in Formulating moist diets
one year with high survival and its white flesh is suitable for
sashimi1. Three species of trash fish: A – anchovy; L – lizardfish;
C - cardinalfish) and those combinations (50 % A + 50 % L;
In cobia farming, trash fish are used as the main source feed 50 % A + 50 % C and 50 % L + 50 % C) were formulated into
for cobia grow-out. Farmers usually put trash fish direct into six diets. Raw fish was ground and extruded by an extruder.
the cages. This causes a loss of nutrients out of the water Sodium alginate was used as a binder for all moist diets at
environment leading to increased feed conversion ratio a concentration of 3%. After extrusion, the moist diets were
(6 – 8) and the risk of environmental pollution7,8,13. In addition, submersed in 10% CaCl2 solution to gel through the strong
the difficulties in storing and variable nutritional quality are binding of calcium and alginate for 10 minutes. Feeds was
the main constraints for cobia culture16. In Vietnam, the pellet sealed in vacuum packed bags and stored frozen (-20°C) until
feeds has been developed and used in cobia culture, but due feeding.
to difficulties in feed supplying and high prices so the farmers
still tend to use trash fish in cobia farming because of stable Fish rearing
supplies and low prices13. However, the low lipid content
in trash fish can affect the lipid concentration of cobia thus Juvenile cobia were bought from a commercial farm in Nha
reducing the quality of products and market acceptance. Trang - Vietnam. Fish were acclimated with a commercial diet
(45% crude protein, 16% lipid) for two weeks before starting
Alginate has been used as binder in feeds for aquatic of the trial, and then fish (mean weight 29 g) were randomly
animals for a long time, when the use of wet or moist feed distributed to each of 18 tanks with 10 fish per tank. Fish
was common10,11. It has previously been shown that feed were fed to satiation in 30 minutes, twice daily at 08:00 and
containing alginate stimulates the immune system resistance 16:00. The feeding trial lasted for six weeks. Temperature and
to diseases in red seabream, Pagrus major9. This study salinity in tanks were monitored daily, while pH and ammonia
was carried out to determine effects of using trash fish with and oxygen were monitored once every three days. Animals
alginate binding on feed utilisation and body composition of were kept under natural photoperiod conditions. During the
juvenile cobia. experimental period, temperature was 28 - 30°C, salinity was
28-30 ‰, pH: 7.5-8.5, ammonia was lower than 1 mg L-1 and
dissolved oxygen was not less than 5.0 mg L-1.

Sample collection and analysis methods
At the end of the six week feeding trial, fish in each tank
were individually weighed and sampled for muscle analysis
24 hours after the last feeding. Three fish from each tank
were randomly sampled and frozen at -30°C for whole body
composition analysis. Crude protein was determined using
the Kjeldahl nitrogen method and calculated as N x 6.25.
Lipid content was determined gravimetrically following ether
extraction. Total ash contents were calculated gravimetrically
following ignition of samples in a muffle furnace at 550°C until
constant weight. Dry matter was calculated by oven drying at
105°C until constant weight.
The parameters were calculated as follows:
• Weight gain (WG %) = 100 × (final body weight − initial

