Plagues of Egypt
1 Context
Sarajevo Haggadah, from Barcelona, c. 1350
The Plagues of Egypt (Hebrew: , Makot
Mitzrayim), also called the ten biblical plagues, were
ten calamities that, according to the biblical Book of
Exodus, Yahweh inicted upon Egypt to persuade the
Pharaoh to release the ill-treated Israelites from slavery.
The Pharaoh capitulated after the tenth plague, triggering
the Exodus of the Hebrew people.
The plagues served to contrast the power of the God of
Israel with the Egyptian gods, invalidating them.[1] Some
commentators have associated several of the plagues with
judgment on specic gods associated with the Nile, fer-
tility and natural phenomena.[2] According to Exodus
12:12, all the gods of Egypt would be judged through the
tenth and nal plague: On that same night I will pass
through Egypt and strike down every rstborn of both
people and animals, and I will bring judgment on all the
gods of Egypt. I am the LORD.
1
The reason for the plagues appears to be twofold:[3] to an-
swer Pharaohs taunt, Who [is] the LORD, that I should
obey his voice to let Israel go?",[4] and to indelibly im-
press the Israelites with Gods power as an object les-
son for all time, which was also meant to become known
throughout the world.[5][6]
According to the Book of Exodus, God hardened
Pharaohs heart so he would be strong enough to persist in
his unwillingness to release the people, so that God could
manifest his great power and cause his power to be de-
clared among the nations,[7] so that other people would
discuss it for generations afterward.[8] In this view, the
plagues were punishment for the Egyptians long abuse
of the Israelites, as well as proof that the gods of Egypt
were false and powerless.[9] If God triumphed over the
gods of Egypt, a world power at that time, then the peo-
ple of God would be strengthened in their faith, although
they were a small people, and would not be tempted to
follow the deities that God proved false. Exodus 9:15
16 (JPS Tanakh) portrays Yahweh explaining why he did
not accomplish the freedom of the Israelites immediately:
I could have stretched forth My hand and stricken you
[Pharaoh] and your people with pestilence, and you would
have been eaced from the earth. Nevertheless I have
spared you for this purpose: in order to show you My
power and in order that My fame may resound through-
out the world.
2 Biblical narrative
The plagues seemed to aect all the land of Egypt,[10]
but the children of Israel were unaected.[11] For the last
plague, the Torah indicates that they were only spared
from the nal plague by sacricing the Paschal lamb,
marking their place directly above their doors with the
lambs blood, and hastily eating the roasted sacrice to-
gether with unleavened bread (now known as Matzoh)
which they took from their ovens in haste, as they made
ready for the Exodus. The Torah describes God as actu-
ally passing through Egypt to kill all rstborn children and
cattle, but passing over (hence "Passover") houses which
have the sign of lambs blood on the doorpost.[12][13] It is
debated whether it was actually God who came through
the streets or one of his angels. Some also think it may be
the Holy Spirit. It is most commonly known as the An-
gel of Death. The night of this plague, Pharaoh nally
2 3 PLAGUES

relents and sends the Israelites away under their terms.

After the Israelites leave en masse, a departure known as
The Exodus, God introduces himself by name and makes
an exclusive covenant with the Israelites on the basis of
this miraculous deliverance.[14] The Ten Commandments
encapsulate the terms of this covenant.[15] Joshua, the
successor to Moses, reminds the people of their deliv-
erance through the plagues.[16] According to 1 Samuel,
the Philistines also knew of the plagues and feared their
author.[17][18] Later, the psalmist sang of these events.[19]
The Torah[20] also relates Gods instructions to Moses
that the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt must be cele-
brated early on the holiday of Passover (Pesa ;)the
rituals observed on Passover recall the events surround-
ing the exodus from Egypt. The Torah additionally cites
Gods sparing of the Israelite rstborn as a rationale for
the commandment of the redemption of the rstborn.[21]
This event is also commemorated by the Fast of the First-
born on the day preceding Passover but which is tradi-
tionally not observed because a siyum celebration is held
which obviates the need for a fast.
It seems that the celebration of Passover waned from time
to time, since other biblical books provide references to
revival of the holiday.[13] For example, it was reinstated
by Joshua at Gilgal,[22] by Josiah,[23] by Hezekiah[24] and,
after the return from the captivity, by Ezra.[25] By the time
of the Second Temple it was rmly established in Israel. The First Plague: Water Is Changed into Blood, James Tissot

