Running head: PSYCHOLOGISTS KLIMER 1

Psychologists Theories & Age Characteristics

Mekhaela Klimer

College of Southern Nevada

Professor Wyckoff

April 9, 2017
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Psychologists Theories & Age Characteristics

Piagets Cognitive Developmental Theory

Piagets theory is based off two tendencies, organization and adaptation. These

tendencies and the processes that operate when human beings engage them, are key to

understanding Piagets theory of cognitive development. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 23).

Organization is the first tendency mentioned. It refers to the tendency of all individuals to

systematize or combine processes into coherent (logically interrelated systems. (Snowman &

McCown, 2013, 23). What Piaget means by this is that if you take a bear and a lion, yes they are

different but they can both be organized in a category of animals. The next tendency is

adaptation which is, The process of creating a good fit or match between ones conception of

reality (ones schemes) and the real-life experiences one encounters. (Snowman & McCown,

2013, 23). There are two sub processes for adaptation, assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation is interpreting an experience so that it fits an existing scheme and accommodation

is changing an existing scheme to incorporate the experience. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 23).

Now schemes have been mentioned multiple times and this is because it is another tendency

belonging to Piagets cognitive developmental theory. Children formulate organized patterns of

behavior or thought, known as schemes, as they interact with their environment, parents,

teachers, and age-mates. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 23). Organization, adaptation, and

schemes are different tendencies but they are all related when it comes to Piagets theory. The

product of organization and adaptation is the creation of new schemes that allow individuals to

organized at a higher level and adapt more effectively. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 24).

I observed a little four-year-old girl named Elie who is at the correct level when it comes

to Piagets cognitive developmental theory. According to Piaget she is in her Preoperational

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Stage. Mastering symbols and symbol systems (such as letters, words, and a language) is the

key developmental task for students from preschool through the primary grades. (Snowman &

McCown, 2013, 26). Elie knows her letters and can write her name, dad, mom, and short words.

If she sees a number under 40 she can say it but sometimes forgets where she is at when trying to

count up to it. In the Preoperational stage, the child forms many new schemes but does not think

logically. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 26). Elie can only focus on one task at a time. She does

not always know why she is in trouble or understand why she cant eat sugar all day, everyday.

Elie knows that she loves sugar but doesnt understand that it is unhealthy or the effects it will

have on her body overtime like an adult would. She can only take in what she is seeing through

her own eyes everyday in her environment and learn from her everyday experiences.

Vygotskys Cognitive Developmental Theory

Vygotsky had different opinions about how people learn and think, particularly with

respect to the roles of culture, social interaction and formal instruction (Rowe & Wertsch,

2002). (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 31). Vygotskys theory is often referred to as a

sociocultural theory because it maintains that how we think is a function of both current social

forces and historical cultural forces. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 32). I believe what

Vygotsky is saying is that we think and do things a specific way because our parents and our

environment has shaped us to do so. Children take in information or values taught by their

parents and begin to reflect it even when they are by themselves. Cognitive development is

strongly influence by those who are more intellectually advanced. (Snowman & McCown,

2013, 34).

Elie somewhat meets and falls behind with Vygotskys cognitive developmental theory

because although she knows not what to do around her parents she doesnt exactly keep hold of
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those values when around other family members or kids. With that being said, Elie does meet

some standards when it comes to Vygotskys zone of proximal development (ZPD). This is a

process of scaffolding, Helping students answer difficult questions or solve problems by giving

them hints or asking leading questions. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 36). Elie will be entering

Kindergarten next year and her parents are trying to prepare her. In doing so, they give her

spelling words, show her numbers, etc. She doesnt always know the answers right away but by

showing her what she knows and with a little assistance from her parents she is able to spell short

words and identify more and more numbers.

Ericksons Psychosocial Development Theory

Ericksons psychosocial development theory has quite a few parts to it. It describes

psychological growth from infancy through old age. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 17).