body weight)/initial body weight
of juvenile cobia (P < 0.05). The weight gain and specific
• Survival (%) = 100 × (final amount of fish)/(initial amount of growth rate were highest when using the C diet and had
fish) significant difference with other diets. The results showed that
cardinalfish was most suitable for cobia farming in Vietnam.
• Specific growth rate (SGR) =100 × ln(final weight/ initial
weight)/days of the experiment Whole body proximate composition of cobia was presented
in Table 2. Different trash fish significantly affected on crude
• Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = feed consumed (g, DW)/ protein, crude lipid and moisture of cobia (P < 0.05). There
body weight gain (g) was no difference in ash concentration of cobia among
groups. Compared with body composition of cobia at
Results were expressed as mean ± standard of deviation beginning trial, crude protein, lipid and ash concentration of
(SD) and group mean difference were compared using cobia decreased while moisture concentration increased at
one–way ANOVA. When there were differences, the group the end of experiment.
means were further compared with Duncan’s multiple range
test. All computations were performed with SPSS 17.0. A
significant level of P < 0.05 was employed at all cases. Discussion
A recent study in Viet Nam concluded that there is rapidly
Results increasing demand for trash fish for aquaculture. In 2003,
there were over 175,790 tonnes of trash fish that was used in
Results of growth and feed conversion ratio of the juvenile aquaculture13. In cobia farming, trash fish was used as main
cobia fed different trash fish are shown in Table 1. The feed for cobia farming. Farmers usually put trash fish direct
different diets had significant differences on weight gain; to the cages. This causes a loss of nutrients out of the water
specific growth rate; feed conversion ratio and survival environment leading to increased feed conversion ratio (6 – 8)
Table 1. Weight gain, specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and survival of the cobia fed
experimental diets
Diet Initial weight (g) Weight gain (%) SGR (%/day) FCR Survival (%)
C 29.93 ± 0.81 421.67 ± 44.89b 3.93 ± 0.21b 3.17 ± 0.06a 83.33 ± 20.82b
L 30.73 ± 0.64 222.32 ± 24.03a 2.78 ± 0.18a 3.27 ± 0.30a 76.67 ± 5.77ab
A 30.00 ± 2.00 216.69 ± 7.95a 2.74 ± 0.06a 4.87 ± 0.25c 83.33 ± 5.77b
A:C 29.83 ± 1.66 226.81 ± 23.81a 2.82 ± 0.18a 3.36 ± 0.11a 73.33 ± 15.28ab
L:C 29.71 ± 2.15 243.30 ± 29.71a 2.93 ± 0.21a 4.18 ± 0.07b 56.67 ± 11.55a
A:L 28.41 ± 1.23 215.83 ± 27.93a 2.73 ± 0.21a 4.33 ± 0.28b 73.33 ± 5.77ab
Data in the same row with different superscripts differ at P < 0.05.
Table 2 Whole body proximate composition of the cobia fed experimental diets
Diet Crude protein (%) Crude lipid (%) Ash (%) Moisture (%)
Initial 22.42 ± 0.82 8.44 ± 1.06 4.93 ± 0.42 65.52 ± 0.77
C 16.76 ± 0.57b 4.43 ± 0.37bc 3.80 ± 0.64 73.24 ± 1.00b
L 16.06 ± 0.48b 3.57 ± 0.47abc 4.05 ± 0.54 75.12 ± 0.40 bc
A 16.10 ± 1.14b 3.25 ± 0.77ab 3.92 ± 0.28 74.07 ± 1.79 bc
A:C 16.66 ± 1.09b 3.04 ± 0.33a 4.04 ± 0.23 75.85 ± 0.49c
L:C 16.46 ± 0.64b 4.54 ± 0.05c 4.49 ± 0.30 70.10 ± 1.22a
A:L 11.34 ± 1.17a 4.28 ± 1.22abc 4.44 ± 0.05 75.23 ± 1.37bc
Data in the same row with different superscripts differ at P < 0.05.

and the risk of environmental pollution7.

According to Tacon12, the alginates with
low soluble calcium could be used as
effective and low-cost binding agents
for raw trash fish or moist combination.
In the present study, trash fish is bound
by alginate before feeding. This reduces
the amount of nutrients lost to the
environment and improves the feed
conversion ratio of juvenile cobia (3.17
– 4.87). Similar results were also noted
by some other authors5,6.
Lipid is an important nutrient in diet