3 Plagues
The plagues as they appear in the 1984 New International
Version of the Book of Exodus are:[26]

3.1 1. Water into blood (): Ex. 7:1424

This is what the LORD says: By this you
will know that I am the LORD: With the sta
that is in my hand I will strike the water of the
Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The
sh in the Nile will die, and the river will stink
and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its
water.
Exodus 7:1718

3.2 2. Frogs (): Ex. 7:258:15

See also: Va'eira

This is what the great LORD says: Let my
people go, so that they may worship me. If you
refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole
country with frogs. The Nile will teem with
The Second Plague: And Aaron stretched out his hand over the
Waters of Egypt and the Frogs came up and covered the Sand
of Egypt etching
frogs. They will come up into your palace and
3.4 4. Mixture of Wild Animals (): Ex. 8:2032
your bedroom and onto your bed,
into the houses of your ocials and on
your people, and into your ovens and knead-
ing troughs. The frogs will go up on you and
your people and all your ocials.
Exodus 8:14
3.3 3. Lice (): Ex. 8:1619
The Third Plague: Moses, horned (a sign of his encounter with
divinity), carries the rod, while Aaron, wearing the miter of a
priest, stands behind him. The gnats arise en masse out of the
dust from which they were made and attack Pharaoh, seated
and crowned, and his retinue (by William de Brailes, collection
Walters Art Museum)
And the LORD said [...] Stretch out thy
rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may
become lice throughout all the land of Egypt.
[] When Aaron stretched out his hand with
the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice
came upon men and animals. All the dust
throughout the land of Egypt became lice.
Exodus 8:1617
The Hebrew noun ( kinim) could be translated as lice,
gnats, or eas.[27]
3
3.4 4. Mixture of Wild Animals ():
Ex. 8:2032
The Fourth Plague: The Plague of Flies by James Jacques Joseph
Tissot at the Jewish Museum, New York
The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of
harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes
that the arob (, meaning mixture or swarm) only
came against the Egyptians, and that it did not aect the
Land of Goshen (where the Israelites lived). Pharaoh
asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to al-
low the Israelites freedom. However, after the plague
was gone, the LORD hardened Pharaohs heart, and he
refused to keep his promise.[28]
The word arob has caused a dierence of opinion among
traditional interpreters.[28] The root meaning is (..),
meaning a mixture - implying a diversity, array, or
assortment of harmful animals. While Jewish inter-
preters understand the plague as wild animals (most
likely scorpions, venomous snakes, and other venomous
arthropods and reptiles),[29] Gesenius along with many
Christian interpreters understand the plague as a swarm
of ies.[30]
3.5 5. Diseased livestock (): Ex. 9:17
This is what the LORD, the God of the
Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they
may worship me. If you refuse to let them
go and continue to hold them back, the hand
of the LORD will bring a terrible plague on
your livestock in the eldon your horses and
donkeys and camels and on your cattle and
sheep and goats.
Exodus 9:13
4 3
The Fifth Plague: Livestock Disease (Ex. 9:2-3), by Gustave
Dor
3.6 6. Boils (): Ex. 9:812
The Sixth Plague: Miniature out of the Toggenburg Bible
(Switzerland) of 1411
Then the LORD said to Moses and Aaron,
Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and
have Moses toss it into the air in the presence
of Pharaoh. It will become ne dust over the
whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will
break out on men and animals throughout the
land.
Exodus 9:89
3.7 7. Thunderstorm of hail (): Ex.
9:1335
This is what the LORD, the God of the
Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that
they may worship me, or this time I will send
the full force of my plagues against you and
against your ocials and your people, so you
may know that there is no one like me in all
PLAGUES
The Seventh Plague: John Martin's painting of the plague of hail
and re (1823).
the earth. For by now I could have stretched
out my hand and struck you and your people
with a plague that would have wiped you o
the earth. But I have raised you up for this
very purpose, that I might show you my power
and that my name might be proclaimed in all
the earth. You still set yourself against my
people and will not let them go. Therefore,
at this time tomorrow I will send the worst
hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from
the day it was founded till now. Give an order
now to bring your livestock and everything you
have in the eld to a place of shelter, because
the hail will fall on every man and animal that
has not been brought in and is still out in the
eld, and they will die. [] The LORD sent
thunder and hail, and lightning ashed down
to the ground. So the LORD rained hail on the
land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning ashed
back and forth. It was the worst storm in all
the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.
Exodus 9:1324
3.8 8. Locusts (): Ex. 10:120
This is what the LORD, the God of the
Jews, says: 'How long will you refuse to
humble yourself before me? Let my people
go, so that they may worship me. If you
refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts
into your country tomorrow. They will cover
the face of the ground so that it cannot be
seen. They will devour what little you have
left after the hail, including every tree that
is growing in your elds. They will ll your
houses and those of all your ocials and all
the Egyptianssomething neither your fathers
nor your forefathers have ever seen from the
day they settled in this land till now.
Exodus 10:36

