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forces of attraction between a liquid and a solid surface are called adhesive
forces. The behaviour of a liquid in contact with a solid surface is
characteristic properties of
crystalline and amorphous solids.
Structures in a With few exceptions, the particles
that compose a solid material,
Crystalline and whether ionic, molecular, covalent,
or metallic, are held in place by
Amorphous Solid strong attractive forces between
them. When we discuss solids,
therefore, we consider the positions
ions in space. When an ionic crystal another. The resulting repulsive interactions between
ions with like charges cause the layers to separate.
is cleaved (Figure 12.1), for example,
repulsive interactions cause it to Crystals tend to have relatively
break along fixed planes to produce sharp, well-defined melting points
new faces that intersect at the same because all the component atoms,
angles as those in the original molecules, or ions are the same
crystal. In a covalent solid such as a distance from the same number and
type of neighbors; that is, the
cut diamond, the angles at which the
regularity of the crystalline lattice
faces meet are also not arbitrary but
creates local environments that are
are determined by the arrangement the same. Thus the intermolecular
of the carbon atoms in the crystal. forces holding the solid together are
uniform, and the same amount of
thermal energy is needed to break
every interaction simultaneously.
Amorphous solids have two
characteristic properties. When
Figure 12.1: Cleaving a Crystal of an Ionic
Compound along a Plane of Ions. Deformation of the cleaved or broken, they produce
ionic crystal causes one plane of atoms to slide along fragments with irregular, often
SLS-Don Bosco SHS SLS-Don Bosco SHS
Sci-Chem Magazine March 2017
One of the most harmful and hazardous machinery. Citrus fruits have acidic content that are bold to contribute
processes that are occurring in our environment electricity. To show awareness and concern to this plague, the proponents of
is the disposal of batteries. The proponents this project sought to find out how and which citrus fruits have the potential in
sought research and ways to have an eco-friendly producing energy, specifically, light energy to be an alternative for batteries.
alternative for batteries. The Philippines, as a
tropical country, is known to be abundant in
producing various citrus fruits. In the experiment,
the proponents ventured to discover which
among the tropical citrus fruits: oranges, Review of Related Literature
calamansi and lemons have the capability to exert electrical energy that can
light up an LED light. The said activity was held at Saint Louis School of Don Differential Expression of Organic Acid Degradation-related Genes
Bosco Incorporated and at one of the teams residence to conduct the during Fruit Development of Navel Oranges (Citrus sinensis)
experiment. Galvanized nails, copper wires, alligator wires, and an LED light
are used to make an electrical circuit out of the 3 sorts of citrus fruits. The Organic acids from citrus fruits produce flavor and overall quality of a
natural alternatives used were derived to be organic and can cause less harm to citrus fruit. Several factors from the environment affect the citric acid level in
the environment. This study is to prove if one of which oranges, calamansi it. During navel orange fruit development, citric-acid biogenesis-related citrate
and lemons have the potential to light a bulb. synthase is expressed. A cascade ofCitAco3CitIDH1CitGS2 might be
involved in citric acid degradation in response to different environments
during fruit growth and development.
This experiment is done only for two trials determining which among
oranges, calamansi and lemons can light a bulb. First, they must gather all the
materials in one place. On a table, set the fruits in order. Afterwards, members
must pierce the nails and the copper wires into each citrus fruits they have.
Next, one member will connect the nails and coppers through the alligator
wires and LED light bulb to the make the circuit complete. The product is now
Procedures:
2. Roll and place your citrus fruits on the platform for 2 minutes to break
up all the juice pockets.
3. Peirce the nail and the copper wire to the citrus fruits.
4. Grab the alligator wires then connect them to each nail and copper of
each fruits together.
6. In trial 2, do the same procedures but add one fruit to each set as well Figure 1.2: The set-up of the organic circuit with 3 calamansi.
as the alligator wire, copper wire and nail to increase the rate of
electricity that could light the bulb.
Interpretation of data
The graph shows the comparison between the other types of citrus
fruits (orange, calamansi, and lemon) in trials 1 and 2.
Trial 1
Trial 2
FIRST TRIAL:
There was no light among the fruits.
SECOND TRIAL:
Light from the four lemons only blinked but did not remain for too long. The
other fruits did not light even if it was added and the wire, nail and copper
were increased.