as the source of energy and essential
fatty acids15. The diets has high lipid
content can lead to decrease feed
consumption and reduce the utilisation
of other nutrients resulting to reduced
growth4,14,15. However majority of
culturing cobia is consumed as Juvenile cobia.
sashimi1 so it is desirable to increase Feng, L., Oinghui, A., Kangsen, M., Beiping, T., Hongming, M., Wei, X.,
the lipid content in muscle through feeding high lipid diets. Wenbing, Z., Zhiguo, L., 2008. Effects of dietary binders on survival and
This was reported by some authors2,14. In present study, growth performances of postlarval tongue sole, Cynoglossus semilaevis
the lipid concentration in cobia at the end of experiment are (Gunther). Journal of the world aquaculture society, 39, 500-509.
3.04 - 5.84 %, it is lower than lipid content of cobia before Gabrielsen, B.O., Austreng, E., 1998. Growth, product quality and immune
experiment (8.44 %). According to Huy7 using trash fish that status of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., fed wed feed with alginate.
had low lipid content in cobia farming caused lipid reducing Aquaculture Research, 29, 397-401.
in muscle of cobia, thereby reduced quality and price of Huy. N.Q., 2002. Status of cobia (Rachycentron canadum) reproduction and
products. The growth performance of juvenile cobia in present culturing in Vietnam. Journal of Fisheries (In Vietnamese with English
study was better than cobia that used pellets feed but the abstract), 7, 14-16.
results of body proximate composition of cobia indicated New, M.B., 1996. Responsible use of aquaculture feeds. Aquaculture Asia, 1:
that trash fish could be suitable for cobia farming but its lipid 3-15.
content need to be improved before feeding for cobia. Satoh. K., Nakagawa, H., Kasahara, S., 1987. Effects of Ulva meal
supplementation on disease resistance of red seabream, Nippon Suisan
This study shows that using trash fish with alginate as binder Gakkaishi, 53, 1115- 1120.
could have excellent opportunity to improve the utilisation Storebakken, T., 1985. Binders in fish feeds. I. Effect of alginate andguargumon
of the resources and feed costs in places where natural growth, digestibility, feed intake and passage through the gastrointestinal
conditions are suitable. It would be interesting to examine the tract of rainbow trout. Aquaculture, 47, 11–26.
effects of these diets on growth, intestine morphology and Storebakken, T., Austreng, E., 1986. Binders in Fish Feeds. II. Effect of different
body composition of cobia for longer period of time. alginates on the digestibility of macronutrients in rainbow trout. Aquaculture,
60, 121–131.
Acknowledgments Tacon, A.G.J., 1987. The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp. A
training manual (2. The nutrients sources and composition. FAO Trust Fund
The study was funded by the Norwegian Agency for GCP/RLA/075/ITA Project report.
Development Cooperation (SRV-2701 project). The authors Tuan, L.A., 2005. Trash fish resources in Vietnam marine: Composition,
would like thank the Institute of Aquaculture Research and the production and sustainable usage as feed in aquaculture: National
Nha Trang Institute of Technology Research & Application for proceedings in Environmental protection and fisheries resources. Ha Noi
supplying facilities and collaboration in this study. Agricultural Publishing House, 379-387.
Wang, J.T., Liu, Y.J., Tian, L.X., Mai, K.S., Du, Z.Y., Wang, Y., Yang, H.J., 2005.
References Effects of dietary lipid level on growth performance, lipid deposition, hepatic
lipogenesis in juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum). Aquaculture, 249,
Chou, R.L., Su, M.S., Chen, H.Y., 2001. Optimal dietary protein and lipid levels 439-447.
for juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum). Aquaculture, 193, 81– 89. Watanabe, T., 1982. Lipid nutrition in fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 73B, 3–15.
Craig, S.R., Schwarz, M.H., McLean, E., 2006. Juvenile cobia (Rachycentron Zhou, Q.C., Mai, K.S., Tan, B.P., Liu, Y.J., 2005. Partial replacement of fish
canadum) can utilize a wide range of protein and lipid levels without meal by soybean meal in diets for juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum).
impacts on production characteristics. Aquaculture, 261, 384-391. Aquaculture Nutrition, 11, 175–182.
D.T.N. Mach, M.D. Nguyen, R. Nortvedt., 2010. Effects on digestibility and
growth of juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum) fed fish or crab silage
protein. Aquaculture Nutrition, 16, 305-312.
Ellis, S.C., Reigh, R.C., 1991. Effects of dietary lipid and carbohydrate levels on
the growth and body composition of juvenile red drum Sciaenops ocellstus.
Aquaculture, 97, 383- 394.

NACA News
NACA Newsletter ISSN 0115-8503
Published by the Network of Aquaculture Centres Volume XXV, No. 2

in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand April-June 2010
Expert Workshop on Inland Fisheries Resource Enhancement and

Conservation in Asia
Participants in the workshop at Pattaya, Thailand.
Over the past few decades inland fisheries resources have the meantime high-quality audio recordings of the workshop
come under increasing pressure from water engineering presentations are available for download from the NACA
projects, pollution and overfishing. This has lead to an website in MP3 format. You can also stream them from our
alarming decline in the natural populations of many important server if you prefer to listen to them online.
inland fish species in Asian countries, with implications for
the economic welfare and nutrition of millions of people that Country presentations on inland fisheries enhancement and
are dependant on these resources, for the environment, and conservation practices are available for Bangladesh, China,
also for the aquaculture industry that depends on the genetic India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri
resource base. Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. To download / listen to the
presentations, please visit:
Regional collaborative efforts are required to facilitate
assessment of current inland fisheries resource enhancement http://www.enaca.org/modules/news/article.php?storyid=1867
and conservation practices, and there are transboundary
coordination issues for countries that share rivers. The Secretariat is pleased to announce that NACA will be
offering audio recordings of key technical presentations for
FAO and NACA convened an expert workshop to review free download as a matter of course from now on, to increase
inland fisheries resource enhancement and conservation the accessibility of this material throughout the region. A
practices in Pattaya, Thailand, 8-11 February. Experts from 10 'podcasting' feed is also in development.
Asian countries attended the meeting to share experiences
and lessons learned. The papers and synthesis from the
workshop will be published by FAO in due course, but in