The Eighth Plague: The Plague of Locusts, illustration from the
1890 Holman Bible
3.9 9. Darkness for three days (): Ex.
10:2129
The Ninth Plague: Darkness by Gustave Dor
Then the LORD said to Moses, Stretch
out your hand toward the sky so that darkness
will spread over Egyptdarkness that can be
felt. So Moses stretched out his hand toward
the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt
for three days. No one could see anyone else
or leave his place for three days.
Exodus 10:2123
3.10 10. Death of rstborn () : causing wholesale death, a ood or a typhoon - Ali, Note
Ex. 11:112:36
This is what the LORD says: About
midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every
rstborn son in Egypt will die, from the
rstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the
5
Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt by
Charles Sprague Pearce (1877), Smithsonian American Art Mu-
seum.
throne, to the rstborn of the slave girl, who
is at her hand mill, and all the rstborn of
the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing
throughout Egyptworse than there has ever
been or ever will be again.
Exodus 11:46
Before this nal plague, God commanded Moses to in-
form all the Israelites to mark lamb's blood above their
doors on every door in which case the LORD will pass
over them and not suer the destroyer to come into your
houses and smite you (chapter 12, v. 23).
After this, Pharaoh, furious, saddened, and afraid that he
would be killed next, ordered the Israelites to leave, tak-
ing whatever they wanted, and asking Moses to bless him
in the name of the Lord. The Israelites did not hesitate,
believing that soon Pharaoh would once again change his
mind, which he did; and at the end of that night Moses led
them out of Egypt with arms upraised. However, as the
Jews left Egypt, the Pharaoh changed his mind again and
sent his army after Moses people. The Jews were trapped
by the Red Sea. God split the sea, and the Jews were able
to pass safely. As the Egyptian army descended on them,
the sea closed before they could reach the Jews.[31]
4 In the Quran
In the view of Islam, the plagues were almost identical. It
is mentioned in the Quran, specically in Surah Al-A'raf
verse 133 So We sent on them: the Tuwfan (a calamity
1090 to S. VII.133),[32] the locusts, the Qummal, the frogs,
and the blood (as a succession of) manifest signs, yet they
remained arrogant, and they were of those people who
were criminals.[33][34] The Quran further relates that the
plagues included a mighty blast, showers of stones and
earthquakes (Ali, Notes 3462-3464 to S. XXIX.40).[32]
6 6 HISTORICITY
5 Scholarly interpretation
The Book of Deuteronomy, in which Moses reviews
the events of the past, mentions the diseases of
Egypt (Deuteronomy 7:15 and 28:60), but means some-
thing that aicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians; in
(Deuteronomy 7:19) it mentions the plagues of the book
of Exodus. The Exodus plagues are divine judgments,
a series of curses like those in Deuteronomy 28:1568,
which mention many of the same aictions; they are
even closer to the curses in the Holiness code, Leviticus
26, since like the Holiness Code they leave room for re-
pentance. The theme that divine punishment should lead
to repentance is echoed in the prophets (Amos 4:612,
Ezekiel 20), and the form of prophetic speech, Thus says
Yahweh, and the gure of the prophet as divine messen-
ger echoed in the late prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel and
the Deuteronomistic history. The theme of Pharaohs ob-
stinacy is likewise referred to in the 6th century prophets
Isaiah 6:913, Jeremiah 5:3, and Ezekiel 3:79.[35]
6 Historicity
While proponents of biblical archaeology argue that the
plague stories are true, a large consensus of historians be-
lieve them to be allegorical or inspired by passed-down
accounts of disconnected natural disasters. Some scien-
tists claim the plagues can be attributed to a chain of
natural phenomena triggered by changes in the climate
and environmental disasters hundreds of miles away.[36]
Some historians also point to the Ipuwer Papyrus to sug-
gest a possible cataclysmic event in the history of Egypt
which might parallel some of the incidents described in
the biblical account of the Plagues. However, no reason-
able natural explanation can be found for several of these
(i.e. the water being turned into literal blood, unpierce-
able darkness for three days, and all the rstborn - includ-
ing Pharaohs son - dying at the same time.
6.1 Archaeology
Some archaeologists believe the plagues occurred at the
ancient city of Pi-Rameses in the Nile Delta, which was
the capital of Egypt during the reign of Ramesses II.[36]
There is some archaeological material which such archae-
ologists, for example William F. Albright,[37] have con-
sidered to be historical evidence of the Ten Plagues; for
example, an ancient water trough found in El Arish bears
hieroglyphic markings detailing a period of darkness. Al-
bright and other Christian archaeologists have claimed
that such evidence, as well as careful study of the ar-
eas ostensibly travelled by the Israelites after the Exodus,
make discounting the biblical account untenable.[38] The
Egyptian Ipuwer Papyrus describes a series of calamities
befalling Egypt, including a river turned to blood, men
behaving as wild ibises, and the land generally turned up-
side down. However, this is usually thought to describe
a general and long term ecological disaster lasting for a
period of decades, such as that which destroyed the Old
Kingdom. The document is usually dated to the end of
the Middle Kingdom, or more rarely, to its beginning, t-
ting the Old Kingdom destruction, but in both cases long
before the usual theorized dates for the Exodus.
6.2 Natural explanations
Some historians have suggested that the plagues are
passed-down accounts of several natural disasters, some
disconnected, others playing part of a chain reaction.
Natural explanations have been suggested for most of the
phenomena:
Plague 1 water turned into blood; sh died
Dr. Stephen Pugmacher, a biologist at the
Leibniz Institute for Water Ecology and Inland
Fisheries in Berlin believes that rising temper-
atures could have turned the Nile into a slow-
moving, muddy watercourseconditions fa-
vorable for the spread of toxic fresh water al-
gae. As the alga Planktothrix rubescens dies, it
turns the water red in a phenomenon known as
Burgundy Blood.[36]
Alternatively, a bloody appearance could be
due to an environmental change, such as a
drought, which could have contributed to the
spread of the Chromatiaceae bacteria which
thrive in stagnant, oxygen-deprived water.[39]
Plague 2 frogs
Any blight on the water that killed sh also
would have caused frogs to leave the river and
probably die.
Plagues 3 and 4 biting insects and wild animals
The lack of frogs in the river would have let in-
sect populations, normally kept in check by the
frogs, increase massively. The rotting corpses
of sh and frogs would have attracted signi-
cantly more insects to the areas near the Nile.
Plagues 5 and 6 livestock disease and boils
There are biting ies in the region which trans-
mit livestock diseases; a sudden increase in
their number could spark epizootics.
Plague 7 ery hail
Volcanic eruption, resulting in showers of rock
and re.
Plague 8 locusts