Meaning that education from preschool to adulthood can be drawn out. Ericksons theory also

portrays people as playing an active role in their own psychological development through their

attempts to understand organize and integrate their everyday experiences. Lastly, Ericksons

theory emphasizes the important role that cultural goals, aspirations, expectations, requirements,

and opportunities play in personal growth. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 17). I believe that

Erickson is trying to say events in the lives of children, good or bad, somewhat shape their

future. In Erickson view, personality development occurs as one successfully resolves a series

of turning points or psychosocial crises. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 18). A child has to learn

about both good and bad qualities as they grow older and they can become more successful by

understanding how the positive qualities of a personality can outweigh the negative. This is

explained in more detail with Ericksons stages of psychosocial development. The first stage is

from birth to age one where an infant learns about trust and mistrust. Then from two to age three
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they learn autonomy versus shame and doubt. Next from age four to five they learn initiative

versus guilt. This is followed by ages six to eleven learning industry versus inferiority. Finally

ages twelve to eighteen they are learning about identity versus role confusion.

Elie meets Ericksons psychosocial development theory and is in her initiative versus

guilt stage. Although she is still learning about good versus bad qualities, more and more she is

grasping why it is bad to yell or hit her cousins. She is also learning about lying. if four and

five-year-olds are given freedom to decide what they will do, when they will do it, and how they

will do it, and if parents and teachers take time to answer questions, tendencies toward initiative

will be encouraged. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 18). Elie is given freedom to run and play

with her cousins. She knows how to play nice and share, although from time to time she doesnt

always want to. If and when Elie acts up, you can tell there is a guilty look on her face because

she knows better.

Kohlbergs Moral Development

Kohlberg went into more detail about moral thinking based off Piagets ideas. Kohlberg

believed that moral reasoning proceeds though fixed stages and moral development can be

accelerated through instruction. (Snowman & McCown, 2013, 41). There are six fixed stages of

Kohlbergs moral reasoning. Stage one is punishment-obedience orientation where good and bad

are determined by a physical consequence. The second stage is instrumental relativist orientation

which is considered an even exchange, for example, dont do something bad to me and I will

not do something bad to you. The third stage is good boy-nice girl orientation which portrays

doing the right thing will give others a positive mark of you. The fourth stage is law and order

orientation. The fifth stage involves social contract orientation. The fourth and fifth stages state
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that there should be laws and rules but they must be mutually agreed upon. Finally, the sixth

stage is universal ethical principle orientation.

Elie does not meet Kohlbergs moral development because she is only four-years-old.

She has only maybe experienced the first three stages to a certain extent. She knows not draw on

the wall or that she needs to put shoes on before she goes outside. Elie knows these things

through experience of getting yelled at and burning her feet. She slightly understands stage two

because if she pushes her girl cousins they will most likely push her back. Elie meets standards

under stage three to an extent because when she is good her parents and extended family praise

her for it. Elie is too young to understand stages four though six.

Snowmans General Characteristics

When looking at Snowmans general characteristics, they are broken down by age levels.

There are physical, social, emotional, and cognitive characteristics. The physical characteristic

for a preschooler are very active. With all the high energy comes sporadic quiet time or a nap.

Preschoolers can also be very clumsy although they have muscle control that continues to grow

and better itself. Social characteristics of a child in preschool begin with a child having a friend

or classmate they get along with. Emotional characteristics include preschool children being

aware of their emotions and the emotions of others around them. Lastly, cognitive characteristics

should include a child able to develop a theory of mind. They should be able to understand lying,

disobeying, mistakes, and surprises.

According to Snowmans general characteristics, Elie meets the norm. She is very active

and loves to play but also takes naps. She walks normal and is clumsy when trying to go fast or

do too much. She is shy at first but makes friends easily. She is aware when her cousins are in

trouble or when they are sad. Elie knows it is bad to lie and when she is making a mistake. Elie is
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a happy and smart four-year-old. I believe as she grows older she will continue to meet the

standards of all the psychologists theories.

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References

Snowman, J. & McCown, R. (2013). ED PSYCH. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.