NACA News
Reviews in Aquaculture: Special

issue on the Use and Exchange of
Aquatic Genetic Resources
The new journal 'Reviews in Aquaculture' has published a
special issue on the use and exchange of genetic resources
of cultured aquatic animals and the articles are available for
free download.
The papers in this issue are the result of a consultation NACA

facilitated on behalf of the Commission on Genetic Resources
for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) of FAO, which was
conducted in April 2009, in Chonburi, Thailand.
The issue also contains a synthesis paper on aquatic genetic

resources that was tabled at the twelfth regular session of the
CGRFA in October, 2009, Rome.
This is the first time that aquatic genetic resources have been
included in the portfolio of the Commission, giving recognition
of the growing importance of the sector for sustainable food
production. Contents of this issue include (PDF articles): Dr Ayyappan becomes the
• Editorial - Use and exchange of aquatic genetic resources Director General of ICAR
in aquaculture: information relevant to access and benefit
sharing Dr S. Ayyappan has been appointed to the post of Director
General of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
• Use and exchange of aquatic resources relevant for food with effect from 1 January 2010. With this appointment. Dr
and aquaculture: common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) Ayyappan also becomes the Secretary of the Department of
Agriculture Research and Education (DARE).
• Use and exchange of salmonid genetic resources relevant
for food and aquaculture ICAR, one of the largest R&D institutions dedicated to
agricultural research has 5,000 scientists working in 45
• Use and exchange of genetic resources of Nile tilapia institutes, 17 National Research Centres, 4 Deemed
(Oreochromis niloticus) Universities, 6 National Bureaus, 25 Directorates and Project
Directorates, 569 Krishi Vigyan Kendras, 44 state agricultural
• Use and exchange of aquatic genetic resources for food universities across the country and one Central Agricultural
and aquaculture: Clarias catfish University at Manipur.
• Patterns of use and exchange of genetic resources of the Dr Ayyappan obtained his B.F.Sc and M.F.Sc degrees from
striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage College of Fisheries, Mangalore and PhD from Bangalore
1878) University. In his distinguished career of over 30 years, he
has headed two ICAR institutions namely CIFA and CIFE,
• Use and exchange of genetic resources of penaeid before becoming the Deputy Director General of Fisheries
shrimps for food and aquaculture in ICAR in 2002. He is a well known scientist and has
contributed immensely to the development of fisheries and
• Use and exchange of genetic resources in molluscan aquaculture in India.
aquaculture
Dr Ayyappan is well known to the NACA family of 18
• Use and exchange of genetic resources of emerging governments in Asia Pacific. He has served NACA as its TAC
species for aquaculture and other purposes and GC member for several years. NACA is very pleased
and proud that a fisheries scientist has reached the highest
• Chinese abstracts position in the ICAR system in a big country like India. On
behalf of member countries, NACA Secretariat wishes Dr
The issue may be accessed / downloaded from: Ayyappan all the best in his future endeavours.
http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=1753-5123
Other issues of Reviews in Aquaculture are also being made

available for free download during the journal's start up
phase, so keep an eye out for more to come.

NACA News
CIBA training course - capacity building on entrepreneurship development

in coastal aquaculture
Coastal Aquaculture inter-alia offers scope for a variety

of entrepreneurial activities that can generate value or
contribute to the economy, such as identifying and exploiting
new species, processes or markets. Identifying potential
entrepreneurs and giving them an enabling environment is
the role of government and other development departments
that seek to support entrepreneurship in coastal aquaculture.
To take initiative in this direction, the Central Institute of
Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA) of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) conducted a national level
training course on ‘Entrepreneurship Development in Coastal
Aquaculture’ from 26-31 October 2009 at its campus in
Chennai, with funding support from the National Fisheries
Development Board. Twenty five participants comprised
of three main groups (i) officials from the Departments
of Fisheries of various maritime states, (ii) personnel
from non-governmental organisations and (iii) potential
entrepreneurs participated in the training course. Training at a crab hatchery.
Entrepreneurial avenues in seven areas of coastal