According to the United Nations Food and
Agricultural Organization, when they get hun-
gry, a one-ton horde of locusts can eat the
same amount of food in one day as 2,500 hu-
mans can.[40]
Plague 9 darkness
The immediate cause of this plague is theo-
rized to be the "hamsin", a south or south-
west wind charged with sand and dust, which
blows about the spring equinox and at times
produces darkness rivaling that of the worst
London fogs.[41]
Plague 10 death of the rstborn
If the last plague indeed selectively tended to
aect the rstborn, it could be due to food pol-
luted during the time of darkness, either by
locusts or by the black mold Cladosporium.
When people emerged after the darkness, the
rstborn would be given priority, as was usual,
and would consequently be more likely to be
aected by any toxin or disease carried by the
food. Meanwhile, the Israelites ate food pre-
pared and eaten very quickly which would have
made it less likely to be contaminated. How-
ever, this does not explain how the rstborn
cattle alone also would have perished.
A volcanic eruption did occur in antiquity and could have
caused some of the plagues if it occurred at the right time.
The eruption of the Thera volcano was 1,050 kilometres
(650 mi) away from the northwest part of Egypt. Contro-
versially dated to about 1628 BC, this eruption is one of
the largest on record, rivaling that of Tambora, which re-
sulted in 1816s Year Without a Summer. The enormous
global impact of this eruption has been recorded in an ash
layer deposit found in the Nile delta, tree ring frost scars
in the bristlecone pines of the western United States, and
a layer of ash in the Greenland ice caps, all dated to the
same time and with the same chemical ngerprint as the
ash from Thera.
However, all estimates of the date of this eruption are
hundreds of years before the Exodus is believed to have
taken place; thus the eruption can only have caused some
of the plagues if one or other of the dates is wrong, or
if the plagues did not actually immediately precede the
Exodus.
Following the assumption that at least some of the de-
tails are accurately reported, many modern Jews be-
lieve that some of the plagues were indeed natural dis-
asters, but argue for the fact that, since they followed
one another with such uncommon rapidity, Gods hand
was behind them. Indeed, several biblical commenta-
tors (Nachmanides and, more recently, Rabbi Yaakov
Kamenetzky) have pointed out that, for the plagues to be
7
a real test of faith, they had to contain an element leading
to religious doubt.
In his book The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History,
and Science Look at the Bible, Siro Igino Trevisanato ex-
plores the theory that the plagues were initially caused
by the Santorini eruption in Greece. His hypothesis con-
siders a two-stage eruption over a time of a bit less than
two years. His studies place the rst eruption in 1602
BC, when volcanic ash taints the Nile, causing the rst
plague and forming a catalyst for many of the subsequent
plagues. In 1600 BC, the plume of a Santorini erup-
tion caused the ninth plague, the days of darkness. Tre-
visanato hypothesizes that the Egyptians (at that time un-
der the occupation of Hyksos), resorted to human sacri-
ce in an attempt to appease the gods, for they had viewed
the ninth plague as a precursor to more. This human sac-
rice became known as the tenth plague.[42]
In an article published in 1996, physician-epidemiologist
John S. Marr and co-author Curt Malloy integrated bib-
lical, historical and Egyptological sources with modern
scientic conjectures in a comprehensive review of natu-
ral explanations for the ten plagues, postulating their own
specic explanations for the third, fourth, fth, sixth, and
tenth plagues. Their explanation also accounted for the
apparent selectiveness of the plagues, as implied in the
Bible. The paper served as the basis for a website and
documentary aired on the Learning Channel from 1998
to 2005.[43]
7 Artistic representation
7.1 Visual art
In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved
for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively
few depictions in art emerged compared to other reli-
gious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues
became more common subjects, with John Martin and
Joseph Turner producing notable canvases. This trend
probably reected a Romantic attraction to landscape
and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited,
a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in Ori-
entalism, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found cur-
rency. Given the importance of noble patronage through-
out Western art history, the plagues may have found con-
sistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits
of a monarchs power, and images of lice, locusts, dark-
ness, and boils were ill-suited for decoration in palaces
and churches.
7.2 Music
Taking direct inspiration from the Ten Plagues, Iced
Earths eleventh studio album Plagues of Babylon con-
tains many references and allusions to the Plagues.
8 9 REFERENCES