Conclusion
The study has proven that lemons have the capacity that can generate
electricity among the other fruits. Furthermore, the more nails and coppers,
Freezing point depression
the more electricity will be conducted and the more number of fruits, the more
the amount of electricity it will deliver. and boiling point
Recommendation elevation: the effects of
The members of the group recommend increasing the quantity of
fruits, nails and copper wires to intensify the amount of voltage delivered by
solutes and of pressure
the fruits in their experiment. They should put as much so that they can light
up light bulbs and other lights that require more voltage than LED lights do.
Individuals who are interested with this kind of experiment should not reuse
the fruits nor use it for eating because dissolved components of the nails and
copper are within the fruits. The fruits must be fresh to increase acidic content
that could generate electricity in a light bulb.
Did you know that? F reezing point depression is the lowering of the equilibrium freezing or
Lemons are technically melting temperature by solutes in the liquid phase. Solutes in the liquid phase
also raise the equilibrium boiling temperature. Pressure also affects freezing
berries. temperature (a little) and boiling temperatures (a lot).
Lemon trees can produce
up to 600 pounds in a
molecules of water in solution have to have slightly more energy (a slightly quite as good as water at transporting heat. Ethylene glycol is one antifreeze.
higher temperature) in order for the two effects to be in balance. So the boiling Salt is used to melt snow and ice on roads in cold countries, but it is not used
temperature is higher for a solution. in radiators because it is corrosive and crystallises readily. Sugar is not used in
some applications, because concentrated sugar solutions are viscous, and
Conversely, when we look at melting, the disorder effect is greater for a because they support bugs. However, many organisms use sugars and other
solution: on melting into a solution, water molecules go from the high order of small organic molecules as antifreeze. Seecryobiology.
crystalline ice into an even more disordered state than pure liquid. So the
disorder effect can dominate even at lower temperatures. So the freezing An interesting observation: The concentration of solutes in blood is less than
temperature is lower for a solution. that in sea water, so the equilibrium freezing temperature of blood is usually
higher than that of sea water. Consequently, some Arctic and Antarctic fish
I mentioned the equilibrium freezing and boiling temperatures above. Time to live at temperatures below the equilibrium freezing temperature of normal
explain. Imagine ice floating in pure water at 0C. If we add a little heat, some blood. The bio-antifreeze in their blood is a protein that works in a way
ice melts. Remove a little heat and some water freezes. We call this the different from the anti-freeze used in car radiators: the antifreeze protein binds
equilibrium freezing temperature: 0C for water. However, when one cools to freezing nuclei and so permits the blood to remain supercooled.
reasonably pure water, it usually cools several degrees below 0C we say it
supercools by several degrees before the first ice crystal appears. That ice The effect of pressure
crystal then expands rapidly, giving up latent heat, which warms the nearby Notice that above I've included the proviso "at atmospheric pressure" a few times.
water back to about 0C. More about supercooling and super heating below. The reason why the pressure is important is that, in the vapour phase, a given
amount of a substance occupies a much larger volume than it does as a liquid. Some
An aqueous solution has a higher boiling point and a lower of the energy required to vapourise it goes towards 'pushing the air out of the way'
freezing point than does pure water. to make room for the amount evaporated. (The amount of work done is the product
If the solution is not too concentrated, these two effects are approximately of the pressure P and the change in volume V. Technically, there is a PV term in
independent of what the dissolved substance is: a sugar molecule has much the the latent heat.) So, at low pressure, it is easier to form the vapour phase and so the
same effect as a salt ion. So, provided you remember to count each ion separately, boiling point is lower. The dependence of the transition temperature on pressure is
the effect of concentration on boiling point elevation or freezing point depression is the Clausius-Clapeyron effect. (Again, being a bit technical, we note that this effect
much the same for all small solutes in water. (Macromolecules such as polymers involves energy - the work done in displacing air - whereas the solute effect involves
behave differently because they have lots of neighbouring solvent molecules, and so entropy - the disordering of the liquid phase.)
affect the solvent much more than simple solutes.)
Water expands a lot when it boils: one kilogram of water is one litre of liquid
Antifreeze. So, you might expect that the antifreeze in a radiator not only water, but it becomes about 1700 litres of steam at atmospheric pressure. This
stops it freezing, but also helps stop it from boiling. However, the real means that even modest increases in altitude can measurably reduce the
situation is more complicated: antifreeze has the disadvantage that it is not boiling temperature. Some people complain that this affects cooking and even
the taste of tea at altitude. possible to ice skate on ice at much lower temperatures than this. To argue that
freezing point depression works over say 10C, we'd need an area of contact of a
skate about 10 mm2 or less. If only the sharp edges were in contact with the ice, this
It is also true that pressure changes the melting temperature. However, might be possible, but it seems very low to me, because I'd expect the edges to cut
because the volume occupied by a kilogram of liquid is not much different into the ice and to increase the area of contact. (Again, I seek advice from skaters on
from that occupied by a kilogram of solid, this effect is very small unless the this, and preferably from physicists who are also skaters.)