aquaculture sector were identified and included in the
training module. The seven areas were: Seed production of
shrimp, crab and finfish; farming of shrimp/ prawn and finfish;
ornamental fish farming; shrimp and finfish feed production;
disease diagnostics & analytical services; domestic
fish marketing and ICT aided technical and marketing
consultancy.
Identifying and developing new products, processes and

markets were given emphasis in the training course. The
training adopted a tripartite learning approach. The first
technical part of the module dealt with the technical aspects
of the entrepreneurial activity providing scientific aspects of
the enterprise, the second economic part dealt with project
preparation for credit support with economics principles and
bankers’ perspective and the final enabling part provided the
institutional support available in the form of capacity building Training at a fish hatchery.
and technical consultancy, promotional schemes, regulatory
guidelines, success stories and interactive sessions with
bankers, promotional agencies and entrepreneurs and field
visit to various entrepreneurial units/enterprises. The trainees
indicated in their feedback that the approach taken was very
useful in combining technical, economic and institutional
aspects of learning and expressed that the course was an
exciting experience. The government officials and the NGOs
felt that the training had helped them to play a ‘enabling role’
in identifying and facilitating potential entrepreneurs. The
potential entrepreneurs indicated that the training would
help them to develop their own business enterprises in
aquaculture.
Those who wish to participate in the training course dealing

with entrepreneurship development in coastal brackishwater
aquaculture may contact the Director, Central Institute of
Brackishwater Aquaculture (ICAR), 75, Santhome High
Road, R.A. Puram, Chennai-600028, India through e-mail to: Training at a shrimp farm.
director@ciba.res.in.

NACA News
Success Stories in Asian

Aquaculture – now available for
free download!
We are pleased to announce that NACA’s new flagship
publication Success Stories in Asian Aquaculture is now
available for free download from the NACA website, as
foreshadowed in previous newsletters.
The stories in this book reflect the unique nature of Asian

aquaculture, providing first-time insight into how and why it
has become so successful. Overall, the book demonstrates
how the resiliency, adaptability, and innovation of small-scale
aquaculture farmers have been crucial to this success. It also
places aquaculture development in Asia into a wider global
context, and describes its relationship to natural systems,
social conditions, and economics. The book is unique in
its in-depth presentation of primary research on Asian
aquaculture, and in demonstrating how aquaculture can have
a lasting positive impact on livelihoods, food security, and
sustainable development.
This book will appeal to a wide range of readers. The

introduction and conclusion give an excellent general
overview of Asian aquaculture, and the individual case studies
provide a wealth of new information for specialist readers.
Researchers, development workers, and decision-makers,
in particular, will be interested in how the Asian experience
might be used to strengthen aquaculture development more Download your free copy from:
generally and in other parts of the developing tropics of Latin
America and Africa. http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdownloads/singlefile.
php?cid=209&lid=999
Success stories in Asian Aquaculture is edited by by Sena
S. De Silva, Director General of the Network of Aquaculture If you prefer a hard copy, you can buy them online from the
Centres in Asia-Pacific, and F. Brian Davy, Senior Fellow at Springer website at:
the International Institute for Sustainable Development in
Canada. http://www.springer.com/environment/aquatic+sciences/
book/978-90-481-3085-6
Giant Prawn 2011