Metallicas song "Creeping Death" makes references to 9 References

a few of the plagues, in addition to the rest of the story
of the Exodus. Perhaps the most successful artistic rep-
resentation of the plagues is Handels oratorio Israel in
Egypt, which, like his perennial favorite, "Messiah", takes
a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially
popular in the 19th century because of its numerous cho-
ruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musi-
cal depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of
frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs
jumping in the violins, and the plague of ies and lice is
a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.[44]
[1] Plagues of Egypt, in New Bible Dictionary, second edi-
tion. 1987. Douglas JD, Hillyer N, eds., Tyndale House
Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL, USA ISBN 0-8423-4667-8
[2] Commentary on Exodus 7, The Jewish Study Bible, 2004.
Berlin A and Brettler M, eds., Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-529751-2
[3] The Ten Plagues, Dictionary & Concordance
[4] Exodus 5:2
[5] Exodus 9:1516

7.3 Literature [6] The commentary on Exodus 10:12, The Jewish Study
Bible, 2004. Berlin A and Brettler M, eds., Oxford Uni-
Childrens books versity Press. ISBN 0-19-529751-2

[7] Ex. 9:14, 16

Let My People Go! by Tilda Balsley
[8] Joshua 2:911; 9:9; Isaiah 4:8; 6:6
The 10 Plagues of Egypt by Shoshana Lepon
[9] Ex. 12:12; Nu. 33:4

7.4 Films [10] Exodus 7:21, 8:2, 8:16

The Ten Commandments (1956) [11] Ex. 8:22, 9:4,11,26, 10:23

The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971)[45] [12] Passover, New Bible Dictionary, second edition. 1987.
Douglas JD, Hillyer N, eds., Tyndale House Publishers,
Moses (1995) Inc., Wheaton, IL, USA ISBN 0-8423-4667-8

The Prince of Egypt (1998)[46] [13] Wigoder G, Paul S (1986). Viviano B, Stern E, ed.
Passover, Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the
Magnolia (1999)[47] Bible. G.G. Jerusalem Publishing House Ltd. and
The Reaping (2007)[48] Readers Digest Association, Inc. ISBN 0-89577-407-0.

Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014)[49] [14] Moses, The World Book Encyclopedia, 1998. World
Book Incorporated ISBN 0-7166-0098-6

[15] Exodus 20
7.5 TV
[16] Joshua 24
The Bible (2013 miniseries) - Episode 2 has a scene
of these plagues. [17] 1 Samuel 4:79

Haven - In A Tale of Two Audreys, the town of [18] Plagues of Egypt, New Bible Dictionary, second edition.
Haven is aicted by almost all of the plagues of 1987. Douglas JD, Hillyer N, eds., Tyndale House Pub-
Egypt. lishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL, USA ISBN 0-8423-4667-8

A Rugrats Passover [19] Psalm 78:4351

"Family Guy" - In If I'm Dyin', I'm Lyin', the Grif- [20] Exodus 12, Leviticus 23, Numbers 9, Deuteronomy 16
n family is aected by most of the plagues due to [21] Exodus 13:1116
Peter being worshiped like God.
[22] Joshua 5:012

[23] II Kings 23:2123

8 See also
[24] II Chronicles 30:5
Aarons rod [25] Ezra 6:9
Jochebed [26] The Ten Plagues, in Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance
Miriam of the Bible, 1986. Wigoder G, Paul S, Viviano B, Stern E,
eds., G.G. Jerusalem Publishing House Ltd. And Readers
Seti I Digest Association, Inc. ISBN 0-89577-407-0
 9

[27] Blue Letter Bible. "Dictionary and Word Search for ken [46] The Prince of Egypt. imdb.com. Retrieved September
(Strongs 3654)". Blue Letter Bible. 19962012. Febru- 28, 2012.
ary 4, 2012
[47] FAQ for Magnolia (1999)". imdb.com. Retrieved
[28] Aryeh Kaplan, The Living Torah, note on 8:17, as regards September 28, 2012.
the various Midrashic and Rabbinic traditions here.
[48] The Reaping. imdb.com. Retrieved September 28,
[29] Exodus Rabbah 11:2, among others. 2012.

[30] Geseniuss Lexicon, [49] Exodus: Gods and Kings. imdb.com. Retrieved De-
cember 12, 2014.
[31] Exodus 14:8

[32] The Holy Qur-an Text, Translation and Commentary,

Abdullah Yusuf Ali, SH. Muhammad Ashraf, Kashmiri 10 Further reading
Bazar Lahore (Pakistan), 1969.

[33] Quran - Surah Al-A'raf - Maududis Translation, Com-
mentary and Summary.
[34] Al-A'raf about " Fir`awn and His People suer Years of
Drought " Qur'an Tafsir Ibn Qathir
Hermann and Anna Levinson, Zur Biologie der zehn
biblischen Plagen, DGaaE Nachrichten 22 (2008),
83102 (in German)

[35] John Van Seters, The Pentateuch: A Social-Science 11 External links

Commentary, Continuum International Publishing
Group, 2004, p. 114 ISBN 0567080889.
Media related to Plagues of Egypt at Wikimedia
[36] Gray, Richard. Biblical plagues really happened say Commons
scientists, ''The Telegraph'', 27 March 2010. Tele-
graph.co.uk. Retrieved February 17, 2014.

[37] William Dever, What Remains of the House that Al-

bright Built?" The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 56, No.
1 (Mar. 1993)

[38] Decoding the El Arish Stone blog entry 1. March 13,

2014.

[39] Pappas, Stephanie. End Times? It is for a blood-red

Texas lake, NBC News, 1 August 2011. MSNBC. Jan-
uary 8, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2014.

[40] Chandler, Adam (March 3, 2013). Estes, Adam Clark.

With Passover Approaching, a Plague of Locusts De-
scends Upon Egypt, ''The Atlantic Wire'', 3 March
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[41] Bechtel, Florentine. Plagues of Egypt. The Catholic

Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton
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[42] The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science

Look at the Bible, by Siro Igino Trevisanato : Georgia
Press LLC, 2005

[43] Marr JS, Malloy CD (1996). An epidemiologic analysis

of the ten plagues of Egypt. Caduceus (Springeld, Ill.).
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[44] Donna Leon (2011), Handels Bestiary: In Search of Ani-

mals in Handels Operas, illustrated by Michael Sowa (il-
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[45] The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971) Did You Know?".

imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012. Dr. Phibes
murders were inspired by the 10 plagues of Egypt found
in the Old Testament
10 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
Plagues of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagues_of_Egypt?oldid=783378747 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mkmcconn,
Frecklefoot, Patrick, Ixfd64, Tgeorgescu, IZAK, Paul A, Vargenau, JASpencer, PhatJew, Finlay McWalter, Pollinator, Plehn, RedWolf,
Stephan Schulz, Lowellian, Mirv, Academic Challenger, Der Eberswalder, Flauto Dolce, Humus sapiens, Alan Liefting, Smjg, MathKnight,
Everyking, Jdavidb, Jfdwol, Bluejay Young, Golbez, Gadum, Andycjp, Hayne, CryptoDerk, Zeimusu, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Kvasir, Bill-
poser, DragonySixtyseven, Sam Hocevar, Gscshoyru, Fintor, Safety Cap, Atlastawake, Jayjg, Bornintheguz, Discospinster, Bri, Will2k,
Eric Shalov, Dbachmann, Lachatdelarue, ESkog, Tslag, Szquirrel, Kwamikagami, Remember, Aaron D. Ball, Bobo192, Vervin, Small-
jim, Cmdrjameson, Darwinek, Slipperyweasel, Sam Korn, Msh210, Alansohn, Eric Kvaalen, Andrew Gray, Derumi, Tache~enwiki, Cdc,
Wtmitchell, KingTT, RainbowOfLight, Czolgolz, Duoraven, Bacteria, Scriberius, Swamp Ig, PatGallacher, Pol098, Grika, Frankie1969,
JEB90, Rachel1, BD2412, Apayne, Grammarbot, Jshadias, Canderson7, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Virtualphtn, Vary, E. Underwood, Pin-
chasC, Afterwriting, FlaBot, SouthernNights, Tombombadil, Jeremygbyrne, Codex Sinaiticus, Ronebofh, HKT, Bgwhite, Krawunsel, Ea-
monnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Rtkat3, Jimp, Peoplesunionpro, RadioFan, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Wimt,
Bachrach44, Grafen, Neutron, Rronalds, Apokryltaros, DrTofu83, Peter Delmonte, Coderzombie, Tony1, Epipelagic, Noah044, Festi-
valOfSouls, Thnidu, Closedmouth, CapitalLetterBeginning, FDuy, Livitup, Trumpy303, Kungfuadam, KNHaw, Roke, Luk, Sacxpert,
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kee, Touch Of Light, Newtman, Doodooodooodooo, Dee da dee, Aradil, KylieTastic, Gorba, Useight, Yolkavich, Texas1emt, CardinalDan,
HxG, Sooner Dave, Goalie1998, ATRUEZELDAFAN, Kyle the bot, FergusM1970, Philip Trueman, Robk6364, WilliamSommerwerck,
Taucross, Java7837, Hqb, Monkey Bounce, Gekritzl, Claidheamohmor, GlobeGores, Jackfork, BotKung, Bearian, Pishogue, Lambo-
god, Mwilso24, Sp3ctre18, Maple7212, Y, Falcon8765, Gagdpm, HiDrNick, Logan, Struway, Theoneintraining, Jinnyj200, StAnselm,
LovelyLillith, YonaBot, Invmog, Phe-bot, Caltas, Wing gundam, Calabraxthis, Althena, Jacobsond, Keilana, Holiday56, Happysailor,
Flyer22 Reborn, Oda Mari, Wilson44691, Gliese581, Zurqoxn, Prestonmag, Aruton, Mrmazda, Smaug123, Xe7al, IdreamofJeanie, Dil-
lard421, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Anchor Link Bot, Denisarona, Twinsday, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Tanvir
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FabChoice001, Rhododendrites, Guzmanjosh, Elizium23, NoriMori, Isthisthingworking, Idontknow610, Liskeardziz, Rui Gabriel Correia,
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WikiDao, Alansplodge, Good Olfactory, HexaChord, Addbot, AVand, DOI bot, Guoguo12, Hda3ku, Otisjimmy1, Vertabraille, Zahd,
Older and ... well older, Magnolia 8:2, Dcrowle3, Fieldday-sunday, Pumpkin guitar, Leszek Jaczuk, Cst17, Download, LrPer, Chzz, 5
albert square, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Adamsetzler, Mfhulskemper, Quantumobserver, Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81,
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Neurolysis, LovesMacs, Zad68, Cureden, Capricorn42, Spotxer, Jerey Mall, Mononomic, Palazzi 95, Gilo1969, Tad Lincoln, An-
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bot, Vrenator, Dngono20, Zarlack, Reaper Eternal, Othersider09, Diannaa, Reach Out to the Truth, Minimac, Andrea105, Hyarmendacil,
Venustas 12, EmausBot, John of Reading, Gfoley4, Joelbrown1213, Exodusnicholas, Haon 2.0, Racerx11, Primefac, Amxoxamrox, Going-
Batty, RA0808, Smitty1337, RenamedUser01302013, Slightsmile, K6ka, Ibanana76, ZroBot, John Cline, F, A2soup, Confession0791,
OnePt618, Donner60, Ego White Tray, VictorianMutant, Tyrellp, Jwild, ClueBot NG, Iiii I I I, Ypnypn, Cntras, Dreth, Costesseyboy, Man-
nanan51, Widr, Telpardec, Antiqueight, Vejlenser, Newyorkadam, Ryan Vesey, Helpful Pixie Bot, TotalFailure, STCooper1, WNYY98,
Redmaranda, India.butler, StevenJ81, MusikAnimal, Pastorjamesmiller, Hearthomherald, JohnThorne, Glacialfox, Jerome223, Azagha95,
Tutelary, Yetti 347, Mediran, 123davidmoss, Iwannabeeditor, FoCuSandLeArN, Ruymanazzo, AldezD, Bobwiley22, Wywin, Burdickjp,
Darth Sitges, Devilbulldog, Epicgenius, Maddgear23, Vanamonde93, BreakfastJr, Eyesnore, Cmckain14, Saddeleur, Swagg Monster or
Goblin, SWAGG MONSTER, DavidLeighEllis, Monochrome Monitor, Finnusertop, Dr.wallen, Quenhitran, MagicatthemovieS, Rudolph
aldridge, Yoshi24517, Melcous, Patient Zero, Ahendra, Personne843, Sunmist, Ft763, VegasCasinoKid, Kkpengboy, Eric the fever,
Oleaster, Nakrem, Zacisanob, FixitFelix365, ScrapIronIV, Matan002, Box345, Thecooker170, Elboim, Adam9007, Mostafa said1999,
Pinguinn, Entranced98, Lordtoot, MisterRandomized, Karamay3, Bender the Bot, SeaLion572, Topcipher, 07xdebenham, Thotpatrol,
Drew3325, The all knowing student, HebrewExpert, Mark Alterman, Ekklesia2 and Anonymous: 1272