pressures are very large. For most substances, the freezing point rises, though
only very slightly, with increased pressure. Putting aside the Clausius-Clapeyron effect, and under conditions with only small
applied pressure, we'd expect the surface of ice is already somewhat slippery. At the
surface of ice, water molecules are only have opportunities for hydrogen bonds to
Water is one of the very rare substances that expands upon freezing (which is their neighbours 'on one side', as it were. Consequently, their energy is not as low as
why ice floats). Consequently, its melting temperature falls very slightly if in bulk ice. So, at equilibrium, they must have a higher entropy. So, even at subzero
pressure is increased. temperatures, ice must have a thin water-like layer on the surface, whose thickness
woud be expected to increase at temperatures close to melting.
I have been asked: Does freezing point depression with pressure explain the low
friction under an ice-skate? I'm writing this in Sydney, so you might guess correctly The comparable calculation for boiling point change is a bit more complicated. The
that I don't know much about skating, but let's try to be quantitative. The Clausius- latent heat in this case is larger (2.3 MJ-1) but the change in specific volume is much
Clapeyron equation says that the ratio of the change in pressure times the change in larger (typically a few times 10-2 m3kg-1). So changes in altitude can change the
boiling temperature, and going up a mountain can reduce it by as much as several
specific volume to the latent heat of the phase change equals the ratio of the
degrees.
change in transition temperature to the (absolute) melting or boiling temperature.
It's often written as dP/dT = L/T*v. (As we might have guessed from dimensional
When are the boiling temperature and freezing temperature
considerations i.e. just writing an equation involving the relevant parameters so
equal? What happens then?
as to make the units correct.)
For all substances, as we lower pressure, the boiling temperature falls much more
rapidly than does the freezing temperature. (For water, the freezing temperature
The weight of the skater is say 1 kN. I'm not a skater, but let's start with an estimate
of the skate-ice contact area as say 100 mm2. (The value depends on how far the rises slightly at low pressure.) Hence the obvious question: Are the boiling
skate cuts into the ice. Say 200 mm long by 0.5 mm wide: skaters, is this temperature and freezing temperature ever equal?
reasonable?) So, with this value, the pressure is increased by (1 kN)/100 mm2 =
10 MPa. A kg of water (one litre) freezes to give about 1.1 litre of ice, so the change
in specific volume is about 10-4 m3kg-1. The latent heat of fusion of ice is 330 kJ.kg-1.
The answer is yes. At the low pressure of 611 Pa (only 0.006 times
So the proportional change in temperature is (10 MPa)(10-4 m3kg-1)/(330 kJ.kg-1), atmospheric pressure), pure water boils at 0.01 C, and it also freezes at
which is 0.3%. Multiply this by the melting temperature of ice (273 K) and, for this 0.01 C. The combination of conditions (P, T) = (611 Pa, 0.01 C) is called
area, we get an estimate of the temperature change of around 1 K = 1 C. So, with the triple point of water because, at this pressure and temperature ice, liquid
these values, the calculation suggests that the pressure of an ice skate would reduce water and steam can coexist in equilibrium. This point is used to define our
the melting temperature of ice by about 1 C. So, with this estimate for area and if
this were the cause of the slipperiness, ice skating would be possible only at
scale of temperature: by definition, the triple point of water occurs at
temperatures only one or a few degrees below freezing. From observation, it is 273.16 K, where K is the kelvin. 273.16 K = 0.01 C
* This explains why, above, I wrote that liquid water only exists if the
pressure is high enough. At pressures below 611 Pa, there are only two phases,
and ice sublimes to form steam directly, without passing through a liquid
phase. (In this context, the reverse of 'to sublime' is not, as one might have
hoped, 'to ridicule'. At low pressures, steam condenses to form ice.)
Resources
http://www.majordifferences.com/2013/02/difference-between-
chrystaline-and.html#.WLFdV2997IU
http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/freezing-point-
depression-boiling-point-elevation.htm
https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/General_Chemistry_Textb
ook_Maps/Map
%3A_Chemistry_(Averill_and_Eldredge)/12%3A_Solids/12.1%3A_Crystalli
ne_and_Amorphous_Solids