Giant Prawn 2011 will be held as a component of next year's Discussions about the contributions of several further invited
Asian-Pacific Aquaculture 2011 conference, 17-20 January, in speakers are on-going. The topics to be presented in the
Kochi, India. Giant Prawn 2011 will be a landmark opportunity invited session of GP2011 include biology, genetics, grow-out
to review the status of freshwater prawn farming worldwide and hatchery rearing technology, health management, and
and discuss the future of this $2 billion industry. The meeting post-harvest handling, marketing and economics.
will include field trips to freshwater prawn farming sites on
21-22 January. Selected GP2011 papers will be considered for a special
issue of the journal Aquaculture Research after the
The scientific programme for Giant Prawn 2011 consists of conference. The parent Asian-Pacific Aquaculture 2011
a three-day invited paper session (18-20 January), plus a meeting will also provide the usual rainbow of conference
one-day parallel session for contributed papers on freshwater topics and social events, together with an important
prawn farming (date to be announced later). Speakers include exhibition. Those who attended the last event organised
Nesar Ahmed (Bangladesh), Janet Brown (UK), Michael by this chapter in Kuala Lumpur will already know how
Frinsko (USA), Ilan Karplus (Israel), Spencer Malecha successful it was.
(Hawai’i), Peter Mather (Australia), C. Mohanakumuran
Nair (India), M.C. Nandeesha (India), Uthairat Na-Nakorn GP2011 will be a very important event for all those involved in
(Thailand), Michael New (UK), Nguyen Thanh Phuong freshwater prawn farming, research and marketing. Mark your
(Vietnam), K.R. Salin (India), Amir Sagi (Israel), James calendars and make your travel plans for January 2011 now!
Tidwell (USA), Wagner Valenti (Brazil), Patricia Moraes-
Valenti (Brazil), Md. Abdul Wahab (Bangladesh) and Miao
Weimin (China).

NACA News
Peer reviewed publications
For a complete list of peer reviewed publications, visit http://www.enaca.org/content.php?page=peer_reviewed_publications.
Microsatellite DNA markers revealed genetic current article compares for the first time the development
population structure among captive stocks and and growth of the aquaculture sector and capture fisheries
wild populations of mrigal, Cirrhinus cirrhosus in by analyzing production by mean trophic level. Whereas
Myanmar marine capture fisheries have been feeding the world on high
trophic level carnivorous fish species since mankind has been
Aung, O., Nguyen, T.T.T., Poompuang, S. And Kamonrat, W. fishing the oceans, aquaculture production within developing
(2010), Aquaculture 299(1-4): 37-43 countries has focused, by and large, on the production of
lower trophic level species. However, like capture fisheries,
We investigated genetic diversity and population structure aquaculture focus within economically developed countries
of mrigal in Myanmar using microsatellite DNA markers. has been essentially on the culture of high value-, high trophic
A total of 211 individuals from five wild populations and level-carnivorous species. The long term sustainability of
216 individuals from five hatcheries were analysed for six these production systems is questionable unless the industry
microsatellite loci (Bgon22, Lr3, Lr12, Lr21, MFW1 and can reduce its dependence upon capture fisheries for
MFW17) which were developed for other cyprinids. For sourcing raw materials for feed formulation and seed inputs.
comparison, 43 individuals from a hatchery in northern In line with above, the article calls for the urgent need for all
Vietnam, of Indian origin and introduced in 1984, also were countries to adopt and adhere to the principles and guidelines
analysed. Tests for all loci revealed H–W equilibrium in only for responsible aquaculture of the FAO Code of Conduct for
two hatchery samples. Allele richness ranged from 2.3 to 8.5. Responsible Fisheries.
Overall, observed heterozygosity was high in all Myanmar
samples (ranging from 0.654 to 0.756) but relatively low in http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10641260903325680
the Vietnam hatchery sample (0.303). Pairwise FST values
among the Myanmar samples ranged from 0.000 to 0.096, Observations on metal concentrations in
and those between the Myanmar and the Vietnam samples commercial landings of two species of tilapia
from 0.353 to 0.506. Results of multidimensional scaling (Oreochromis mossambicus and Oreochromis
analysis (MDS) of pairwise FST and Bayesian method niloticus) from reservoirs in six river basins in Sri
revealed that one wild and two hatchery samples from Lanka
Myanmar were differentiated from others, which appeared
highly admixed. The study has important implications for Allinson, G., Salzman, S.A., Ruoczy, N., Nishikawa, M.,
genetic management of mrigal stocks in Myanmar, and Amarasinghe, U.S., Nirbadha, K.G.S. De Silva, S.S. (2010).
possibly elsewhere in the region. For baseline stock for Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry 92 (4): 749 - 763
selective breeding, it would be best to include representation
of samples from all groups we have identified to ensure a Samples of the muscle of two species of tilapia (Oreochromis
broad genetic base for genetic improvement programs. As for mossambicus and O. niloticus; 17-20 cm length) were
stock enhancement, seed produced from several hatcheries obtained from at least one reservoir in each of the six river
examined here should not be used for restocking in certain basins (Aruvi Aru, Kala Oya, Kirindi Oya, Ma Oya, Mahaweli,
locations to avoid genetic contamination. and Walawe Ganga catchments) in Sri Lanka. The metals Ca,
Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, and Zn were consistently detected
Available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. in the muscle tissue. Overall, there were few differences
aquaculture.2009.12.010 in the concentration of metals between the two species of
fish, although there were also some statistically significant
Responsible aquaculture and trophic level differences (p < 0.05) in the concentrations of some metals
implications to global fish supply in fish obtained from some of the reservoirs. Aruvi Aru stands
out as a river basin in which the two fish species have
Tacon, A.G.J., Metian, M., Turchini, G.M. and De Silva, significantly lower concentration of metals when compared
S.S. (2010). Reviews in Fisheries Science 18(1): 94 - to other river basins. The concentration of the metals studied
105. were below WHO and FSANZ guideline values for fish,
suggesting that the consumption of the metals found in tilapia
Hunger and malnutrition remain among the most devastating from these reservoirs poses little risk to human health.
problems facing the world's poor and needy, and continue
to dominate the health and well-being of the world's poorest Available online at: http://dx.doi.
nations. Moreover, there are growing doubts as to the long- org/10.1080/02772240903049710
term sustainability of many existing food production systems,
including capture fisheries and aquaculture, to meet the
future increasing global demands. Of the different agricultural
food production systems, aquaculture (the farming of aquatic
animals and plants) is widely viewed as an important weapon
in the global fight against malnutrition and poverty, particularly
within developing countries where over 93% of global
production is currently produced, providing in most instances
an affordable and a much needed source of high quality
animal protein, lipids, and other essential nutrients. The