12.2 Images
File:033.The_Fifth_Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/033.The_Fifth_
Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dor's English Bible Original artist: Gustave Dor
File:034.The_Ninth_Plague._Darkness.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/034.The_Ninth_Plague.
_Darkness.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dor's English Bible Original artist: Gustave Dor
12.3 Content license 11

File:Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg Source: https://upload.

wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg
License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors:
http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/obf_images/74/cf/444031b4d83f31ca361b793bd3eb.jpg
Original artist: ?
File:Holman_The_Plague_of_Locusts.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Holman_The_Plague_of_
Locusts.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://thebiblerevival.com/clipart/1890holmanbible/bw/theplagueoflocusts.jpg Original
artist: illustrators of the 1890 Holman Bible
File:Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_
Pearce.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Self-photographed, Caroline Lna Becker Original artist: Charles Sprague Pearce
File:Martin,_John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Martin%2C_
John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.artmagick.com/images/content/martin/hi/
martin14.jpg Original artist: John Martin
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Sarejevohagadah.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Sarejevohagadah.gif License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Smallpox01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Smallpox01.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Miniature out of the Toggenburg Bible (Switzerland) of 1411. It likely shows people suering from smallpox. The disease is widely
believed to be the plague. The location of bumps or blisters, however, is more consistent with smallpox (as the bubonic plague normally
causes them only in the groin and in the armpits). is generally interpreted as a depiction of the plague - the Black Death. MS 78 E1, held
by the Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen. Original artist: ?
File:Tissot_The_Plague_of_Flies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Tissot_The_Plague_of_Flies.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.thejewishmuseum.org/onlinecollection/object_collection.php?objectid=26347&
artistlist=1&an=James Jacques Joseph Tissot Original artist: James Tissot
File:Tissot_Water_Is_Changed_into_Blood.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Tissot_Water_Is_
Changed_into_Blood.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cts.edu/ImageLibrary/Images/June26_2000/TissNile.jpg Orig-
inal artist: James Tissot
File:William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_(Exodus_8_-17)_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_
%28Exodus_8_-17%29_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a
href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png'
width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.
svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-height='128'
/></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/2361' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: William de Brailes

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