NACA News
Meetings address climate change impacts on

Network of
small scale milkfish farmers in the Philippines Aquaculture
Centres in
Asia-Pacific
Milkfish production is the second The milkfish farmers identified a number
highest component of aquaculture of climate change impacts that they are
production in the Philippines by currently experiencing and described Mailing address
volume (229,111 tonnes in 2007) and their adaptive practices. Possible future PO Box 1040,
the highest of the animal aquaculture measures to assist milkfish farmers to Kasetsart University Post Office
products, and also the second highest in adapt to climate change were indentified Ladyao, Jatujak,
terms of value (US$ 317 million in 2007) at the research and institutional levels. Bangkok 10903
after giant tiger shrimp. Ilolio province Thailand
of the Philippines is an area where a The project is now conducting a
large amount of the milkfish production comprehensive survey of small scale Phone +66 (2) 561 1728
occurs. The province is vulnerable milkfish farmers in Iloilo, the Philippines, Fax +66 (2) 561 1727
to climate change and thus was which will be used with secondary Email: info@enaca.org
selected as a case study area for the information to assess their vulnerability Website: www.enaca.org
impacts and adaptation of small scale and adaptive capacity to climate
aquaculture to climate change project. change.These activities are part of the NACA is a network composed of
climate change impacts and adaptation 18 member governments in the
Two focus group discussion meetings of milkfish farming in the Philippines Asia-Pacific region.
of milkfish farmers were held in case study; one of several case studies
Dumangas and Barotac Viejo towns in of the regional project Strengthening
Iloilo City on 30 September 2009 close adaptive capacities to the impacts
to the farms of participating milkfish of climate change in resource-poor
farmers. The focus group discussion small-scale aquaculture and aquatic
meetings mapped farmer perceptions resources-dependent sectors in the
of climate change including climate south and south east Asian region Copyright NACA 2010
change issues, impacts on production, funded by NORAD. The first annual Published under a Creative
economic impacts, adaptation solutions, report of the project is also now Commons Attribution license.
responsible agencies and matched available for download from the project You may copy and distribute this
impacts with seasonal and cropping webpage. For information, please visit: publication with attribution of
calendars. NACA as the original source.
http://www.enaca.org/modules/
Two focus group discussion meetings inlandprojects/index.php?content_id=10
of milkfish farmers were held in
Dumangas and Barotac Viejo towns in
Iloilo City on 30 September 2009 close
to the farms of participating milkfish
farmers. The focus group discussion
meetings mapped farmer perceptions
of climate change including climate
change issues, impacts on production,
economic impacts, adaptation solutions,
responsible agencies and matched
impacts with seasonal and cropping
calendars.
A stakeholder workshop was held

in Iloilo City on 1 October 2009 with
a range of stakeholders including
government representatives, scientists,
milkfish farmers and milkfish farming
support industry people. After hearing
about the status of milkfish farming
in Iloilo, climate changes that had
occurred and the predicted future
effects of climate change, stakeholders
identified adaptation solutions in four
areas: Operational measures (farmer
measures),technical measures (science
measures), institutional measures (local
government units, provincial, regional
and central measures), and financial
measures (calamity insurance, etc).

Four issues per year
Subscription: US$50/year
at www.enaca.org/shop
Or write to:
The Editor, Aquaculture Asia
PO Box 1040
Kasetsart University Post Office
Ladyao, Jatujak
Bangkok 10903 Thailand
Fax: +66 (2) 561 1727

Email: magazine@enaca.org
Free download: www.enaca.org

22-25 September 2010,
Phuket, Thailand
With aquaculture now providing nearly 50% of global food fish supplies, FAO in partnership
with NACA and the Thai Department of Fisheries, are organising the
Global Conference on Aquaculture 2010, to evaluate where the sector stands
today and prepare for the challenges ahead. The objectives of the conference are to:
• Review the present status and trends in aquaculture development.

• Evaluate progress against the 2000 Bangkok Declaration & Strategy.
• Address emerging issues in aquaculture development.
• Assess opportunities and challenges for future aquaculture development.
• Build consensus on advancing aquaculture as a global, sustainable and competitive
food production sector.
The conference will provide a global forum to build consensus to advance sustainable
aquaculture development and contribute to the Millennium Development Goals.
Enquiries and further information

Please visit website for more information, or feel free to contact the conference secretariat:
Conference Secretariat
Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific Phone: +66 2 561 1728
PO Box 1040, Kasetsart University Post Office Fax: +66 2 561 1727
Ladyao, Jatujak, Bangkok 10903 Email: aqua-conference2010@enaca.org
Thailand

Aquaculture Asia April 2010

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Volume XV No.

Marine finfish cage culture practices Impact of whitespot, Iran

A clear vision from

For more information please email spaquaculture@spcorp.com

Editor This trend of competition and consolidation appears to be an inevitable economic

The changing face of women for small-scale aquaculture 9

Strengthening capacity of small holder ASEAN aquaculture 16

Research and farming techniques

Aquatic animal health

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

2 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Peter Edwards writes on

Dr Edwards is a consultant and

Dedanaw village has extensive rice fields.

Background The Chairman of EGG, Zaw Zaw Han, submitted a proposal

Volume XV No. 2, April-June 2010 3

On a previous visit to the village I was told by a villager that

The project is being coordinated by Zaw Zaw Han, Chairman

The main project objective is to restart aquaculture as a

Twenty seven fish farmers are involved in the project with a

Project experiences are being documented and will be

4 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

The project agreed to restock at least one pond of each of

Farmers were provided with 10-12.5 cm carp rohu fingerlings,

Farmers were provided with free chemical fertilisers to use

No other inputs were provided under the project following

Feeding rice bran which was not provided by the project.

Figure 1. Gantt chart of project activities, July 2009-February 2010.

Volume XV No. 2, April-June 2010 5

Findings Their degree of involvement in rice farming varied. Of the six

According to detailed project records 23 farmers had a total of

The considerable range in fish growth was mainly due to

The farmers were unaware and were pleasantly surprised

The growth performance of tilapia was relatively higher and

Two of the farms visited had ducks which at the time of

Some of the farmers had purchased and stocked a few grass

6 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

A 350 g rohu from a well-managed project pond.

Volume XV No. 2, April-June 2010 7

I also observed a large abandoned fish pond of 3.5 acres

Buy our books online!

8 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

The changing face of women for small-scale aquaculture

Bangladesh is considered one of the

Volume XV No. 2, April-June 2010 9

Feeding the fish.

A girl with harvested fish - high value prawn (Macrobrachium

10 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Although the women are involved in various aquaculture

Aquaculture has improved economic power of rural women.

Volume XV No. 2, April-June 2010 11

Almost all interviewed women stated that small-scale

Rural women are typically involved many household works

A girl with harvested vitamin-A enriched mola fish

12 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Table 1. Degree of participation by women in various aquaculture activities (n = 100).

Volume XV No. 2, April-June 2010 13

Table 2. Human capital of women and correlation to participation in aquaculture.

Variable Measure Mean value Correlation (r value)

Table 3. Strategies for empowering women to be actively involved in aquaculture activities.

Key Strategies Women’s empowerment

Field work for data collection

Qualitative method: focus Quantitative method: Cross-check interviews